Linear Algebra

Lecture 04

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti

IIT Dharwad

13 Jan 2020

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 04

 Summary of Lecture 3

• Goal to solve system of equations

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1 (1)

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2 (2)
.. .. .. .. ..
. . . . .
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm , (m)

Equivalently, if A = (aij ), then

Ax = b

• Back substitution method

• Row Echelon Form
• Gauss Elimination method

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 04

Proposition
Every m × n matrix can be transformed to REF by elementary row
operations.

Theorem Suppose an m×n matrix A is in a REF, and there are r nonzero

rows. Let the r pivots be in the columns j1 , . . . , jr with j1 < · · · < jr , and
let the columns `1 , . . . , `n−r be nonpivotal. Then

1. The linear system has a solution ⇐⇒ br +1 = · · · = bm = 0. This is

known as the consistency condition.
2. Let the consistency condition br +1 = · · · = bm = 0 be satisfied. Then
 T
we obtain a particular solution x0 := x1 · · · xn of the linear
system by letting xk := 0 if k ∈ {`1 , . . . , `n−r }, and then by
determining the pivotal variables xj1 , . . . , xjr by back substitution.

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 04

3. We obtain n − r basic solutions of the homogeneous linear system
Ax = 0 as follows. Fix ` ∈ {`1 , . . . , `n−r }. Define
 t
s` := x1 · · · xn by xk := 1 if k = `, while xk := 0 if
k ∈ {`1 , . . . , `n−r } but k 6= `. Then determine the pivotal variables
xk1 , . . . , xkr by back substitution.
 t
4. Let s := x1 · · · xn be any solution of the homogeneous system,
that is, As = 0. Then s is a linear combination of the n − r basic
solutions s`1 , . . . , s`n−r . Thus the general solution of the
homogeneous system is given by
s = α1 s`1 + · · · + αn−r s`n−r , where α1 , . . . , αn−r ∈ R .
5. The general solution of Ax = b is given by

x = x0 + α1 s`1 + · · · + αn−r s`n−r , where α1 , . . . , αn−r ∈ R,

provided the consistency condition is satisfied.

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 04

 Questions

(1) Let A ∈ Mm,n and A0 , A00 be REF’s of A.

r 0 = the number nonzero rows of A0 and
r 00 = the number of nonzero rows of A00 . What is a relation between r 0
and r 00 ?
(2) Why s`1 , . . . , s`n−r give all the solutions of Ax = 0 ? Are there any
other vectors which will give all solutions ?

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 04

 Today’s lecture outline

• Row Canonical Form (RCF)

• Elementary Matrices
• Inverse of a square matrix

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 04

 Row Canonical Form (RCF)
1 As we have seen, a matrix A may not have a unique REF. However,
a special REF of A turns out to be unique.
2 An m × n matrix A is said to be in a row canonical form (RCF) or
a reduced row echelon form (RREF) if
i. it is in a row echelon form (REF),
ii. all pivots are equal to 1 and
iii. in each pivotal column, all entries above the pivot are (also) equal to
0.

3 For example, the matrix

 
0 1 ∗ 0 0 ∗
0 0 0 1 0 ∗
A :=  
0 0 0 0 1 ∗
0 0 0 0 0 0

is in a RCF, where ∗ denotes any real number.

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 04
 Row Canonical Form (RCF)

1 Note: If A is in REF, then in each pivotal column, all entries below

the pivot are 0. If A is in fact in RCF and has r nonzero rows, then
the r × r submatrix formed by the first r rows and the r pivotal
columns is the r × r identity matrix I.
2 Suppose an m × n matrix A is in RCF and has r nonzero rows. If
r = n, then it has n pivotal columns,that
 is, all its columns are
I
pivotal, and so A = I if m = n, A =   if m > n, where I is the
O
n × n identity matrix and O is the (m − n) × n zero matrix.

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 04

 How to transform A to RCF ?

1 To transform an m × n matrix to a RCF, we first transform it to a

REF by elementary row operations of type I and II.
2 Then we multiply a row containing a pivot p by 1/p (which is an
elementary row operation of type III), and then we add a suitable
nonzero multiple of this row to each preceding row.
3 Every matrix has a unique RCF (Exercise: Show it by using
induction on n, the number of columns matrix has).

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 04

 Row Canonical Form (RCF)

Example  
−2 1 3 −2 0 2 0
 
1 3 0 2 0
2 6 −5 −2 4 −3EROs  0 0 −1 −2 0 −3
0 −−−−→ , which is
0 5 10 0 15   0 0 0 0 0 6
2 6 0 8 4 16 0 0 0 0 0 0
in REF,
   
1 3 0 4 2 6 1 3 0 4 2 0
EROs  0 0 1 2 0 3 EROs 0 0 1 2 0 0,
−−−−→0
−−−−→
0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

which is in RCF.

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 04

 Elementary Matrices
1 Definition: An elementary matrix (of a particular type) is a matrix
obtained from the identity matrix by a single elementary row
operation (of that type).
2 For example,
 
1
 .. 

 . 


 0 1 

Ti,j =
 .. 
 . 


 1 0 

 .. 
 . 
1
is an elementary matrix of type I.
3 Note that
• Ti,j · A is the matrix produced by exchanging row i and row j of A.
−1
• Ti,j = Ti,j .
Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 04
 Elementary Matrices
1 The matrix
 
1
 .. 

 . 


 1 

Ti,j (m) = 
 .. 
 . 


 m 1 

 .. 
 . 
1

is an elementary matrix of type II.

2 Note that
• Ti,j (m) · A is the matrix produced from A by adding m times row i
to row j.
• Ti,j (m)−1 = Ti,j (−m).

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 04

 Elementary Matrices
1 The matrix
 
1
 .. 

 . 


 1 

Ti (m) = 
 m 


 1 

 .. 
 . 
1

is an elementary matrix of type III.

2 Note that
• Ti (m) · A is the matrix produced from A by multiplying row i by m.

• Ti (m)−1 = Ti (1/m).

3 We have proved the following result:

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 04
Lemma
An elementary matrix is invertible and the inverse is also an elementary
matrix (of the same type).

Proposition
Elementary row operation of type I , II and III on A correspond to
pre-multiplying A by an elementary matrix of type I , II and III ,
respectively.

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 04

 Question

What does post-multiplying A by an elementary matrix (that is,

multiplying A by an elementary matrix on the right) corresponds to ?

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 04

Lemma
Let A be a m × n matrix and b a column vector, and E an invertible
m × m matrix. Set U = EA and c = E b. Then Ax = b has the same
solutions as Ux = c.

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 04

Lemma
If the augmented matrix [A|b] is transformed to a matrix [A0 |b0 ] by any
of the EROs, then Ax = b ⇐⇒ A0 x = b0 for x ∈ Mn,1 , that is, the linear
systems Ax = b and A0 x = b0 have the same solutions.

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 04

 Inverse of a square matrix

Definition
Let A be an n × n matrix. If there is an n × n matrix B such that
AB = In = BA then we say A is invertible and B is the inverse of A. The
inverse of A is denoted by A−1 .

Proposition
For any invertible square matrix A, (At )−1 = (A−1 )t .

Prof. Shreedevi K. Masuti, IIT Dharwad Linear Algebra: Lecture 04