UNIT-I Introduction to Data Communications Introductory Concepts - Network hardware - Network software — Network Architecture - Physical layer - Guided transmission media - Cable television. 1.1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS MODEL : Data communications refers to the transmission of digital data between two or more computers and a computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange data. The physical connection between networked computing devices is established using either cable media or wireless media. The key elements of the model are: 1, Source 2. Transmitter 3. Transmission medium 4. Receiver 5. Destination 1. Source This device generates the data to be transmitted; examples are telephones and personal computers. Scanned woth CamScanner\ : 2 Data Communication & Networks 2. Transmitter The data generated by a source system are not transmitted directly in the form in which they were generated. Rather, a transmitter transforms and encodes the information in such a way as to produce electromagnetic signals that can be transmitted across some sort of transmission system. 3. Transmission System This can be a single transmission line or a complex network connecting source and destination. 4, Receiver ‘The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system. and. converts it into a form that can be handled by the destination device. ( 5. Destination Takes the incoming data from the receiver. Fig: 1.1 Simplified Communications Model ee Scanned woth CamScannerIntroduction to Data Communications 1 1.1.1 Components of a Communication System A data communication system has five components. Set of Set of Rules Rules ‘Transmission Medium Sender Receiver Fig: 1.2 Components of a communication system 1, Message The message is the information (data) to be communicated. 4 It included text, numbers, pictures, audio and video. 2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. ~ It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera. w . Receiver > The receiver is the device that receives the message. % Itcan be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television and so on. 4. Transmission Medium The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver. Scanned woth CamSe: anner dPe Data Communication & Networks 14 axial cable, fiber optic cable @ It includ radio waves. jes twisted pair wire, cot 5. Protocol Aprotocol is a set of rules that govern data communication, } Itrepresents an agreement between the communicating devices, Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating. 4.1.2 Characteristics of Data Communication The effectiveness of a data cominunication. system depends on four fundamental characteristics: 1. Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination and correct user. : 2, Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data accurately, without introducing any errors. The data may get corrupted during transmission affecting the accuracy of the delivered data. 3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner without any delay; such a.data delivery is called real time transmission of data. 4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter may affect the timeliness of data being transmitted. 1.1.3 Data Commynication System Tasks There are some tasks performed by the communication systems are: it Scanned woth CamScannerIntroduction to Data Communicatic Signal Generation To transmit the data over the transmission system, communicating device must be able to generate and receive these signals. The generation of the signals should be in such a way that the resultant signal can be acceptable by the transmission mediums. Interface Device must interface with the transmission system to communicate or transfer the data over network. Data Synchronization It isthe process of establishing consistency among, data froma source to destination devices and vice versa and continuous harmonization of the data over time. Exchange Management For meaningful data transaction there should be some management of data-being exchanged. Both the transmitter and receiver should adhere to some common convention about the format of data, amount of data, time required, data format etc. Transmission System Utilization Due to the importance of Data transmissions without interruptions or failures the transmission systems is usually well dimensioned and are being operated with margins that minimize the possibility of outages. Various techniques are available to allocate the total capacity of a transmission channel among connected devices like Digital, Analog, Multiplex, Simplex, Duplex, Half-Duplex etc. : Error Detection and Correction In any communication system transmitted data is prone to error. mSCanner Scanned wothyr G Data Communication & Networks transmission medium leading to misinterpretation of signal or errors introduced by the intermediate devices. Error detection and correction is required in cases where there is no scope for error in the data transaction. We can think of file transfer between two computers or even on remote network computers where there is a need for this. But in some cases it may not be very important as in the case of telephonic conversation. Flow Control At the time of transmission of data, source computer is generating data faster than receiver device capable to receive it. To handle such problem, there is some kind of flow control mechanism used. Before getting started the transmission of data they have to agree upon between two communication devices. Addressing When more than two devices share a transmission facility, a source systerh must somehow indicate the identity or address of the destination. Addresses are in form of IP or we can say ftp address and there are used lots of credentials. Routing Routing means to send data to appropriate destinations. In this Process the evolved computer ensures that the data is being sent on destination system only or any other hacking happening. To eliminate such problem developers uses SSE level security. Communication Network and Services Communication Netwox is set of equipment or say facilities that Provide a communication services like to transfer of data between two or more nodes located in any of its geographical point. Example Scanned woth CamScanner1.7 Introduction to Data Commu of such networks includes computer networks (LAN/WAN), intranet networks, telephone networks, television broadcasting networks, cellular networks etc. Radio and Television Networks These networks are very common network usage various stations to transmit an ensemble of signals simultaneously over network of cables. Aside from selecting the station of interest, the role of the user in these services is