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Australian Dental Journal
The official journal of the Australian Dental Association
Australian Dental Journal 2011; 56:(1 Suppl): 3–10

doi: 10.1111/j.1834-7819.2010.01291.x

Smart materials in dentistry

JF McCabe,* Z Yan,* OT Al Naimi,* G Mahmoud,* SL Rolland*
*School of Dental Sciences, Newcastle University, United Kingdom.

ABSTRACT
Most dental materials are designed to have a relatively ‘neutral’ existence in the mouth. It is considered that if they are
‘passive’ and do not react with the oral environment they will be more stable and have a greater durability. At the same time,
it is hoped that our materials will be well accepted and will cause neither harm nor injury. This is an entirely negative
approach to material tolerance and biocompatibility and hides the possibility that some positive gains can be achieved by
using materials which behave in a more dynamic fashion in the environment in which they are placed.
An example of materials which have potential for ‘dynamic’ behaviour exists with structures which are partly water-based
or have phases or zones with significant water content and for which the water within the material can react to changes in
the ambient conditions. Such materials may even be said to have the potential for ‘smart’ behaviour, i.e. they can react to
changes in the environment to bring about advantageous changes in properties, either within the material itself or in the
material-tooth complex. The controlled movement of water or aqueous media through the material may cause changes in
dimensions, may be the carrier for various dissolved species, and may influence the potential for the formation of biofilms at
the surface. Some of these issues may be closely interrelated.
Clearly, materials which do not have the capacity for water transport or storage do not have the potential for this sort of
behaviour.
Some materials which are normally resistant to the healthy oral environment can undergo controlled degradation at low pH
in order to release ions which may prove beneficial or protective. It is doubtful whether such behaviour should be classified
as ‘smart’ because the material cannot readily return to its original condition when the stimulus is removed.
Other materials, such as certain alloys, having no means of transporting water through their structure, can display smart
behaviour by undergoing predictable changes in structure in response to applied mechanical or thermal stimuli. It has been
difficult to harness such behaviour to the benefit of patients but progress in this area is slowly being made.
Keywords: Smart materials, fluoride release, fluoride recharging, glass-ionomers, biofilms.
Abbreviations and acronyms: GIC = glass-ionomer cement; HEMA = hydroxyethylmethacrylate; PAA = polyacrylicacid; PAN =
polyacrylonitrile; PVA = polyvinylalcohol; QLF = quantitative light-induced fluorescence; RMGIC = resin modified glass-ionomer cement;
SMA = shape memory alloys.

ture, moisture, pH, electric or magnetic fields. A key

INTRODUCTION
feature of smart behaviour includes an ability to return to
Traditionally, materials designed for long-term use in the original state after the stimulus has been removed.1
the body or more specifically in the mouth are thought Existing smart materials include piezoelectric materi-
to survive longer if they are ‘passive’ and have no als which produce a voltage when stress is applied or vice
interaction with their environment. Materials such as versa.2 Structures made from these products can be made
amalgams, composites and cements are often judged on to change shape or dimensions when a voltage is applied.
their ability to survive without interacting with the oral Likewise, a change in shape can be used to generate a
environment. Perhaps the first inclination that an voltage which can be used for the purpose of monitoring.
‘active’ rather than ‘passive’ material could be attrac- Thermo-responsive materials, such as shape memory
tive was the realization of the benefit of fluoride release alloys3 or shape memory polymers4 adopt different
from materials. shapes at different temperatures due to remarkable and
controlled changes in structure. Magnetic shape mem-
ory alloys can change their shape in response to a
The nature of smart materials
change in magnetic field.
By definition and general agreement, smart materials are pH-sensitive polymers are materials which swell ⁄
materials that have properties which may be altered in a collapse when the pH of the surrounding media changes.5
controlled fashion by stimuli, such as stress, tempera- Other materials change colour in response to changes in
ª 2011 Australian Dental Association 3
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JF McCabe et al.

