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THE SPHERE OF
SACROBOSCO
An early 13th century treatise on astronomy, by
Iohannes de Sacrobosco.

Translated by Lynn Thorndike, 1949.

PROEMIUM

CONTENTS OF THE FOUR CHAPTERS. -- The

treatise on the sphere we divide into four chapters, telling,

first, what a sphere is, what its center is, what the axis
of a sphere is, what the pole of the world is, how many
spheres there are, and what the shape of the world is.
In the second we give information concerning the
circles of which this material sphere is composed and
that supercelestial one, of which this is the image, is
understood to be composed.
In the third we talk about the rising and setting of the
signs, and the diversity of days and nights which
happens to those inhabiting diverse localities, and the
division into climes.
In the fourth the matter concerns the circles and
motions of the planets, and the causes of eclipses.

CHAPTER ONE

SPHERE DEFINED. -- A sphere is thus described by

Euclid: A sphere is the transit of the circumference of a
half-circle upon a fixed diameter until it revolves back to
its original position. That is, a sphere is such a round and
solid body as is described by the revolution of a
semicircular arc.

By Theodosius a sphere is described thus: A sphere

is a solid body contained within a single surface, in the
middle of which there is a point from which all straight
lines drawn to the circumference are equal, and that point
is called the "center of the sphere." Moreover, a straight
line passing through the center of the sphere, with its ends
touching the circumference in opposite directions, is called
the "axis of the sphere." And the two ends of the axis are
called the "poles of the world."

SPHERE DIVIDED. -- The sphere is divided in two

ways, by substance and by accident. By substance it is
divided into the ninth sphere, which is called the "first
moved" or the primum mobile; and the sphere of the fixed
stars, which is named the "firmament"; and the seven
spheres of the seven planets, of which some are larger,
some smaller, according as they the more approach, or
recede from, the firmament. Wherefore, among them the
sphere of Saturn is the largest, the sphere of the moon the
smallest, as is shown in the accompanying figure.

By accident the sphere is divided into the sphere

right and the sphere oblique. For those are said to have the
sphere right who dwell at the equator, if anyone can live
there. And it is called "right" because neither pole is
elevated more for them than the other, or because their
horizon intersects the equinoctial circle and is intersected
by it at spherical right angles. Those are said to have the
sphere oblique who live this side of the equator or beyond
it. For to them one pole is always raised above the horizon,
and the other is always depressed below it. Or it is because
their artificial horizon intersects the equinoctial at oblique
and unequal angles.

THE FOUR ELEMENTS. -- The machine of the

universe is divided into two, the ethereal and the
elementary region. The elementary region, existing subject
to continual alteration, is divided into four For there is
earth, placed, as it were, as the center in the middle of all,
about which is water, about water air, about air fire, which
is pure and not turbid there and reaches to the sphere of the
moon, as Aristotle says in his book of Meteorology. For so
God, the glorious and sublime, disposed. And these are
called the "four elements" which are in turn by themselves
altered, corrupted and regenerated. The elements are also
simple bodies which cannot be subdivided into parts of
diverse forms and from whose commixture are produced
various species of generated things. Three of them, in turn,
surround the earth on all sides spherically, except in so far
as the dry land stays the sea's tide to protect the life of
animate beings. All, too, are mobile except earth, which, as
the center of the world, by its weight in every direction
equally avoiding the great motion of the extremes, as a
round body occupies the middle of the sphere.

THE HEAVENS. -- Around the elementary region

revolves with continuous circular motion the ethereal,
which is lucid and immune from all variation in its
immutable essence. And it is called "Fifth Essence" by the
philosophers. Of which there are nine spheres, as we have
just said: namely, of the moon, Mercury, Venus, the sun,
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the fixed stars, and the last heaven.
Each of these spheres incloses its inferior spherically.

THEIR MOVEMENTS. -- And of these there are

two movements. One is of the last heaven on the two
extremities of its axis, the Arctic and Antarctic poles, from
east through west to east again, which the equinoctial circle
divides through the middle. Then there is another
movement, oblique to this and in the opposite direction, of
the inferior spheres on their axes, distant from the former
by 23 degrees. But the first movement carries all the others
with it in its rush about the earth once within a day and
night, although they strive against it, as in the case of the
eighth sphere one degree in a hundred years. This second
movement is divided through the middle by the zodiac,
under which each of the seven planets has its own sphere,
in which it is borne by its own motion, contrary to the
movement of the sky, and completes it in varying spaces of
time -- in the case of Saturn in thirty years, Jupiter in
twelve years, Mars in two, the sun in three hundred and
sixty-five days and six hours, Venus and Mercury about the
same, the moon in twenty-seven days and eight hours.

REVOLUTION OF THE HEAVENS FROM EAST

TO WEST. -- That the sky revolves from east to west is
signified by the fact that the stars, which rise in the east,
mount gradually and successively until they reach mid-sky
and are always at the same distance apart, and, thus
maintaining their relative positions. they move toward their
setting continuously and uniformly. Another indication is
that the stars near the North Pole, which never set for us,
move continuously and uniformly, describing their circles
about the pole, and are always equally near or far from one
another. Therefore, from those two continuous movements
of the stars, both those that set and those which do not, it is
clear that the firmament is moved from east to west.

THE HEAVENS SPHERICAL. -- There are three

reasons why the sky is round: likeness, convenience, and
necessity. Likeness, because the sensible world is made in
the likeness of the archetype, in which there is neither end
nor beginning; wherefore, in likeness to it the sensible
world has a round shape, in which beginning or end cannot
be distinguished. Convenience, because of all isoperimetric
bodies the sphere is the largest and of all shapes the round
is most capacious. Since largest and round, therefore the
most capacious. Wherefore, since the world is all-
containing, this shape was useful and convenient for it.
Necessity, because if the world were of other form than
round -- say, trilateral, quadrilateral, or many-sided -- it
would follow that some space would be vacant and some
body without a place, both of which are false, as is clear in
the case of angles projecting and revolved.

A FURTHER PROOF. -- Also, as Alfraganus says, if

the sky were flat, one part of it would be nearer to us than
another, namely, that which is directly overhead. So when a
star was there, it would be closer to us than when rising or
setting. But those things which are closer to us seem larger.
So the sun when in mid-sky should look larger than when
rising or setting, whereas the opposite is the case; for the
sun or another star looks bigger in the east or west than in
mid-sky. But, since this is not really so, the reason for its
seeming so is that in winter and the rainy season vapors
rise between us and the sun or other star. And, since those
vapors are diaphanous, they scatter our visual rays so that
they do not apprehend the object in its true size, just as is
the case with a penny dropped into a depth of limpid water,
which appears larger than it actually is because of a like
diffusion of rays.

THE EARTH A SPHERE. -- That the earth, too, is

round is shown thus. The signs and stars do not rise and set
the same for all men everywhere but rise and set sooner for
those in the east than for those in the west; and of this there
is no other cause than the bulge of the earth. Moreover,
celestial phenomena evidence that they rise sooner for
Orientals than for westerners. For one and the same eclipse
of the moon which appears to us in the first hour of the
night appears to Orientals about the third hour of the night,
which proves that they had night and sunset before we did,
of which setting the bulge of the earth is the cause.

