Figures of Speech – is a phrase or word having different meanings than its literal

meaning.
Form of expression to make the ideas concrete, vivid, beautiful,
forceful or amusing.

1. Simile – unlike objects are compared using the words like and as.
- Comparing between things or objects.
Examples:
He fights like a lion.
He eats like a wolf.

2. Metaphor – comparison of unlike objects without the use of as and like.

- which an implied comparison is made between two unlike things
that actually have something in common.
- a word or phrase for one thing that is used to refer to another
thing in order to show or suggest that they are similar.

3. Personification – is a FOS in which a thing- an idea or an animal is given human

attributes. The non-human objects are portrayed in such a way that we feel
they have the ability to act like human beings.
Example:
Justice is blind.

4. Apostrophe – a writer or a speaker using an apostrophe detaches himself the

reality and addresses an imaginary character in his speech.
- in which some absent or non-existent person or thing is addressed as
if present and capable of understanding.
- addressing or speaking to the dead as if living; to an object as if it is
alive; to the absent as if they are present and able to understand the
speaker.
- They are talking to someone.
 Examples:
“Walk softly, March, forbear the bitter blow.”

5. Metonymy – it is an FOS that replaces the name of a thing with the name of
something else with which it is closely associated.
Examples:
He is an Ayala. (a rich man)
There is a death (poison) in the cup.

6. Antithesis – is the term used to refer to an author’s use of two contrasting or

opposite terms in a sentence for effect.
Examples:
His body is active, but his mind is sluggish.
You are easy on the eyes, but hard on the heart.

7. Hyperbole – an exaggeration used in order to make a point or to emphasize.

- it may be used to evoke strong feelings or to create a strong
impression, but is not meant to be taken literally.
Examples:
I have told you a million times to clean your room.

8. Irony – is a FOS in which words are used in such a way that their intended
meaning is different from the actual meaning of the words.
- brings about some added meanings to a situation.
- real life is full of ironical expressions and situations.

Types of Irony
1. Verbal Irony/Irony of Statement
- it is a contrast between what is said and what is meant.

2. Dramatic Irony
- when an audience perceives something that characters in the
literature does not know
 - it occurs when the audience or the reader knows more than the
character about events. In other words, what the character
thinks is true is incongruous/inconsistent with the audience
knows.

3. Situational Irony
- discrepancy between the expected result and actual result
- it refers to the contrast between the actual result of a situation
and what was intended or expected to happen.
Examples:
His friend’s hand was as soft as a rock.

9. Synecdoche – a literary device in which a part of something represents the

whole or it may use a whole to represent a part.
Example:
The word “glasses” refers to spectacles.

OTHER LITERARY TERMS

1. Hero – can be defined as the male principal character of a literary work.

2. Heroine - the principal female character in a literary or dramatic work
3. Antagonist – is a character, or a group of characters, which stands in
opposition to the protagonist, which is the main character. It is common refer
to an antagonist as a villain (the bad guy), against whom a hero (the good
guy) fights in order to save himself or others.
4. Poetic Justice – ideal form of justice in which the good characters are
rewarded and the bad characters are punished by an ironic twist of their fate.
 All forms of literature must convey moral lesson, it is important to bring
out the moral lessons because of the audience relates themselves with
good character.
 A literary view that virtue wins and vice loses in long run.
 5. Foreshadowing – is the author’s use of clues to hint at what might happen
later in the story. Writers use foreshadowing to build their readers’
expectations and to create suspense.
 Giving the reader a hint of something that is going to happen without
revealing the story or spoiling the suspense.
6. Epigram – is a short by insightful statement, which communicates thought in
a witty or funny way.
 Originated from the greek word “epigramma” which means “inscription”
or “to inscribe”.
7. Realism – manner of treating subject matter that presents a careful
description of everyday life. It is an approach that attempts to describe life
without idealization or romantic subjectivity.
8. Moral - Derived from the Latin term “morālis,” moral means a message
conveyed by, or a lesson learned from, a story, a poem, or an event.
9. Flashback – a literary device in which an earlier episode, conversation, or
events is inserted with the sequence of events.
10.Resolution - is the part of the story's plot where the main problem is resolved
or worked out. The resolution occurs after the falling action and is typically
where the story ends. Another term for the resolution is "dénouement," which
comes from the French term dénoué, meaning "to untie."

LITERARY STANDARDS

1. Universality – a great literary work is timeless and timely. It is forever relevant,

it appeals to one and all, anytime, and anywhere because it deals with an
array of individual's perceptions as well as orientations toward fundamental
truths and universal conditions.
 Great literature is timeless.
 Universality is defined as a work of art that can appeal to a great number of
people, regardless of gender, race, nationality or income. Works that appeal
to a person's heart or describe the condition of human nature are considered
universal texts.
2. Artistry – a quality which appeals to our sense of beauty.
 Artistry is a quality that describes a novel's ability to reveal and convey hidden
truth and beauty.

3. Intellectual Value – each literary pieces must stimulate thought. These should
enrich our mental life by making us realize about the fundamental
truths towards life and human nature.
 Intellectual value is determined by the novel's relevance to society and its
ability to stimulate thought.

