Civil Engineering Construction 1 | Engr. A. M.

Sani

THE FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NASARARAWA

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING TECH.
LECTURE NOTE ON CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION 1 – CEC 113
ND I CLASS, 2022/2023 ACADEMIC SESSION

INTRODUCTION

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The course covers introduction into building components (foundation, floors, staircase, walls, roofs and ceilings), site
preparation, setting out, and excavation among others.

BUILDING COMPONENTS

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 Civil Engineering Construction 1 | Engr. A. M. Sani

To understand and to be able to explain the term building component, it will be necessary to take cognizance of
the following definitions:
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CONSTRUCTION – This is the putting together and assembling of elements and material in order to erect
or build a structure.

BUILDING – This is the act of constructing houses.

COMPONENT – This is a word that describes an element, part or materials that contribute to the formation of
a structure.
From the above definitions, it could be stated that Building Components are structural elements or materials
that can be assembled, by the following approved construction procedures and rules, to make up or form a
building. The components to be used depend largely on the purpose of the building (i.e. residential, factory,
recreational, high-rise building etc.).
A building is so called because of the assemblage of most of these components. Absence of some of these
component parts depending on the purpose of the building, will render it incomplete, structurally waste and
inhabitable. E.g. imagine a building without a foundation, will be as good as a tree without root.
Functional requirements of building components
The component parts or materials that make up or forms a building are normally designed to perform some
specific function or for a specific purpose in the building. A Part from the beautification of the structure,
building components should perform some certain functional requirements as identified below:

Foundation: Foundation must be designed to satisfy certain requirements as to provide suitable support and
stability for the structure.
To safely sustain and transmit loadings; the combined dead, imposed and wind loads in such a manner as not to
cause any settlement or other movement which would impair (weaken) the stability or cause damage on any
part of the building or any adjourning building.
- It must be taken down to such a depth as to safeguard the building against the swelling shrinkage and or freezing
of the subsoil (especially on clay soil).
- It must be constructed to be capable of resisting any sulphates attack and any deleterious (harmful) matter
present in the subsoil.
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Floor: The floor structure must fulfill several functions and design considerations as follows:
- Provision of a uniform level surface; except in specified cases for drainage, ramp or other purposes, floors are
normally designed and constructed to serve as a horizontal surface to support people and their furniture,
equipment and machinery.
- Sufficient strength and stability: The floor structure must be strong enough to safely support the dead load of
the floor and its finishes, fixtures and services and the anticipated imposed loads. This is largely dependent
on the characteristic of the materials used for the floor structure such as timber, steel or concrete. It is also
expected that the floor should be stiff and remain stable and horizontal under the dead half of the floor structure
and the imposed loads. For stability there should be adequate vertical support for the floor structure and the
floor should have adequate stiffness against gross deflection under load, by Providing reinforcement where
necessary.
-
- Exclusion of Dampness from the inside of a building (Ground floor),
There is usually an appreciable transfer of moisture from the ground to the floor. To prevent this depends on
the nature of the subsoil. A concrete slab could be used on a gravel coarse grained sand base where the water

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table is relatively below the surface. A water concrete slab, where the subsoil is clay base.
- Thermal insulation (properties): The ground floor should be constructed to minimize the transfer of heat from
the building to the ground or the ground to the building. The hand core and the damp proof membranes will
assist in preventing the floor being damp and feeling cold and so reduce the transfer of heat. In some cases the
floor could be insulated against excessive transfer of heat.
- Resistance to sound transmission and absorption (sound insulation), Timber floors will more readily transmit
sound than a mass concrete floor, so the floors between dwellings (upper floors) are generally constructed of
concrete. The reduction of impact sound is best affected by a floor covering as carpet that reduce the sound of
footsteps on either a timber or a concrete floor.
- Resistance to fire:- Timber floor provides lesser period of resistance to fire than a reinforced concrete floor.
Upper floor should be constructed to provide resistance to fire for a period adequate for the escape of the
occupants from the building (normally 1 to 6 hours).

Wall: Classification and design are conveniently divided into two categories; external and internal construction
(Load-bearing and Non Load-bearing). Most external walls support the upper floors and roof and most internal
walls are self-supporting, only functioning as a means of dividing space for the building into rooms and the
likes (partition walls). Walls must also fulfill other design considerations as:
 Strength and stability, the wall should not sag by carrying its own weight and the structural loads placed upon
it. The strength of the wall will depend on the strength of the material of the wall and the thickness it can carry.
The stability of a wall may affect foundation movement, eccentric loads (floors/roof) acting on the
centre of the wall, the thickness, lateral forces (wind), and expansion due to temperature and moisture changes.
 To resist weather, particularly during cold and the exclusion of rain
This depends on the exposure of the wall to wind. The ability of a wall to resist wind and rain will depend on
the type of material used in the construction of the wall and how they are bonded. Wall must be designed so
that the rain is not absorbed to the inside face of the wall, by ensuring sufficient thickness, and by applying an
external facing of rendering, or by building cavity wall.
 Resistance to sound transmission and sound abortion: the wall should be designed to resist the impact of

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noise. Sound is transmitted as airborne sound and impact sound. Example of airborne sound from radio and
voices. Example of impact sound is slamming of a door or footsteps on a floor. The heavier and more degree
the material of the wall, the more effective it is reducing sound. Insulation against impact sound consists the
use of some absorbent materials that cushion the impact of sound.
 Durability: The wall is designed to withstand the exposure weather and other factors. It should be durable for
the anticipated life of the building and should require little or no maintenance repair.
 Fire Resistance and thermal properties: The wall should be resistant to flame penetration and heat
transmission during a fire (normally 1 – 6 hrs). To maintain reasonable and economic conditions of thermal
comfort in building, walls should provide adequate insulation against excessive loss or gain of heat, have
adequate thermal storage capacity – lightweight materials are used where loss of heat will be encountered. While
dense materials are used in continually heated buildings.