pH, light or applied voltage. One common example of increase in strain which in ‘normal’ alloys would be
this sort of technology is the light-sensitive sunglasses identified as irreversible yielding.12,13 In the SMA
which darken when exposed to bright sunlight. alloys, however, this ‘yielding’ is related to a reversible
Polymer gels offer a potential for smart behaviour.1,6 change in the crystal structure. The reverse process is
They consist of cross-linked polymer networks which may temperature dependent and this lies at the heart of the
be inflated with a solvent such as water. The labile nature difficulty in harnessing the characteristic for clinical
of the solvent enables a rapid and reversible swelling or benefit as the temperatures required can be very high.
shrinkage in response to a small change in their environ- However, this knowledge has been used in the manu-
ment (e.g. temperature). The most common gel forming facture of wires of similar cross-section but markedly
polymers are polyvinylalcohol (PVA), polyacrylicacid different stiffness. The phase changes involved in
(PAA) and polyacrylonitrile (PAN). Microsized gel fibres the crystal transitions involve a small exothermic ⁄
may contract in milliseconds, while thick polymer layers endothermic response which can be used to monitor or
may require much longer to react. It has been suggested measure the extent of the change. However, the amount
that these gels can potentially deliver a stress equivalent to of energy involved is very small and very sensitive
that of a human muscle of about equivalent size. recording equipment is required (e.g. temperature
modulated differential scanning calorimetry).14 In
order to fully utilize the super-elastic or shape memory
Smart materials by chance or design
characteristics, it would be essential to enable the phase
The future use of smart materials will involve a degree transitions to occur in a controlled fashion at or near
of ‘smart behaviour’ by design. However, smart behav- mouth temperature, and this is now claimed to be
iour was first noted in some materials by chance and the possible by some manufacturers. Wires exhibiting
significance of the special nature may not be recognized shape-memory behaviour at mouth temperature nor-
as being of any practical use until some time later. This mally contain copper and ⁄ or chromium in addition to
was certainly the case for thermo-responsive materials, nickel and titanium.
either shape memory alloys or shape memory polymers.
Shape memory alloys3 based upon NiTi alloys have
The role of water
been used in orthodontics for many years and their
remarkable properties have been commented upon Many types of smart behaviour are related to the ability
without any insight into how the properties could be of a gel structure to absorb or release solvent rapidly in
harnessed for a practical purpose. Likewise the response to a stimulus such as temperature. In the oral
potential thermo-responsive smart behaviour of some environment, the key solvent is water and the structures
glass-ionomer cements was first suggested by Davidson7 may be gels or salts which contain water which may be
and was then demonstrated as a result of attempting to bound either strongly or loosely and therefore may be
measure the coefficient of thermal expansion.8–11 absorbed or released at different rates. Some types of
Heating or cooling of these materials may result in smart behaviour may also be defined by any species,
minimal dimensional change as the expected expan- such as fluoride ions dissolved in the water and which
sions (heating) or contractions (cooling) appear to be are capable of undergoing reversible interactions with
offset by a compensating reaction related to the the gel, salt or oral structures. Depending upon the
movement of water in or out of the structure. nature of the water and how strongly it is bound, the
observed changes may be dependent upon the dimen-
sions of the structures.11
Smart alloys – the first smart dental materials
The term ‘smart material’ or ‘smart behaviour’ in the
Smart thermal behaviour
discipline which is now loosely defined as ‘dental
materials science’, was probably first used in connection The vast majority of materials responds to a temper-
with nickel-titanium alloys, or shape memory alloys ature change in a predictable manner. This involves a
(SMAs), which are used as orthodontic wires. Frustrat- dimensional change characterized by the coefficient of
ingly, although these materials were found to have thermal expansion or expansivity. One problem with
fascinating characteristics in relation to the way their dental filling materials is their tendency to expand and
structure ⁄ properties changed in response to strain and contract to a greater extent than the natural tooth tissue
temperature, it has never been clearly expounded how when subjected to hot or cold stimuli. When samples of
their characteristics could be used beneficially during restorative materials were heated in order to determine
patient treatment. The smart behaviour is essentially their values of coefficient of thermal expansion, an
related to the ability of the alloy to initially undergo interesting observation was made. For composite
strain in response to stress in the normal way, but at the materials, expansion and contraction occurred in the
point identified as the yield stress there is a further expected way and a coefficient could readily be
4 ª 2011 Australian Dental Association
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Smart materials in dentistry

