8

Structure of the Atom

............................................................................

8.1 Electronic Structure of the Atom

The arrangement of electrons around the nucleus of an atom is known as its electronic structure.
Since electrons determine all the chemical and most physical properties of an atomic system, it
is important to understand the electronic structure. Much of our understanding has come from
spectroscopy—the analysis of the light absorbed or emitted by a substance.

8.2 Electromagnetic Radiation

Electronic radiation is a form of energy; light is the most familiar type of electromagnetic
radiation. But radio waves, microwaves, X-rays, and many other similar phenomena are also
electromagnetic radiation. All these exhibit wave-like properties, and all travel through a vacuum
at the speed of light (Figure 8.1). The wave-like propagation of electromagnetic radiation can be
described by its frequency (ν), wavelength (λ), and speed (c).

Frequency (nu,ν): The frequency of a wave is the number of waves (or cycles) that pass a
given point in one second. The unit is expressed as the reciprocal of seconds (s−1 ), or as hertz
(Hz). A hertz is one cycle per second (1 Hz = 1s−1 ).
Wavelength (lambda, λ): The wavelength of a wave is the distance between two successive
peaks or troughs.
Speed of light (c): The speed of light in a vacuum is one of the fundamental constants of
nature and does not vary with the wavelength. It has a numerical value of 2.9979 × 108 m/s,
but for convenience we use 3.0 × 108 m/s.

These measurements are related by the equation: Speed of light = wavelength × frequency, or
c = λν.

Chemistry in Quantitative Language: Fundamentals of General Chemistry Calculations. Second Edition.

Christopher O. Oriakhi, Oxford University Press. © Christopher O. Oriakhi 2021.
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198867784.003.0008
 Structure of the Atom 65

Peak Peak
λ

Amplitude

Trough Trough

Figure 8.1 The wavelike properties of electromagnetic radiation, illustrating the wavelength and
frequency of an electromagnetic wave.

This expression can be rearranged to give:

c c
λ = , or v =
v λ
Wave Number (v): The wave number is a characteristic of a wave that is proportional to energy.
It is defined as the number of wavelengths per unit of length (usually in centimeters, cm).
Wave number may be expressed as:
1
v=
λ

Example 8.1

Calculate the frequency of red light with a wavelength of 700 nm (note: 1 nm = 10−9 m).

Solution

Use the expression

c
v=
λ
c = 3.0 × 108 m/s
λ = 700 nm or 7 × 10−7 m
3.0 × 108 m/s
v= = 4 × 1014 s−1 or 4 × 1014 Hz
7.0 × 10−7 m

Example 8.2

What is the wavelength of yellow light that has a frequency of 5.2 × 1014 Hz?
66 Chemistry in Quantitative Language

Solution

Use the expression:

c
λ=
v
c = 3.0 × 108 m/s
v = 5.2 × 1014 Hz
3.0 × 108 m/s
λ= = 5.8 × 10−7 m (which we can also write as
5.2 × 1014 Hz
580 × 10−9 m or 580 nm.)

8.3 The Nature of Matter and Quantum Theory

While electromagnetic radiation behaves like a wave—with characteristic frequency and

wavelength—experiment has shown that it also behaves as a continuous stream of particles or
energy packets. At the end of the nineteenth century, the general belief among scientists was
that matter and energy were unrelated. In 1901, Planck investigated the so-called blackbody
radiation—the radiation emitted by hot solids at different temperatures. He observed that the
intensity of the blackbody radiation varied with the wavelength. To explain his results, Planck
suggested that the emission and absorption of radiant energy are quantized and cannot vary
continuously. That is, energy can be gained or lost only in small packets or discrete units called
quanta. The smallest amount of radiant energy, E, that can be emitted is called a quantum of
energy, and is given by Planck’s equation:

E = hv

where h is Planck’s constant with a value of 6.63 × 10−34 J.s and v is the frequency of the radiated
light. Planck concluded that radiant energy from a given source must be an exact integral multiple
of the simplest quantum hv:

E = nhv

where n = 1, 2, 3, . . . etc.