 Roof: The structure is designed principally to prevent penetration of inclement (severe) weather and to provide
adequate barrier against heat loss. Other considerations include an adequate appearance.
 Door: the Fundamental purpose of a door is to provide access into or out of a building and between the various
compartments within a building. Additionally, the following functions are to be fulfilled, the extend depending
on the building type and purpose; the door should be designed to have sufficient strength, shape and stability
so as to provide adequate security and privacy. A door should also function in excluding weather (wind and
rain), containing some waterproofing properties. Door also act as barriers against fire, sound and thermal
movement.
 Window: The functions of a window are to admit daylight, provide natural ventilation and to exclude wind and
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 Civil Engineering Construction 1 | Engr. A. M. Sani

rainwater. It also acts as thermal and sound insulators. In some circumstances, the view from a window provides
an important function as relief and pleasant relaxation from daily internal routine (view). It contains some fire
resistance properties and can act as a means of escape in case of fire outbreak.
 Stairs: A stairway is initially designed to provide an effective means of access between different floor levels.
A secondary
Function of considerable importance i s to provide a practical escape route in the event of fire.

SITE PREPARATION
Before the commencement of actual building construction, there is the need to conduct certain preliminary site
activities. This is to enable the building team have foreknowledge of a site. Some activities which preceded the
actual building construction are:

i. Site investigation and organization (layout)

ii. Site welfare facilities
iii. Storage and protection of materials
iv. Site fencing and hoarding
v. Site clearance and top soil removal
vi. Leveling and setting out
vii. Ground water control.

Site Investigation and Organization – A preliminary examination or survey of the job is made during the
designing and post-designing stages of a project. The survey enables the builder/architect/engineer to precisely
have an idea about the site and assess if there are peculiar problems to the proposed contract. It is this initial
understanding of these problems that the building team will use to design the building to suite the site. Similarly,
the contractor could plan and organize his activities, sufficiently to achieve success and minimize time. This is
done by producing a site layout plan and placing equipment and materials in specific positions for easy reach,
handling and utilization.
Some considerations to be given by the contractor during reconnaissance and layout prior to constructional
works are:
i. Availability and means of access to the site whether by road, rail or waterway.
ii. Availability of suitable materials/equipment and spare available for erecting plant and or storing materials
around the site.
iii. Availability of space to erect temporary site offices and welfare facilities.
iv. The effect of vibration on adjacent structure when the construction involves using heavy/massive equipment
(e.g. in piling) should be considered.
v. The availability of water and power supply should be ascertained and the rate of payment investigated.
vi. Knowledge of the nature and type of soil, and the level of water table is important as the way necessitate
subsoil drainage and cause flooding.
vii. The local planning authorities should be approached to ascertain whether there is any special or significant
restriction which could adversely affect the development of site (e.g. underground cables).
viii. Valuable information can be obtained by talking with the local inhabitants of the area.
ix. Any special condition that may limit work in anyway should be noted and taken care of e.g. weather or
climatic condition.

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 Civil Engineering Construction 1 | Engr. A. M. Sani

Subsoil Exploration (Trial boreholes) –Trial boreholes to determine the nature of a subsoil is an important
part of an early site investigation. The building design and structural loading can be related to the detailed and
thorough examination of the subsoil bearing potential (ability to withstand load). Preliminary examination may
be with trial pits excavated by spade or a hand anger. When more detailed information is required, a powered
anger is more effective.
The depth of boreholes can be several meters deep for high rise buildings, and boring can be at random or
regular intervals. Samples of subsoil can be extracted loose or distorted, or undisturbed in steel tubes. They are
recorded on a borehole log, and samples are then taken for laboratory analysis to establish the moisture content,
bearing capacity and chemical composition.

Site Welfare Facilities –The provision of shelter and accommodation for taking meals and deposition of clothes
is a basic requirement on all sites. The builder should provide a hut for workmen so that meals and short rest
can be taken, and also for storage of clothing not required for work during the day and protective clothing at
night. The mass room or canteen should be convenient for washing facilities. Adequate wash basins, troughs
and showers with soaps and towels are required. (an isolated sanitary facility with water closets is also required).
Provision for first aid is also very important, and every contractor must provide first-aid accommodation to
include a couch, stretchers, bandages, blankets, equipment, etc a trained person in first-aid treatment is to be
available on site during working hours.

Storage and Protection of Materials – Materials such as cement, timbers, bricks and blocks should be
protected from weather by storing in a shed or well stacked in a suitable position on the site, where they will
not be liable to damage and are adequately protected. Electrical and plumbing (sanitary) fittings should be kept
in a locked shed to avoid theft or breakage. Proper storage is necessary because saturated cement with time sets
and becomes hardened resulting to wastage. Saturation also affects the mortar or concrete strength. Water is
readily absorbed by timber causing deformation and rot, this should be avoided. A saturated brisk or block will
be very difficult to handle. They should be well protected.

Site Fencing and Hoardings –A permanent fence or a temporary hoarding will be required around the site.
This is a barrier made of block wall, wooden or mental stalk or rail or wire in some cases used old zinc to
provide security and protect equipment and materials, and to keep out intruders. It also protections the ugly
sight of construction and preserves the beauty till completion. The hoardings are removed after the completion
of the project. The hoardings should be well erected and in sage order so as not to cause injury to workers or
passé.

Site Clearance and top Soil Removal –The site should be cleared of the bushes, shrubs, trees, etc. which are
on the building position and around the storage and temporary facilities area. The roads should be grubbed up
and completely removed. Before any building is erected, it is essential that the area to be occupied by the
building has the vegetable top soil removed from site completely or placed on one side, and spread level over
areas after completion of the project to provide gardens. The organic content of the vegetable soil may be
injurious to concrete, and so it should never be used for backfilling, or making up levels under the building. The
path of excavation of topsoil is normally 150mm. Leveling, land clearance and stripping of the topsoil are all
easily achieved with a bulldozer.

Ground Water Control: - Excavation and sample boreholes frequently reveal and locate a level of saturation
within a few meters below the surface. This is known as the water table and it varies with season. Excavation
below the water table will be difficult and the strength of any concrete placed in water will be seriously affected.
A pre-knowledge of this fact helps the contractor to be equipped and prepare with his diesel powered water
pump for the temporary removal of water during excavation and concreting.

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 Civil Engineering Construction 1 | Engr. A. M. Sani

Setting Out and Leveling – After the stripping of the topsoil and general site leveling, it is important that the
structure is built in the correct position as shown on the arc a building is marked out with string lines and pegs
to indicate foundation trenches and walls. The frontage line (building line) is an imaginary line shown on the
site plan, or determined by the local authority, set back from the centre line of the road way.

Gate 1

Aggregates
Deposit
Security
Access Road

Room
Gate 2
Canteen

Dress. Tech. Engr.

