Melanocytes – produce melanin; irregularly shaped

INTEGUMENTARY cells; s. basale

SYSTEM Melanosomes – vesicles derived from GA where

melanin is produced
§ It consists of the skin, and accessory structures
such as hair, glands, and nails.
Factors of Melanin Production
Functions of the Integumentary S. (PSVTE) a. Genetic factors
1. Protection b. Exposure to UV light
2. Sensation c. Hormones
3. Vitamin D production
4. Temperature regulation Albinism - recessive genetic trait that causes deficiency
5. Excretion / absence of melanin

Skin Cyanosis - bluish skin color; decreased blood O2

Epidermis
Carotene – yellow pigment in plants (squash, carrots);
§ Most superficial layer
source of vitamin A
§ Stratified squamous epithelium
§ In deepest layers, mitosis occurs Birthmarks – congenital disorder of the capillaries in the
dermis
Keratinization – cells change shape and chemical
composition; cells become filed with the protein keratin Subcutaneous Tissue
(hard) § Attaches the skin to underlying bones
– transformation of the living cells
§ Also called the hypodermis
of the stratum basale into the dead squamous cells of the
stratum corneum § Loose connective tissue
§ Storage of our body’s fat (padding, insulation)
Stratum basale – deepest; cuboidal & columnar cells,
undergo mitosis every 19 days Accessory Skin Structure
Hair
Stratum corneum – most superficial stratum; dead § Columns of dead, keratinized epithelial cells
squamous cells filled with keratin (structural strength); § Produced in the hair bulb
lipids (prevent fluid loss); joined by desmosomes
Hair follicle – where each hair rises
Callus – thickened area Shaft – above the skin
Root – below the skin
Corn – bony prominence, thickened corn shaped Hair bulb – site of hair cell formation
structure Cortex – hard keratin
Medulla – soft central core
Dermis Cuticle – single layer of overlapping cells that holds the
§ Dense collagenous connective tissue, contains hair in the hair follicle
fibroblasts, adipocytes, macrophages
§ Nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles, glands, Growth Stage
lymphatic vessels § Hair is formed by epithelial cells within the hair
bulb
Collagen (resist stretching) & elastic fibers – structural § Divide and undergo keratinization
strength § Hair root + shaft = columns of dead keratinized
epithelial cells
Cleavage lines/Tension lines – collagen fibers are
oriented in some directions; skin is most resistant to Resting Stage
stretch along these lines § Growth stops
§ Hair is held in the hair follicle
Stretch marks – skin is overstretched, leaving lines that
are visible Next growth stage
§ A new hair is formed
Dermal papillae – contain blood vessels that supply the § The old hair falls out
epidermis with nutrients, remove waste products, and
regulate body temperature Eyelashes – grow for about 30 days; rest for 105 days

Skin Color Scalp hairs – grow for 3 years; rest for 1 – 2 years
Melanin – pigments responsible for skin, hair, eye color
Arrector Pili – smooth muscles; contraction = hair to
Melanin pigments – yellow (Caucasian), brown stand on end; produces goose bumps
(Asians), black (African)