passive. Relatively high audio and video quality is expected here but a significant amount of delay (fraction of second) can be tolerated even in live broadcasting. Telephone Networks This service is real-time service provided by a network. Two persons are able to communicate by transmitting their voice across the network. These services is called connection-oriented service because to establish such communication users must first interact with the network. Cellular Networks These networks extends the normal telephone service to mobile users who are free to move within a regional area covered by an interconnected array of smaller geographical areas called cells. Each cell has a radio transmission system that allows it to communicate with users in its area. Cellular provides also support a roaming « 'vice where a subscriber is able to place calls while visiting regional urea other than the home. 1.1.4 Transmission Impairment Data is transmitted through transmission medium hich are not perfect. The imperfection causes signal impairment. Du: ic the imperfection error is introduced in the transmitted data i.e. the original Scanned woth mS anner18 Data Communication & Networks signal at the beginning of the transmission is not the same as the signal at the Receiver. There are three causes of impairment: attenuation, distortion, and noise as shown below: fy {Attenuation |,| Delay distortion | Noise Attenuation For the receiver to interpret the data accurately, the signal must be sufficiently strong. When the signal passes through the medium, it tends to get weaker. As it covers distance, it loses strength. Dispersion a As signal travels through the media, it tends to spread and overlaps. The amount of dispersion depends upon the frequency used. Delay distortion Signals are sent over media with pre-defined speed and frequency. If the signal speed and frequency do not match, there are possibilities that signal reaches destination in arbitrary fashion. In digital media, this is very critical that some bits reach earlier than the previously sent ones. Noise ‘ndom disturbance or fluctuation in analog or digital signal is said to be Noise in signal, which may distort the actual information being carried. : . Noise can be characterized in one of the following class: Scanned woth CamScannerIntroduction to Data Communications i Thermal Noise 19 Heat agitates the electronic conductors of a medium which may introduce noise in the media. Up to a certain level, thermal noise is unavoidable. ii Intermodulation When multiple frequencies share a medium, their interference can cause noise in the medium. Inter modulation noise occurs if two different frequencies are sharing a medium and one of them has excessive strength or the component itself is not furictioning properly, then the resultant frequency may not be delivered as expected. iti. Crosstalk This sort of noise happens when a foreign signal enters into the media. This is because signal in one medium affects the signal of second medium. iv. Impulse This noise is introduced because of irregular disturbances such as lightening, electricity, short-circuit, or faulty components. Digital data is mostly affected by this sort of noise. 1.2 DATA REPRESENTATION Data is collection of raw facts which is processed to deduce information. There may be different forms in which data may be represented. Some of the forms of data used in communications are as ~ follows: 1. Text Text includes combination of alphabets in small case as well as upper case. Scanned woth CamScanner1.10 Data Communication & Networks It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system : ASCII, Unicode. 2. Numbers Numbers include combination of digits from 0 to 9. 3. Images ‘An image is worth a thousand words. In computers images are digitally stored. A Pixel is the smallest element of an image. To put it in simple terms, a picture or image is a matrix of pixel elements. | 4 j The pixels are represented in the form of bits. Depending upon the type of image (black n white or color) each pixel would require different number of bits to represent the value of a pixel. The size of an image depends upon the number of pixels (also called resolution) and the bit pattern used to indicate the value of each pixel. | 4. Audio , / Data can also be in the form of sound which can be recorded and broadcasted. Example: What we hear on the radio is a source of data i or information. Audio data is continuous, not discrete. 5. Video Video refers to broadcasting of data in form of picture or movie Scanned woth CamScannerboth directions simultaneously. Each end of the I Introduction to Data Communications 1.11 1.3 DATA FLOW (OR) TRANSMISSION MODES The devices communicate with each other by sending and receivin; data. The data can flow between the two devices in the following aye, 1. Simplex 2. Half Duplex 3. Full Duplex 1. Simplex A simplex connection is a connection in which the data flows in only one direction, from the transmitter to the receiver. This type of connection is useful if the data do not need to flow in both directions (for example, from your computer to the printer or from the mouse to your computer...) 2. Half Duplex A half-duplex connection (sometinies called an alternating connection or semi-duplex) is a connection in which the data flows in one direction or the other, but not both at the same time. With this type of connection, each end of the connection transmits in turn. This type of connection makes it possible to have bidirectional communications using the full capacity of the line. 3. Full Duplex ection in which the data flow in ine can thus transmit which means that the bandwidth is divided sion if the same transmission A full-duplex connection is a conn and receive at the same time, in two for each direction of data transmis: medium is used for both directions of transmission. Scanned woth CamScannerData. Communication & Networks B e Simplex A to B only LB | —_SFSFSFSFSFSS B Half-Duplex A to B or B toA A Full-Duplex A to B or B toA Fig : 1.3 Data flow 1.4 COMPUTER NETWORK Computer Networks are used for data communications. Definition: A computer network can be defined as a collection of nodes. A node can be any device capable of transmitting or receiving data. The communicating nodes have to be connected by communication links. A Compute network should ensure that: Reliability of the data communication process. Security of the data. Performance by achieving higher throughput and smaller delay times. Distributed Processing Networks use distributed processing in which a task is divided among multiple computers. Scanned woth CamScanherIntroduction to Data Communications _Introduction to Data Communications 113. 