FURTHER PROOFS OF THIS. -- That the earth also

has a bulge from north to south and vice versa is shown
thus: To those living toward the north, certain stars are
always visible, namely, those near the North Pole, while
others which are near the South Pole are always concealed
from them. If, then, anyone should proceed from the north
southward, he might go so far that the stars which formerly
were always visible to him now would tend toward their
setting. And the farther south he went, the more they would
be moved toward their setting. Again, that same man now
could see stars which formerly had always been hidden
from him. And the reverse would happen to anyone going
from the south northward. The cause of this is simply the
bulge of the earth. Again, if the earth were flat from east to
west, the stars would rise as soon for westerners as for
Orientals. which is false. Also, if the earth were flat from
north to south and vice versa, the stars which were always
visible to anyone would continue to be so wherever he
went, which is false. But it seems flat to human sight
because it is so extensive.

SURFACE OF THE SEA SPHERICAL. -- That the

water has a bulge and is approximately round is shown
thus: Let a signal be set up on the seacoast and a ship leave
port and sail away so far that the eye of a person standing
at the foot of the mast can no longer discern the signal. Yet
if the ship is stopped, the eye of the same person, if he has
climbed to the top of the mast, will see the signal clearly.
Yet the eye of a person at the bottom of the mast ought to
see the signal better than he who is at the top, as is shown
by drawing straight lines from both to the signal. And there
is no other explanation of this thing than the bulge of the
water. For all other impediments are excluded, such as
clouds and rising vapors.

Also, since water is a homogeneous body, the whole

will act the same as its parts. But parts of water, as happens
in the case of little drops and dew on herbs, naturally seek
a round shape. Therefore, the whole, of which they are
parts, will do so.

THE EARTH CENTRAL. -- That the earth is in the

middle of the firmament is shown thus. To persons on the
earth's surface the stars appear of the same size whether
they are in mid-sky or just rising or about to set, and this is
because the earth is equally distant from them. For if the
earth were nearer to the firmament in one direction than in
another, a person at that point of the earth's surface which
was nearer to the firmament would not see half of the
heavens. But this is contrary to Ptolemy and all the
philosophers, who say that, wherever man lives, six signs
rise and six signs set, and half of the heavens is always
visible and half hid from him.

AND A MERE POINT IN THE UNIVERSE. -- That

same consideration is a sign that the earth is as a center and
point with respect to the firmament, since, if the earth were
of any size compared with the firmament, it would not be
possible to see half the heavens. Also, suppose a plane
passed through the center of the earth, dividing it and the
firmament into equal halves. An eye at the earth's center
would see half the sky, and one on the earth's surface
would see the same half. From which it is inferred that the
magnitude of the earth from surface to center is
inappreciable and, consequently, that the magnitude of the
entire earth is inappreciable compared to the firmament.
Also Alfraganus says that the least of the fixed stars which
we can see is larger than the whole earth. But that star,
compared with the firmament, is a mere point. Much more
so is the earth, which is smaller than it.

THE EARTH IMMOBILE. -- That the earth is held

immobile in the midst of all, although it is the heaviest,
seems explicable thus. Every heavy thing tends toward the
center. Now the center is a point in the middle of the
firmament. Therefore, the earth, since it is heaviest,
naturally tends toward that point. Also, whatever is moved
from the middle toward the circumference ascends.
Therefore, if the earth were moved from the middle toward
the circumference, it would be ascending, which is
impossible.

MEASURING THE EARTH'S CIRCUMFERENCE.

-- The total girth of the 700 stades for each of the 360 parts
of the zodiac (sic). For let one take earth by the authority
of the philosophers Ambrose, Theodosius, and
1. The mediclinium, or
Eratosthenes is defined as comprising 252,000 stades, "indicator," is described in the
which is allowing an astrolabe on a clear starry night and, first part, fourth chapter, of
sighting the pole through both apertures in the indicator,1 Messahala's treatise on the
astrolabe (English translation
note the number of degrees where it is. Then let our in R. G. Gunther, Early
measurer of the cosmos proceed directly north until on Science at Oxford, V [1929],
another clear night, observing the pole as before, the "Of Making an Allidada
Which Is Called a Rule or
indicator stands a degree higher. After this let the extent of Mediclinium").
his travel be measured, and it will be found to be 700
stades. Then, allowing this many stades for each of 360
degrees, the girth of the earth is found.

AND DIAMETER. -- From these data the diameter

of the earth can be found thus by the rule for the circle and
diameter. Subtract the twenty-second part from the circuit
of the whole earth, and a third of the remainder -- that is,
80, 181 stades and a half and third part of one stade -- will
be the diameter or thickness of the terrestrial ball.

CHAPTER TWO

OF THE CIRCLES AND THEIR NAMES

CELESTIAL CIRCLES. -- Of these circles some are

larger, some smaller, as sense shows. For a great circle in
the sphere is one which, described on the surface of the
sphere about its center, divides the sphere into two equal
parts, while a small circle is one which, described on the
surface of the sphere, divides it not into two equal but into
two unequal portions.

THE EQUINOCTIAL. -- Of the great circles we

must first mention the equinoctial. The equinoctial is a
circle dividing the sphere into two equal parts and
equidistant at its every point from either pole. And it is
called "equinoctial" because, when the sun crosses it,
which happens twice a year, namely, in the beginning of
Aries and in the beginning of Libra, there is equinox the
world over. Wherefore it is termed the "equator of day and
night," because it makes the artificial day equal to the
night. And 'tis called the "belt of the first movement."

THE TWO MOVEMENTS AGAIN. -- Be it

understood that the "first movement" means the movement
of the primum mobile, that is, of the ninth sphere or last
heaven, which movement is from east through west back to
east again, which also is called "rational motion" from
resemblance to the rational motion in the microcosm, that
is, in man, when thought goes from the Creator through
creatures to the Creator and there rests.

The second movement is of the firmament and

planets contrary to this, from west through east back to
west again, which movement is called "irrational" or
"sensual" from resemblance to the movement of the
microcosm from things corruptible to the Creator and back
again to things corruptible.