M o r a n o , M . A .
Glands
I. Sebaceous Glands 3. Vitamin D Production
§ Simple, branched acinar glands § Skin exposed to UV light produces
§ Connected by a duct to the superficial part of cholecalciferol (modified in the liver, then in the
the hair follicle kidneys to produce active vitamin D)
§ Sebum – oily, white substance rich in lipids; § Best sources of Vit. D = fatty fish, vit. D
released by holocrine secretion; lubricates the fortified milk
hair/surface of the skin (prevents drying and § Small amounts of Vit D = eggs, butter, liver
protects against bacteria) § Active Vit. D stimulates the small intestine to
absorb calcium and phosphate (normal bone
II. Sweat Glands growth, normal muscle function)
a. Eccrine Sweat Glands
Ø Simple, coiled, tubular glands 4. Temperature Regulation
Ø Release sweat by melocrine § Normal body temp. = 37oC (98.6 oF)
secretion § Rate of chemical rxns within the body can
Ø Numerous in the palms and soles increased of decreased based on the body temp.
b. Apocrine Sweat Glands § Factors that raise body temperature
Ø Simple, coiled, tubular glands Ø Exercise
Ø Produce a think secretion rich in Ø Fever
organic substances Ø Increase in environmental
Ø Released primary by melocrine temperature
secretion; some glands demonstrate § The skin controls heat loss from the body
holocrine secretion through dilation and constriction of blood
Ø Open into hair follicles, in armpits vessels
and genitalia § Sweat glands produce sweat, which evaporates
Ø Become active at puberty and lowers body temperature
§ Heat is lost by radiation (infrared energy),
III. Other Glands convection (air movement), conduction (direct
a. Ceruminous glands – cerumen (earwax) contact)
b. Mammary glands – milk
5. Excretion
Nails § Skin glands remove water and salt
§ Dead stratum corneum cells § Also removes small amounts of urea, uric acid,
§ Contain a very hard type of keratin ammonia

Nail body – visible part of the nail Integumentary S. as a Diagnostic Aid

Nail root – part of the nail covered by skin Cyanosis – bluish color to the skin caused by decreased
Cuticle – eponychium; s. corneum that extends onto the blod O2 content
nail body
Nail matrix – produces the nail Jaundice – yellowish skin color caused by liver damage
Nail bed – contributes to nail formation (viral hepatitis)
Lunula – white, crescent-shaped area; part of the nail
matrix visible through the nail body Rashes & lesions - symptoms of problems elsewhere;
e.g. Scarlet fever causes reddish rash, allergic reaction to
Physiology of the Integumentary S. food or drugs can develop rashes
1. Protection
§ Reducing water loss Vitamin A Deficiency – excess keratin; sandpaper
§ Prevents microorganisms from entering the texture characteristic
body
§ Protects underlying structures against abrasion Iron Deficiency Anemia – nails become flat or concave
§ Hair on head = insulator
§ Eyebrows = keep sweat out of the eyes Lead Poisoning – high levels of lead in the hair
§ Eyelashes = protects the eyes from foreign
objects Burns
§ Hair in the nose, ears = prevents the entry of Burn – injury to a tissue caused by heat, cold, friction,
dust chemicals, electricity, and radiation
§ Nails = protect the ends of the fingers, toes from
damage; can be used in defense I. Partial-thickness Burns
§ S. basale remains viable;
2. Sensation § Regeneration of the epidermis occurs within the
§ Sensory receptors for pain, touch, hot, cold, burn area
pressure

M o r a n o , M . A .
 a. First-degree burns II. Squamous cell carcinoma
Ø Epidermis § Immediately superficial to the s. basale
Ø Red and painful § Cells continue to divide as they produce keratin
Ø Slight edema (swelling) = nodular, keratinized tumor confined to the
epidermis
b. Second-degree burns § Can invade the dermis, metastasize, and cause
Ø Epidermis, dermis death
Ø Epidermis regenerates from the
epithelial tissue III. Malignant melanoma
Ø Dermal damage is minimal; § Rare form of skin cancer that arises from
v Redness, pain, edema, blisters melanocytes; usually from a pre-existing mole
v Healing = 2 weeks § Mole – an aggregation or nest of melanocytes
v No scarring § Large, flat, spreading lesion or deeply
Ø Deep into the dermis pigmented nodule
v Red, tan, or white § Metastasis is common
v Takes several months to heal § Often fatal
v Might scar
FX of Aging on the Integumentary S.
II. Full-thickness Burns § Epidermis thins
a. Third-degree burns § Amount of collagen in the dermis decreases
Ø Epidermis, dermis, and underlying § Skin infections are most likely
tissues are completely destroyed § Repair of skin occurs slower
Ø Recovery occurs from the edges of § Decrease no. of elastic fibers in the dermis and
the burn wound loss of fat (sagging of skin, wrinkles)
Ø Region of the 3rd degree burn is § Decrease of activity of sweat glands = reduced
painless (sensory receptors have ability to regulate body temp.
been destroyed) § Decrease sebaceous gland activity = skin
Ø White, tan, brown, black, deep becomes drier
cherry red § Decrease no. of melanocytes
Ø Take a long time to heal § Some areas, the no. of melanocytes increase =
Ø Form scar tissue age spots
Ø Skin grafts are used to prevent § Increased melanin production = freckles; also,
complications and to speed healing gray/white hair
§ Skin that is exposed to sunlight = shows signs of
Skin Cancer aging more rapidly
§ Most common type of cancer
§ Exposure to UV light from the sun
§ Usually on face, neck, hands
§ Most like to have skin cancer = fair skinned or
older than 50
§ Limiting exposure to sun, using sunscreen;
reduces the likelihood of developing skin cancer
§ Ultraviolet light
Ø UVA
v Longer wavelength
v Causes most tanning of the skin
v Development of malignant
melanoma