1.13 The Advantages of distributed processing includes Security/ Encapsulation- A system designer can limit the kinds of interactions that a given user can have with the entire system. Distributed databases- No one system needs to provide storage capacity for the entire database Faster problem solving- Multiple computers working on parts of a problem concurrently often can solve the problem faster than a single machine working alone. Security through redundancy- Multiple computers running the same program at the same time can provide security through redundancy. Collaborative processing- Both multiple computers and multiple users may interact on a task. Types of Connection devices connected through links. A link A network is two or more device to is a communications path way that transfers data from one another. Point-to-point: provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. This connection uses an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends. ‘on in which more than Multi-point: also called multidrop connecti , a le link. The capacity of the signal is two specific devices share a singl shared either spatially or temporally. Scanned woth CamScanner4.14 Data Communication & Networks Network Topology The term topology refers to the way a network is laid out either physically or logically. Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (nodes) to each other. Topology Mesh Star Tree Bus Ring Mesh In mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device. Dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects. A mesh network has n (n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices. Station Station Station Station Station Fig : 1.4 Mesh 4 Scanned woth CamScannerIntroduction to Data Communications 11 ———_— ets 15 Star + In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point to point link only to a central controller usually called a hub. Star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. in a star, each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect to any number of others. The devices are not directly linked to each other. A star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: if one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device. The request and response send via only the hub. station ; 7 [ station | [station [sation ] Fig : 1.5 Star Ring topology + Ina ring topology, ¢ Asignal is passed along the ring in > Aringi ach device has a dedicated point to point connection with only the two devices on either side of it. one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination. is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Scanned woth CamScanner1.16 Data Communication & Networks Ring topology was preventing when UBM introduced its local area network token ring. ® The unidirectional the data path will be in one direction. If the bidirectional the data path will be in both direction. Fig: 1.6" + A tree topology is.a variation of a star. ~ As in a star, nodes in a tree are linked to a central hub that controls the traffic to the network. The central hub in the tree is active hub. ~ The active hub contains a repeater, which is a hardware device that regenerates the received bit patterns before sending them out. Hub Hub Hub Fig: 1.7 Scanned woth CamScannerIntroduction to Data Communications Bus Topology 4 Abus topology is called as multipoint. One long cable acts as a back bone to link all the devices in the network. 4 Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. ~ Addrop line is a connection running between the device and the main cable. ~ A tap is connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core. Droplines Droplines Fig: 1.8 Hybrid topologies A network can be hybrid. For example we can have a main star topology with each branch connecting several stations in a bus topology. Categories of Network Networks are categorized on the basis of their size. The three basic ~ categories of computer networks are: A. Local Area Networks (LAN) is usually limited to a few kilometers of area. It may be privately owned and could.be a network inside an office on one of the floor of a building or a LAN could be a network consisting of the computers in @ entire building. Scanned woth CamScann1.18 Data Communication & Networks B. Wide Area Network (WAN) is made of all the networks in @ (geographically) large area. The network in the entire state of Maharashtra could be a WAN C. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is of size between LAN & WAN. It is larger than LAN but smaller than WAN. It may comprise the entire network in a city like Mumbai. 1.5 NETWORK HARDWARE The two dimensions that fit for computer networks are: ~ Transmission Technology + Scale Classification of networks according to transmission technologies: Broadcast networks: Broadcast networks are networks with single communication channel shared by all the machines. Packets sent by any machine are received by all others. Point-to-point networks: This network consist of many connection between individual pairs of machines. A packet on its way from the source to the destination may go through intermediate machines. Classification of networks by Scale Inter-processor: In this scale the data flow machines are highly parallel with functional units. Multi-computers: This system will communicate through very fast buses. The multi computers are the true networks, computers communicating over longer cables. Scanned woth CamScannerIntroduction to Data Communications 1.5.1 Personal Area Networks The devices communicate over the ran, smallest network which is very personal to range up to 10 meters, ie of a person is PAN, It is user. PAN has connectivity Acommon example is a wireless network that connects a computer with its peripherals. Almost every computer has an attached monitor, keyboard, mouse and printer, This may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices, Fig: 1.9 1.5.2 LAN (Local Area Networks) Alocal area network (LAN) is anumber of computers and computer peripherals (disc storage devices, printers) connected by high speed data lines within a building or adjacent buildings. a3 LAN file mail server = server Fig: 1.10 - Scanned with CamScanner1.20 Data Communication & Networks —\W ue coomunication & Networks ~ LANs are restricted in ze, + LANs transmission technology often consists of a single cable ~ The possible topologies for broadcast LANs are Bus & Ring. 1.5.3 MAN (Metropolitan Area Networks) Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) covers a city. The best-known example of a MAN is the cable television network available in many cities. C}}—— oa ac fal faa faa (29 jg af [20 jg.00) [oo goo) Fig: 1.11 It is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity, normally