GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

LESSON
PROPERTIES OF SOIL
2
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TOPICS

Topic 1: Physical Properties of Soil

Topic 2: Plasticity of Soil
Topic 3: Mechanical Analysis of Soil

LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THE LESSON

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. describe each properties of soil;
2. perform laboratory activity on the determination of moisture
content and specific gravity of soil; and
3. solve problems involving the different properties of soil.
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TOPIC 1: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

SUB-TOPICS

1.1 Symbols and Notations

1.2 Density and Unit Weight of Water
1.3 Basic Formulas
1.4 Physical Properties of Soil
1.5 Void Ratio, e
1.6 Porosity, n
1.7 Relationship Between e and n
1.8 Water Content or Moisture Content, MC or w
1.9 Degree of Saturation, S
1.10 Relationship Between G, MC, S and e
1.11 Unit Weight (or Bulk Unit Weight) of Soil Mass, 𝛾
1.12 Dry Unit Weight, 𝛾
1.13 Saturated Unit Weight, 𝛾
1.14 Submerged or Buoyant Unit Weight, 𝛾 𝑜𝑟 𝛾′
1.15 Critical Hydraulic Gradient
1.16 Other Formulas
1.17 Illustrative Examples

1.1 Symbols and Notations

𝑒 = 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑛 = 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐷 = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐺 𝑜𝑟 𝐺𝑠 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 (𝑢𝑠𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 2.67 ± 0.05)
𝐺𝐼 = 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
𝐿𝐼 = 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
𝐿𝐿 = 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
𝑀𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑤 = 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
𝑆 = 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑊 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑊 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠
𝑊 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝛾 = 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝛾 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝛾 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠
𝛾 = 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝛾 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

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1.2 Density and Unit Weight of Water
Density of water, 𝜌 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚
𝑘𝑔
𝜌 =1 = 1 𝑔/𝑐𝑐
𝐿
Unit weight of water, 𝛾 = 9.81 𝑘𝑁/𝑚

1.3 Basic Formulas

Unit weight of substance, 𝛾 = 𝐺𝛾
Weight of water, 𝑊 = 𝛾 𝑉
Weight of substance, 𝑊 = 𝛾 𝐺 = 𝐺𝛾 𝛾
Specific gravity of substance, 𝐺 =

1.4 Physical Properties of Soil

The natural state of soil is composed of three phases – solid, water, and air. The
figure below illustrates the relationship between them.

Figure 1.1 Phase diagram of soil.

From the phase diagram, the following equations are made:

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝑊 = 𝑊 + 𝑊
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠, 𝑉 = 𝑉 + 𝑉
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑉 = 𝑉 + 𝑉

1.5 Void Ratio, e

The void ratio is the ratio between the volumes of voids to the volume of solids
of a soil mass. It is usually expressed in percent.
𝑉
𝑒=
𝑉
Note: 0 < 𝑒 < ∞

1.6 Porosity, n
Porosity is the ratio between the volumes of voids to the total volume of a soil
mass. It is usually expressed in percent.

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𝑉
𝑛=
𝑉
Note: 0 < 𝑛 < 1

1.7 Relationship Between e and n

𝑒 𝑛
𝑛= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 =
1+𝑒 1+𝑛

1.8 Water Content or Moisture Content, MC or w

The ratio of the weight of water to the weight of the solid particles

𝑊
𝑀𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑤 = 𝑥100%
𝑊
Note: 0 < 𝑀𝐶 < ∞

1.9 Degree of Saturation, S

The ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids

𝑉
𝑆= 𝑥100
𝑉

The degree of saturation varies from 𝑆 = 0 for completely dry soil and 𝑆 =
100% for totally saturated soil.

1.10 Relationship Between G, MC, S, and e

(𝐺)(𝑀𝐶) = (𝑆)(𝑒)