Clinic
Room Room Room Toilet

Some considerations to be given by the contractor during reconnaissance and layout prior to
constructional works are:
 Availability and means of access to the site whether by road, rail or waterway.
 Availability of suitable materials/equipment and spare available for erecting plant and or storing
materials around the site.
 Availability of space to erect temporary site offices and welfare facilities.
 The effect of vibration on adjacent structure when the construction involves using heavy/massive
equipment (e.g. in piling) should be considered.
 The availability of water and power supply should be ascertained and the rate of payment investigated.
 Knowledge of the nature and type of soil, and the level of water table is important as the way necessitate
subsoil drainage and cause flooding.
 The local planning authorities should be approached to ascertain whether there is any special or
significant restriction which could adversely affect the development of site (e.g. underground cables).
 Valuable information can be obtained by talking with the local inhabitants of the area.
 Any special condition that may limit work in anyway should be noted and taken care of e.g. weather or
climatic condition.

Subsoil Exploration (Trial boreholes) – Trial boreholes to determine the nature of a subsoil is an important
part of an early site investigation. The building design and structural loading can be related to the detailed and
thorough examination of the subsoil bearing potential (ability to withstand load). Preliminary examination may
be with trial pits excavated by spade or a hand auger. When more detailed information is required, a powered
auger is more effective.
The depth of boreholes can be several meters deep for high rise buildings, and boring can be at random or
regular intervals. Samples of subsoil can be extracted loose or distorted, or undisturbed in steel tubes. They are

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recorded on a borehole log, and samples are then taken for laboratory analysis to establish the moisture content,
bearing capacity and chemical composition.
METHOD OF SETTING OUT
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 Civil Engineering Construction 1 | Engr. A. M. Sani

There are three main methods of setting

Builder’s square and Theodolite methods

3:4:5 Method - This is based on the mathematical principle that any triangle with the sides in the ration of
3:4:5 is a right angle. The method is as follows: first you determine the building line and establish one corner
of the building by driving a peg at that point. A tape is used to measure a distance of 3m along the building line
and a second peg is established with a nail on top. With an assistant and with the 3m mark of the tape around
the corner peg, the tap is then stretched out to give the position of the third peg at 7m mark. Another tape is
placed between P1 and P2 such that P1 and P2 are adjusted to make sure that their distance apart is 5m. Now a
line can then be extended through third peg to give the width of the building. The line extended should be
perpendicular or 900 to the building line. The above procedure is also carried out for the rest corners and
any possible intersection within the building. To check the accuracy of the four-sided figure formed, the
diagonals should be measured to be equal in length.

This is similar to the 3:4:5 method, but in this case instead of using a tape, a steel
builder’s square or a large timber square and a line are used to establish the squareness of the corners. Two
pegs (P1,P2) with nails at their tops are driven along the building line. One at the corner. A line is then held
along the two pegs tied at P1 going round the corner peg P2, the building’s square is then held with its external
angle point at nail of the corner peg, while the line on P1, P2 is touching one entire side of the square. This line
is then pulled round P2 to touch the other entire side of the builder’s square. Holding the line firm, a third peg
is the driven down where the line touches the top of nail of P3.

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(d) This is the most accurate method of setting out of buildings. It involves using a surveying
instrument called the Theodolite. The theodolite is equipped with a telescope and crosshair for sighting and

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ranging, with an internal graduated readings in degrees for establishing bearings (horizontal and vertical
angles). The method is as follows:

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 Mount and set the instrument at point A, sight the telescope, range and peg out E and B to establish the building
line.
 Turn the theodolite screws and adjust the degree readings to 0.00 degrees
 Turn the telescope of the instrument on the tripod stand towards the right axis until you can sight 90 degrees
wide. The instrument clamp sight the telescope and range to establish and peg out points F and C.
 Transfer the instrument to point C, and follow the same procedure at A, range A and F, set the angle 0.00”, turn


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towards the right axis to sight and obtain 90 degrees and to establish points G and D.
Point H could be established by using a measuring tape.

EXCAVATION
Excavation in building construction is simply the act of removing or digging out earth (soil) from the ground
for the purpose of laying foundation, construction of floor, basements, etc. The earth is originally dug up to
specified depth, width and length. The technique of excavation is largely determined by sensitivity of the site
to vibration, intensity of work, availability of plant and the subsoil composition.

There are basically two methods of excavation; the manual method and the mechanical method.
, diggers, hand augers, pickers (rakes) and
other manual implements for the purpose of excavation. The manual method is regarded as a cheap means of
excavation, it is virtually obsolete and time consuming. The method can be used only in very small buildings,
e.g. garages or house extension, where the site is inaccessible to excavating plant, and where archeological
remains are discovered and particular care is necessary. The method is also used for trimming excavations by
mechanically means where outward projections and deviations are specified. The mechanical method is a
process of using mechanical plant and equipment for excavation. This use of mechanical plant and equipment
saves considerable man-hours, and are standard features on all sites. The type of plant varies with the nature of
work and the different construction stages. Plant can commonly be used for:

 Striping clearance and light demolition

 Striping of top soil
 Trench excavation
 Basement excavation

The principal types of plant machine used for excavation are:

 Bulldozer
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 Loader/backhoe

Loader/Backhoe (Backacter) – The backachter/loader has on one end a toothed bucket and hydraulic boom
which extend out and excavate towards the cab. This end is used mainly for excavation of trenches, basement

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and ditches. The other is equipped with a faceshovel loader for loading excavated loose earth into a dumper, a
tipper or lorry.

Scrapper – The scrapper contains a larger bowl with covered cutting edge for stripping soil. It is used in very
large sties, airfield of highway.

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Dragline/Grab Crane – Where the volume of excavation is large, the crane- mounted dragline is preferred.
The bucket is swinging forward to penetrate the subsoil and dragged back towards the cab. Deep excavation
into granular soils is more effective with a grab or „clamshell‟.

EARTHWORK SUPPORT (SHORING)

When excavations (trench) are dug in water saturated soils, it is important to provide supports to the side of the
excavation. This is done to prevent the walls from caving-in (collapse) causing severe injury or death to those

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required to work inside the trench. Apart from causing injury and death, it will be additional cost to the builder
to re-excavate and renew the damaged work in the trench. Should the sides support collapse, timber and steel
are normally used for trench. The process of supporting trenches is generally termed “planking and strutting”.

 The type and nature of subsoil to be supported

 The depth of excavation.