Ø UVB
v Most burning of the skin
v Development of basal cell and
squamous cell carcinoma

I. Basal cell carcinoma

§ Most frequent type
§ S. basale and extends into the dermis to produce
an open ulcer
§ Cure; surgical removal or radiation therapy
§ Little danger of cancer to spread, metastasize

M o r a n o , M . A .
 Actin and Myosin Myofilaments
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Troponin molecules – binding sites for Ca2+; attached at
Functions (M2RPC3) specific intervals along the actin myofilaments
1. Movement of the body.
2. Maintenance of posture. Tropomyosin filaments – cover the attachment sites on
3. Respiration the actin myofilaments; located along the grove bet. the
4. Production of body heat twisted strands of actin myofilaments
5. Communication
6. Constriction of organs and vessels Myosin heads – resemble golf club heads;
7. Contraction of the heart Ø Bind to attachment sites
Ø Bend and straighten
Characteristics of the Skeletal Muscle Ø Break down ATP
Skeletal Muscle
§ Constitutes approx. 40% of body weight Sarcomere
§ Muscles are attached to the skeletal system § Basic structural and functional unit of skeletal
§ Also called Striated Muscle; transverse bands or muscle
striations
Z disk – network of protein fibers forming an
Major Functional Characteristics of Skeletal Muscle attachment site for actin myofilaments
1. Contractility – ability to shorten with force
2. Excitability – capacity to respond to a stimulus I band – consists of actin myofilaments; spans each Z
3. Extensibility – ability to be stretched to their disk
normal resting length
4. Elasticity – ability to recoil to their original A band – darker, central region that extends the length
resting length of the myosin of myofilaments

Skeletal Muscle Structure H zone – second light zone that consists of myosin
Connective Tissue Coverings of Muscle myofilaments
Epimysium/Muscular fascia – connective tissue sheath
that surrounds a skeletal muscle M line – dark-staining bands

Muscle fasciculi – numerous visible bundles that make The arrangement of the actin and myosin filaments in
up the muscle sacromeres gives the myofibrils a banded appearance.

Perimysium – loose connective tissue that surrounds the The alternating I bands and A bands of the sacromeres
muscle fasciculi are responsible for the striations in the skeletal muscle
fibers.
Muscle fibers – several muscle cells that composes a
fasciculus Excitability of Muscle Fibers
Resting membrane potential – cell membranes have a
Endomysium – loose connective tissue that surrounds a negative charge on the inside relative to a positive
muscle fiber charge outside; occurs bcos there is an uneven
distribution of ions
Muscle Fiber Structure 1. Concentration of K+ inside the cell CM >
Sarcolemma – cell membrane of the muscle fiber outside the CM
2. Concentration of Na+ outside the CM > inside
Transverse tubules (T tubules) – tube-like invaginations the CM
w/c occur at regular intervals along the muscle fiber
Different types of Ion Channels
Sarcoplasmic reticulum – highly organized smooth E.R.; Ø Nongated/Leak channels – always open
has a relatively high concentration of Ca2+ (muscle
contraction) Ø Chemically gated channels – closed until a
chemical binds them and stimulates them to
Sarcoplasm – cytoplasm of a muscle fiber open