8.3.1 Photoelectric effect

In 1905, Einstein used Planck’s results to explain the photoelectric effect. Here, light shining
on a metal surface causes electrons to be ejected; but once again, the process occurs only in
discrete quantities, rather than continuously. Einstein suggested that electromagnetic radiation
is quantized, and that light could be thought of as “particles” called photons. Planck referred to
these “particles” as quanta. The energy of a photon is given as:
hc
Ephoton = hv =
λ
 Structure of the Atom 67

Example 8.3

What is the energy of a photon of infrared radiation that has a frequency of 9.8 × 1013 Hz?

Solution

E = hv
= 6.63 × 10−34 J.s.photon−1 × 9.8 × 1013 s−1
J
= 9.60 × 10−20
photon

8.4 The Hydrogen Atom

When a beam of light passes through a prism it produces a continuous spectrum containing light
of all different colors or wavelengths. But when we observe the light given off by a heated gas—
whether element or compound—we see only certain colors of light, which are characteristic of
the substance.
The emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen consists of several series of isolated lines (four
lines are observed in the visible region). The frequencies of the visible emission lines for
hydrogen fit the Balmer equation:
 
1 1
v=C − n = 3, 4, 5, 6
2 n2

C is called the Rydberg constant for hydrogen, whose value is 3.29 ×1015 s−1 , and n is an
integer greater than 2. For atoms other than hydrogen, the emission-line frequencies follow a
more complex relation.

8.4.1 The Bohr model

To account for the line spectrum of the hydrogen atom, Bohr proposed what is commonly referred
to as Bohr’s model for the atom:

• Electrons move about the central nucleus in circular orbits of fixed radius called energy
levels.
• Electrons can occupy only certain (permitted) discrete energy levels in atoms. They do not
radiate energy when they are in one of the allowed energy levels.
h
• The angular momentum of the electron is quantized, and is a whole number multiple of 2π :
 
h
Angular momentum = mur = n
2π

where m is the mass of the electron, u is velocity, r is radius of Bohr’s orbit, n is an integer
called the principal quantum number (discussed later in the chapter), and h is Planck’s
constant.
68 Chemistry in Quantitative Language

• Electrons absorb or emit energy in discrete amounts as they move from one energy level to
another. The change in energy for an electron dropping from an excited state E2 to lower
(the ground) state E1 is proportional to the frequency of the radiation emitted and is given
by Planck’s relationship:
E = E2 − E1 = hv.

From his model, Bohr derived the following formula for the electron energy levels in the
hydrogen atom:
   
RH 2.18 × 10−18 J
En = − or − n = 1, 2, 3, . . . ∞
n2 n2

where RH is the Rydberg constant, with a value of 2.18 × 10−18 J, and n is an integer called the
principal quantum number, which describes the size of the allowed orbits (or shells). The minus
sign indicates that E decreases as the electron moves closer to the nucleus. When n is equal to
one, the orbit lies closest to the nucleus; an electron in this orbit is said to be in the ground state.
When n is equal to 2, the electron is at a higher energy level. As n becomes infinitely large, the
energy level becomes zero:
   
RH 2.18 × 10−18 J
En=∞ = − or − =0
∞2 ∞2

This is the reference, or zero-energy, state in which an electron is removed from the nucleus of
the atom. Note that the zero-energy state is higher in energy than the states closer to the nucleus
(with negative energy).

8.4.2 Emission and absorption spectra

Absorption and emission spectra arise from electrons moving between energy levels. An
absorption spectrum is produced when an atom absorbs light of a particular wavelength. The
absorbed light energy excites or promotes an electron from a lower energy level to a higher
energy level. The wavelength of the absorbed light is obtained from the difference between the
two energy levels.

hc hc
E = and λ =
λ E
where E = E2 − E1 .

