Chapter Nine Amorphous Solid

SOLIDS AND FLUIDS ● Atoms are

arranged
States of Matter almost
● Solid, liquid, gas randomly
– Predominate on Earth ● Examples
● Plasma – Predominates in the include glass.
universe (stuff stars are made
of) This chapter introduces basic
properties of solids and liquids
– Includes some properties of gases Liquid
● Has a definite volume
Solids ● No
● Have definite volume Have definite definite
shape Molecules are held in shape
specific locations ● Exists at a
– By electrical higher
forces Vibrate temperature
about than solids
equilibrium ● The molecules
positions Can be “wander”
modeled as through the
springs liquid in a
connecting random fashion
molecules – The intermolecular forces are not
strong enough to keep the
More About Solids molecules in a fixed position, but
● External forces can be applied to keep the molecules in close
the solid and compress the contact with each other
material
– In the model, the springs Gas
would be compressed ● Has no definite volume
● When the force is removed, the ● Has no definite shape
solid returns to its original ● Molecules are in constant
shape and size rapid, random motion
– This property is called elasticity ● The molecules exert only
weak forces on each
Crystalline Solid other (Ideal Gas behavior
● Atoms have an ordered structure assumes NO forces)
● This example is salt ● Average distance between
- Gray spheres represent Na+ ions molecules is large compared
- Green spheres represent Cl- ions to the size of the molecules
- Tend to be brittle
 Plasma ● Densities of gases vary greatly
● Gas heated to a very with changes in temperature and
high temperature pressure (Gas Laws!)
● Many of the electrons are ● The higher normal densities of
freed from the nucleus solids and liquids compared to
● Result is a collection of free, gases imply that the average
electrically charged ions Long- spacing between molecules in a gas
range electrical and magnetic is about 10 times greater than the
forces allow interactions within the solid or liquid
plasma
● Plasmas exist inside stars Specific Gravity
● The specific gravity of a substance is
Types of Matter the ratio of its density to the
● Normal matter density of water at 4° C
– About 5% of total matter – The density of water at 4° C
● Dark matter is 1000 kg/m 3
– Affects the motion of stars in ● Specific gravity is a dimensionless
galaxies quantity (Compares two
– May be as much as 25% of substances with the same units, so
total matter the units cancel)
Pressure
● Dark energy ● The force exerted by a fluid on a
– Accounts for acceleration of submerged object at any point is
the expansion of the universe perpendicular to the surface of
– May be as much as 70% of the object
all matter ● The average pressure P is the
– Must exist for our current force divided by the area
model of the universe to work

Density
● The density of a substance of
uniform composition is defined
as its mass per unit volume:

● SI unit: kg/m 3 (SI)

– Often see g/cm 3 (especially in Chemistry)
● 1 g/cm 3 = 1000 kg/m 3

Density, cont.
● See table 9.1 for the densities
of some common substances
● The densities of most liquids and
solids vary slightly with changes
in temperature and pressure
 Variation of Pressure with Depth Pascal’s Principle
● If a fluid is at rest in a container,
all portions of the fluid must be in ● A change in pressure applied to
static equilibrium an enclosed fluid is transmitted
● All points at the same depth undiminished to every point of the
must be at the same pressure fluid and to the walls of the
– Otherwise, the fluid would not container.
be in equilibrium
– First recognized by Blaise Pascal,
– The fluid would flow from the
a French scientist (1623 – 1662)
higher pressure region to the
lower pressure region ● The hydraulic press is an
– This does not happen, so important application of Pascal’s
our assumption must be true Principle

Pressure and Depth

● Examine the darker region,
● Also used in hydraulic
assumed to be a fluid
brakes, forklifts, car lifts, etc.
– It has a cross-sectional area A
– Extends to a depth h below
the surface
● Three external forces act on
the region

Pressure Measurements: Manometer

● One end of the U- shaped tube is

open to the atmosphere
● The other end is connected to
the pressure to be measured
● If P in the system is greater than
Pressure and Depth equation atmospheric pressure, h is
positive
●
● is normal atmospheric pressure – If less, then h is negative

– 1.013 x 105 Pa = 14.7 lb/in.2 Absolute vs. Gauge Pressure

● The pressure does not depend ● The pressure P is called the absolute
upon the shape of the pressure
container (only on depth,
– Remember, P = P o + ρgh
density and “g”)
● P – P o = ρgh is the gauge pressure
 Pressure Measurements: Sparta had been cheated!
Barometer

● Invented by Torricelli (1608

– 1647)
● A long closed tube is filled
with mercury and
inverted in a dish of
mercury
● First barometer was filled
with water, over 32 feet
tall!
● Measures atmospheric
pressure as ρgh

Pressure Values in Various

Units

● One atmosphere of pressure is

defined as the pressure equivalent
to a column of mercury exactly
0.76 m tall at 0 degree celcius
where g = 9.806 65 m/s^2
● One atmosphere (1 atm) =

– 76.0 cm of mercury (760 mmHg)

– 1.013x 10^5 Pa (101.3 kPa)

– 14.7 lb/in^2

Blood Pressure

● Blood pressure is measured with a

special type of manometer called
a sphygmomano- meter
● Pressure is measured in mm
of mercury
● Some sphygmomanometers actually
use a column of mercury

Archimedes

● 287 – 212 BC
● Greek mathematician, physicist,
and engineer
● Buoyant force
● Inventor
● Found out that the King of
 Archimedes'
Principle

● Any object completely or

partially submerged in a fluid
is buoyed up by a force whose
magnitude is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced
by the object