Myofibrils – threadlike structures composed of: Depolarization – the inside of the CM membrane comes
Ø Actin Myofilaments (thin filaments; purple) more positive than the outside of the cell; Na+ ions
Ø Myosin Myofilaments (thick filaments; green) move into cells

Sarcomere – highly ordered, repeating units of actin + Repolarization – the change back to the resting
myosin myofilaments; joined end to end to form the membrane potential; K+ ions moves out of cells
myofibril
Action Potentials – the rapid depolarization and
repolarization of the CM; results in muscle contraction

M o r a n o , M . A .
Nerve Supply Aerobic Respiration – requires O2; breaks down glucose
Motor neurons – specialized nerve cells that stimulate to produce ATP, CO2, H2O
muscles to contract
Anaerobic respiration – doesn’t require O2; breaks
Neuromuscular junction – a branch that forms a down glucose to yield ATP and lactic acid
junction with a muscle fiber
Creatine phosphate – high-energy molecule that can be
Synapse – cell-to-cell junction bet. a nerve cell and stored in muscle fibers
another nerve cell/effector cell
Fatigue
Motor unit – a single motor neuron and all the skeletal § A state of reduced work capacity
muscle fibers it innervates
Muscular Fatigue – when muscle fibers use ATP faster
Presynaptic terminal – enlarged axon terminal than they are produced; when the effectiveness of Ca+ to
stimulate actin + myosin is reduced
Synaptic cleft – the space bet. the presynaptic terminal
and the muscle fiber membrane Physiological contracture – muscles may become
incapable of either contracting or relaxing
Postsynaptic membrane – the muscle fiber membrane
Psychological fatigue – involves the CNS; an individual
Synaptic vesicles – presynaptic terminal that contains perceives that continued muscle contraction is
small vesicles impossible

Acetylcholine (ACh) – neurotransmitter contained in Type of Muscle Contractions

the vesicles; a molecule released by a presynaptic nerve Isometric contractions – equal distance; length of the
cell that stimulates/inhibits a postsynaptic cell muscle does not change; the amount of tension increases
during the contraction process
Acetylcholinesterase – an enzyme that rapidly breaks
down the synaptic cleft bet. the neuron and the muscle Isotonic contraction – equal tension; the amount of
fiber tension produced by the muscle is constant during
contraction; length of the muscle decreases
Muscle Contraction Ø Cocentric contractions – isotonic; muscle
Sliding filament model – sliding of actin myofilaments tension increases as the muscle shortens
past myosin myofilaments during contraction Ø Eccentric contractions – isotonic; tension is
maintained in a muscle; the opposing resistance
Cross-bridges – myosin heads attach to the myosin causes the muscle to lengthen
attachment sites on the actin myofilaments
Muscle Tone
Muscle Twitch, Summation, Tetanus, Recruitment § Constant tension produced by body muscles
Muscle Twitch – contraction of a muscle fiber in over long periods of time
reponse to a stimulus § Responsible for keeping the back and legs
1. Lag/Latent Phase – time bet. the application of a straight, the head in an upright position, and the
stimulus and the beginning of contraction abdomen from bulging
2. Contraction Phase – time during which the
muscle contract Slow-Twitch and Fast-Twitch Fibers
3. Relaxation Phase – time during which the Classification of Muscle Fiber
muscle relaxes 1. Slow Twitch – contains type I myosin; contracts
slowly and resistant to fatigue respiration
Summation – the force of contraction of an individual
muscle fiber is increased by rapidly stimulating them 2.Fast Twitch
a. Type IIa – intermediate speed; more
Tetanus – convulsive tension; a sustained contraction fatigue resistant than type IIb
that occurs when the frequency of stimulus is so rapid b. Type IIb – contract 10x faster than type
that no relaxation occurs I
Ø Caused by Ca+ build up in the myofibrils Myglobin – stores oxygen temporarily
Recruitment – the no. of muscle fibers contraction is Hypertrophy – enlarging of muscle fibers
increased by the increasing no. of motor units stimulated
+ muscle contracts with more force Satellite cells – undifferentiated cells just below the
endomysium
Stimulus frequency – no. of times a motor neuron is
stimulated per second Smooth and Cardiac Muscle
Autorhythmicity – resulting periodic spontaneous
Energy Requirement for Muscle Contraction contraction of smooth muscle