Similarly, an emission spectrum arises when an electron previously excited to a higher energy
level returns to a lower energy. The wavelength of the emitted light is obtained from the difference
between the two energy levels, as before.
Figure 8.2 shows the absorption and emission of photons by an electron in an atom.
 Structure of the Atom 69

n=4 E4

n=3 E3

E
n=2 E2

n=1 E1

Figure 8.2 Energy levels in hydrogen, from the Bohr model. The arrows indicate the transitions of the
electron from one energy level to another.

The upward arrows represent absorption, and the downward arrows represent emission. If an
electron jumps from a state with an initial energy level Ei to a state with a final energy level Ef ,
the change in energy, E, can be obtained from Bohr’s equation:
       
−RH −RH 1 1 1 1
E = − = −RH − 2 = RH − 2
n2f n2i n2f ni n2i nf

Since E = Ef −Ei = hv, the frequency of emitted radiation can be obtained from the expression:
   
1 1 RH 1 1
hv = RH − 2 or v = − 2
n2i nf h n2i nf

Note:

• For energy absorption, nf is greater than ni and E is positive as electrons move from a
lower-energy state to a higher energy.
• For energy emission, nf is less than ni and E is negative as electrons move from a higher-
energy state to a lower energy.

Example 8.4

What is the amount of energy emitted when an electron in an excited hydrogen atom falls
from energy level n = 4 to energy level n = 1?

Solution

This problem describes an electronic transition from high energy (n = 4) to lower (n = 1).
Radiant energy is emitted and E will be negative. Use RH = 2.18 × 10−18 J.
   
1 1 −18 1 1
E = RH − = 2.18 × 10 J − = −2.04 × 10−18 J
n2i n2f 42 12
70 Chemistry in Quantitative Language

Example 8.5

Calculate (a) the frequency and (b) the wavelength of the radiation related to an electron in
an excited hydrogen atom falling from n = 3 to n = 1. Is light emitted or absorbed?

Solution

This is an electronic transition from a higher level to a lower level of the hydrogen atom.
Therefore we expect light to be emitted as E will be negative.
(a) To calculate the frequency, use the following expression:
    
RH 1 1 2.18 × 10−18 J 1 1
v= − 2 = − 2 = 2.92 × 1015 s−1
h 2
ni nf 6.63 × 10−34 J.s 32 1

(b) To calculate the wavelength, use the value of the frequency obtained above in the
expression:

c 3.0 × 108 ms−1

λ= = = 1.03 × 10−7 m or 103 nm
v 2.92 × 1015 s−1

8.5 The Quantum-Mechanical Description of the Hydrogen Atom

Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom significantly advanced our knowledge of atomic structure,
but it could not explain the spectra of heavier atoms. This led to further studies on atomic structure
by many scientists.

8.5.1 The wave nature of the electron

The wave-particle dual nature of light led de Broglie in 1924 to propose that any particle with
mass m moving with velocity v should have a wavelength (λ) associated with it. The relationship
between the velocity and wavelength of the particle can be expressed by the de Broglie equation:

h
λ=
mv

where λ is the wavelength, h is Planck’s constant, m is the mass of the particle, and v its velocity.
This is particularly relevant to particles as small as electrons; the wavelength associated with
their motion tends to be significant in comparison to the size of the particle, which is not the case
for large objects.

Example 8.6

Calculate the wavelength of an electron moving with a velocity of 6.5 × 106 m/s. The mass
of an electron is 9.1 × 10−31 kg.
 Structure of the Atom 71

Solution
h
λ=
mv

6.63 × 10−34 Js
λ=  
9.1 × 10−31 kg 6.5 × 106 m/s
= 1.12 × 10−10 m or 0.112 nm

8.5.2 The Heisenberg uncertainty principle

The uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to accurately determine simultaneously both
the momentum and position of an individual electron. Mathematically, the law states that the
uncertainty in the speed (v) times the uncertainty in position (x) multiplied by the mass (m)
of the particle must be greater than or equal to Planck’s constant (h) divided by 4π :

h
(x) (m × v) ≥
4π
The more accurately we can determine the position of a moving electron, the less accurately we
can measure its momentum. Hence, we can speak only of the probability of finding an electron
at any given region in space within the atom.