to the internet, and have endpoints spread over a city or part of city. 1.5.4 WAN (Wide Area Networks) .Wide Area Networks (WAN) covers country or continent. It contains a collection of machines (hosts). The hosts are connected by 4 communication subnet (or) subnet. The hosts are people’s personal computers and the communication subnet may be a telephone company or Internet service provider. Scanned woth CamScannerIntroduction to Data Communications 1.21 Components of Subnet ‘Transmission Lines: Transmission lines move data between machines. They can be made of copper wire or optical fiber. Switching Elements: Switching elements are special computers that connect three or more transmission lines. When data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element must choose an outgoing line to forward them. These switching elements are also called as router. Meaning of Subnet ‘The collection of communication lines and routers form the subnet. It moves packets from the source host to the destination host. Sub Rout Fig: 1.12 1.6 NETWORK SOFTWARE 1.6.1 Protocol Hierarchies Networks are organized as a stack of layers or levels. The number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each layer and the function of each layer differ from network to network. The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the next layer and each layer is a kind of virtual machine. Layer n on one machine can communicate with layer non another machine. The rules used in this communication are collectively known ved WoEk CamScanner1.22 Data Communication & Networks as the layer n protocol. A'protocol is an agreement between the sender and receiver about what, how and when the communication is to proceed. The entities in the corresponding layers on different machines are called peers. The peers can communicate by using the protocol. A five-layer network is shown in following figure. Host 1 Layer 5 protocol 222 [tayers Keres > Layer 5 Layer 4/5 interface | Tayer4 >| Layer4 Layer 3/4 interface Travers fe -EOver Protocol | sf Layers Layer 2/3 imetace | Layer 2 Layer 2 Layer 1/2 interface i Layer1 je --Laver protocol | Physical medium Fig: 1.13 Data are not directly transferred from layer n on one machine to layer n on another machine. Instead, each layer passes data to the next layer until the lowest layer is reached. Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which actual communication occurs. In figure, virtual communication is shown by dotted lines and physical communication by solid lines. Between each pair of adjacent Scanned woth Came: erIntroduction to Data Communicati 1.23 layers is an interface. The interface defines operations and services to be performed by the next layer. A set of layers and protocols is called the network architecture. A list of protocols used by the network architecture, one protocol per layer is called a protocol stack. 1.6.2 Design Issues for the Layers The key design issues for the computer network layers are: 1. Addressing Each layer needs a method for identifying senders and receivers. Since a network has many computers (i.¢.,) multiple destinations. So, some form of addressing is needed in order to specify a specific destination. 2. Rules for Data Transfer % In some systems, data only travel in one direction; in others, data can go both ways. ~ The protocol must determine how many channels the connection contains and what their priorities are. ~ Many networks provide two channels per connection, one for normal data and one for urgent data. 3. Error Control Error control is an important factor when the physical communication mediums are not perfect. ~ Many error-detecting and error-correcting codes are available. So, sender and receiver must agree on which one is being used. Scanned woth CamScanner1.24 Data Communication & Networks The receiver may tell the send correctly received and which have not. ler which messages have been 4. Flow Control ~ Flowcontrol is needed when a fast sender wants to communicate with a slow receiver. % Flow control is achieved by sending feedback from the receiver to the sender about the receiver’s current situation. 5. Routing When there are multiple paths between source and destination, a route must be chosen. This is called routing. 1.6.3 Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services Layers can offer two different types of services to the next layers they are: * Connection-Oriented * Connectionless. 1, Connection-Oriented Service ‘ A well-known example for connection-oriented service is the telephone system. ; To use a connection-oriented network service, the user first establishes the connection, uses the connection and then releases the connection. A connection is just like a tube: the sender pushes bits at one end and the receiver takes them out at the other end. Scanned woth CamScann erIntroduction to Data Communications 1.25 ee eS dS In most cases, the order is maintained so that the bits arrive in the order they were sent. 2. Connectionless Service A well-known example for connectionless service is the postal system. Each message (letter) carries the full destination address, and each message is routed through one of multiple paths. When two messages are sent to the same destination, the first ‘one sent will be the first one to arrive. However, it is possible that the first one sent can be delayed so that the second one arrives first. |. Quality of Service Each service can be characterized by a quality of service. Some services are reliable that they never lose data. A reliable service is implemented by having the receiver acknowledge the receipt of each message so the serider is sure ‘that it arrived. . Datagram Service Unreliable (not acknowledged) connectionless service is ofte called as Datagram service, which does not return an acknowledgemer: to the sender, 5. Acknowledged Datagram Service It is like sending a registered letter and requesting a returs. Teceipt. When the receipt comes back, the sender is sure that the letic was delivered properly to the receiver. T woth Can ‘Seana?1.26 Data Communication & Networks 6. Request-Reply Service ‘ In this service, the sender transmits a request and the receiver transmits the reply. Ex: Client-Server Model; The client issues the request and the server responds to it. 1.6.4 Service Primitives A service is specified by a set of primitives (operations). These primitives perform some action. The set of primitives available depends on the nature of the service being provided. The primitives for connection-oriented service are different from connectionless service. Primitive Meaning LISTEN Waiting for connection CONNECT Establishes a connection SEND Send.a message RECEIVE Receive the message DISCONNECT Terminate the connection The following figure shows communication between client and server on a connection-oriented network. Ld needs the following steps to be performed; The client asking the server to connect with it. ~The server acknowledges the request. + The client requests the server for data transmission. _— _ ~ Scanned woth CamScannerIntroduction to Data Communications 1.27 The servers reply whether it is ready or not. If the server is ready, then transmission occurs: otherwise not. Client releases the connection. Server releases the connection. 