THE NORTH AND SOUTH POLES. -- 'Tis called

the "belt of the first movement" because it divides the
primum mobile or ninth sphere into two equal parts and is
itself equally distant from the poles of the world. It is to be
noted that the pole which always is visible to us is called
"septentrional," "arctic," or "boreal." "Septentrional" is
from septentrio, that is, from Ursa Minor, which is derived
from septem and trion, meaning "ox," because the seven
stars in Ursa move slowly, since they are near the pole. Or
those seven stars are called septentriones as if septem
teriones, because they tread the parts about the pole.
"Arctic" is derived from arthos, which is Ursa Major, for
'tis near Ursa Major. It is called "boreal" because it is
where the wind Boreas comes from. The opposite pole is
called "Antarctic" as opposed to "Arctic." It also is called
"meridional" because it is to the south, and it is called
"austral" because it is where the wind Auster comes from.
The two fixed points in the firmament are called the "poles
of the world" because they terminate the axis of the sphere
and the world revolves on them. One of these poles is
always visible to us, the other always hidden. Whence
Virgil:
This vertex is ever above us, but that
Dark Styx and deep Manes hold beneath our
2. Georgics i. 242-43.
feet.2

THE ZODIAC. -- There is another circle in the

sphere which intersects the equinoctial and is intersected
by it into two equal parts. One half of it tips toward the
north, the other toward the south. That circle is called
"zodiac" from zoe, meaning "life," because all life in
inferior things depends on the movement of the planets
beneath it. Or it is derived from zodias, which means
"animal," because, since it is divided into twelve equal
parts, each part is called a sign and has its particular name
from the name of some animal, because of some property
characteristic of it and of the animal, or because of the
arrangement of the fixed stars there in the outline of that
kind of animal. That circle in Latin is called signifer
because it bears the "signs" or because it is divided into
them. By Aristotle in On Generation and Corruption it is
called the "oblique circle," where he says that, according to
the access and recess of the sun in the oblique circle, are
produced generations and corruptions in things below.

THE TWELVE SIGNS. -- The names, order, and

number of the signs are set forth in these lines:

There are Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo,

Virgo,
Libra and Scorpio, Architenens, Caper,
Amphora, Pisces.

Moreover, each sign is divided into 30 degrees,

whence it is clear that in the entire zodiac there are 360
degrees. Also, according to astronomers, each degree is
divided into 60 minutes, each minute into 60 seconds. each
second into 60 thirds, and so on. And as the zodiac is
divided by astronomers, so each circle in the sphere,
whether great or small, is divided into similar parts.

While every circle in the sphere except the zodiac is

understood to be a line or circumference, the zodiac alone
is understood to be a surface, 12 degrees wide of degrees
such as we have just mentioned. Wherefore. it is clear that
certain persons in astrology lie who say that the signs are
squares, unless they misuse this term and consider square
and quadrangle the same. For each sign is 30 degrees in
longitude, 12 in latitude.
 THE ECLIPTIC. -- The line dividing the zodiac in its
circuit, so that on one side it leaves 6 degrees and on the
other side another 6, is called the "ecliptic," since when sun
and moon are on that line there occurs an eclipse of sun or
moon. The sun always moves beneath the ecliptic, but all
the other planets decline toward north or south; sometimes,
however, they are beneath the ecliptic. The part of the
zodiac which slants away from the equinoctial to the north
is called "northern" or "boreal" or "Arctic," and those six
signs which extend from the beginning of Aries to the end
of Virgo are called "northern." The other part of the zodiac
which tips from the equinoctial toward the south is called
"meridional" or "austral," and the six signs from the
beginning of Libra to the end of Pisces are called
"meridional" or "austral."

EXTENDED USES OF "SIGN." -- When it is said

that the sun is in Aries or in another sign, it should he
understood that in is taken for beneath according as we
now accept sign. In another meaning a sign is called a
"pyramid," whose quadrilateral base is that surface which
we call a "sign," while its apex is at the center of the earth.
And in this sense we may properly say that the planets are
in signs. "Sign" may be used in a third way as produced by
six circles passing through the poles of the zodiac and
through the beginnings of the twelve signs. Those six
circles divide the entire surface of the sphere into twelve
parts, wide in the middle but narrower toward the poles,
and each such part is called a "sign" and has a particular
name from the name of that sign which is intercepted
between its two lines. And according to this usage stars
which are near the poles are said to be "in signs." Also
think of a body whose base is a sign in this last sense
which we have accepted but whose edge is on the axis of
the zodiac. Such a body is called a "sign" in a fourth sense,
according to which usage the whole world is divided into
twelve equal parts, which are called "signs," and so
whatever is in the world is in some sign.

COLURES. -- There are two other great circles in the

sphere which are called "colures," whose function is to
distinguish solstices and equinoxes. "Colure" is derived
from colon, which is a member, and uros, which is a wild
ox, because, just as the lifted tail of the wild ox, which is
its member, describes a semicircle and not a complete
circle, so a colure always appears to us imperfect because
only one half of it is seen.

The colure distinguishing the solstices passes

through the poles of the universe and through the poles of
the zodiac and through the greatest declinations of the sun,
that is, through the first degrees of Cancer and Capricorn.
Wherefore, the first point of Cancer, where that colure
intersects the zodiac, is called the "point of the summer
solstice," because, when the sun is in it, the summer
solstice occurs and the sun cannot approach further toward
our zenith. The zenith is a point in the firmament directly
above our heads. The arc of the colure which is intercepted
between the point of the summer solstice and the
equinoctial point is called the "sun's greatest declination"
and is, according to Ptolemy, 23 degrees and 51 minutes,
according to Almeon, 23 degrees and 33 minutes.
Similarly, the first point of Capricorn is called the "point of
the winter solstice," and the arc of the colure intercepted
between that point and the equinoctial is called the "sun's
greatest declination" and is equal to the former.

The other colure passes through the poles of the

universe and through the points of Aries and Libra where
are the two equinoxes, whence it is called the "colure
distinguishing the equinoxes." Those two colures intersect
at the poles of the world at spherical right angles. The signs
of the solstices and equinoxes are stated in these verses:

These two solstices make, Cancer and

Capricorn,
But Aries and Libra equal the nights to days.

THE MERIDIAN. -- There are yet two other great

circles in the sphere, namely, the meridian and the horizon.
The meridian is a circle passing through the poles of the
world and through our zenith, and it is called "meridian"
because, wherever a man may be and at whatever time of
year, when the sun with the movement of the firmament
reaches his meridian, it is noon for him. For like reason it
is called the "circle of midday." And it is to be noted that
cities of which one is farther east than the other have
different meridians. The arc of the equinoctial intercepted
between two meridians is called the "longitude" of the city.
If two cities have the same meridian, then they are equally
distant from east and from west.

THE HORIZON. -- The horizon is a circle dividing

the lower hemisphere from the upper, whence it is called
"horizon," that is, "limiter of vision."

It is also called the "circle of the hemisphere."

Moreover, the horizon is twofold -- that is, right, and
oblique or slanting. Those have a right horizon and right
sphere whose zenith is on the equinoctial, since their
horizon is a circle passing through the poles of the world
cutting the equinoctial at right angles, wherefore it is called
"right horizon" and "right sphere." But those to whom the
pole of the world is raised above the horizon have an
oblique or slanting horizon, since their horizon intersects
the equinoctial at unequal and oblique angles and is called
"oblique horizon" and the sphere "oblique" or "slanting."
Moreover, the zenith over our heads is always the pole of
the horizon.