determined, and whether testing was done dry or wet way in which this can react to changes in the
made little or no difference.8 For glass-ionomers, little environment. Clearly, there are different ways in which
or no change in dimension was observed when heating water can be retained in and transported through the
and cooling between 20 C and 50 C in wet conditions cement structure. One important feature which may
(Fig 1).9,10 In dry conditions, the materials showed a provide a location for the formation of reservoirs
marked contraction when heated above 50 C. The within the material is porosity. The number and size of
explanation for this behaviour is that the expected pores within a cement can be controlled by the method
expansion on heating is compensated by fluid flow to of mixing and is conveniently measured using micro-CT
the surface of the material to cause a balancing of the scanning.15 Figure 3 shows typical scans of a glass-
dimensional changes. On cooling, the process was ionomer cement mixed mechanically in capsules or
reversed. In dry conditions, the rapid loss of water on handmixed. The volume of bubbles can readily be
heating results in the observed contraction. This calculated and is shown in Table 1.
behaviour is akin to that of human dentine (Fig 2) The results given in Table 1 indicate that both the
where very little dimensional change is observed on method of mixing and the viscosity of the cement have
heating in wet conditions and a marked contraction is an effect on porosity. In the low viscosity material,
noted in dry conditions.11 Both results can be explained handmixing reduces the porosity significantly compared
by flow of fluids in the dentinal tubules. Hence, the to mechanical mixing, either by shaking or rotation.
glass-ionomer materials can be said to be mimicking the For the viscous material the levels of porosity are low
behaviour of human dentine through a type of smart and not significantly affected by mixing. These differ-
behaviour. ences in porosity are reflected in differences in water
absorption (Table 2).11,16 Hence, this aspect of the
The role of porosity
The smart behaviour of glass-ionomers and related
materials is closely linked to their water content and the

Fig 3. Micro-CT scans of a glass-ionomer cement (Ketac-Cem) mixed

mechanically by shaking (CapMix) or rotating (RotoMix). L, M and
Fig 1. Dimensional change plotted against temperature for three H refer to low, medium and high examples of porosity within each
glass-ionomers (KC, KM, F) and one resin modified glass-ionomer group.
(FLC).

Table 1. The volume of bubbles in a low viscosity

glass-ionomer (Ketac-Cem) and a high viscosity glass-
ionomer (Ketac-Molar) using different methods of
mixing
Mixing method
Material CapMix RotoMix Hand

Ketac-Cem
Aplicap 2.8 (1.6) 1.8 (1.8) –
Maxicap 2.7 (2.6) 2.1 (2.1) 0.2 (0.2)
Hand – – 0.1 (0.1)
Ketac-Molar
Aplicap 0.2 (0.2) 0.1 (0.1) –
Fig 2. Dimensional change of human dentine when heated under wet Hand – – 0.1 (0.1)
or dry conditions.
ª 2011 Australian Dental Association 5
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JF McCabe et al.

Table 2. Porosity and water absorption of Ketac-Cem

glass-ionomer cement
Mixing method Porosity (%) 24 h water absorption (%)

CapMix 2.7 (2.6) 1.32 (0.25)

Hand 0.2 (0.2) 0.84 (0.11)

smart behaviour of dental cements can be controlled by

the operator.