1.11 Unit Weight (or Bulk Unit Weight) of Soil Mass, 𝜸𝒎

𝑊
𝛾 =
𝑉

𝐺 + 𝑆𝑒
𝛾 = 𝛾
1+𝑒

𝐺 + 𝐺𝑀𝐶
𝛾 = 𝛾
1+𝑒

1.12 Dry Unit Weight, 𝜸𝒅

For dry soils, 𝑆 = 0 and 𝑀𝐶 = 0
𝑊 𝐺
𝛾 = = 𝛾
𝑉 1+𝑒

𝑊
𝑊 =
1 + 𝑀𝐶
𝛾
𝛾 =
1 + 𝑀𝐶

1.13 Saturated Unit Weight, 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕

For saturated soils, 𝑆 = 1, 𝑉 = 𝑉

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𝐺+𝑒
𝛾 = 𝛾
1+𝑒

1.14 Submerged or Buoyant Unit Weight, 𝜸𝒃 𝒐𝒓 𝜸′

𝛾 𝑜𝑟 𝛾 = 𝛾 −𝛾

𝐺−1
𝛾 𝑜𝑟 𝛾 = 𝛾
1+𝑒

1.15 Critical Hydraulic Gradient

Critical hydraulic gradient is the hydraulic gradient that brings a soil mass
(essentially, coarse-grained soils) to static liquefaction (quick condition).

𝛾 𝐺−1
𝑖 = =
𝛾 1+𝑒
1.16 Other Formulas
These formulas may not be memorized. These can be derived from the previously
defined formulas:
𝑒
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠, 𝑉 = 𝑉
1+𝑒

𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑, 𝑉 =
1+𝑒

𝑆𝑒
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑉 = 𝑉
1+𝑒

𝑆𝑒
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑊 = 𝑉𝛾
1+𝑒

𝐺 + 𝑆𝑒
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝑊 = 𝑉𝛾
1+𝑒

All of the above-listed formulas are taken from the compilation made by Gillesania
(2009). Conversely, tabulated below are the formulas summarized by Das & Sobhan
(2014).

Table 1.1 Various forma of relationships between the physical properties of soil.

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1.17 Illustrative Examples
PROBLEM 01.1
A sample of saturated soil weighs 588 N and has a volume of 0.03 m3. If the void raio of
the soil is 0.75, determine the specific gravity of the solids.

SOLUTION:
𝑊
𝛾 =
𝑉

588
𝛾 =
0.03

𝛾 = 19,600 N/m

𝐺+𝑆𝑒
𝛾 = 𝛾
1+𝑒

𝐺 + 1(0.75)
19,600 = (9,810)
1 + 0.75

𝑮 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟓

PROBLEM 01.2
A clay sample has a unit weight of 21.1 kN.m3 at moisture content of 9.8%. When
completely saturated with water, its unit weight is 22.58 kN/m3. Determine the porosity
of the soil.

SOLUTION:
𝐺 + 𝐺 𝑀𝐶
𝛾 = 𝛾
1+𝑒

𝐺 + 𝐺(0.098)
21.1 = (9.81)
1+𝑒

𝐺 = 1.959 + 1.959𝑒

𝐺+𝑒
𝛾 = 𝛾
1+𝑒

(1.959 + 1.959𝑒) + 𝑒
22.58 = (9.81)
1+𝑒

2.302 + 2.302𝑒 = 1.959 + 2.959𝑒

𝑒
𝑛=
1+𝑒

0.5221
𝑛=
1 + 0.5221

𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟒𝟑 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟑%

PROBLEM 01.3 [CE NOVEMBER 1998]

A specimen of moist clay has a mass of 183.4 grams. After oven drying, the mass is
reduced to 157.7 grams. What is the moisture content of the sample?
SOLUTION:

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Moisture content, 𝑀𝐶 = × 100%

Total weight of soil mass, 𝑊 = 183.4 grams = W + 𝑊

Weight of solid (oven-dried weight), 𝑊 = 157.7 grams
Weight of water, 𝑊 = 𝑊 − 𝑊 = 183.4 − 157.7 = 25.7 grams

.
Moisture content, 𝑀𝐶 = .
× 100%
Moisture content, 𝑴𝑪 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟑%

PROBLEM 01.4 [CE MAY 1999]

A sample of moist soil has water content of 18% and moist unit weight of 17.3 kN/m3. The
specific gravity of slid is 2.65. Compute the degree of saturation of the soil.