ELEVATION OF THE POLE. -- From these things it

is evident that the elevation of the pole of the world above
the horizon is as great as the distance of the zenith from the
equator, which is shown in this way. Since in every natural
day either colure twice joins or becomes identical with the
meridian, whatever is true of one holds for the other. Take,
then, a fourth part of the colure distinguishing the solstices,
which is from the equinoctial to the pole. Take another
fourth part of the same colure, which is from zenith to
horizon. Since the zenith is the pole of the horizon, those
two quarters, since they are quarters of one and the same
circle, are equal. But if equals are subtracted from equals,
or the same thing common to both is subtracted, the
remainders will be equal. Therefore, if we subtract the
common arc, namely, that between the zenith and the pole,
the remainders will be equal, namely, the elevation of the
pole above the horizon and the distance of the zenith from
the equinoctial.

TROPICS OF CANCER AND CAPRICORN. --

Having told of the six great circles, we must speak of the
four smaller circles. Be it noted, then, that the sun, when in
the first point of Cancer or the summer solstice, as it is
carried by the firmament describes a circle, which is the
one last described by the sun in the direction of the Arctic
pole. Wherefore it is called the "circle of the summer
solstice" for the reason aforesaid, or the "summer tropic"
from tropos, which is "turning," because then the sun
begins to turn toward the lower hemisphere and to recede
from us. The sun again, when in the first point of Capricorn
or winter solstice, as it is carried by the firmament
describes another circle which is the one last described by
the sun in the direction of the Antarctic pole, whence 'tis
called the "circle of the winter solstice" or the "winter
tropic," because then the sun turns toward us.

ARCTIC AND ANTARCTIC CIRCLES. -- Since the

zodiac slants from the equinoctial, the pole of the zodiac
will decline from the pole of the world. Therefore, since
the eighth sphere and the zodiac, which is a part of it, are
moved about the axis of the world, the pole of the zodiac,
too, will move about the pole of the world. And that circle
which the pole of the zodiac describes about the Arctic
pole of the world is called the "Arctic circle." And that
circle which the other pole of the zodiac describes about
the Antarctic pole is called the "Antarctic circle."

As great as is the maximum declination of the sun, so

great is the distance of the pole of the world from the pole
of the zodiac, which is shown in this way. Take the colure
distinguishing the solstices which passes through the poles
of the world and the poles of the zodiac. Since all quarters
of one and the same circle are equal, the quarter of this
colure between equator and pole is equal to the quarter of
the same colure from the first point of Cancer to the pole of
the zodiac. Then, if we subtract from those equals the
common arc from the first point of Cancer to the pole of
the world, the remainders will be equal, namely, the
maximum declination of the sun and the distance from the
pole of the world to the pole of the zodiac. Moreover, since
the Arctic circle at every point is equidistant from the pole
of the world, it is evident that that part of the colure which
lies between the first point of Cancer and the Arctic circle
is almost double the maximum declination of the sun or the
arc of the same colure intercepted between the Arctic circle
and the Arctic pole, which is equal to the maximum
declination of the sun. Since that colure, like other circles
in the sphere, has 360 degrees, a quarter of it will be 90
degrees. Then, since the maximum declination of the sun
according to Ptolemy is 23 degrees and 51 minutes and of
as many degrees is the arc which is between the Arctic
circle and the Arctic pole, if those two combined, which
make about 48 degrees, are subtracted from 90, the
remainder will be 42 degrees, as is the arc of the colure
which lies between the first point of Cancer and the Arctic
circle. So it is clear that that arc is almost double the
maximum declination of the sun.

It is also to be noted that the equinoctial with the four

small circles are called "parallels," as it were equidistant,
not that the first is as far from the second as the second is
from the third, because this is false, as has already been
shown, but because any two taken together are equidistant
at every point. They are called the "equinoctial parallel,"
the "parallel of the summer solstice," the "parallel of the
winter solstice," the "Arctic parallel", and the "Antarctic
parallel." It is further to be noted that the four minor
parallels, namely, the two tropics and the Arctic parallel
and Antarctic parallel, distinguish five zones or five
regions in the heaven. Therefore, Virgil:
 Five zones possess the sky, of which one is ever
Red from blazing sun and ever burnt by fire.3

Also a like number of zones is distinguished on earth 3. Georgics i. 233-34.

directly beneath the said zones. Wherefore, Ovid: 4. Metamorphoses i. 48.

... and just as many zones are marked on earth.4

THE FIVE ZONES. -- That zone which lies between

the tropics is said to be uninhabitable because of the heat
of the sun, which ever courses between the tropics.
Similarly, the zone of earth directly beneath it is said to be
uninhabitable because of the fervor of the sun, which ever
courses above it. But those two zones which are described
by the Arctic circle and the Antarctic circle about the poles
of the world are uninhabitable because of too great cold,
since the sun is far removed from them. The same is to be
understood of the zones of earth directly beneath them. But
those two zones of which one is between the summer
tropic and the Arctic circle and the other between the
winter tropic and the Antarctic circle are habitable and
tempered from the heat of the torrid zone between the
tropics and from the cold of the extreme zones which lie
about the poles. The same is to be understood of the
stretches of earth directly beneath them.

CHAPTER THREE

RISINGS AND SETTINGS OF THE SIGNS. -- The

risings and settings of the signs are taken in two ways,
according to the poets and according to the astronomers.
The rising and setting of the signs according to the poets is
threefold, namely, cosmic, chronic, and heliacal.

COSMIC RISING. -- Cosmic or mundane rising

takes place when sign or star ascends above the horizon
from the east by day. And albeit in each artificial day six
signs rise, yet antonomastically that sign is said to rise
cosmically with which and in which the sun rises in the
morning. And this is rising in the strict and chief and daily
sense. Of this rising we have an instance in the Georgics,
where the planting of beans and millet in springtime, when
the sun is in Taurus, is taught thus:
The white bull with gilded horns opens the year,
And the dog, yielding to adverse star, sets.5 5. Georgics i. 217-18.

COSMIC SETTING. -- Cosmic setting is a matter of

opposition. When the sun rises with a sign, the opposite
sign sets cosmically. This setting is spoken of in the
Georgics, where is taught the sowing of wheat in late fall
when the sun is in Scorpio. For when Scorpio rises with the
sun, Taurus, where the Pleiades are, sets.
Ere Eoe Atlantides are hidden from you,
Consign the seed as you should to the furrow.6 6. Georgics i. 221, 223.

CHRONIC RISING AND SETTING. -- Chronic or

temporal rising takes place when sign or star, after sunset,
emerges above the horizon from the east at night. It is
called "temporal rising" because astronomical time begins
with sunset. Of this rising we have an example in Ovid's
From Pontus, where he complains of his prolonged exile,
saying,
Pleias having risen makes four autumns,7 7. Ex Ponto viii, 28.

signifying by four autumns that four years had

passed since he was sent into exile. But Virgil made the
Pleiades set in the autumn, so they seem contradictory. But
the explanation of this is that according to Virgil they set
cosmically and according to Ovid they rise chronically,
which may well happen on the same day but differently,
since cosmic setting is with respect to daytime, but chronic
rising is in the evening.