 The length of time the trench is to remain open

 The time of year or climatic conditions prevailing when the trench is excavated.
 Timber is often the most convenient material for shallow trenches. Steel interlocking polings are often used for
deep water-logged subsoil. Adjustable steel struts are also more convenient and have considerable re- use value
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for all depths of excavation.

The timbering members used in trench support are as follows

Poling board – There are of 1.0 to 1.5m in length to suit the trench depth, and they vary in cross-section fro
175 by 35mm to 225 by 50mm. They are placed vertically and against the soil of all the sides of excavation.
 Wallings – These are longitudinal members running the length of the trench and supporting the poling
boards. They vary in sizes from 175 by 50mm to 225 by 75mm.
 Struts – These are usually squared timbers, either 100 by 100mm or 150 by 150mm in sizes. They are used to
support the wallings, which in turn holds the poling boards in position. Adjustable steel struts are also in great
use.
 Sheeting – These consist of horizontal boards abutting one another to provide continuous barrier when

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excavating in loose soils and common size for the sheeting is 175 x 75mm and there is overlap of about 150mm
at the point of connection between two stages. Alternatively, steel interlocking poling with adjustable steep
struts are used.

In moderately firm ground, the timbering consists of a series of poling boards which are widely spaced at about
60mm centres, supported by wallings and struts. In shallow trenches, the poling boards would probably only
be needed at the about 1.8m centres with each pair of poling board strutted individually with a single strut and
no walling.

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Timbering in Moderately Formed Soil

In loose or saturated soil, a continuous horizontal sheeting supported by pairs of poling boards and struts
about 1.8m may be used. Alternatively, a continuous length of poling boards or runners supported by walling
and struts may be used. If the trench exceed more than 1.5m in depth, it is necessary to step up the timbering
so that the lower stage fits inside the upper section.

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CONTROL OF GROUND WATER IN AN EXCAVATION
There are several methods available for controlling ground water during excavation work. Some of the methods
deals with lowering, while others involves water exclusion from the site. Some of the methods employed in the

i. Plumbing Method ii. Dewatering

iii. Electro osmosis iv. Grouting

v. Soil stabilization

PUMPING FROM WELL OR (SUMP)

Pumping from sump is the most used for ground water control since it is economical to install and maintain
and can be applied to all types of ground conditions. The only problem is of the movement of the soil due to
settlement and there is also the risk of instability at the formation level of the excavation. Where the excavation
goes through permeable soil and continued into impermeable soil, it is better to form a drain at the line of
interception to carry water in the sump. With this system a sump is constructed at one corner of the site which
forms a well point continuous pumping of water.
The pump which is mounted on the ground level has one disadvantage due to imitation in the design of suction
lift to some types of pumps. The suction lift of most pumps is at 7.5m – 9m. For deep excavation where the
depth exceeds 9m, the pump will have to be placed in the excavation or on a level suitable for the suction lift.

 DEWATERING
This consists of lowering the water table over the area of the site and is satisfactory for depths up to 16m, it is
particularly suitable where running sand is encountered for once the water has been removed in the ground, the
sand become relatively stable. The equipment used for the separation comprises of Jetting pump, for driving
down the well points, Suction pump, Header pipe and, Rises pipe.

The operation of dewatering is carried out by first jetting the well points into the ground, this is done by
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securing each well points to 38mm diameter riser pipe at the top of which there is a connection by a hose to
the jetting pump. The assembled well points are held on the ground and the pump operator delivers water under
pressure until the point penetrates the ground. The well points on reaching the desired depths, the points are
“sounded in” the hose of the top of the well point is determined from the jetting point and attached to 150mm

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diameter header pipe has coupling joint at 760mm 1m intervals so that rises can be jointed at this spacing. For
dealing with large volume of water in loose ground or lose sand. The equipment can be used for 2 main types
of work.
i. The ringing system ii. The progressive system for trenching.

Ringing System – In this system, the building site is encircled with needle points, and the top are dewatered
and excavated first, the area is then ringed at this intermediate stage for dewatering the corner depth.
Progressive System – This is suitable for dewatering along the line of trenches before excavation. The wall
points are withdrawn when work is completed. The header pipe in laid along the ink of the proposed trench as
near as practicable. In different ground the pipe is placed in the trench and supported on struts.

FOUNDATIONS
A foundation is defined as, that part of a structure which is in direct contact with the ground to which super
imposed loads and dead loads are transmitted or received. It is also an integral part of a building which transfers
the structural load from a building safely to the ground. Many at times, during the construction of a building,
the load on the foundation gradually increases and eventually, this will result in settlement if the settlement is
slight and uniform throughout the area of the building, no damage will occur to the building. But if the settlement
is extensive and unequal, serious damage may result in the form of cracked walls, distorted doors and windows
and in some cases failure may be completed by the collapse of the building.
Selection of foundation types and design depends on the total building load and the nature and quality of the
subsoil. It is essential to achieve a satisfactory balance between the building load and subsoil characteristics,
otherwise overstressing of the subsoil will lead to excessive building settlement and serious structural defeats.
The purpose (importance) of foundation is to distribute the weight of the structure to be carried over a
sufficient area of bearing surface, so as to prevent the subsoil from spreading and to avoid settlement of the
structure. A foundation should safety sustain (Carry) and transmit to the ground the combined dead load,
imposed load and wind load, without impairing the stability of any part of the building.
A foundation is designed to support a number of different kinds of loads.

 The DEAD LOAD of the building, which is the sum of the weight of the frame, the floors, roofs, and walls,
electrical and mechanical equipment and the foundation itself.
 The LIVE (IMPOSED) LOAD, which is the sum of the weights of people in the building, the furnishings,
sanitary fixtures and the equipment they use, snow, ice and rain load on the roof.
 The WIND LOAD, which can apply literal, downward, and uplift load to a foundation.