SOLUTION:
Solve for 𝑒;
𝐺 + 𝐺 𝑀𝐶
𝛾 = 𝛾
1+𝑒

2.65 + 2.65(0.18)
17.3 = (9.81)
1+𝑒

𝑒 = 0.7732

[𝐺 𝑀𝐶 = 𝑆 𝑒]

2.65(0.18) = 𝑆(0.7732)

𝑆 = 0.617

𝑺 = 𝟔𝟏. 𝟕%

PROBLEM 01.5 [CE NOVEMBER 1999]

13. Nov 99: A soil sample was compacted. The result of the standard proctor test shows
that at 100% compaction, the soil weighs 131.1 pcf with optimum moisture content 14%.
What is the saturated unit weight of the soil in pcf?
𝐺 = 2.67

SOLUTION:
𝐺 + 𝐺 𝑀𝐶
𝛾 = 𝛾
1+𝑒

2.7 + 2.7(0.10)
19.6 = (9.81)
1+𝑒

𝑒 = 0.4856

[𝐺 𝑀𝐶 = 𝑆 𝑒]

2.7(0.10) = 𝑆(0.4856)

𝑆 = 55.5%

Percentage of air in the voids = 100% − 𝑆

Percentage of air in the voids = 100% − 55.5%
Percentage of air in the voids = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟓%

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PROBLEM 01.6
The mas of a sample of saturated soil is 520 grams. The dry mass, after oven drying is 405
grams. Assuming 𝐺 = 2.7, calculate the effective unit weight of the soil mass, in kN/m3?

SOLUTION:
𝑊
𝑀𝐶 =
𝑊

𝑊−𝑊
𝑀𝐶 =
𝑊

520 − 405
𝑀𝐶 =
405

𝑀𝐶 = 28.4%

[𝐺 𝑀𝐶 = 𝑆 𝑒]

2.7(0.284) = (1)𝑒

𝑒 = 0.7667

𝐺−1
𝛾 = 𝛾
1+𝑒

2.7 − 1
𝛾 = (9.81)
1 + 0.7667

𝜸𝒃 = 𝟗. 𝟒𝟒 𝐤𝐍/𝐦𝟑

PROBLEM 01.7
In its natural state, a moist soil has a volume of 9350 cc and weighs 18 kg. The oven-dried
weight of the soil is 15.54 kg. Use 𝐺 = 2.67.
a) Determine the moisture content in percent.
b) Determine the void ratio in percent.
c) Determine the degree of saturation in percent.
SOLUTION:
𝑊 18000
𝛾 = =
𝑉 9350
𝛾 = 1.925 grams/cc
a)
𝑊
𝑀𝐶 =
𝑊
18 − 15.54
𝑀𝐶 =
15.54
𝑴𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟖𝟑 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟖𝟑%
b)
𝐺 + 𝐺 𝑀𝐶
𝛾 = 𝛾
1+𝑒
2.67 + 2.67(0.1583)
1.925 = (1)
1+𝑒
𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟔𝟔 = 𝟔𝟎. 𝟔𝟔%
c)
[𝐺 𝑀𝐶 = 𝑆 𝑒]
2.67(0.1583) = 𝑆(0.6066)
𝑺 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟕 = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟕%

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PROBLEM 01.8 [CE NOVEMBER 1999]
A soil sample was compacted. The result of the standard proctor test shows that at 100%
compaction, the soil weighs 131.1 pcf with optimum moisture content of 14%. What is
the maximum dry unit weight of the soil (at zero air voids) in pcf? 𝐺 = 2.67

SOLUTION:
At zero air voids,
𝑉 = 𝑉 (𝑆 =)

[𝐺 𝑀𝐶 − 𝑆 𝑒]

2.67(0.14) = 1𝑒

𝑒 = 0.3738

𝐺
𝛾 = 𝛾
1+𝑒

2.67
𝛾 = (62.4)
1 + 0.3738

𝜸𝒅 = 𝟏𝟐𝟏. 𝟐𝟖 𝐩𝐜𝐟

PROBLEM 01.9
A cubic meter of soil in its natural state weighs 17.5 kN. After oven-drying, the soil weigh
14.2 kN. Assume G = 2.7.
a) Calculate the void ratio of the soil.
b) Calculate the degree of saturation of the soil.
c) Calculate the saturated density of the soil in kN/m3.
SOLUTION:
𝑊
𝑀𝐶 =
𝑊

𝑊−𝑊
𝑀𝐶 =
𝑊

17.5 − 14.2
𝑀𝐶 =
14.2

𝑀𝐶 = 0.2324 = 23.24%

𝑊
𝛾 =
𝑉

𝛾 = 17.5/1 = 17.5 kN/m

𝐺 + 𝐺𝑀𝐶
𝛾 =𝑙 𝛾
1+𝑒

2.7 + 2.7(0.2325)
17.5 = (9.81)
1+𝑒

𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟓 = 𝟖𝟔. 𝟓%

[𝐺𝑀𝐶 = 𝑆 𝑒]