Chronic setting is a matter of opposition. Hence

Lucan:
Then the short night shot Thessalian arrows.8 8. Pharsalia iv. 528.

HELIACAL RISING AND SETTING. -- Heliacal or

solar rising occurs when sign or star can be seen by
departure of the sun from it, which previously could not be
seen because of the nearness of the sun. Ovid gives an
example of this in the Fasli, saying:
Now aged Aquarius sits below with urn
inclined.9 9. Fasli ii. 457.

And Virgil in the Georgics:

And the Gnosian Star of the burning crown
descends,10 10. Georgics i. 222.

which star, being next to Scorpio, was not visible

while the sun was in Scorpio.

Heliacal setting takes place when the sun approaches

a sign and by its presence prevents it from being seen. An
example of this is the following verse:
And the dog, yielding to adverse star, sets.11 11. Georgics i. 218.
 RIGHT ASCENSIONS. -- We next consider the
rising and setting of the signs according to the astronomers
and first in the right sphere. It should be remarked that the
rising or setting of a sign is nothing else than the rising of
that part of the equinoctial circle which rises with that sign,
when it comes above the horizon, or the setting of that part
of the equinoctial which sets with that sign when it sets,
that is, moves westward below the horizon. A sign is said
to rise "vertically" when a larger part of the equator rises
with it, "obliquely" where a smaller part rises with it. The
same is to be understood of setting.

It should be known that in the right sphere the four

quarters of the zodiac beginning from four points, namely,
from the two solstices and two equinoxes, are equal in their
ascensions, that is, as much time as a quarter of the zodiac
consumes in rising, so much time the quarter of the
equinoctial corresponding to it takes to rise; but the parts of
those quarters vary and do not have equal ascensions, as
will now appear.

There is the rule that every two arcs of the zodiac

opposite and equal, equally distant from one of the four
points already mentioned, have equal ascensions. Whence
it follows that opposite signs have equal ascensions. And
this is what Lucan says in speaking of the march of Cato
into Libya toward the equator:
They do not move obliquely, nor is Scorpio
straighter
Than Taurus, or Aries give its time to Libra,
Or Astrea bid Pisces to descend slowly.
12. Lucan Pharsalia ix.
Chiron is par with Gemini, the same as burning 533-37.
Carcinos
Is humid Aegoceros, nor is Leo moved more
than the Urn.12

Here Lucan says that to dwellers beneath the

equinoctial opposite signs have equal ascensions and
settings. Moreover, the opposing signs are indicated by this
verse:

Sunt li. an. scor. tau. sa. gemi. cap. can. a. le.
pis. vir.

Note that this argument does not hold: these two arcs
are equal and begin to rise together and always a greater
part of one rises than of the other; therefore, that arc rises 13. That is, has risen;
otherwise Sacrobosco is in
more rapidly of which a larger part always rises. An error.
example of this argument is shown in the case of parts of
the aforesaid quarters. For if the fourth part of the zodiac is
taken, which extends from the beginning of Aries to the
end of Gemini, a larger part of the quarter of the zodiac
always rises13 than of the quarter of the equinoctial
corresponding to it. Yet those quarters complete their rising
simultaneously. The same is the case with the quarter of
the zodiac from the beginning of Libra to the end of
Sagittarius. Also if the quarter of the zodiac is taken which
extends from the beginning of Cancer to the end of Virgo,
a larger part will always rise of the quarter of the
equinoctial than of the quarter of the zodiac corresponding
to it. Yet those two quarters complete their rising
simultaneously. The same is true of the quarter of the
zodiac from the first point of Capricorn to the end of
Pisces.

OBLIQUE ASCENSIONS. -- In the oblique or

slanting sphere, halves of the zodiac equal their ascensions.
I mean the halves which are taken from the two equinoctial
points, because the half of the zodiac which extends from
the beginning of Aries to the end of Virgo rises with the
half of the equinoctial corresponding to it. Similarly, the
other half of the zodiac rises with the other half of the
equinoctial. But the parts of those halves vary in their
risings, since in the half of the zodiac from the beginning
of Aries to the end of Virgo a larger part of the zodiac
always rises than of the equinoctial. Yet those halves
complete their rising simultaneously. The opposite happens
in the other half of the zodiac, which extends from the
beginning of Libra to the end of Pisces, for always a larger
part of the equinoctial rises than of the zodiac. Yet those
halves complete their rising simultaneously. So this case is
clearly against the argument aforesaid.

Moreover, the arcs which succeed Aries to the end of

Virgo in the oblique sphere lessen their ascensions
compared to the ascensions in the right sphere; and the arcs
which succeed Libra to the end of Pisces in the oblique
sphere increase their ascensions over the ascensions of the
same arcs in the right sphere. That is, they increase by the
same quantity as the arcs succeeding Aries lessen.

From this it is evident that two equal and opposite

arcs in the slanting sphere have their combined ascensions
equal to the ascensions of the same arcs taken together in
the right sphere, because as much as is the diminution on
the one hand, so much is the addition on the other.

The rule, indeed, is that any two arcs which are equal
and equally distant from either of the equinoctial points
have unequal (?) ascensions.
 INEQUALITIES OF DAYS. -- From the aforesaid it
is also clear that natural days are unequal; for a natural day
is the revolution of the equinoctial with as much as the sun
covers meanwhile by its own movement against the
firmament. But, since the ascensions of those arcs are
unequal, as is evident from the foregoing, alike in right
sphere as in oblique, and natural days are reckoned
according to the increase of those ascensions, they will of
necessity be unequal, in the right sphere for a single reason
-- the obliquity of the zodiac -- in the oblique sphere for
two reasons -- the obliquity of the zodiac and the obliquity
of the oblique horizon. Moreover, a third cause is wont to
be assigned -- the eccentricity of the sun's orbit.

MOVEMENT OF THE SUN. -- It also should be

noted that the sun, moving from the first point of Capricorn
through Aries to the first point of Cancer with the sweep of
the firmament, describes 182 parallels, to which parallels,
although they are not really circles but spirals, since there
is no sensible error in this, no violence is done if they are
called "circles," of which number of circles are the two
tropics and the equinoctial. Also the sun describes these
circles with the sweep of the firmament as it descends from
the first point of Cancer through Libra to the first point of
Capricorn; and those circles are called the "circles of
natural days." But the arcs above the horizon are the arcs
of artificial days, and the arcs below the horizon are the
arcs of the nights.

In the right sphere the horizon, since it passes

through the poles of the world, divides all those circles into
equal parts, whence the arcs of days are the same as those
of nights for persons living at the equator. Hence it is
evident that for persons living at the equator it is always
equinox, wherever the sun may be in the firmament.