All foundation settle to some extent as the soil around and beneath them adjust itself to the loads. Foundation
settlement in most buildings is measured in millimeters. If the total settlement occurs roughly at the same rate
from one side of the foundation to the other, no harm is likely to be done to the building. This is because all
parts of the building rest on the same kind of soil. But if differential settlement occur (when the building
occupies a piece of land that is underlain by two or more areas of different types of soil with very different load
bearing capacities) in which the various columns and load bearing walls of the building settle by substantial
different amounts, the frames of the building become distorted, floors may stapes, walls and glass may crack,
doors and windows may be difficult to open, etc. the primary objective of foundation design is to minimize
differential settlement by loading the soil in such a way that equal settlement occur under the various parts of
the building.
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SOILS IN FOUNDATION
Where the foundation of a building is on rock, no measurable settlement will occur, whereas the building on
soil will suffer settlement into the ground by the compression of the soil under the foundation load. Some
settlement on soil foundation cannot be avoided, because as the building is erected, the load on the foundation
increases and compresses the soil. This settlement must be limited to avoid damage. Bearing capacities for
various rocks and soils determined and should not be exceeded in the design of the foundation to limit the
settlement.
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Soils are classified with regards to their size, density and nature of the particles. Soil can be classified into three
-cohesive, fine grained cohesive and organic soils.
Coarse grained non-cohesive soil – This consist of coarse and larger siliceous product under pressure from
the loads on foundation. The soil in this group compresses and consolidates rapidly by some rearrangement of
the particles and expulsion of water.
A foundation on this type of soil settles rapidly by consolidation of the soil, as the building is erected, so that
there is no further settlement once building is completed.
Fine grained cohesive soils – This consists of natural deposits of the finest siliceous and aluminous product or
rock weathering such as clay. Clay is smooth and greasy to touch, it shows high plasticity, dries slowly and
shrinks appreciably on drying. Under pressure of load on foundations, clay soils are gradually compressed by
the expulsion of water from the soil so that the buildings settle gradually during building work and this
settlement may continue for some years after the building is completed. Firm shrinkable clays suffer appreciable
shrinkage on drying and expansion of firm clay under grass extends to about 1 metre below the surface and up
to 4m or more below large trees. Building on shallow foundations should not be close to trees, shrubs and trees
should be removed to clear a site for building on firm clay subsoil. This is because gradual expansion or
contraction (shrinkage) of the soil will cause damage to the building by differential movement. This is as
a result of the intake of subsoil water by the tree roots.
Organic soils – Such as peat are not generally suitable foundation for buildings. Foundation of this type soil
are normally carried down to a reliable bearing stratum.

TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
There are four principal types of foundation: strip, pad, raft and pile foundations.

STRIP FOUNDATION
This type of foundation is a continuous level support for load bearing walls. It is usually made of a continuous
strip of concrete of 1:3:6 mix, and may be reinforced (1:2:6) mix for poor subsoil or high loading. The
continuous strip serves as a level base on which the wall in built and should be of such width as to spread the
load on the foundation to an area of subsoil capable of supporting the load without stress. The width of a concrete
strip foundation depends on the bearing capacity of the subsoil, the less the width of the foundation for the same
load. The minimum width of a strip foundation is 450mm and least thickness is 150mm. they are suitable for
low-rise construction.

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A SECTION THROUGH A STRIP FOUNDATION

Wide Strip Foundation

This type of foundation is used where the structural loading is very high or relative to the subsoil bearing

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capacity. It is generally cheaper to reinforce the concrete strip to reduce the equivalent strength thickness to
carry and spread the load.

This type of foundation has two categories

 Narrow strip or trench fill

 Reinforced deep strip

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The Narrow strip (trench fill) is designed to save considerable structural construction time and where the
nature of the subsoil such as clay requires a considerable depth of 900mm, it is used to excavate foundation
trenches and fill them with concrete up to just below the ground level, say 2 brick coarse before the finished
ground level.

Reinforced deep strip are acceptable alternative to wide strip foundation for soft clay subsoil conditions. The
depth should be at least 900mm to avoid effect of shrinkage and swelling and about 400mm wide to provide
sufficient support for the wall. Reinforcement is required to take care of compressive stress as subsoil may

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develop voids in long periods of dry weather due to volume change.

PAD FOUNDATION
These are isolated pairs or column of brick, masonry or reinforced concrete often in the form of a square or
rectangular pad of concrete for supporting ground beams, and in turn supporting walls. It is very economical to

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use pad foundation where the subsoil has poor bearing capacity for some depth below the surface, rather than
excavating deep trenches and raising wall in strip foundations. It is also used where isolated columns are
specified, especially in framed buildings. The spread of area of this type of foundation depends on the load on
the soil and the bearing capacity of the subsoil.

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RAFT FOUNDATION
In soft compressible subsoil, such as soft clay or peat subsoil. It is necessary to form a raft foundation to spread
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over the whole base of the building. Raft foundation consists of a raft of reinforce concrete under the whole of
the building design to transmit the load of the building to the subsoil below the raft. Relative settlement between
the foundations of columns is avoided by the use of a raft foundation. The two types of raft commonly used

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Flat Raft (solid slab raft) Foundation
This comprises of a reinforced concrete slab of uniform thickness cast on a concrete blinding and a damp proof
membrane (DPM), under the whole area of the building. This type of foundation is used on loose subsoil with
reasonable bearing capacities for small buildings, such as houses. The slab normally reinforced top and bottom.

See the figure below:

NOTE: Figures are in ‘mm’

Wide Toe Raft Beam and slab rift ) Foundation

This is like a reinforced concrete floor with down stand beams called toe. It is used when the ground has poor
compressibility. The reinforced concrete edge beam is designed to support the outer skin of the brick work or
columns. The strengthened beam collect loads from the walls or columns and transmit these loads to the slab
cast integrally with the beam, and the slab in turn spread the loads over the whole area of subsoil below the
building.

PILE FOUNDATION
Pile foundations are used where the subsoil has poor and uncertain bearing capacity and in poor drained area
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where the water table is high and there is appreciable ground movement. Piles are usually employed because in
these types of subsoil, it might be necessary to excavate beyond 2m to meet a stable stratum. And it is
uneconomical to consider normal excavation beyond about 2m below the ground level. The pile column of
concrete either cast insitu or precast driven into the ground to transfer the loads through the poor bearing soil to
a more stable stratum. Boring is undertaken by a powered auger. The pile foundations are normally employed

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in the construction of bridges and oil platforms on seas.

Short Bored Piles - These are used for small buildings on shrinkage clays where adjacent trees could appreciate
volume change in the subsoil. Short bored (short length) piles are cast in holes by hand or machine auger. The
piles support reinforced concrete ground beams on which wall are raised.

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FOUNDATION ON SLOPING SITES

Walls foundation on sloping sites are normally constructed at one level or stepped. Where the slope is slight the
foundation may be at one level with floor raised above the highest ground level. Where there is a greater slope,
it is usual to cut and fill so that the wall at the highest point does not act as a retaining wall and there is no need
to raise the ground floor above the highest point of the site. The process of “cut and fill” is normally practiced
when providing foundation for walls on sloping sites. This is the operation of cutting into part of the higher
part of the site and filling the remaining lower part with the excavated material or with the imported materials
(for fill). It should be noted that cutting extends beyond the wall at the highest point to provide a drained dry
area behind it.
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Where a building extend some distance up an appreciable slope, it is usual to use stepped foundation to
economize in excavation and foundation walling.