8.6 Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Orbitals

Schrödinger’s work on the wave mechanical model of the atom in the mid-1920s greatly
improved our understanding of atomic structure. The model is based on de Broglie’s postulate and
other fundamental assumptions. Schrödinger formulated what is known as the Schrödinger wave
equation, which is the fundamental assumption of quantum theory. This equation successfully
predicts every aspect of the hydrogen spectrum, and much of what is seen for heavier elements.
Mathematically, the equation treats the electron as though it were a wave—specifically, a
standing wave. Though it is very complex, and often cannot be solved exactly, it gives the explicit
mathematical description of the functions that determine the electron’s distribution around the
nucleus. These take the form of a set of wave functions (also known as orbitals) and their energies
(which correspond to the energy levels in the Bohr model).
A wave function is represented by the symbol ψ(psi). The square of the wave function, ψ 2 ,
is called the probability density; it measures the probability of finding an electron in a region
of space. The probability distributions generated by these functions are essentially maps of the
electron density around the nucleus, which define the shapes of the various orbitals.

8.6.1 Orbitals and quantum numbers

The solutions to Schrödinger’s equation for an electron in a hydrogen atom (which is also
applicable to other atoms) give rise to a series of wave functions or atomic orbitals. The equation
tells us that the energy of the hydrogen atom is quantized. This means that only certain energies,
and hence energy levels that meet certain quantum conditions, are possible. Each orbital is
72 Chemistry in Quantitative Language

defined by four quantum numbers. Quantum numbers describe the various properties of atomic
orbitals such as the number of possible orbitals within a given main energy level and the
distribution of the electrons within each orbital.

8.6.1.1 Principal quantum number (n)

The principal quantum, n, indicates the size and energy of the main orbital (or level) an electron
occupies in an atom. It can have any positive whole-number value; 1, 2, 3, . . . As n increases, the
overall size of the orbital it describes increases, and the orbital can accommodate more electrons.
Note that each main orbital, or value of n, is referred to as a shell. In the past, energy levels (or
values) of n were represented by the letters K, L, M, N, . . . The number of electrons that can
be accommodated in each energy level n is given by 2n2 . Thus the electron capacities of energy
levels 1, 2, 3, and 4, are 2, 8, 18, and 32 respectively.

Shell K L M N
value of n 1 2 3 4
Electron capacity 2 8 18 32

8.6.1.2 Angular-momentum (or azimuthal) quantum number ()

The angular-momentum quantum number l determines a region—a subshell—within the main

shell (n) and defines its shape. Only certain values of l are allowed. For each value of n, l can have
integral values from 0 to n –1. This implies that there are n different shapes of orbitals within
each shell. For example, when n = 4, l = 0, 1, 2, or 3. The first four subshells are generally
designated by the letters s, p, d, and f, corresponding to l = 0, 1, 2, and 3. This is summarized
below:

Value of l 0 1 2 3
Letter used s p d f

The number of subshells within a given shell is shown Table 8.1, along with their relative
energies.

8.6.1.3 Magnetic (or orbital) quantum number (ml )

The magnetic quantum number defines the spatial orientation of the subshell. Only certain values
of ml are allowed, and these depend upon l. Values of ml are whole numbers varying from

Table 8.1 Relationship between shells, sub-

shells, and their relative energies
Shell Subshells Relative Energies
n=1 1s
n=2 2s, 2p 2p > 2s
n=3 3s, 3p, 3d 3d > 3p > 3s
n=4 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f 4f > 4d > 4p > 4s
 Structure of the Atom 73

−l through zero to + l, thus the number of allowed values of ml is given by 2l + 1. Therefore,

there is one s orbital, three p orbitals, five d orbitals, and seven d orbitals.

8.6.1.4 Spin quantum number (ms )

The spin quantum number ms specifies the spin of an electron and so the orientation of the
magnetic field generated by this spin. The spin can be clockwise or counterclockwise. Therefore
for every set of n, l, and ml values, ms can take the value + 12 or − 12 .
Table 8.2 summarizes the permissible values for each quantum number.