But in the slanting sphere the oblique horizon divides

the equinoctial alone into two equal parts. Hence, when the
sun is at either equinoctial point, the arc of day equals the
arc of night, and there is equinox the world over. But the
oblique horizon divides all the other circles into unequal
parts, so that in all the circles from the equinoctial to the
Tropic of Cancer and at the Tropic of Cancer itself the arc
of day is greater than that of night, that is, the arc above the
horizon than that below the horizon. Hence all the time that
the sun is moved from the beginning of Aries through
Cancer to the end of Virgo, the days are longer than the
nights and so much the more as the sun comes closer to
Cancer. In all the other circles which are between the
equinoctial and the Tropic of Capricorn the arc is greater
below the horizon than above. Hence the arc of day is less
than the arc of night; and, according to the proportion
between the arcs, the days grow less than the nights, and
the closer the circles get to the winter tropic, the more the
days shorten.

DAY AND NIGHT. -- Wherefore it appears that, if

two circles are taken equidistant in their various parts from
the equinoctial, as great as is the arc of day in the one, so
great is the arc of night in the other. From this it seems to
follow that if two natural days in the year are taken equally
remote from either equinoctial point in opposite directions,
as long as is the artificial day in one case, so long is the
night in the other, and conversely. But this is with
reference to ordinary observation in fixing the horizon. For
reason determines more exactly by discounting the
movement of the sun contrary to the firmament in the
obliquity of the zodiac.

The more the pole is elevated above the horizon, so

much more are the days of summer lengthened when the
sun is in the northern signs. Conversely, when the sun is in
the southern signs the days are so much shorter than the
nights.

RIGHT AND OBLIQUE ASCENSIONS. -- It is to

be noted that the six signs from the beginning of Cancer
through Libra to the end of Sagittarius have their combined
ascensions greater than the ascensions of the other six
signs from the beginning of Capricorn through Aries to the
end of Gemini. Hence those six signs first mentioned are
said to rise erect, but the others obliquely. Wherefore the
verses:

They rise aright, oblique descend from Cancer's

star
Till Chiron ends, but the other signs
Are prone at birth, descend by a straight path.

And when we have the longest day of summer, when

the sun is in the beginning of Cancer, then six signs rise
vertically by day but six obliquely at night. Conversely,
when we have the shortest day of the year, when the sun is
in the beginning of Capricorn, then those six signs which
rise by day do so obliquely, but by night the other six rise
vertically. When, moreover, the sun is at either equinoctial
point, then by day three signs rise vertically and three
obliquely, and at night the same.

For the rule is: However short or long the day or

night may be, six signs rise by day and six by night, nor
because of the length or brevity of day or night do more or
fewer signs rise.

From these facts it is gathered that, since a natural

hour is the space of time in which half a sign rises, there
are twelve natural hours in each artificial day, and so also
in the night. Moreover, in all the circles which parallel the
equator to north or south, days or nights are lengthened or
shortened according as more or fewer signs rise vertically
or obliquely by day or night.

DWELLERS AT THE EQUATOR. -- Moreover, it is

to be noted that in the case of those whose zenith is in the
equinoctial the sun twice a year passes directly overhead,
namely, when in the beginning of Aries and in the
beginning of Libra; and then there are two high solstices
for them when the sun passes directly overhead. Again
there are two low solstices for them when the sun is in the
first points of Cancer and Capricorn, and they are called
"low" because then the sun is farthest removed from their
zenith. From what has been said it is clear that, while they
always have equinox, they will have in the course of a year
four solstices, two high and two low. It also is evident that
they have two summers when the sun is in either of the
equinoctial points or nearly so, and likewise two winters
when the sun is in the first points of Cancer and Capricorn
or thereabouts. And this is why Alfraganus says that for
them summer and winter are of one and the same
complexion, since those two seasons which are winter and
summer for us are for them two winters, and the difference
is made clear by these lines of Lucan:
'Tis understood this is the place where the circle
Of the high solstice hits that of the signs
14. Pharsalia ix. 531-32.
midway.14

Here Lucan calls the equinoctial "the circle of the

high solstice," on which two high solstices happen to those
living at the equator. He calls the zodiac "circle of the
signs," which the equinoctial "hits," that is, divides
"midway," that is, halved or divided in two.

These also during the year have four shadows; for,

when the sun is in either equinoctial point, their shadow in
the morning falls toward the west, in the evening in the
opposite direction. At noon their shadow is perpendicular,
when the sun is overhead. When the sun is in the northern
signs, their shadow lies toward the south; but when the sun
is in the southern signs, then their shadow falls toward the
north.
 For them, too, the stars which are near the poles rise
and set, and for others living near the equator. Hence
Lucan:
Then Roman fury moves the remote Orestae
And Carmanian leaders whose ether, now
turned
Southward, yet does not see Arcton quite
submerged,
And there swift Boötes shines in scant night.15

Therefore it is setting and shines little. Ovid, too,

says of the same star:
15. Pharsalia iii. 249-52.
The guardian of the Erimanthean bear is dipped
16. Tristia i. 4. 1-2, or in some
in ocean editions, i. 3. 103-4.
And with his star disturbs the waters of the
sea.16 17. Georgics i. 242-43.

18. Pharsalia viii. 175. By

That is to say, it sets vertically. But in our locality "twin Arcton" is meant Ursa
those stars never set. Wherefore Virgil: Major and Ursa Minor.

19. Georgics i. 246.

This vertex is ever above us.17

And Lucan:

Axis never-setting, bright with both Bears.18

Also Virgil:

Arctos dreading to touch the ocean wave.19

BETWEEN THE EQUATOR AND TROPIC OF

CANCER. -- To those whose zenith is between the
equinoctial and the Tropic of Cancer it happens twice a
year that the sun passes directly overhead, which is shown
thus. Suppose a circle parallel to the equinoctial passes
through their zenith. That circle will intersect the zodiac at
two points equidistant from the beginning of Cancer.
Therefore, when the sun is at those two points it passes
through their zenith; wherefore they have two summers
and two winters, four solstices and four shadows, like
those living at the equator. And some say Arabia is so
situated. Hence Lucan, speaking of the Arabs coming to
Rome to aid Pompey, says:
You Arabs have come to a world unknown to
you
And marvel that the shade of trees is never 20. Pharsalia iii. 247-48.
leftward, 20
 since in their country shadows were sometimes to
their right, sometimes to their left, sometimes
perpendicular, sometimes to the east, sometimes to the
west. But when they came to Rome beyond the Tropic of
Cancer, then the shadows were always northward.

AT THE TROPIC OF CANCER. -- To those whose

zenith is at the Tropic of Cancer it happens that the sun
once a year passes through their zenith, namely, when it is
in the first point of Cancer, and then for one hour of one
day of the whole year their shadow is perpendicular. The
city of Syene Is said to be so situated. Hence Lucan:
Syene's never varying shadow.21 21. Pharsalia ii. 587.

Understand this as applying to noon of a single day;

for all the rest of the year their shadow is northward.