Wall Construction

Types of Bond in Walls

STRETCHER BOND: This consists of all bricks laid as stretchers on every course with the courses laid

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half-bond to each other; this is affected in a plain wall with stopped ends by introducing a half-bat as the
starting brick to alternate courses. Usually only used in walls of a half-brick in thickness.

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HEADER BOND: In this bond the arrangement shows the header face of every brick, with 215 mm
thickness. The bond is formed by three-quarter bats at the quoin. It is rarely in use, because it has now
attractive finish (too many joints). It is used in footing courses or walling curved on plan.

Isometric view
ENGLISH BOND: This consists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers with a closer placed next to
the quoin header to form the lap. There is, however, a variation where a closer is not used in the header
course, and the lap is formed by starting each stretcher course with a three-quarter bat. Such variation is not
very common. It is considered one of the strongest bonds. It is suitable for the construction of load-baring
walls and for places where strength is of utmost importance.

Isometric view of an English

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FLEMISH BOND: This consists of alternate headers and stretchers, with the headers in one course being
placed centrally over the stretcher in the course below. A closer is placed next to the quoin header to form
the lap. Flemish bond is said to give a more attractive face appearance than English bond as it appears less

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monotonous. It affords a saving in facing bricks because of the header. English bond requires approximately
eighty-nine facing bricks per square metre, while Flemish bond requires only seventy –eight facings. The
header face of many bricks is dark, and they are separated in this bond as against the English where they
are continuous.

Isometric view of Flemish bond Plan view of Flemish bond.

STAIRS AND STAIRCASE

Stairs consist of a succession of steps and landing that make it possible to pass on foot to other level, where
as the term staircase or stairway is often applied to the complete system of treads, riser, strings, landing,
balustrades, and other component parts, in one or more successive flights of stairs. The space occupied by
a staircase is termed a stair well, with the vertical distance between the floors served by a staircase described

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as the lift.

Primary Function
 It establishes a safe and easy means of travel between floor levels.
 It provides a means of conveying fittings and furniture between floor levels.
Types of Stairs
The different types of stairs we have:
1) Straight flight stair
2) A quarter turn stair
3) A dogleg or half turn stair
4) An open well or open newel stair
5) A geometric stair
Terminologies used in Staircase Construction
A considerable number of technical terms are used to describe component parts of staircases and the more
important ones are as follows:
Tread: This is the upper horizontal surface of a step.
Riser: The vertical front face of a step between two consecutive tread
Nosing: The front edge of a tread projecting beyond the face of the riser and includes the edge of the
landing.

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Steps: A combined tread and riser.

Rise: The vertical distance between the upper surfaces of two consecutive treads.
Going: The horizontal distance between nosing of a tread and the nosing of the tread, ramp or landing next
above it or the depth of the tread less any overlap with the next tread.
Flier: A normal parallel step in a straight flight of stairs.
Winder: A tapering tread where the stair changes direction, radiating from the newel.
Kite winder: The middle step of three winders at a quarter turn, with a shape resembling a traditional flying
kite.
Round-end step: A step at the bottom of a flight of stairs with a semi-circular end with the width of the
tread.
Half round step: A step with a semi circular end occupying the width of two treads. Bull nose step: A step
with a quadrant or quarter round end.
Curtail step: A step with a scroll end matching the finish to the handrail. String:
An inclined member supporting the end of treads and risers.
Newel: The post at the end of a flight to which the strings and handrails are framed; the cap is the head of
the newel and may be applied or worked on solid, while the drop or pendant is the lower end projecting
below a floor, which often forms a decorative feature.
Baluster: The small bars or upright between the handrail and string.

Balustrade: This normally refers to solid panelling between handrail and string, but could also be applied
to a balustrade wall or an “open” balustrade (frame work of handrail and
balusters).

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1) Straight flight stair case: This consists of a straight continuous flight or run of parallel steps or
a continuous slope.

2) A quarter turn stair: This is one containing a flight with a landing and a right angle turn to left or
right; the landing is termed a quarter space landing.

3) Half turn stair (sometimes called, Dog-leg ): This has one flight rising to an intermediate half
space landing, with the second flight travelling in the opposite direction to the first flight. It is half-turn

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whether the flights are of the same length or not. It is dog-leg when the two flights have equal lengths.

4) Three Quarter Turn Stairs: These types of stairs change their directions through 270 degrees. In
other words direction is changed three times with its upper flight crossing the bottom one. In this type of
construction an open well is formed.

5) An open well or open newel stair: This contains a central wall, with newels to each change of direction
and two or more flight of steps around the outside of the well.

6) A geometric stair: This takes the form of a spiral, with the face of steps radiating the centre of a
circle which forms the plan of the outer string, and incorporates an open well. A spiral stair is a form of
geometrical stair without a well (a helix round a central column). A helical stair contains a helix round a
central void.

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ROOF STRUCTURES
A roof of a building envelop both the covering on the upper most part of a building or shelter which provides
protection from animal and weather, notably rain, but also heat, wind and sunlight; and the framing or structure
which support the covering.
The characteristics of a roof are dependent upon the purpose of the building that is covered, the available roofing
materials and the local traditions of construction and wider concept of architectural design and practise and may
also be governed by local or national legislation. In most countries a roof protect primarily against rain. A
veranda may be roofed with materials that protect against sunlight but admits the other elements. The roof of a
garden conservatory, protect plants from cold, wind and rain but admits light.
A roof may also provide additional living space, for example a roof garden

The material of a roof may range from banana leave, wheaten straw or sea grass to laminated glass, copper
(copper roofing), aluminium sheeting and pre-cast concrete. In many parts of the world ceramic tile have been
the pre-dominant roofing materials for centuries.