1. Connect Request = 2..Acknowledge 3. Request for Data 4, Reply (Data Transferred) 5. Disconnect 6. Disconnect ~——“ Client Server Fig: 1.14 1.7 REFERENCE MODELS The OSI Model ‘An architectural model developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) is frequently used to describe the structure and function of data communications protocols. This architectural model, which is called the Open Systems Interconnect Reference Model (Osn, provides a common reference for discussing communications. The OSI Reference Model contains seven layers that define the functions of data communications protocols. Each layer of the OSI model represents a function’ performed when data is transferred between cooperating applications across an intervening network. The diagram identifies each layer by name and provides a short functional - description for it. Scanned weth CamScanner1.28 Data Communication & Networks nee The OSI Reference Model A layer does not define a single protocol - it defines a data communications function that may be performed by any number of protocols. Therefore, each layer may contain multiple protocols; each providing a service suitable to the function of that layer. For example, a file transfer protocol and an electronic mail protocol both provide user services, and both are part of the Application Layer. 7 Application Layer consists of application programs that use the network. 6 Presentation Layer standardizes data presentation to the applications. 5 Session Layer manages sessions between applications. 4 Transport Layer provides end-to-end error detection and correction, 3. Network Layer manages connections across the network for the physical link. 2 Datalink Layer Provides reliable data delivery across the physical link. 1 Physical Layer defines the physical characteristics of the network media.. Every protocol communicates with its peer. A peer is an implementation of the same protocol in the equivalent layer on aremote system; i.e., the local file transfer protocol-is the peer of a remote file transfer protocol. Peer-level communications must be standardized for successful communications to take place. In the abstract, each protocol is concerned only with communicating to its peer; it does not care Scanned woth CanIntroduction to Data Communications 1.29 ————aararerowemve ows), about the layer above or below it. Although the OSI model is useful, the TCP/IP protocols don’t match its structure exactly. Therefore, in our discussions of TCP/IP, we use the layers of the OSI model in the following way. Name of unit Layer Exchanged Application protocol A “Application }< PP. P >| Application APDU [merce Presentation protocol. 5 Presentation € ~~~ ~~~" ==" ~ aa >| Presentation PPDU Interface « a Session protocol 2 gsc ¥ 3 5 3 3 a Transport }<---- 5 Communication subnet boundary ani Internal subnet protocol Network }g—to{ Network Lap Network |< p{ Network: | is Data link 3] Data link) Data link/<}—>)_ Data link | by Physical Physical Physical ke}—>! Physical ]pit Host A Router Router Host B ¥ |_physical layer host-router protocol Data link layer host-router protocol ‘— Network layer host-router protocol Fig: 1.15Data Communication & Networks The application layer consists of variety of protocols that are commonly needed by users. e widely used application protocol is HTTP (HyperText oon is for the World Wide Web. Transfer Protocol), which is the basi 4 When a browser wants a web page, it sends the name of the page it wants to the server by using HTTP. The server sends the page back. Presentation Layer Presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted. ~ There are diffetent' data representations. available ‘to communicate. So, the data structures to be exchanged must be defined. + Atypical example of this service is encoding data in a standard agreed upon way. Session Layer The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them. Sessions offer various services, They are; ~ Dialog Control: It means who transmit néxt. ~ Token Management: Preventing sender and receiver from attempting the same operation at the same time. > Synchronization: Allows users to ‘continue from where they met a crash. : Scanned woth CamScanne fIntroduction to Data Communications 131 Transport Layer ~ The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from session layer, split up into smaller units and pass these to the network layer without any error. > The transport layer also determines what type of service to provide to the network layer. The type of service is determined when the connection is established. The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer (i.e.,) a program on the source machine can communicate with the similar program on the destination machine. Layers | through 3 are chained and layers 4 through 7 are end- to-end, which is illustrated in figure. Network Layer The network layer controls the operation of the subnet. It’s determining how packets are routed from source to destination. It also provides the quality of service. Data Link Layer ~ The main task of the data link layer is to transmit the data into the network layer with out any errors. ~ Itaccomplishes this task by breaking up the input data into data frames and transmits them sequentially. ~ Ifthe service is reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of each frame by sending back an acknowledgement. Scanned woth CamScannerVe iat Communication & Nees Physical Layer | © The main task of the physical layer is to transmit raw bits over a communication channel. & The Physical Layer defines the characteristics of the hardware needed to carry the data transmission signal. Features such as voltage levels, and the number and location of interface pins, are defined in this layer. Examples of standards at the Physical Layer are interface connectors such as RS232C and V335, and standards for local area network wiring such as TEEE 802.3. TCP/IP does not define physical standards - it makes use of existing standards. ~ When one side sends a 1 bit, it is received by the other side as a1 bit, not as a 0 bit. . 