BETWEEN THE TROPIC AND THE ARCTIC

CIRCLE. -- But to those whose zenith is between the
Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic circle it happens that the
sun is never directly overhead and their shadow always lies
toward the north. Such is our situation. Also it is to be
noted that, according to some persons, Ethiopia or a part of
it is this side of the Tropic of Cancer. Hence Lucan:
And Ethiopia which alone is untouched
By any region of the sign-bearing pole,
22. Pharsalia iii. 253-55.
Except the hoof tip of curvetting Taurus.22

For they say that sign is here taken equivocally, both

for a twelfth part of the zodiac and for the outline of the
animal which, for the most part, is within the sign to which
it gives its name. Wherefore Taurus, although it is, for the
most part, within the zodiac, extends its foot beyond the
Tropic of Cancer and so touches Ethiopia, although no part
of the zodiac touches it. For if the foot of Taurus were
extended toward the equinoctial so that it was in the
direction of Aries or another sign, then it would be touched
by Aries and Virgo or other signs, which is evident by
drawing a circle parallel to the equinoctial through the
zenith of the Ethiopians and Aries and Virgo or other signs.
But, since philosophical reason is opposed to this, for they
would not be so black if they were born in the temperate
habitable zone, it must be said that that part of Ethiopia of
which Lucan is speaking is beneath the equinoctial circle
and that the foot of Taurus, of which he speaks, extends
toward the equinoctial. But there is a distinction between
cardinal signs and regions; for "cardinal signs" are the
name for the two signs in which the solstices occur and the
two in which the equinoxes occur, while the intermediate
signs are called "regions." And in this way it becomes clear
that, although Ethiopia is at the equator, it is not touched
by any region but merely by two cardinal signs, namely,
Aries and Libra.

AT THE ARCTIC CIRCLE. -- To those whose zenith

is at the Arctic circle it happens on every day of the year
that their zenith is identical with the pole of the zodiac, and
then they have the zodiac or ecliptic as their horizon. And
this is what Alfraganus says, that there the circle of the
zodiac is bent over the circle of the hemisphere. But, since
the firmament is in continual motion, the circle of the
horizon will intersect the zodiac instantaneously, and, since
they are great circles in the sphere, they will intersect in
equal parts. Hence one half of the zodiac rises immediately
above the horizon, and the other sinks below the horizon.
And this is what Alfraganus says, that six signs set
suddenly there, and the other six rise with the whole
equinoctial. And, since the ecliptic is their horizon, when
the sun is in the first point of Cancer they will have a day
of 24 hours and a quasi-instant for night, since the sun
touches the horizon for an instant and straightway rises,
and that amount of contact is their night. The opposite
happens when the sun is in the first point of Capricorn, for
then they have a night of 24 hours and a quasi-instant for a
day.

BETWEEN THE ARCTIC CIRCLE AND THE

NORTH POLE. -- To those whose zenith is between the
Arctic circle and the North Pole, it happens that their
horizon will intersect the zodiac in two points equidistant
from the beginning of Cancer. And, as the firmament
revolves, this intercepted portion of the zodiac always
remains above the horizon. Hence it is clear that, so long as
the sun is in that portion, there will be continuous day
without night. Therefore, if it is as much as one sign, there
will be continuous day there for one month without night.
If the sun remains for the extent of two signs, there will be
continuous day without night for two months, and so on. It
likewise happens that the portion intercepted between two
points equidistant from the beginning of Capricorn is
always left below the horizon. Hence, when the sun is in
that intercepted portion, there will be one continuous night
without day, short or long according to the extent of the
portion intercepted. Moreover, the remaining signs which
rise and set for them, rise and set preposterously. They rise
preposterously, as Taurus before Aries, Aries before Pisces,
Pisces before Aquarius. Yet the signs opposite these rise in
right order. They set preposterously, as Scorpio before
Libra, Libra before Virgo, <Virgo before Leo>. Yet the
signs opposite these set vertically.

AT THE NORTH POLE. -- To those whose zenith is

at the Arctic pole it happens that the horizon is identical
with the equinoctial. Hence, since the equinoctial intersects
the zodiac in equal parts, their horizon leaves half of the
zodiac above and half below it. Wherefore, while the sun is
moving through that half which extends from the
beginning of Aries to the end of Virgo, there will be one
continuous day without night; and when the sun is moving
in the other half, which extends from the beginning of
Libra to the end of Pisces, there will be one continuous
night without day. Wherefore, one half of the whole year
will be one artificial day, and the other half one night.
Hence there the whole year is one natural day. But since
there the sun is never more than 23 degrees below the
horizon, it seems that they have continuous day without
night; for we speak of its being day before the rise of the
sun above the horizon. But this is according to popular
usage; for in a scientific sense it is not artificial day except
from the rising of the sun above the horizon to its setting
beneath the horizon. As for that argument again, that there
ought to be perpetual light there, it should be said that the
air there is misty and dense, for the rays of the sun there
are feeble and raise more vapors than they can consume, so
that the air is not clear.

THE SEVEN CLIMES. -- Let a circle be imagined

on the earth's surface directly under the equinoctial. And
suppose another circle on the earth's surface passing from
east to west through the poles. These two circles will
intersect in two places at right spherical angles and divide
the whole earth into four parts, one of which is our
habitable region, namely, that which is intercepted between
the semicircle drawn from east to west along the equator
and the semicircle carried from east to west through the
Arctic pole. Nor is that quarter entirely habitable, since
parts of it near the equator are uninhabitable because of too
great heat, and parts near the pole because of too great
cold. Suppose, then, a line parallel to the equator dividing
the parts uninhabitable on account of heat from those
habitable parts toward the north. And suppose another line
equidistant at all points from the Arctic pole dividing the
parts which are uninhabitable for cold from the habitable
parts toward the equator. Between these two extreme lines
suppose six lines parallel to the equator, which, with the
two former, divide the whole habitable quarter into seven
parts which are called the "seven climes."

FIRST CLIME. -- The middle of the first clime is

where the length of the longest day is 13 hours and the pole
is elevated above the horizon 16 degrees, and it is called
the "clime of Meroe." It begins where the length of the
longest day is 12 3/4 hours and the pole is elevated above
the horizon 12 3/4 degrees. And its breadth extends to the
place where the length of the longest day is 13 1/4 hours
and the pole is elevated above the horizon 20 1/2 degrees,
which distance is 440 miles.

SECOND CLIME. -- The middle of the second clime

is where the longest day is 13 1/2 hours and the elevation
of the pole above the horizon is 24 1/4 degrees, and it is
called the "clime of Syene." Its breadth from the end of the
first clime to a place where the longest day is 13 3/4 hours
and the pole is elevated 27 1/2 degrees, is a distance of 400
miles.

THIRD CLIME. -- The middle of the third clime is

where the length of the longest day is 14 hours, and the
elevation of the pole above the horizon is 3O 3/4 degrees,
and it is called the "clime of Alexandria." Its breadth is
from the end of the second clime to where the longest day
is 14 1/4 hours, and the altitude of the pole 33 2/3 degrees,
which is a distance of 350 miles.