M o r a n o , M . A .
Intercalated disks – specialized structures that facilitate Depressor anguli oris – frowning & pouting; depresses
action potential conduction bet. cells the corner of the mouth

Skeletal Muscle Anatomy Mastification (for chewing)

General Principles Temporalis – fan-shaped muscle
Tendon – muscle connected to a bone
Masseter – seen & felt on the side of the head
Aponeuroses – broad, sheet like tendons
Pterygoid (paired) – protraction, excursion, elevation of
Retinaculum – a band of CT that holds down the mandible
tendons at each wrist and ankle
Tongue and Swallowing Muscles
Origin – head; most stationary end of the muscle Intrinsic muscles – located within the tongue and
change its shape
Insertion – end of the muscle attached to the bone
undergoing the greatest movement Extrinsic muscles – attached to and move the tongue

Belly – part of the muscle bet. the origin & the insertion Hyoid muscles – hold the hyoid bone; elevate the larynx

Agonist – muscle that accomplishes a certain movement Pharyngeal elevators – elevate the pharynx

Antagonist – muscle acting in opposition to an agonist Pharyngeal constrictors – constrict the pharynx from
superior to inferior (forcing food into the esophagus);
Synergists – a group of muscles working together to also open the auditory tube
produce a movement
Neck Muscles
Prime Mover – muscle that plays the major role in Sternocleidomastoid – prime mover of the lateral
accomplishing desired movement muscle group; rotates the head; flexes the neck or
extends the head; prayer muscle
Fixators – muscles that hold one bone in place relative to
the body Torticollis – wryneck; injury to the sternocleidomastoid

Nomenclature Deep neck muscles – flexes/extends head and neck

1. Accdg. To Location – temporalis, frontalis,
pectoralis, brachialis Trapezius – extends and laterally flexes neck
2. Accdg. To Origin and Insertion – sterno
(sternum), cleido (clavicle), mastoid (mastoid II. Trunk Muscles
process), brachio (arm), radialis (radius) Muscles Moving the Vertebral Column
3. Accdg. To Number of Origin – biceps (2), Erector spinae – responsible for keeping the back
triceps, quadriceps straight and the body erect
4. Accdg. To Function – flexor (flexion)
5. Accdg. To Size – maximus (largest), minimus Deep back muscles – responsible for several movements
(smallest), vastus (large) of the vertebral column
6. Accdg. To Shape – deltoid (triangle), orbicularis
(circular) External intercostal – elevate the ribs during inspiration
7. Orientation of Fasciculi – rectus (straight)
Internal intercostal – contract during forced expiration,
I. Muscles of the Head and Neck depressing the ribs
Facial Expression
Occipitofrontalis – raises the eyebrows Diaphragm – major movement produced in the thorax
during quiet breathing
Orbicularis oculi – encircle the eyes, tightly close the
eyelids, and causes crow’s feet wrinkles Scalenes – inspiration and rib elevation

Orbicularis oris – encircles the mouth Abdominal Wall Muscles

Linea alba – tendinous area of the abdominal wall that
Buccinator – kissing muscles; pucker the mouth; flattens consists of white connective tissue
the cheeks I whistling/blowing
Rectus abdominis – located on each side of the linea
Zygomaticus – elevate the upper lip and corner of the alba
mouth
Tendinous intersections – causes the abdominal wall of
Levator labile superioris – sneering; elevates one side of a lean, well-muscled person to appear segmented
the upper lip