Buoyant Force

● The upward force is

called the buoyant force
● The physical cause of the
buoyant force is the pressure
difference between the top
and the
bottom of the object

● The magnitude of the buoyant

force always equals the weight
of the displaced fluid
● The buoyant force is the same
for a totally submerged object
of any size, shape, or density

Buoyant Force, final

● The buoyant force is exerted by the

fluid

● Whether an object sinks or

floats depends on the
relationship between the
buoyant force and the weight
● Buoyant force > Weight = floats
● Buoyant force < Weight = sinks
● Buoyant force = Weight =
Neutrally buoyant
 Archimedes’ Principle: Totally Archimedes’ Principle: Floating Object
Submerged Object
● The object is in static equilibrium
● The upward buoyant force is ● The upward buoyant force is
balanced by the downward force
of gravity
● The downward gravitational force is ● Volume of the fluid displaced
corresponds to the volume of
the object beneath the fluid level
● The net force is ● Question: Metal ships float. How?
● The forces balance

Totally Submerged Object

– Neglects the buoyant force of the

air

● The object is less dense than the

fluid
● The object experiences a
net upward force

Totally Submerged Object, 2 Fluids in Motion: Streamline Flow

● Streamline flow
- Every particle that passes a
particular point moves
exactly along the smooth
path followed by particles
that passed the point earlier
- Also called laminar flow
● Streamline is the path
- Different streamlines cannot
cross each other
● The object is more dense than
- The streamline at any point
the fluid
coincides with the direction
● The net force is downward
of fluid velocity at that
● The object accelerates downward
point
 Streamline Flow, Example ● The fluid moves without turbulence
- No eddy currents are present
● Streamline
- The elements have zero
flow shown
angular velocity about
around an auto
its center
in a wind
tunnel Equation of Continuity
Fluids in Motion: Turbulent Flow

● The flow becomes irregular ●

- Exceeds a certain velocity ● The product of the cross-sectional
- Any condition that causes area of a pipe and the fluid speed is
abrupt changes in velocity a constant
● Eddy currents are a characteristic - Speed is high where the pipe is
of turbulent flow Section 9.7 narrow and speed is low where
the pipe has a large diameter
Turbulent Flow, Example ● The product Av is called the
● The smoke first moves flow rate
in laminar flow at the
bottom
● Turbulent flow occurs
at the top

Fluid Flow: Viscosity

● Viscosity is the degree of

internal friction in the fluid
● The internal friction is associated
with the resistance between two
adjacent layers of the fluid Equation of Continuity, cont
moving relative to each other
● The equation is a consequence of
Characteristics of an Ideal Fluid conservation of mass and a
steady flow
● The fluid is nonviscous ● A v = constant
- There is no internal - This is equivalent to the fact that
friction between adjacent the volume of fluid that enters one
layers end of the tube in a given time
● The fluid is incompressible interval equals the volume of fluid
- Its density is constant leaving the tube in the same
● The fluid motion is steady interval
- The velocity, density, and - Assumes the fluid is
pressure at each point in the incompressible and there are no
fluid do not change with time leaks
 Daniel Bernoulli

● 1700 – 1782
● Swiss physicist and mathematician
● Wrote Hydrodynamica
● Also did work that was the
beginning of the kinetic theory of
gases

Bernoulli’s Equation

● Relates pressure to fluid speed Applications of Bernoulli’s

and elevation Principle: Venturi Tube
● Bernoulli’s equation is a
consequence of Conservation ● The height is higher in the
of Energy applied to an ideal constricted area of the
fluid tube
● Assumes the fluid is ● This indicates that the pressure
incompressible and nonviscous, is lower
and flows in a nonturbulent,
steady-state manner

● States that the sum of the

pressure, kinetic energy per unit
volume, and the potential energy
per unit volume has the same value
at all points along a streamline

Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle: An Object Moving Through a Fluid

Measuring Speed
● Many common phenomena can
● Shows fluid flowing through be explained by Bernoulli’s
a horizontal constricted pipe equation
● Speed changes as diameter changes - At least partially
● Can be used to measure the ● In general, an object moving
speed of the fluid flow through a fluid is acted upon by a
● Swiftly moving fluids exert less net upward force as the result of
pressure than do slowly any effect that causes the fluid to
moving fluids change its direction as it flows
past the object
● Swiftly moving fluids exert less
pressure than do slowing
moving fluids
 Application – Golf Ball Viscous Fluid Flow
● The dimples in the golf ball help
move air along its surface
● The ball pushes the air down Newton’s
● Third Law tells us the air must push
up on the ball
● The spinning ball travels farther than if
it were not spinning

Application – Atomizer

● A stream of air passing over an open

tube reduces the pressure above
the tube
● Viscosity refers to friction
● The liquid rises into the airstream
between the layers Layers in a
● The liquid is then dispersed into a
viscous fluid have different
fine spray of droplets
velocities
Application – Vascular Flutter ● The velocity is greatest at the center
● Cohesive forces between the
● The artery is constricted as a result of fluid and the walls slow down the
accumulated plaque on its inner fluid on the outside
walls
● To maintain a constant flow rate,
the blood must travel faster than
normal
● If the speed is high enough, the blood
pressure is low and the artery may
collapse

Application – Airplane Wing

● The air speed above the wing is

greater than the speed below
● The air pressure above the wing is ● The short version is that a fluid
less than the air pressure below flows slowly where it is in contact
● There is a net upward force with the walls of the pipe due to
- Called lift Other factors are friction, faster where friction
also involved forces are less. Section 9.9