FOURTH CLIME. -- The middle of the fourth clime

is where the longest day is 14 1/2 hours and the altitude of
the axis is 36 2/5 degrees, and it is called the "clime of
Rhodes." Its breadth is from the end of the third clime to
where the longest day is 14 3/4 hours and the elevation of
the pole is 39 degrees, which distance is 300 miles.

FIFTH CLIME. -- The middle of the fifth clime is

where the major day is 15 hours and the elevation of the
pole is 41 1/3 degrees, and it is called the "clime of Rome."
Its breadth is from the end of the fourth clime to where the
longest day is 15 1/4 hours and the elevation of the axis is
43 1/2 degrees, which distance is 255 miles.

SIXTH CLIME. -- The middle of the sixth clime is

where the longest day is 15 1/2 hours and the pole is
elevated above the horizon 45 2/5 degrees, and it is called
the "clime of Boristhenes." Its breadth is from the end of
the fifth clime to where the length of the longest day is 15
3/4 hours and the elevation of the axis is 47 1/4 degrees,
which distance is 212 miles.

SEVENTH CLIME. -- The middle of the seventh

clime is where the longest day is 16 hours and the
elevation of the pole above the horizon is 48 2/3 degrees,
and it is called the "clime of Ripheon." Its breadth is from
the end of the sixth clime to where the maximum day is 16
1/4 hours and the pole is elevated above the horizon 50 1/2
degrees, which space of earth is 185 miles.

BEYOND IT. -- Beyond the end of this seventh

clime there may be a number of islands and human
habitations, yet whatever there is, since living conditions
are bad, is not reckoned as a clime. Therefore, the whole
difference between the initial limit of the climes and their
end is 3 1/2 hours, and of elevation of the pole above the
horizon 38 degrees. So then we have made clear the
breadth of each clime from its beginning toward the
equator to its end toward the Arctic pole, and that the
breadth of the first clime is greater than the latitude of the
second, and so on. The length of a clime may be said to be
the line drawn from east to west parallel to the equator;
wherefore the length of the first clime is greater than the
length of the second and so on, which happens because the
sphere narrows down.

CHAPTER FOUR

MOVEMENT OF THE SUN. -- It should be noted

that the sun has a single circle in which it is moved in the
plane of the ecliptic, and it is eccentric. Any circle is called
"eccentric" which, like that of the sun, dividing the earth
into equal parts, does not have the same center as the earth
but one outside it. Moreover, the point in the eccentric
which approaches closest to the firmament is called aux or
augis, meaning "elevation." The opposite point, which is
farthest removed from the firmament, is called the
"opposition" of the aux.

Moreover, there are two movements of the sun from

west to east, one of which is its own in its eccentric, by
which it is moved every day and night about 60 minutes.
The other is the slower movement of the sphere itself on
the poles of the axis of the circle of the signs, and it is
equal to the movement of the sphere of the fixed stars,
namely, 1 degree in a hundred years. From these two
movements, then, is reckoned the sun's course in the circle
of the signs from west to east, by which it cleaves the
circle of the signs in 365 days and a fourth of one day,
except for a small fraction which is imperceptible.

OF THE OTHER PLANETS: EQUANT,

DEFERENT, AND EPICYCLE. -- Every planet except the
sun has three circles, namely, equant, deferent, and
epicycle. The equant of the moon is a circle concentric
with the earth and in the plane of the ecliptic. Its deferent is
an eccentric circle not in the plane of the ecliptic -- nay,
one half of it slants toward the north and the other toward
the south -- and the deferent intersects the equant in two
places, and the figure of that intersection is called the
"dragon" because it is wide in the middle and narrow
toward the ends. That intersection, then, through which the
moon is moved from south to north is called the "head of
the dragon," while the other intersection through which it
is moved from north to south is called the "tail of the
dragon." Deferent and equant of each planet are equal, and
know that both deferent and equant of Saturn, Jupiter,
Mars, Venus, and Mercury arc eccentric and outside the
plane of the ecliptic, and yet those two are in the same
plane. Also every planet except the sun has an epicycle. An
epicycle is a small circle on whose circumference is carried
the body of the planet, and the center of the epicycle is
always carried along the circumference of the deferent.

STATIONARY, DIRECT, AND RETROGRADE. --

If, then, two lines are drawn from the center of the earth to
include an epicycle, one on the east and the other on the
west, the point of contact on the east is called the "first
station," while the point of contact to the west is called the
"second station." And when a planet is in either of those
stations it is called "stationary." The upper arc of the
epicycle intercepted between those two stations is called
"direction," and when the planet is there it is called
"direct." But the lower arc of the epicycle between the two
stations is called "retrogradation," and a planet existing
there is called "retrograde." But the moon is not stationary,
direct, or retrograde because of the swiftness of its motion
in its epicycle.

CAUSE OF LUNAR ECLIPSE. -- Since the sun is

larger than the earth, it is necessary that half the sphere of
earth be always illuminated by the sun and that the shadow
of the earth, extended into the air like a cone, diminish in
circumference until it ends in the plane of the circle of the
signs inseparable from the nadir of the sun. The nadir is a
point in the firmament directly opposite to the sun. Hence,
when the moon, at full is in the head or tail of the dragon
beneath the nadir of the sun, then the earth is interposed
between sun and moon, and the cone of the earth's shadow
falls on the body of the moon. Wherefore, since the moon
has no light except from the sun, it actually is deprived of
light and there is a general eclipse, if it is in the head or tail
of the dragon directly but partial if it is almost within the
bounds determined for eclipse. And it always happens at
full moon or thereabouts. But, since in every opposition --
 that is, at full moon -- the moon is not in the head or tail of
the dragon or beneath the nadir of the sun, it is not
necessary that the moon suffer eclipse at every full moon.

CAUSE OF SOLAR ECLIPSE. -- When the moon is

in the head or tail of the dragon or nearly within the limits
and in conjunction with the sun, then the body of the moon
is interposed between our sight and the body of the sun.
Hence it will obscure the brightness of the sun for us, and
so the sun will suffer eclipse -- not that it ceases to shine
but that it fails us because of the interposition of the moon
between our sight and the sun. From these it is clear that a
solar eclipse should always occur at the time of
conjunction or new moon. And it is to be noted that when
there is an eclipse of the moon, it is visible everywhere on
earth. But when there is an eclipse of the sun, that is by no
means so. Nay, it may be visible in one clime and not in
another, which happens because of the different point of
view in different climes. Whence Virgil most aptly and
concisely expresses the nature of either eclipse:
Varied defects of the moon, and of the sun
travails.23 23. Georgics ii. 478.

ECLIPSE DURING THE PASSION

MIRACULOUS. -- From the aforesaid it is also evident
that, when the sun was eclipsed during the Passion and the
same Passion occurred at full moon, that eclipse was not
natural -- nay, it was miraculous and contrary to nature,
since a solar eclipse ought to occur at new moon or
thereabouts. On which account Dionysius the Areopagite is
reported to have said during the same Passion, "Either the
God of nature suffers, or the mechanism of the universe is
dissolved."

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