Example 8.7

Calculate the maximum number of electrons that can be placed in

a) A shell with n = 3
b) A shell with n = 4
c) A shell with n = 6

Solution

Use the expression 2n2 .

a) For n = 3, the maximum number of electrons in the shell will be
2n2 = 2 32 = 18
b) For n = 4, the maximum number of electrons in the shell will be
2n2 = 2 42 = 32
c) For n = 6, the maximum number of electrons in the shell will be
2n2 = 2 62 = 72

Example 8.8

Describe the sublevels in the n = 4 energy level.

Solution

For n = 4, l can have values of 0, 1, 2, and 3. Therefore the number of sublevels and their
designations include:

l = 0(4s)
l = 1(4p)
l = 2(4d)
l = 3(4f )
Table 8.2 Allowed values of quantum numbers through n = 4
Shell n l ml ms Designation No. of Orbitals No. of electrons Total electrons
of Subshells in subshell in subshell in main shell
K 1 0 0 + 12 , − 12 1s 1 2 2
L 2 0 0 + 12 , − 12 2s 1 2 8
1 −1,0,+1 ± 12 for each value of m1 2p 3 6
M 3 0 0 + 12 , − 12 3s 1 2
1 −1,0,+1 ± 12 for each value of ml 3p 3 6 18
2 −2,−1,0,+1,+2 ± 12 for each value of ml 3d 5 10
N 4 0 0 + 12 , − 12 4s 1 2
1 −1,0,+1 ± 12 for each value of ml 4p 3 6 32
2 −2,−1,0,+1,+2 ± 12 for each value of ml 4d 5 10
3 −3,−2,−1,0,+1,+2,+3 ± 12 for each value of ml 4f 7 14
 Structure of the Atom 75

Example 8.9

What quantum numbers are permissible for a 5p orbital?

Solution

For a 5p orbital, n = 5. The fact that it is a p orbital tells us that l = 1. For l = 1, ml can have
any of the values –1, 0, or +1, hence there are three sets of permissible quantum numbers
for a 5p orbital. They are:

n = 5, l = 1, ml = −1
n = 5, l = 1, ml = 0
n = 5, l = 1, ml = +1

Note that ms is not counted here. It describes an electron, not an orbital.

8.7 Electronic Configuration of Multielectron Atoms

An electronic configuration indicates how many electrons an atom has in each of its subshells
or energy levels. Knowing the relative energies of the various orbitals allows us to predict for
each element or ion the orbitals that are occupied by electrons. The ground-state electronic
configurations are obtained by placing electrons in the atomic orbitals of lowest possible
energy, provided no single orbital holds more than two electrons. In building up the electronic
configuration of an atom, three principles are used. These include the Aufbau Principle, the Pauli
Exclusion Principle, and Hund’s Rule.

8.7.1 Aufbau principle

Electrons occupy the lowest-energy orbitals available to them, entering the higher-energy orbitals
only after the lowest-energy orbitals are filled. The electron building up principle can be
summarized as:

• Each added electron will enter the orbitals in the order of increasing energy.
• Each orbital can only take two electrons.

The Aufbau diagram in Figure 8.3 will assist you in writing electron configurations for any
element in the periodic table, as long as you know the atomic number.
In a compressed form, electrons fill the subshells available in each main energy level in the
following order:

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 6d

For example, the electron configurations of the first ten elements in the periodic table are:

1 H : 1s 6 C : 1s
1 2
2s2 2p2

2 He : 1s 7 N : 1s
2 2
2s2 2p3
76 Chemistry in Quantitative Language

Start at the 1s and follow

the arrows one by one.
1s

2s 2p

3s 3p 3d

4s 4p 4d 4f

5s 5p 5d 5f

6s 6p 6d

7s 7p

Figure 8.3 An aid to remembering the build-up or Aufbau order of atomic orbitals.