Expansion and radial pressure

Smart materials which combine a special interactive Fig 4. Twenty-four hour fluoride release for a resin matrix system
characteristic with an acceptable durability or longevity containing some GIC salt matrix zones as a function of time of storage
in water. At days 8, 17, 23 and 30 the specimens were subjected to a
are likely to combine some salt or gel characteristic soak in 250 ppm NaF solution for 1 hour. The two lines are for
with a resin component imparting some stability. The different methods of measuring fluoride concentration.
manufacturing of such materials presents a problem of
compatibility. Traditionally, such problems are solved to decline sharply over just a few days. As the material
by also incorporating species with both hydrophilic and becomes depleted of its inherent fluoride it is interesting
hydrophobic groups which have the function of bridg- that the ‘spikes’ of fluoride in the 24-hour period after
ing or coupling the two distinctly different ingredients. recharging appear to increase slightly with age.17 This
The most commonly used of these compounds is implies that the more inherent fluoride lost, the greater
hydroxyethylmethacrylate (HEMA). However, the capacity for uptake through recharging. The levels of
large and rapid water absorption of polymers contain- fluoride release maintained can be increased by begin-
ing HEMA can cause problems; not only does the ning the recharging process as soon as possible after
absorption result in swelling but a considerable radial setting. Other work has shown that the rates of fluoride
pressure can also be linked to the process.17,18 Profiles release and recharging are temperature sensitive.16
of cavities containing a blend of GIC and resin phases Hence, a more rapid recharging could be accomplished
with HEMA constrained within a cavity show the by using warm fluoride containing solutions and this
‘growth’ of the material out of the cavity and this is can generate a more sustained release at mouth
combined with a considerable radial pressure measured temperature.
as around 26 MPa compared with <3 MPa caused by Another area where ‘smart’ fluoride interactions can
the water absorption of a typical resin matrix compos- have a significant benefit is in the prevention of
ite.19 demineralization around orthodontic brackets (Fig 5).
Using fluoride releasing cements can help to prevent
Ion release and recharging demineralization. This has been studied using quanti-
tative light-induced fluorescence (QLF) (Fig 6).
The beneficial effect of fluoride release of dental Results of laboratory studies25 show that the use
materials has been the subject of much research over of fluoride-releasing cements can minimize the
many years. There is some doubt about the efficacy of
fluoride release in caries prevention since even products
with high initial fluoride release tend to rapidly lose the
ability to release fluoride in significant amounts. Even in
the case of GICs, the fluoride release rate can become
negligible within a week.20–22 However, the smart
behaviour of materials containing GIC salt phases
offers some long-term solutions to this problem. There
is evidence that the fluoride released from salt phases
can be replaced when the material is bathed in a high
concentration of fluoride as may occur in a toothpaste
or mouthrinse.16,17,23,24 In the long term, the fluoride
re-released after recharging may be much more impor-
tant than the initial ‘burst’ which is sustained only for a
short time.
Fig 5. White lesions corresponding to areas of demineralized enamel
Figure 4 shows data for one material in which remaining in the areas surrounding the site where orthodontic brackets
fluoride release over 24-hour periods into water is seen were bonded.
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Smart materials in dentistry

appear to be almost equally effective when compared

with a material having negligible fluoride release, as
shown in the QLF images (Fig 7). Another aspect of
smart behaviour for this type of material involves the
development of materials having mechanical properties
adequate for the retention of brackets but which enable
easy debonding of brackets at the end of treatment.26
Some resin based materials have a potential to release
fluoride and neutralize acids.27 Other resin based
materials have been designed to release calcium,
fluoride and hydroxyl ions at low pH28,29 and these
materials are reported to have the potential to neutral-
ize acids and to prevent, or even reverse, demineraliza-
tion. However, clinical performance of such reactive
products is often reported to be unsatisfactory. This
highlights the potential problem which exists for many
types of smart material: their smart behaviour depends
upon a degree of reactivity which may not be compat-
ible with longevity. Taking this a stage further, smart
composite materials have been developed30–35 which
contain amorphous calcium phosphate particles or
whiskers which at low pH provide a source of calcium
and phosphate ions which may act to prevent demin-
eralization of tooth structure and reportedly maintain
acceptable mechanical properties in the process.

Fig 6. QLF device used to study demineralization in teeth and the

positive effects of fluoride release and recharging. Taken from Biofilms and smart behaviour
InspektorTM Pro Manual.
Biofilms formed on the surface of materials in the
mouth may enhance the smart behaviour of materials
demineralization, and that this effect is not simply containing fluoride releasing salt phases.36,37 Recent
dependent upon the extent of the initial fluoride release. work with saliva, using live ⁄ dead staining tech-
Materials having various levels of fluoride release niques,23,36 has shown that fluoride release from

Fig 7. Pre and post-demineralization QLF images around orthodontic brackets showing significant demineralization around a non-fluoride releasing
cement and minimal demineralization around cements with ‘large’ or moderate fluoride release or recharging capacity.
ª 2011 Australian Dental Association 7
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JF McCabe et al.

at the same time concentrate fluoride which is liberated

through a change in pH or mechanical debridment.