The construction of a roof is determined by its method of support and how the underneath space is bridged and
whether or not the roof is pitched. The pitch is the angle at which the roof rises from its lowest to highest point.
Most building except in very dry regions has roofs that are sloped or pitched. Although modern construction
elements such as drain pipes may remove the need for pitch, roofs are pitched for reasons of tradition and
aesthetic. So the pitch is partly dependent upon stylistic factors, and partially to do with practicalities.
Some types of roofing, for example thatch, require a steep pitch in order to be water proof and durable. Other
types of roofing for example pan tiles are unstable on a steeply pitched roof but provide excellent weather
protection at a relatively low angle. In region where there is little rain, an almost flat roof with a slight run off
provides adequate protection against an occasional down pour. Drain pipes also remove the need for a sloping
roof.
The durability of a roof is a matter of concern because the roof is often the least accessible part of a building for
purpose of repair and renewal, while its damage or destruction can have serious effects.

General Principles of Design

Roofs have to perform a number of functions and some of the more important are as follows:

1) Weather Resistance
Building regulations 1991 provides that the roof of a building must resist the passage of moisture to the inside
of the building. The slope of the roof and the lap of the roof covering must be considered, as well as the degree
of exposure.

2) Strength
The roof structure or frame work must be of adequate strength to carry its own weight together with the super
imposed loads of snow, wind and foot traffic. The roof structure should also provide lateral strength to walls.

3) Durability
The covering should be able to withstand atmospheric pollution, frost and other harmful conditions. With large
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concrete roofs and sheet-metal covering provision must be made to accommodate thermal expansion. There
should also be effective means for the speedy removal of rain water from the roof, which might otherwise cause
deterioration of the roof covering.

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4) Fire Resistance
The roof of a building is required to resist the spread of fire over the roof from one building to another, having
regard to the use and position of the building.

5) Insulation
Thermal insulation of roof is necessary to reduce heat losses to an acceptable level and to prevent excessive solar
heat gains in hot weather, thus ensuring a reasonable standard of comfort within the building. The building
regulation 1991 requires the element U-value of building of roofs of dwelling to be 0.25KN/m2 and for other
buildings; 0.45KN/m2.

6) Appearance
Roof design can have an important influence on the appearance of a building, both in regard to the form and
shape of the roof, and as to the colour and texture of the covering material.

Choice of Roof Types

There is a wide range of roof types available and the choice may be influenced by a number of factors. Roof
varies from flat roofs, not exceeding 100 slope, of timber or concrete, covered with one of a number of materials,
to pitched roofs of various structural forms which are usually covered with slates or tiles. Factors influencing
the choice of roof type follow.

1) Size and Shape of Building: Building of similar shape are readily covered with pitched roofs, whereas flat
roof are better suited for irregularly shaped building. The clear span required will also influence the choice of
roof.
2) Appearance: Aesthetic consideration might well dictate a pitched roof for a small building and a flat roof
for a large building.

3) Economics: Both capital and maintenance cost should be considered in selecting a roof type. Some
covering such as zinc will not last the life of the building and replacement cost must be included in the
calculation, using a discounting method as illustrated in building economics.

4) Other Consideration: Ease with which services can be accommodated in roof space weather proofing,
condensation, maintenance and similar matters.

Parts of a Roof
There are two parts of a roof; it supporting structure and its outer skin or uppermost weather proof layer. In a
minority of buildings, the outer layer is also a self-supporting structure.

1) Support
The support structure of a roof usually compromises beams that are long and of strong, fairly rigid material such
th
as timber, and since the mid-19 century, cast-iron or steel. In countries that use bamboo extensively, the
flexibility of the material causes a destructive curving line to the roof, characteristic of oriental architecture.

2) Outer Surface (Roof Covering)

This include plain tiles, single cap tiles, vertical tile hanging, slates asbestos cement and fibre- reinforced cement
slates, wood shingles thatch, sheet covering etc.

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Types of Roof

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A simple pitched roof has equal slopes rising, that is pitched to a central ridge with horizontal ties at ceiling
levels. The stability of a pitched roof depends on the depth of the triangular framing at mid span and it is this
depth that gives a pitched roof its stability so that it can be framed with comparatively small sections.

1) Flat Roof
A flat roof is constructed in the same way as a floor as either a timber or concrete platform. The stability roof
depends on adequate support from walls or beams and sufficient depth or thickness of timber joists or concrete
relative to spans, and assumed loads to avoid gross deflection under load.

a) Timber Flat Roof

The construction of a timber flat roof is just the construction of a timber upper floor. Softwood timber joists 38
to 50 thick and from 25 to 225 deep and placed on edge from 400 to 600 apart with the ends of the joist built
into or onto or against brick walls and partition.
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b) Reinforced Concrete Floor

All the types of reinforced concrete construction described for floor can equally well be used for roofs and the
details of construction and advantages of each apply also to their use for flat roof. The loads on roof are usually
somewhat less than those of floors and the thickness of a concrete roof will usually be less than that of a floor
of similar span.

Roof Coverings
1) Plain Tiles: These are flat, rectangular roofing units’ size 265x165 with holes for nailing and nibs for
hanging to battens. These small tiles are laid double lap down. The slope of the roof because water running
between the open joints between adjacent tiles runs on to the back of a tile double lapped under the joint. Plain
tiles are less used than they were.

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2) Pan Tiles: Concrete pan tiles are used extensively in the United Kingdom. Clay pan tiles are hung on and
nailed to soft wood battens as shown below. The purpose of the mitred corners of these tiles is to facilitate fixing.
But for the mitred corners there would be four thicknesses of tiles at the junction of horizontal and vertical joints
which would make it impossible to bed the tiles properly.

3) Single Lap Tiles: Single lap tiles are so shaped that they overlap the edges of adjacent tiles in each course.
This overlap prevents water entering the roof between adjacent tiles, and in consequence the tiles can be laid
with a single end lap. Some of the common types of single lap tiles are; Italian tiles. Spanish tiles, and double
Roman tiles.

4) Slates: Although slates have been superseded by clay or concrete tiles and other form of roofing materials,
they are still used in slate producing district or areas. Their sizes vary from 255x150mm to 610x355mm, each

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slate is secured by two nails, at the head or concrete of the slate, and the nails may be yellow metal, copper,
aluminium alloy, or zinc and they vary in length from 32 to 63mm according to the weight of slate.

Sheet Covering
Sheet coverings are available in different materials and are particularly well suited for garages, stores,
agricultural and industrial building. The common materials a r e asbestos, Corrugated galvanised steel,
Aluminium sheets (non-ferrous metals; lead, copper, zinc, and aluminium) e.t.c.