3 Li : 1s 8 O : 1s
2
2s1 2
2s2 2p4

4 Be : 1s 9 F : 1s
2
2s2 2
2s2 2p5

5 B : 1s 10 Ne : 1s
2
2s2 2p1 2
2s2 2p6

Example 8.10

Write the electron configuration for:

(a) Ca (atomic number, Z = 20)
(b) Mn (Z = 25)

Solution

(a) Ca : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2

(b) Mn : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5

Example 8.11

Predict the electron configuration of Ca2+ .

Solution

Calcium has atomic number 20, i.e., twenty protons and twenty electrons. But Ca2+ has lost
two electrons. Therefore, eighteen electrons must be placed in the various subshells in Ca
orbitals in order of increasing energy:

Ca2+ (18 electrons ) : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

 Structure of the Atom 77

8.7.1.1 Shorthand notation for electron configuration

Electron configurations can also be written using a shorthand method, which shows only the outer
electrons, i.e. those surrounding the inert noble-gas core. This involves using [He] for 1s2 , [Ne]
for 1s2 2s2 2p6 , [Ar] for 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 , etc. Thus, we may represent the electron configurations
for Si and K as:

Si : [Ne] 3s2 3p2 and K : [Ar] 4s1

Example 8.12

Using the shorthand notation, write the electron configuration for Mn.

Solution

The atomic number of Mn is 25. Therefore, twenty-five electrons will fill the available
orbitals.

Mn : [Ar] 4s2 3d5

8.7.2 Pauli exclusion principle

The Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same four
quantum numbers. Since there are only two possible values for ms , + 12 and− 12 , any single orbital
can accommodate only two electrons, which must have opposite spins.

8.7.3 Hund’s principle (or rule)

Hund’s Principle states that if two or more orbitals have equal energy (degenerate orbitals), a
single electron goes into each until all orbitals are half-filled; only then will a second electron
(with an opposite spin quantum number) enter any of the orbitals. In other words, the orbitals in
a given subshell will each gain one electron before any of them gain a second one.

8.7.4 Summary of building-up principles

1. The lowest-energy orbitals are filled first.
2. Only two electrons of opposite spin go into any one orbital (Pauli exclusion principle).
3. If two or more orbitals have the same energy (degenerate orbitals), each is half-filled before
any one of them is filled completely (Hund’s Principle).

8.7.5 Orbital diagrams

Orbital diagrams are used to show the electron occupancy in each orbital. They serve to illustrate
both Hund’s Principle and Pauli’s principle. Each atomic orbital is represented by a box, which
contains up to two electrons. An electron is represented by a half-arrow, which points upward
78 Chemistry in Quantitative Language

(for ms = 1/2) or downward (for ms = −1/2). If two electrons are in the same orbital (box), the
two half-arrows representing them will be opposed as illustrated below.

and

An s orbital is represented by one box, a p orbital by three merged boxes, and a d orbital by five
merged boxes. That is:

s orbital p orbital d orbital

Example 8.13

Draw the orbital diagrams for (a) fluorine, (b) magnesium, and (c) phosphorus.

Solution

(a)

F:

1s 2s 2p

(b)

Mg:

1s 2s 2p 3s

(c)

P:

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

8.8 Problems

1. Express the following in nanometers:

(a) 2.34 × 10−12 cm
(b) 1.73 × 10−8 cm
(c) 5.44 × 103 cm
(d) 0.575 m
2. Express the following in centimeters:
(a) 5.34 × 105 nm
(b) 265 nm
 Structure of the Atom 79