M o r a n o , M . A .
External/Internal abdominal oblique & Transversus Wrist and Finger Movements
abdominis – flex and rotate the vertebral column or Retinaculum – fibrous connective tissue that covers the
compress the abdominal contents flexor & extensor tendons and holds them in place
around the wrist
Pelvic Floor and Perineal Muscles
Pelvic Floor – pelvic diaphragm Flexor carpi – flex the wrist

Levator ani – muscle that forms the pelvic floor Extensor carpi – extend the wrist

Perineum – associated with the male/female Flexor digitorum – flexor of the digits/fingers
reproductive structures
Extensor digitorum – extension of the fingers
Perineum bulbospongiosus – constricts the urethra;
erects the penis, clitoris Intrinsic hand muscles – 19 muscles located within the
hand
Perineum ischiocavernosus – compresses the base of
penis/clitoris Interossei – responsible for abduction and adduction of
the fingers
Perineum external anal sphincter – keeps the orifice of
the anal canal closed Tennis elbow – inflammation and pain due to forceful,
repeated contraction of the wrist extensor muscles
III. Upper Limb Muscles
Scapular Movements Palmus longus – tightens palm skin
§ Attach the scapula to the thorax and move the
scapula IV. Lower Limb Muscles
§ Acts as fixators to hold the scapula firmly in Thigh Movements
position when the muscle of the arm contract Iliopsoas – flexes the hip
§ Move the scapula into different positions
v Trapezius Tensor fasciae latae – helps steady the femur on the tibi
v Levator scapulae when a person is standing
v Rhomboids
Gluteus maximus – extends the hip; adducts and
v Serratus anterior
laterally rottes the thigh; contributes most of the mass
v Pectoralis minor
Gluteus medius – extends the hop when the thigh is
Arm Movements flexed at a 45O angle; common site for injections in the
Pectoralis major – adducts the arm and flexes the buttocks (sciatic nerve lies deep to the g. maximus)
shoulder; extend the shoulder from a flexed position
Leg Movements
Latissimus dorsi – swimmer’s muscle; medially rotates
Quadriceps femoris – primary extensors of the knee
and adducts the arm and powerfully extends the
shoulder Sartorius – tailor’s muscle; longest muscle in the body;
flexes the hip and knee; rotates the thigh laterally for
Rotator cuff muscles – attached the humerus to the sitting cross legged
scapula and forms a cuff/cap over the proximal
humerus
Hamstring muscles – flexing the knee
Deltoid – attaches the humerus to the scapula and Adductor muscles – adducting the thigh
clavicle; major abductor of the upper limb
Ankle and Toe Movements
Forearm Movements
Gastrocnemius & Soleus – form the bulge of the calf
Triceps brachii – primary extensor of the elbow
Calcaneal tendon – Achilles tendon; flexors and are
Biceps brachii & brachialis – primary flexors of the involved in plantar flexion of the foot
elbow
Fibularis muscles – primary everters of the foot; aid in
Brachioradialis – posterior forearm muscle; helps flex
plantar flexion
the elbow
Intrinsic foot muscles – flex, extend, abduct, and adduct
Supination and Pronation the toes
Supinator – supination of the forearm or turning the
flexed forearm so that the palm is up Extensor digitorum longus – extends 4 lateral toes,
everts foot
Pronator – pronation, turning other forearm so that the
palm is down

M o r a n o , M . A .
Extensor halluces longus – extends great toe; inverts
foot

Tibialis anterior – inverts foot

Fibularis tertius – everts foot

Flexor digitorum longus – flexes 4 lateral toes, inverts

foot

Flexor halluces longus – flexes great toe, inverts foot

Tibialis posterior – inverts foot

Fibularis brevis – everts foot

Fibularis longus – everts foot

Effects of Aging on Skeletal Muscle

§ Decreased muscle mass
§ Slower reaction time
§ Reduced stamina
§ Increased recovery time

Types of Muscular Tissue

I. Skeletal (striated voluntary)
§ Large, long, cylindrical cells
§ Multinucleated
§ Attached to bones
§ Responsible for body movement