Design of smart materials

Now that the ways in which materials containing a
polysalt matrix can exhibit smart behaviour have been
demonstrated, it is appropriate to consider whether
future materials can have ‘smartness’ designed into
them. If so, can the smart behaviour be accommodated
without compromising the other key requirements,
such as clinical function and longevity? Of the currently
available dental materials, the products which most
Fig 8. Fluoride release (24-hour values) from a GIC into different
storage media. Release into natural saliva is slower than into water or positively react with their environment in a manner
artificial saliva. which could be interpreted as smart are the glass-
ionomer cements. However, these products are known
to have limited durability and longevity due to their
brittleness and solubility.
Materials demonstrating an optimum combination of
smart interactions and longevity are likely to have some
combination of stable resin matrix combined with a
coexistent salt matrix or discrete gel phase. The rapid
developments in nanotechnology suggest that such
features can be manufactured into compounds by using
building blocks at a molecular or even atomic level.
However, in 1996 Friend38 stated, ‘The development of
true smart materials at the atomic scale is still some way
off, although the enabling technologies are under
development. These require novel aspects of nanotech-
Fig 9. Fluoride release into natural saliva in acidified, neutral or nology (technologies associated with materials and
cycled (A&N or N&A) conditioned. Note the marked increase in processes at the nanometre scale, (10)9 m) and the
fluoride release over both the first and second day of placement into newly developing science of shape chemistry’. This
acidic conditions.
statement still holds true to an extent today. However,
our understanding of the potential benefits of smart
materials does not prevent biofilm formation or behaviour have enabled scientists to appreciate the
growth. Figure 8 shows that the daily fluoride release potential benefits of ‘active’ as opposed to ‘passive’
in natural saliva is significantly lower than the release materials and the development of materials exhibiting
into distilled water or artificial saliva. However, when smart behaviour is now recognized to be possible
samples are stored in acidified (pH 4) saliva the rate of outside the realms of nanotechnology with its rather
fluoride release is markedly increased (Fig 9). More artificial and restricting boundaries and definitions.
interesting are the results which show that when the Hence, even with existing technologies we are able to
specimens are cycled through both acidic and neutral consider building materials with controlled structure
conditions, an increase in fluoride release is seen at day and properties.
1 and then also at day 2 after placing into acidic Within the spectrum of materials which lie in the
conditions.36 This offers some proof that fluoride continuous scale between resin matrix composites and
becomes concentrated within the biofilm and is made salt matrix glass-ionomers,17,39 we are already able to
available when the film is disturbed. identify various materials described as resin modified
The presence of a biofilm on the surface of a material GICs (RMGICs), polyacid-modified resin composites
alters the interaction of the surface with the environ- (compomers) or glass-ionomer composites (giomers).
ment and in the case of a restorative material, the These have been shown to exhibit some smart charac-
biofilm may act as a lubricant which prevents abrasive teristics, albeit more through chance than design. The
wear (Fig 10).36 The formation of biofilms and the way next stage is to harvest the current knowledge into the
in which this changes the interaction of the materials design of materials with controlled and designed
with the environment represents a clear example of structure in which the requirements of longevity and
smart behaviour for these materials. It seems that smart interaction are balanced. For example, when
biofilms can protect surfaces from abrasive forces and resin matrix and salt matrix setting reactions are
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Smart materials in dentistry

Fig 10. Surface profiles of a GIC at baseline and after brushing in acidified saliva (natural or artificial). This illustrates the protective effect of the
biofilm formed in natural saliva.

competing during the setting of an RMGIC material, it 7. Davidson CL. Glass ionomer cements, intelligent materials. Bull
Group Int Rech Sci Stomatol Odontol 1998;40:38–42.
is possible to conceive of means of controlling the
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ficient of dimensional change of dental tooth-coloured restorative
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2007;18:1163–1166.
The authors are grateful to Professor Seiji Ban, editor of
11. Yan Z. Smart materials in dentistry. Newcastle University, United
the Dental Materials Journal, for permission to repro- Kingdom, 2006. PhD thesis.
duce large parts of this paper which was originally 12. Gil FJ, Planell JA. Shape memory alloys for medical applications.
presented at the International Dental Materials Con- Proc Inst Mech Eng H 1998;212:473–488.
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Address for correspondence:
29. Heintze SD. A new material concept for inhibiting the formation
of secondary caries. Am J Dent 1999;12:S4–S7.
Professor JF McCabe
30. Skritic D, Antonucci JM, Eanes ED. Amorphous calcium phos-
School of Dental Sciences
phate bioactive composites for mineralized tissue regeneration. J Newcastle University
Res Nat Inst Stand Tech 2003;108:167–182. NE2 4BW
31. Xu HHK, Weir MD, Sun L. Calcium and phosphate ion releasing United Kingdom
composite: effect of pH on release and mechanical properties.
Email: [email protected]
Dent Mater 2009;25:535–542.

10 ª 2011 Australian Dental Association