1.8 TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Interet Protocol. ‘he TCP/IP reference model provides the abil lity to connect multiple networks. TCP/IP Scanned woth CamScannerIntroduction to Data Communications 1.33 Internet Layer & The job of the Internet layer is to permit hosts to send packets into any network that travel to the destination on a different network. The Internet layer defines the packet format and protocol called IP (Internet Protocol). The job of the Internet layer is to deliver IP packets to the destination. The Internet layer is similar to the OSI network layer as shown in figure. 1 Transport Layer It allows peer entities on the source and destination to communicate just as in the OSI transport layer. ‘Two end-to-end transport protocols have been defined here. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) It is a reliable connection-oriented protocol that allows flow of bytes from one machine to another machine in the Internet without any error. ~ It fragments the incoming bytes into smaller units and passes each one.on to the Internet layer. At the destination, the receiving process reassembles the received data. UDP (User Datagram Protocol) + It is an unreliable connectionless protocol. It gives more Scanned woth CamScann er134 Data Communication & Networks ; important to the delivery of data rather than accurate delivery, ~ The relation of IP, TCP and UDP is shown in figure. Application ‘Transport Internet Link|| DSL SONET | | 802.11 | | Ethernet Fig: 1.17 Application Layer The TCP/IP model does not have session and presentation layers. On top of the transport layer is the application layer. b It contains all the higher-level Protocols such as TELNET, © FTP, SMTP and DNS as shown in figure, t * TELNET: The virtual terminal Protocol allows a user on one © machine to log onto a distant machine and work there, a i * FIP: The File Transfer Protoci ‘ol provides a way to move data » from one machine to another. * SMTP: The Simple Mail Tran; sfer Protocol was developed for electronic mail. * DNS: The Domain Name § ystem is used to map host names onto their network addresses. 5 Host-to-Network Layer Below the Internet layer is an. empty space. The host has to conn Scanned woth CamScannerIntroduction to Data Communications 1.35 Se OMTANICRBONS NS to the network using some protocol so it can send IP packets to it. This protocol varies from host to host and network to network. Physical Layer The Physical Layer is the lowest layer in almost all reference models of computer networks. with CamScanner138 Data Communication & Networks 138 0 4.10 TRANSMISSION MEDIA _ The media, over which the information between two computer systems is sent, called transmission media. Transmission media comes in two forms. Transmission Media Guided Medium (Wired) Unguided Medium (Wireless) Twisted Pair Fiber-optic cable Radiowaves Coaxial Cable Microwaves Magnetic Media To transport data from one computer to another we can write them” onto magnetic tape or removable media (DVD) and transport the tape or disks to the destination machine and read them. Twisted Pair Cable A twisted pair cable is made of two plastic insulated copper wires ~ twisted together to form a single media. Out of these two wires, only one carries actual signal and another is used for ground reference. The ~ twists between wires are helpful in reducing noise (electro-magnetic. © interference) and crosstalk, There are two types of twisted pair cables: + Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable Stannta w wScannerPapewenrn— Introduction to Data Communications 139 + Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable Fig: 1.18 STP cables comes with twisted wire pair covered in metal foil. This makes it more indifferent to noise and crosstalk. UTP has seven categories, each suitable for specific use. In computer networks, Cat-5, Cat-Se, and Cat-6 cables are mostly used. UTP cables are connected by RJ45 connectors. . Coaxial Cable Coaxial cable has two wires of copper. The core wire lies in the center and it is made of solid conductor. The core is enclosed in an insulating sheath. The second wire is wrapped around over the sheath and that too in tum encased by insulator sheath. This all is covered by Plastic cover. Because of its structure, the coax cable is capable of carrying high frequency signals than that of twisted pair cable. The wrapped structure Provides it a good shield against noise and cross talk. Coaxial cables Provide high bandwidth rates of up to 450 mbps. Scanned woth CamScanner1.40 Data Communi 1400 Datta Communication & Nemworss | There are three categories of coax cables namely, RG-59 (Cable TV), RG-58 (Thin Ethernet), and RG-11 (Thick Ethernet). RG stands for Radio Government. Cables are connected using BNC connector and BNC-T. BNC terminator is used to terminate the wire at the far ends. ided Protective Insulating Brai alse Copper material outer ering core \ conductor . TN MOXA A Fig: 1.19 Fiber Optics ~ Fiber Optic works on the properties of light. When light ray hits at critical angle it tends to refracts at 90 degree. This property has been used in fiber optic. The core of fiber optic cable is made of ‘high quality glass or plastic. From one end of it light is emitted, it travels through it and at the other end light detector detects light stream and converts it to electric data. Fiber Optic provides the highest mode of speed. It comes in two modes, one is single mode fiber and second is multimode fiber. Single mode fiber can carry a single ray of light whereas multimode is capable of carrying multiple beams of light. ! Core (glass) Cladaing Jacket (glass) (plastic) Fig: 1.20 Scanned wothIntroduction to Data Communications 1.41 Fiber Optic also comes in unidirectional and bidirectional capabilities: To connect and access fiber optic special type of connectors are used. These can be Subscriber Channel (SC), Straight Tip (ST), or , MT-RJ. Wireless Transmission ‘Twisted pair, coaxial and fiber optics are of no use for mobile users. They need to get their data for their laptop, palmtop and mobiles without fixed connection. For this reason, wireless transmission is needed, which is very useful for the people who in mountains, jungles and oceans. Radio Transmission Radio waves are easy to generate, can travel long distances and can pass through buildings easily. So, they are widely used for communication, both indoors and outdoors. } Radio waves are omni-directional that they can travel in all directions from the source. So, the transmitter and receiver do not have to be aligned. , Ground Vesa (C Yo ok / Earth’s surface w @) Fig: 1.21 The properties of radio waves are frequency dependent. At low frequencies, radio waves pass through obstacles well, ‘Scanned With Car142 Data