4. Suggestiveness – this is the quality relevant to the emotional power of literature

to make us feel deeply and stir our imagination. It should trigger and
evoke visions above and beyond the plane of ordinary life
experiences.
 Associated with the emotion of a literary piece.
 It is the novel's ability to appeal to the reader's emotions and imagination
and to open them up to new possibilities.

5. Spiritual Value – a literary work must elevate the spirit within us by bringing our
moral values into the realm of the physical world. It should present
moral values necessary for us to reflect and eventually inspire us
to become a better person.
 Elevates the spirit by bringing out the moral values of a person or situation.
 Spiritual Value elevates the spirit and the soul and thus has the power to
motivate and to inspire.

6. Permanence – a great literary work endures and can be read again as each
readings gives fresh delights and new insights. It should not be
ephemeral or merely a passing hype to the audience; it should be long-
lasting.
 Permanence is determined by how well a novel endures through the ages.
There are many novels that were popular in their time but gradually faded
into obscurity and irrelevance.
7. Style – it is peculiar way in which a writer sees life, form his or her ideas expresses
them. Great works are marked as much by their memorable substances as
by their distinctive style.

LITERARY MODELS

1. Cultural Model – literature makes one appropriate and respect the differences.
Teaching literature within a cultural model enables students to understand and
appreciate cultures and ideologies different from their own in time and space,
and to come to perceive tradition of thought, feeling and artistic form within the
heritage the literature of such culture endows.

2. Language Model – this model emphasizes the fact that language is the literary
medium and that literature could be seen an instrument to teach specific
vocabulary and structure. Relies on the development of students’ knowledge. It
focuses on the way language is used in literary text.

3. Personal Growth Model – entails students engaging with the reading of literary
texts, appreciation and evaluation cultural artefacts, and understanding of our
society, culture and ourselves as we function within that social matrix.
 Literature aims to help one achieve lasting pleasure and deep
satisfaction in reading.
 Enjoyment and love for literature
 Learners are encourage to express their opinions, feelings, and make
connection between their own personal life and cultural experiences.

LITERARY APPROACHES
1. Formalistic Approach – The formalistic approach to literature examines a text
by its "organic form" - its setting, theme, scene, narrative, image and symbol.
It is often referred as "a scientific approach to literature," because it
advocates methodical and systematic readings of texts. Excluding any external
elements or outside information (i.e author's personal life or the social, historic
 background of the time the text was written or the reader's bias) in criticism,
the formalistic approach aims to analyze merely the text itself.

2. Moral or Humanistic Approach – Literature is viewed to discuss man and its

nature. It presents man as essentially rational; that is, endowed with intellect
and free will; or that the piece does not misinterpret the true nature of man.
The approach is close to the “morality” of literature, to questions of ethical
goodness or badness.

3. Historical Approach – Literature is seen both as a reflection and product of

the times and circumstances in which it was written. It operates on the premise
that the history of a nation has telling effects on its literature and that the
piece can be better understood and appreciated if one knows the times
surrounding its creation. The historical approach involves understanding the
events and experiences surrounding the composition of the work, especially the
life of the author, and using the findings to interpret that work of literature.

4. Sociological Approach – Literature is viewed as the expression of man within

a given social situation or social event or social phenomena. The sociological
approach stresses on social “relevance”, social “commitment,”
contemporaneity, and it deems communication with the reader important.

5. Cultural Approach – Literature is seen as one of the manifestations and

vehicles of a nation’s or race’s culture and tradition. It includes the entire
compels of what goes under “culture” – the technological, artistic, sociological,
ideological aspects; and considers the literary piece in the total cultural milieu
in which it was born.

6. Psychological Approach – Literature is viewed as the expression of

“personality,” of “inner drives” or “neurosis”. It includes the psychology of the
author, of the characters, and even the psychology of creation. It has resulted
in an almost exhausting and exhaustive “psychological analysis” of characters,
of symbols and images, of recurrent themes, and others.
 7. Impressionistic Approach – Literature is viewed to elucidate “reaction-
response” which is considered as something very personal, relative, and
fruitful. Unconditioned by explanations and often taking the impact of the
piece as a whole, it seeks to see how the piece has communicated.

Time Frames of Philippine Literature in English

1. The Period of Re-orientation: 1898-1910

2. Period of Imitation: 1910-1925
3. Period of Self-Discovery: 1925-1941
4. Japanese Period: 1941-1945
5. The Rebirth of Freedom: 1946-1970
6. Period of Activism: 1970-1972
7. Period of the New Society: 1972-1981
8. Period of the Third Republic: 1981-1985
9. Contemporary Period: 1986

Literary Compositions that Have Influenced the World

1. The Bible or the Sacred Writings

2. Koran
3. The Iliad and the Odyssey
4. The Mahab-harata
5. Canterbury Tales
6. Uncle Tom’s Cabin
7. The Divine Comedy
8. El Cid Compeador
9. The Song of Roland
10. The Book of the Dead
11. The Book of the Days
12. One Thousand and One Nights or The Arabian Nights