II. Cardiac (striated involuntary)

§ Cylindrical cells
§ Branched and connected to one another by
intercalated disks
§ Single nucleated
§ Found in the heart
§ Pumps the blood

III. Smooth (nonstriated involuntary)

§ End tapered cells
§ Single nucleated
§ Found in hollow organs: stomach, intestine;
skin, eyes
§ Regulates size of organs, forces fluid through
tubes, controls the amount of light entering the
eye, produces ‘goose bumps’

M o r a n o , M . A .
 Cells of the Nervous System
Nervous System Neurons
Functions (CRIME) § Also called nerve cells
1. Controlling muscles and glands. § Receive stimuli, conduct action potentials,
2. Receiving sensory input. transmit signals
3. Integrating information.
4. Maintaining homeostasis. Cell body – contains a single nucleus; source of
5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity. information for gene expression n

Divisions of the Nervous System Dendrites – extensions of the cell body; receive
I. Central Nervous System information from other neurons; transmit the info
§ Brain and spinal cord toward the neuron cell body

II. Peripheral Nervous System Axon – single long cell process; conduct action
§ Nerves and ganglia potentials from one part of the brain or spinal cord to
a. Sensory Division – afferent (toward) another part
division; conducts action potentials Ø Axon of sensory neurons – conduct action
from sensory receptors to the CNS potentials towards the CNS
• Sensory neurons – neurons Ø Axon of motor neurons – conduct action
that transmit action potentials potentials away from the CNS
from the periphery to the CNS
Axon hillock – where the axon leaves the neuron cell
i. Somatic Sensory Fibers – carry body
info from stimuli coming from
the skin, skeletal, muscles, Nissl bodies – rough ER found in the cell body of a
joints neuron

ii. Visceral Sensory Fibers – Schwann cells – form a myelin sheath (increases speed
transmits impulses coming from of impulse transmission)
the visceral organs
Collateral axons – branches of axons
b. Motor Division – efferent (away)
division; conducts action potentials Types of Neurons
from the CNS to effector organs 1. Multipolar neurons – many dendrites + a single
• Motor neurons – neurons that axon
transmit action potentials
from the CNS toward the 2. Bipolar neurons – two processes: 1 dendrite + 1
periphery axon

i. Somatic Motor Nervous 3. Pseudo-unipolar neurons – single process that

System / Voluntary – divides into 2 processes: extends to the
transmits action potentials periphery + extends to the CNS
form the CNS to the skeletal
muscles Neuroglia
§ Non-neuronal cells of the CNS + PNS
ii. Autonomic Motor Nervous § More numerous than neurons
System / Involuntary – § Retain the ability to divide
transmits action potentials
from the CNS to cardiac, 1. Astrocytes – major supporting cells in the CNS;
smooth muscles and glands stimulate/inhibit the signaling activity of nearby
1. Sympathetic – figth-or- neurons; help limit damage to neural tissue
flight system v Blood brain barrier – protects neurons from
2. Parasympathetic – toxic substances in the blood; allows
resting and digesting exchange of waster products + nutrients
system
2. Ependymal cells – produce cerebrospinal fluid;
iii. Enteric Nervous System – help move the cerebrospinal fluid through the CNS
unique subdivision; both
sensory and motor neurons 3. Microglia – act as immune cells of the CNS’
contained within the digestive protect the brain by removing bacteria and cell
tract debris

M o r a n o , M . A .
 4 – 5. Oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann cells Electrical Signals and Neural Pathways
(PNS) – provide an insulating material that Resting Membrane Potential
surrounds axons Polarized cell membrane – uneven distribution of
charge
Neural Signaling
§ Communication among neurons Resting membrane potential – uneven charge
distribution in an unstimulated/resting cell; polarized
1. Reception – stimuli received by visual receptors Ø Higher concentration of K+ inside CM
in the eye Ø Higher concentration of Na+ outside CM
Ø Greater permeability of CM to K+ than to Na+
2. Transmission – sensory neurons transmit info to
CNS Leak channels – always open