Communication & Networks a At high frequencies, radio waves travel in straight lines and Teflect obstacles. They are also absorbed by rain. In the LF and MF bands, radio waves follow the ground as illustrated in figure (a). These waves can be detected for 1000 km at the lower frequencies. AM radio broadcasting uses the MF band. Radio waves in these bands pass through buildings easily. In the HF and VHF bands, the earth absorbs the ground waves, ‘When the waves reaches the ionosphere at a height of 100 to 500 km, they are reflected by it and sent back to earth as shown in figure (b). FM radio and military uses the HF and VHF bands. Microwave Transmission a | Above 100 MHz, the waves travel in strai all the energy into a small beam b higher signal. ight lines. Concentrating y Means of an antenna gives a much i this case, the transmitting and Teceiving antennas must be accurately aligned with each other, These microwaves mainly used in long-distance telephone transmission system. Since the microwaves travel in a straight line, if the towers are at distant, repeaters are needed periodically. For 100-meter high towers, repeaters can be spaced at a distance of 80 km. Microwaves do not pass through buildings well. It is weather frequency dependent. as Scanned woth Can1.43 Introduction to Data Communications Fig : 1.22 Some waves may be reflected: by the atmospheric layers and may take longer time to arrive than the direct waves. ‘The delayed waves may arrive out of phase with the direct wave and thus cancel the signal. This effect is called multipath fading. The only solution to the multipath fading is to shut off links while the rain comes. Microwave communication is widely used for long-distance telephone communication, mobile phones and television distribution Infrared Transmission Unguided infrared and millimeter waves are widely used for short- Tange communication. The remote controls used on televisions, VCRs and CD player all use infrared communication. They are directional, chéap and easy to build. Drawback: They do not pass through solid objects. Advantage: Infrared waves do not pass through solid walls. Itmeans. that an infrared system in one room of a building will not interfere ae a similar system in nearby rooms. Thus we cannot control our Neighbor’s television with our remote control. Scanned woth CamScannerData Communication & Networks - nse is needed to operate an infrared system, t license is needed. 1.44 No government lice But to operate radio waves government 4.44 SWITCHING : ‘A network switch or switching is a computer networking device that connects devices on a computer network. ‘Two different switching techniques are used. Circuit Switching Packet Switching Circuit Switching ‘Whenever we make a call, the switching equipment within the telephone system try to find out a physical path all the way from our telephone to the receiver’s telephone. | This technique is called circuit switching and is shown in following figure. Each of the six rectangles represents a switching office (end office, toll office, etc.,). In this example, each office has three incoming lines and three outgoing lines. . When a call passes through @ switching office, a connection is established between the line on which the call came in and one of the output lines as shown by the dotted lines. Once a call has been set up, a dedicated path between both ends exists until the call is finished Packet Switching The alternative to circuit switching is packet switching, whieh. is. illustrated in. the-following figure. . Seanned woth CantIntroduction to Data Communications 1.45 With this technology, individual packets are sent as need be, with no dedicated path. It is up to each packet to find its way to the destination on its own. i, Physical cunccicn aap ‘Shen calls made @ ‘switching office renee! ce ‘transmission 7 Computer (b) Fig : 1.23 (a) Circuit Switching (b) Packet Switching 1.12 CABLE TELEVISION An alternative available for fixed networking is now becoming a major player: cable television networks. Many people already get their telephone and Internet service over the cable. doyyred Cable television was concéived in the late 1940s as a way to provide better reception to people living in rural or mountainous areas. In the following sections we will look at cable television as a networking system in more detail and contrast it with the telephone systems. Community Antenna Television This system initially consisted of a big antenna on top of a hill to pluck the television signal out of the air, an amplifier, called the head. end, to strengthen it, and a coaxial cable was used to deliver it. nee “Seamed with CamScanner1.46 Data Communication & Network, = RR Re<_ OO aay Fig: 1.24 In the early years, cable television was called Community Antenna Television. It was very much a mom-and-pop operation; anyone handy with electronics could set up a service for his town, and the users would chip in to pay the costs. As the number of subscribers grew, additional cables were spliced onto the original cable and amplifiers were added as needed. Internet over Cable The cable system grew and the cables between the various cities were replaced by high-bandwidth fiber, similar to what was happening in the telephone system. A system with fiber for the long-haul runs and coaxial cable to the users is called an HFC (Hybrid Fiber Coax) system. The electro-optical converters that interface between the optical and electrical parts of the system are called fiber nodes. Because the bandwidth of fiber is so much more than that of coax; a fiber nodé cat - feed multiple coaxial cables. ok a al dani The technical differences between the cable plant and telephone plant have an effect on what has to be done to achieve these goals, For one thing, all the one-way amplifiers in the system have to be replaced: by two-way amplifiers. 10 OP tream: ov Ow dawn SReac Har mwa, . 4 Scanned with C ASCANNELIntroduction to Data Communications 1.47, _Introduction to Data Communications _____—iA-AT. =, ea = ee foo ao} faomgco) [oO y—_Oo} [OO 7—_Oo 4 ——— ean &. -_ ea es (coal C “ foo 20] foojac} foo; oo} [O0%_,.00 ietat | _|____|___ at - Junction box: fact ix foo g_Oo) foop@_oo} [oo—g_oo) [oo ~—g. 0) Toll office Highsbandwith T Fiber Copper ‘Twisted pair Fig: 1.25 (a) Cable television. (b) The fixed telephone ne system Spectrum Allocation Cable television channels in North America normally occupy the 54-550 MHz region (except for FM radio from 88 to 108 MHz). These channels are 6 MHz wide, including guard bands. In Europe the low end is usually 65 MHz and the channels are 6-8 MHz wide for the higher resolution required by PAL and SECAM but otherwise the allocation scheme is similar. The low part of the band is not used. Modern cables oat ‘lao operate well above 550 MHz, often to 750 MHz.or more. The sohiGiakData Communication & Network, — introduce upstream channels in the 5-42 MHz bang frequencies at the high end for 1.48 chosen was to ii (slightly higher in Europe) and use the the downstream. $4254 88 aac Fig : 1.26 Frequency allocation in a typical cable TV system used for Intemet access. 