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STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

EIGHTH EDITION IN SI UNITS

R. C. HIBBELER

Module Leader: Aryanfar Haji

CHAPTER 1:
TYPES OF STRUCTURES AND LOADS

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Chapter Outline

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Classification of Structures
1.3 Loads
1.4 Structural Design

1.1
INTRODUCTION

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Introduction

 Structures refer to a system of connected parts used to support a load

 Factors to consider:
- Safety
- Esthetics
- Serviceability
- Economic & environmental constraints

1.2
CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES

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Classification of Structures

 Structural elements
- Tie rods
- Beams
- Columns

 Types of structures
- Trusses
- Cables & Arches

1.3
LOADS

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Loads

Loads

Structural forms

Elements carrying primary loads

Various supporting members

Foundation

Loads

 Design loading for a structure is often specified in codes

- General building codes
- Design codes

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Loads

Types of load
 Dead loads
- Weights of various structural members
- Weights of any objects that are attached to the structure

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Loads

Example 1.1
The floor beam is used to support the 1.8 m width of a lightweight plain
concrete slab having a thickness of 100 mm. The slab serves as a portion of
the ceiling for the floor below & its bottom is coated with plaster. A 2.4 m
high, 300 mm thick lightweight solid concrete block wall is directly over the
top flange of the beam. Determine the loading on the beam measured per m
length of the beam.

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Loads

Example 1.1 (Solution)

concrete slab : (0.015 kN / m 2 • mm)(100 mm)(1.8 m)  2.70 kN / m

plaster ceiling : (0.24 kN / m 2 )(1.8 m)  0.43 kN / m

block wall : (16.5 kN / m 3 )(2.4 m)(0.3 m)  11.88 kN/m

Total  2.70  0.43  11.88  15.01 kN/m

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Loads

Types of load
 Live loads
- Varies in magnitude & location

 Building loads
- Depends on the purpose for which the building is designed
- These loadings are generally tabulated in local, state or national code

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Loads

Types of load
 Building loads
- Uniform, concentrated loads

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Loads

Types of load
 Highway Bridge loads
- Primary live loads are those due to traffic
- Specifications for truck loadings are reported in AASHTO

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Loads

Types of load
 Railway Bridge loads
- Loadings are specified in AREA

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Loads

Types of load
 Impact loads
- Due to moving vehicles
- The % increase of the live loads due to impact is called the impact factor, I

15.24
I  0.3
L  38.1
L  length of the span in m that is subjected to the live load

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Loads

Types of load
 Wind loads
- Kinetic energy of the wind is converted into potential energy of pressure
when structures block the flow of wind
- Effect of wind depends on density & flow of air, angle of incidence, shape &
stiffness of the structure & roughness of surface
- For design, wind loadings can be treated using static or dynamic approach

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Loads

Types of load
 Wind loads

q z  0 .613 K z K zt K V 2 ( N/m 2 )
d
where
V  velocity in m/s of a 3s gust of wind measured 10 m above the ground.
Values are obtained from a wind map.
K z  velocity pressure exposure coefficien t. A function of height and depends upon the ground terrain.
See Table 1 - 5.
K zt  a factor tha t accounts for wind speed increases due to hills & escarpment s. For flat ground K zt  1
K d  a factor tha t accounts for the direction of the wind.

It is used only when the structure is subjected to combinatio ns of loads.

For wind acting alone, K d  1

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Loads

Types of load
 Wind loads
- Once qz is obtained, the design pressure can be obtained from a list of
relevant equations
p  qGC p  qh (GC pi )
q  q z for the windward wall at height z above the ground
qh for the leeward walls, side walls and roof, where z  h, mean height of the roof
G  a wind - gust effect factor, depending on exposure.
For rigid structure, G  0.85
C p  wall or roof pressure coefficient
Negative values indicate pressure acting away from the surface.
GC pi  the internal pressure coefficient which depends upon the
type of openings in the building.
For fully enclosed building, GC pi  0.18

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Loads

Types of load
 Snow loads
- Design loadings depend on building’s general shape & roof geometry, wind
exposure, location, its importance and whether or not it is heated
- Snow loads are determined from a zone map reporting 50-year recurrence
intervals of an extreme snow depth

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Loads
Types of load
 Snow loads
- For flat roof (slope < 5%):

p f  0.7 C e C t I s p g eqn 1.5

where

Ce  an exposure factor depending upon the terrain.

A fully exposed roof in an unobstruct ed area Ce  0.8.

If the roof is sheltered & located in the centre of a large city

Ce 1.2

Ct  a thermal factor whi ch refers to the average temperatu re within th e building. For unheated structure kept below freezing

Ct  1.2, whereas if the roof is supporting a normally heated structure, then Ct  1.0.

I s  the importance factor as it relates to occupancy.

For e.g, I s  0.8 for agricultur e & storage facilities and I s  1.2 for hospital

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Loads

Types of load
 Snow loads

If p g  0.96kN / m 2 , use the largest value for p f , either computed from eqn 1.5 or p f  Ipg

If p g  0.96kN / m 2 , use p f  I (0.96kN / m 2 )

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Loads

Types of load
 Earthquake loads
- Earthquake produce loadings through its interaction with the ground & its
response characteristics
- Their magnitude depends on amount & type of ground acceleration, mass &
stiffness of structure
- Top block is the lumped mass of the roof
- Middle block is the lumped
stiffness of all the building’s columns
- During earthquake, the ground
vibrates both horizontally & vertically

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Loads

Types of load
 Earthquake loads
- The effects of a structure’s response can be determined & represented as
an earthquake response spectrum
- For small structures, static analysis is satisfactory

S DS
Cs 
R / Ie
S DS  spectral response accel for short periods of vibration
R  response modification factor that depends upon the ductility of the structure
I e  importance factor that depends on the use of the building

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Loads

Types of load
 Hydrostatic & Soil Pressure
- The pressure developed by these loadings when the structures are used to
retain water or soil or granular materials
- E.g. tanks, dams, ships, bulkheads & retaining walls

 Other natural loads

- Effect of blast
- Temperature changes
- Differential settlement of foundation

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1.4
STRUCTURE DESIGN

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Structure Design

 Material uncertainties occur due to

- variability in material properties
- residual stress in materials
- intended measurements being different from fabricated sizes
- material corrosion or decay

 Many types of loads can occur simultaneously on a structure

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Structure Design

 In working-stress design, the computed elastic stress in the material must

not exceed the allowable stress along with the following typical load
combinations as specified by the ASCE 7-10 Standard
- Dead load
- 0.6 (dead load) + 0.6(wind load)
- 0.6 (dead load) + 0.7(earthquake load)

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Structure Design

 In strength design is material uncertainty and load uncertainty are

separately determined

 This method uses load factors applied to the loads or combination of loads
- 1.4 (Dead load)
- 1.2 (dead load) + 1.6 (live load) + 0.5 (snow load)
- 0.9 (dead load) + 1.0(wind load)
- 0.9 (dead load) + 1.0 (earthquake load)

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Thank
you

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