TYPES OF CEILING

1. Drywall ceiling
2. Drop/ suspended ceiling
3. Coffered ceiling
4.
5.
Cathedral ceiling
Shed ceiling
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6. Tray ceiling
7. Panel ceiling
8. Cove ceiling
9. Tin ceiling
10. Popcorn ceiling
11. Luminous ceiling
12. Beam ceiling
13. Acoustical ceiling

Drywall is a panel made of gypsum plaster pressed between two thick sheets of paper. This is the ceiling style
commonly seen in most homes.
Conventional drywall ceilings are typically 2.4m high, have an uncluttered, flat surface, and are easy to decorate.

Suspended Ceiling or “Drop Ceiling” is a metal grid ceiling that hangs below an existing flat ceiling and is
attached by hangers or wires. Lightweight, acoustic panels are laid into the metal grid to create the ceiling.
Suspended ceilings stylishly hide wiring, plumbing, mechanical fixtures, and the original ceiling.

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Coffered Ceilings is made using a 24” x 24” grid system and either deep or shallow lightweight, coffered panels
that fit inside. The effect creates a waffle-like pattern that takes a commanding role in a room.

Cathedral Ceilings go up to 4.5m or higher, creating a dramatic design element, as well as an open, spacious
feel to a room or entryway.

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Shed Ceiling has a flat surface that slants upward on one side. These ceilings are typically seen in homes with
dormers or in homes where the attic has been extended to create additional living space.

Tray Ceilings are flat with a rectangular center that is recessed to add architectural interest and provides a sense
of spaciousness. This inverted space may be used for lighting fixtures or to add a visually appealing design
element, like a contrasting paint color or even a different ceiling material. Tray ceilings are typically seen in living

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and dining rooms, which are often the main entertainment areas in a home.

Panel or Plank Ceilings are precisely cut, installed side-by-side and then stained or sealed to adorn flat or vaulted
ceilings. They provide an elegant or cozy cottage feel.

Cove Ceiling is a gracefully curved arch that unites the ceiling and the upper walls and corners, eliminating sharp
transitions and offering soft lines.

Tin ceiling: Traditionally, sheets of thin tin plates are stamped with a design and snugly meshed. Today, a faster
way to achieve the tin look is to use a hand- painted finish or aluminium or plastic panels. Your ceiling must be
at least 3m high to pull off the look, In smaller rooms tin ceilings can seem claustrophobic.

Popcorn Ceilings: Lumpy off-white or gray ceilings were commonly sprayed onto the drywall ceiling. Popcorn
ceilings also are messy to remove. It collects lot of dust and is difficult to clean.

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Beam Ceiling: Exposed beams or joists, often in a dark finish to contrast with a white ceiling. They're arranged
horizontally and generally intersect at various points. They provide a masculine or rustic elegance.

Acoustical ceilings are typically covered with muted tiles. This ceiling feature isn't about "look" as much as it is
about absorbing noise in a home theater, gym or office. These ceilings are often used in specialized media or
music rooms. Acoustic ceilings are judged, by their Noise Reduction Coeffcient (NRC) which measures the
average percentage of sound energy that a material absorbs. An NRC of 1 indicates perfect absorption. Acoustic
tiles can be different colors, shapes and elevations.

Luminous ceiling: Plastic ceiling panels cover the fluorescent light fixtures. When the fluorescent light is turned
on, the ceiling panels will soften the radiant light and appear luminous. The room appears with daylight
illumination with an almost shadow-free, homogeneous lighting - as if there is no artificial light source and no
disturbances.

1. Ceiling installation in a building need to focus on various factors for the strength, safety and durability of the
members.

Safety
Ceiling systems are not designed to carry excess or additional structural load.
Hence catwalks are installed where access is required to other services above the ceiling.
Any load that is installed below the ceiling should be independently supported.
A catwalk is an elevated service platform from which many of the technical functions of a building such as

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lighting and sound, may be manipulated.

Fire resistance
Fire –resistance rating is used to indicate the performance of a constructed ceiling system.
Fire rating is expressed in time. In minutes or hours.
Modern ceiling panels are all designed and composed to improve sag resistance.

Humidity
Tiles are manufactured to different humidity specifications, ranging from 70% to 95%.
Humidity in the buildings must be stabilized before installing the ceiling tiles.
Adequate ventilation and insulation should be provided to prevent condensation.

Light Reflectance
Light reflectance is the ability of surface to reflect light back into the space.
Ranges from 0.8 to 0.92, reflectance of 0.85 is considered to be high.

Accessories
Baffles: are used to assist with acoustical control in open plan offices.
Signs are used to offer information.
Appendages may include a range of items like promotional items suspended from ceilings in retail stores for
a limited period.

Control joint
Control joints are installed/ provided to give room for expansion or contraction due to climate changes.
These are either manufactured devices for the specific purpose or field fabricated with suitable materials.
Baffle/sign weight should not place stress on the ceiling grid. In case the weight exceeds the limit, extra
support should be given to the ceiling grid.
Suspension of these items should always be from the main tie.
Any suspension that caused the grid to deflect more than 1/360 of the span is not allowed and should be
suspended separately.

Thermal Insulation
Insulation is the cost effective way to improve energy efficiency of a home or a building.
Insulation of building envelopes keep the heat balance to improve comfort and save energy.
The term insulation refers to materials which provide substantial resistance to heat flow.
When these materials are installed in the ceiling, wall or floors of the building, heat flow into/ out of the
building is reduced and the need for heating and cooling is minimized.

Principles of insulation
Resistance to heat flow is achieved by the use of either bulk insulation or reflective insulation or a
combination of both, which work in different ways.
Bulk insulation: reduces heat transfer through conduction and convection.
Reflective/ Radiant insulation: reduces heat transfer with the help of air spaces to reduce radiant heat
transfer.This reflects heat rather than letting it pass by.

Thermal mass
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Thermal mass is the ability of the materials to absorb heat, store it and release it later.
Thermal performance of all buildings components except doors and windows are expressed in terms of R-

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value.

Thermal values
For doors and windows, U-value express the thermal performance.

R-value ( Thermal Resistance)

This is R-value, also known as thermal resistance.
Higher R-value better resistance and better insulation.
Products with same R-value will provide exactly the same insulating effects, unless they are correctly
installed.

U-value (Thermal Transmittance)

U-value is the transfer of heat through a material, combination of materials or materials in combination with
air spaces.
U-value indicates the thermal properties of glass and helps to calculate the heat losses and gains.
U-value is the reciprocal of R-value.
R= 1/U
If R=2, then U= ½
A smaller U-value results in lower heat flow and therefore less heat loss.

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