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2.7(0.2324) = 𝑆(0.865)

𝑆 = 0.7254

𝑺 = 𝟕𝟐. 𝟓𝟒%

𝐺+𝑒
𝛾 = 𝛾
1+𝑒

2.7 + 0.865
𝛾 = (9.81)
1 + 0.865

𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟕𝟓 𝐤𝐍/𝐦𝟑

PROBLEM 01.10
The void ratio of a soil is 0.85. what is the percentage error of the bulk unit weight if the
soil were 95% saturated and assumed to be totally saturated?

SOLUTION:
Assumed 𝑆 = 1;
𝐺+𝑒
𝛾 = 𝛾
1+𝑒

2.7 + 0.85
γ = (9.81)
1 + 0.85

γ = 18.82 kN/m
Actual S = 95%:
𝐺+𝑆𝑒
γ = γ
1+𝑒

2.7 + 0.95(0.85)
γ = (9.81)
1 + 0.85

γ = 18.60 kN/m

. .
Percentage Error = .
× 100%

Percentage of Error = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖% 𝐦𝐨𝐫𝐞

PROBLEM 01.11
The moist unit weights degrees of saturation of a soil are given in the following table:
𝛾(pcf) 𝑆(%)
105.73 50
112.67 75
a) Determine the void ratio of the soil in percent.
b) Determine the specific gravity of the soil solids.
c) Determine the porosity of the soil in percent.

SOLUTION:
𝐺 + 𝑆𝑒
𝛾 = 𝛾
1+𝑒
First soil:
𝐺 + 0.5𝑒
105.73 = (62.4)
1+𝑒
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1.694 + 1.694𝑒 = 𝐺 + 0.5𝑒

𝐺 = 1.694 + 1.194𝑒  Eq. (1)

Second soil:
𝐺 + 0.75𝑒
112.67 = (62.4)
1+𝑒

1.806 + 1.806𝑒 = 𝐺 + 0.75𝑒

𝐺 = 1.806 + 1.056𝑒  Eq. (2)

[𝐺 = 𝐺]
1.694 + 1.194𝑒 = 1.806 + 1.056𝑒

𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟐 = 𝟖𝟏. 𝟐%

From Eq. (2)

𝑮 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟎𝟔 + 𝟏. 𝟎𝟓𝟔(𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟐) = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟔

𝑒
𝑛=
1+𝑒

0.812
𝑛=
1 + 0.812

𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟖𝟏 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟖𝟏%

PROBLEM 01.12
In an experiment of determining the porosity and specific gravity of solids of a soil, a soil
is dug out from the ground, weighed, then oven dried, and then saturated with water.
The weight of the soil taken from the test hole is 1346 grams. It was then oven-dried and
weighed 1076 grams. After saturating it with water, it weighed 1462 grams. The volume
of the test hole was then measured and found to be 792 cc. Determine the voids ratio of
the soil.
SOLUTION:
Given:
𝑊 = 1346 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
𝑊 = 1076 grams
𝑉 = 792 cm
𝑊
𝛾 =
𝑣

1345
𝛾 =
794

𝛾 = 1.7 grams/cc

𝑊
𝛾 =
𝑉

1462
𝛾 = = 1.846 grams/cc
792

𝑊 𝑊−𝑊
𝑀𝐶 = =
𝑊 𝑊

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 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

1346 − 1076
𝑀𝐶 =
1076

𝑀𝐶 = 0.251

𝐺 + 𝐺𝑀𝐶
𝛾 = 𝛾
1+𝑒

𝐺 + 𝐺(0.251)
1.7 = (1)
1+𝑒

𝐺 = 1.36 + 1.36𝑒  (1)

𝐺+𝑒
𝛾 = 𝛾
1+𝑒

𝐺+𝑒
1.846 = (1)
1+𝑒

𝐺 = 1.846 + 0.846𝑒  (2)

[𝐺 = 𝐺]

1.36 + 1.36𝑒 = 1.846 + 0.846𝑒

𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟒𝟔 = 𝟗𝟒. 𝟔%

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