(c) 6.64 × 1012 Å

(d) 879Å
3. What is the frequency of yellow light with a wavelength of 589 nm?
4. What is the wavelength of light having a frequency of 9.29 × 1016 s−1 ?
5. Calculate the wave number, v̄, of light having a wavelength of 589 nm.
6. A laser emits light having a frequency of 6.94 × 1014 s−1 . Calculate (a) the wavelength,
(b) the wave number of this light.
7. What is the energy of photons in kJ that correspond to light with a frequency of
3.70 × 1012 s−1 ?
8. What is the energy of a photon with a wavelength of 408 nm?
9. Blue-green light emitted by a particular atom has a wavelength of 525 nm (in the visible
range) of the electromagnetic spectrum. Find (a) frequency, (b) the wave number, and
(c) the energy of a photon of this radiation.
10. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectrometers allow chemists to measure the
absorption of energy by some atomic nuclei such as hydrogen. NMR instruments are
available that operate at 60 MHz, 200 MHz, 400 MHz, 600 MHz, and more recently, 700
MHz. At what energy do the 60 MHz, 200 MHz, 400 MHz, 600 MHz, and 700 MHz
NMR instruments operate, in kJ?
11. What is the energy of an electron in the third energy level of a hydrogen atom?
12. The Lyman series of lines in the hydrogen emission spectrum corresponds to n = 1 and
is observed in the ultraviolet region. Calculate (a) the wave number of the spectral line in
this series for a value of m equal to 5 (note n = 1); (b) the energy emitted by an excited
hydrogen atom having a spectral line with value of n =1, and m = 5.
13. For a hydrogen atom in the ground state (n = 1), calculate the energy necessary to cause
ionization (m = ∞).
14. Calculate the energy change and the wavelength that occur when an electron falls from
(a) n = 4 to n = 1, (b) n = 5 to n = 2 in the hydrogen atom.
15. Calculate the wavelength, in nanometers, of a proton moving at a velocity of
4.56 × 104 ms−1 . The mass of a proton is 1.67 × 10−27 kg.
16. If the wavelength of an electron is 25 nm, what is its velocity? The mass of an electron
is 9.11 × 10−28 g.
17. In an electron diffraction experiment, a beam of electrons is accelerated by a potential
difference of 50 kV. What is the characteristic de Broglie wavelength of the electrons in
the beam?
(Hint : KE = 12 mv2 ; mass of an electron = 9.11 × 10−31 kg; 1 J = 1 kgm2 s−2 ).
18. What is the maximum number of electrons permissible in the following energy levels?
(a) n = 1 energy level
(b) n = 2 energy level
(c) n = 3 energy level
(d) n = 4 energy level

19. For the energy level n = 3, what sublevels are possible?

20. What is the shorthand notation describing the orbitals with the following quantum
numbers?
80 Chemistry in Quantitative Language

(a) n = 3, l = 1, ml = 0
(b) n = 3, l = 2, ml = 1
(c) n = 4, l = 3, ml = 3

21. Give the sets of quantum numbers that describe electrons in the following orbitals:
(a) 2p orbital
(b) 3d orbital
(b) 4p orbital
(c) 4f orbital

22. Write the electronic configurations of the following elements:

(a) Na (b) P (c) Ca (d) Rb (e) Fe

23. Write the electronic configurations of each of the following ions:

(a) S2− (b) Ni2+ (c) Cu2+ (d) Ti4+ (e) Br−

24. Write the electronic configurations for the following atoms or ions, using the relevant
noble-gas inner-core abbreviations:
(a) O (b) Zn2+ (c) Mg (d) Pb2+ (e) V (f) Te2− (g) Mn7+

25. Identify the elements corresponding to the following electronic configurations:

(a) [He] 2s2 2p1
(b) [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p2
(c) [Kr] 4d10 5s2 4p5
(d) [Xe] 4f 14 5d10 6s2 6p3
(e) [Ar] 3d5 4s2
(f) [Ne] 3s2 3p3

26. Identify the elements corresponding to the following electronic configurations:

(a) 1s2 2s2 2p5
(b) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
(c) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1
(d) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d8
(e) 1s2 2s2 2p2
(f) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d2

27. Draw the orbital diagrams for (a) oxygen (b) sodium (c) titanium (d) zinc.
28. Two elements, A and B, have the following isotopic masses and electronic configurations:
A = 17.99916 amu & 1s2 2s2 2p4
B = 25.98259 amu & 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
a) Give the chemical identities of A and B.
b) How many subatomic particles are present in each kind of atom?