Cell Structure

Topics Cells as the Basis of Life

Content Syllabus

What distinguishes one cell from another?

The Cell Theory and Historical Development

investigate different cellular
1. All organisms are made up of one or more cells
structure, including but not
2. Cells are the fundamental unit of life limited to:

3. All cells come from preexisting cells ~ examining a variety of

prokaryotic and

eukaryotic cells
In 1665 Robert Hooke was the first scientist to observe cells when he examined a
thin slice of cork bark under a microscope ~ describe a range of
technologies that are used
Hooke was limited by magnification and therefore he was only able to observe
plant cells to determine a cell’s
structure and function

In 1665, Mattias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann put forward an outline for cell
theory

Some cellular components, such as the nucleus, had been visualised, and the
occurrence of these structures in cells of different tissues and organisms hinted
at the possibility that cells of similar organisation might underlie all living
matter

Together, they proposed: all organisms are made up of one or more cells and
cells are the fundamental unit of life

Later in 1858 Rudolf Virchow added that all cells come from preexisting cells

Types of Cells

Different types of cells in organisms can be classified as either prokaryotic or

eukaryotic.

Prokaryotic cells are ‘primitive’ cells and have a much simpler structure than
eukaryotic
cells. There are many more prokaryotic cells on Earth than there are eukaryotic
cells.

Although these two types of cells have many differences, they share basic
similarities, with each possessing a cell membrane, cytoplasm and ribosomes
(structures that produce proteins in the cell).

Prokaryotes

Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that possess a simpler structure than a

eukaryote

They do not contain membrane bound organelles. However possess a cell

membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm, ribosome

Their genetic material is also concentrated in a region called a nucleiod.

Some DNA is stored in a circular plasmid

Cell Structure 1
 Range in size from 0.1 to 0.5 μm

There are two main groups of prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea

Bacteria

Bacteria can be found in many different environments and can be either beneficial
or harmful to living organisms.

They live in a wide range of different habitats where temperatures are moderate,
water is freely available and low in salt or other solutes, and sunlight or organic
compounds are plentiful.

Oxygen is not a necessary requirement as many bacteria can undergo

fermentation processes or oxidation processes to make energy and food

Cyanobacteria are a group of bacteria that resemble algae and

plants as they contain chlorophyll and can produce oxygen through
photosynthesis

Archaea

Archaea are often extremophiles which are able to tolerate extreme conditions that
other organisms cannot

Methanogens can survive oxygen limited environments, they can

synthesis methane from carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas (thus
inhabiting anaerobic environments on Earth)

Eukaryotes

Eukaryotes as unicellular or multicellular that possess a more complex structure

than a prokaryote

They do have membrane bound organelles

They store their genetic material in a nucleus

Range in size from 10 to 100 μm

There are four main groups of eukaryotes: Protists, Plants, Animals and Fungi

Protists

They are typically single-celled or colonial organisms that lack a cell wall.

Plasmodium parasite are parasitic and cause malaria. Other

examples of protists include amoeba and algae

Plants

Plants are autotrophs that produce their own food through photosynthesis. They
possess distinct characteristics such as a thick cell wall and a large vacuole

Animals

Animals are multicellular organisms that can usually respond rapidly to stimuli
using sensory cells and a nervous system

Cell Structure 2
 Fungi

They are a kingdom of usually multicellular eukaryotic organisms that are

heterotrophs (cannot make their own food) and have important roles in nutrient
cycling in an ecosystem.

Technologies

Light Microscope

This technology allowed scientists to observe the overall structure of cells and
their sub-cellular structure. This was the first type of microscope to be invented and
is still the most commonly used type of microscope due to its relative cheapness
and ease of transport. It has the advantage of allowing scientists to view live
specimens.

To use a light microscope, a slide containing the biological specimen is prepared

and placed on the stage. Light from the light source passes through the specimen,
through the lenses and up towards the eyepiece.

They can produce images with a magnification of up to 1500x depending on the

lens used. Whereas the maximum resolution is about 200nm, this means that the
microscope will be able to distinguish two objects if the distance between them is
200nm or more.

Magnification is a ratio of the enlargement of an image, usually expressed as

~ Light Microscope
multiple of a number. To calculate the total magnification of an object viewed under
a microscope, multiply the power of the objective lens and the power of the
eyepiece.

Resolution is the ability of a lens system to show fine details of the object being
observed. To measure the resolution determine the shortest distance between two
points on a specimen that can still be distinguished as separate entities.

Fluorescence Microscopes

The fluorescence microscope is similar to the light microscope. It has extra features
that enable scientists to produce images of specific parts of cells.

The sample to be viewed is labelled with a fluorescent substance that will attach to
the structures that the scientist wants to specifically observe. The sample is
illuminated with a high-intensity source of light that causes the fluorescent
substance to emit light. This fluorescent light is directed through filters that separate
it from surrounding light and the viewer is able to see only those areas of the
sample that are fluorescing.

Structures beyond the limit of resolution of the light microscope can be seen using
this microscope. Therefore it has a resolution greater than 200nm.

Confocal Laser

Confocal laser scanning microscopy can be used to highlight the three-

dimensional structure of samples being studied. A laser produces a narrow
intense beam of light that is focused to a pinpoint on the sample while all the
surrounding, out-of-focus areas are not included in the image.

This focusing occurs many times through the specimen at different levels. An image
reconstruction program puts together the data from the images taken at different
~ Fluorescent Microscopy
levels and constructs a three-dimensional image. These microscopes are often

Cell Structure 3