7 Long coaxial cables are not any better for transmitting digital signals than are long local loops, so analog modulation is needed here, too. The usual scheme is to take each 6 MHz or 8 MHz downstream channel and modulate it with QAM-64 or, if the cable: quality i exceptionally good, QAM-256. With a 6 MHz channel and QAM-64, we get about 36 Mbps. When | the overhead is subtracted, the net payload is about 27 Mbps.” With QAM-256, the net payload is about 39 Mbps. Cable Modems Internet access requires a cable modem, a device that has two interfaces on it: one to the computer and one to the cable network the larger cable operators teamed up with a company called Cable Labs to produce a cable modem standard and to test products for compliance. ‘This standard, called DOCSIS (Data Over Cable Service Interface” ” Specification) is just starting to teplace proprietary modems. a Scanned woth CanIntroduction to Data Communications 10-Mbps Ethernet (or occasionally USB) at present. When a cable modem is plugged in and powered up. The modem scans the downstream channels looking for a special packet periodically put out by the headend to provide system parameters to modems that have just come on-line. Upon finding this packet, the new modem announces its presence on one of the upstream channels... The headend responds by assigning the modem to its upstream and downstream channels. The downstream .channels are managed differently from the upstream channels. Counce _Dowasrean ham! wt ote 21 Mbp wing QAM tod 1 pn Fee ——— XE | scat [7S eS ws Md = : Packet Upstream channel with contention : ‘9 Mbps using QPSK and 8-byte minislols Fig : 1.27 Upstream and downstream channels Scanned with CamScannerDota Communication & Networks 1.50 PART - & (2 MARKS) 1. What is meant by data communication? Data communications refers to the transmission of digital data \d a computer network or data between two or more computers an network is 2 telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange data. 2. List the chatercteristics of data communication. ‘The effectiveness of a data communication system depends on four fundamental characteristics: 1. Delivery 2. Accuracy 3. Timeliness 4. Jitter 3. Define Simplex, Half duplex, full duplex. Simplex A simple ion i ion i cnly one den, fom he iter econ Half Duplex A half-duplex connection ( alternating ‘sometimes. called connection or semi-duplex) is a connection in which ry data fic one direction or the other, but not both at the same time. eS Full Duplex A full-duplex connection is a connection i f 101 i both directions simultaneously. min which the data flow in. ie Scanned woth CanIntroduction to Data Communications 1.51 4, Define Noise. Random disturbance or fluctuation in analog or digital signal is said to be Noise in signal, which may distort the actual information being carried. Noise can be characterized in one of the following class: ~ Thermal Noise ~ Intermodulation + Crosstalk + Impulse 5. Define computer network. ‘A computer network can be defined as a collection of nodes. A node can be any device capable of transmitting or receiving data. The communicating nodes have to be connected by communication links. 6. Define Network Topology. The term topology refers to the way a network is laid out, either physically or logically. Two or more devices connect to a link; two.or more links form a topology. . The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and inking devices (nodes) to'each other. — 7. What are the different types of topology?. Topology . ' De) el el) oe Ait1.52 Data Communication & Networks TTS OOO OES eee 8. Define Flow control. + Flowcontrol is needed when a fast sender wants tocommunicate with a slow receiver. * Flow control is achieved by sending feedback from the receiver to the sender about the receiver’s current situation. 9. Define Error control. + Error control is an important factor when the physical communication mediums are not perfect. ~+ Many error-detecting and error-correcting codes are available, So, sender and receiver must agree on which one is being used, ~ The receiver may tell the sender which messages have been correctly received and which have not. 10. Define Routing. When there are multiple paths between source and destination, a route must be chosen. This is called routing. 11. What tasks are performed by the transport layer? Transport layer ensure data is sent and received suc betwéen two computes. If data is sent incorrectly this layer asks re-transmission. 12. What is a protocol? A communications protocol defines the rules for sending blocks of data from.one node in a network to another node. A protocol is used-for communication between entities in different systems oa Scanned woth CamScanneraa Introduction to Data Communications 13. What is a protocol data unit (PDU)? The combination of data from the next higher layer and control information is known as a protocol data unit (PDU), it is referred to as a transport protocol data unit. 14. What is a protocol architecture? A network architecture/protocol architecture is a structured set of protocols that implement the exchange of information between computers . 15. What is TCP/IP? TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) 16. List down the most significant transmission impairments. 1, Attenuation, 2. Delay distortion, 3. Noise 17, Whatis attenuation? Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a medium, it loses.some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium. 18. Differentiate between guided media and unguided media. With guided media, the electromagnetic waves are guided along an enclosed physical path whereas unguided media provide a means for transmitting electromagnetic waves but do not guide them. Scanned woth CamScanner7 1.54 Data Communication & Networks — ae 19. Why are the wires twisted in twisted-pair copper wire? The wires are twisted together to reduce the electrical interference from and cross talk between ‘adjacent pairs. 20. What are some major limitations of twisted-pair wire? Twisted pair wire is limited in distance, bandwidth, and data rate, 21. What is meant by switching? A network switch is a computer networking device that connects devices together on a computer network. 22. What are the types of switching? + Circuit Switching + Packet Switching Scanned with Cam.