3. Integration – info given is interpreted and an Gated channels – closed until opened by specific signals
appropriate response is determined
Chemically gated channels – opened by
4. Transmission – the CNS transmits info to motor neurotransmitters
neurons
Voltage gated channels – opened by a change in
5. Actual response – muscle/glands receive info membrane potential
and instruction from motor neurons
Sodium potassium pump – required to maintain the
Myelin Sheaths greater concentration of Na+ outside the CM and K+
§ Highly specialized insulating layer of cells inside

Unmyelinated axons – action potentials are conducted Action Potentials

slowly bcos in travels along the entire axon Excitable cells – RMP changes in response to stimuli
that activate gated ion channels
Myelinating axons – action potentials are conducted
rapidly by salutatory conduction Local current – Na+ diffuses quickly into cell

Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in the myelin sheath; where Depolarization – a change that causes the inside of the
ion movement can occur CM to become positive

Organization of Nervous Tissue Local potential – result of depolarization

Gray Matter – groups of neuron cell bodies + their
dendrites; very little myelin Threshold value – attainable local potential (critical pt.)
Ø In the CNS;
v Cortex – GM on the surface of the brain Action potential – constitution of depolarization and
v Nuclei – GM located deeper within the repolarization
brain
Ø In the PNS; Hyperpolarization – the charge on the CM briefly
v Ganglion – a cluster of neuron cell becomes more negative than the RMP
bodies
All-or-none fashion – threshold is reached = action
White Matter – bundles of parallel axons + myelin potential occurs; if the threshold is not reached = action
sheaths potential doesn’t occur
Ø In the CNS
v Nerve tracts – conduction pathways; Continuous conduction – the action potential is
propagate action potentials from one conducted along the entire axon CM
area of the CNS to another
Saltatory conduction – action potentials jump from one
Ø In the PNS;
node of Ranbier to the next
v Nerves – bundles of axons + connective
tissue sheaths
The Synapse
Synapse – a junction where the axon of one neuron
interacts with another

Presynaptic terminal – end of the axon

Postsynaptic membrane – membrane of the dendrite or

effector cell

Synaptic cleft – space separating the presynaptic &

postsynaptic membrane

M o r a n o , M . A .
Neurotransmitters – chemical messengers

Synaptic vesicles – where neurotransmitters are stored

Hyperpolarized – the inside of the postsynaptic cell

tends to become more negative

Substance Effect Clinical Example

Acetylcholine Excitatory or Alzheimer disease
inhibitory
Norepinephrine Excitatory Cocaine and
amphetamines
Serotonin Generally Mood, anxiety, and
inhibitory sleep induction
Dopamine Excitatory or Parkinson disease
inhibitory
Gamma- Inhibitory Treatment of
aminobutyric epilepsy
acid
Glycine Inhibitory Poison strychnine
Endorphins Inhibitory Opiates morphine
and heroin

Reflexes
Reflex – an involuntary reaction in response to a
stimulus applied to the periphery and transmitted to the
CNS

Reflex arc – neuronal pathway by which a reflex occurs

Ø Sensory receptor
Ø Sensory neuron
Ø Interneurons
Ø Motor neuron
Ø Effector organ (muscle or glands)

Neuronal Pathways
Converging pathway – two or more neurons synapse
with the same neuron

Diverging pathway – the axon from one neuron divides

and synapses with more than one other neuron

Summation – allows integration of multiple sub

threshold local potentials; brings the membrane
potential to threshold and trigger an action potential

Spatial summation – local potentials originate from diff.

locations on the postsynaptic neuron

Temporal summation – local potentials overlap in time

M o r a n o , M . A .
 Spinothalamic tract – transmits pain, light touch, and
Spinal cord deep pressure
§ Extends from the foramen magnum to the 2nd
lumbar vertebra Dorsal column – transmission of proprioception, touch,
§ Provides a two-way conduction pathway to and deep pressure, vibration
from the brain
Spinocerebellar tracts – proprioception to cerebellum
Cauda equina – inferior end of the SC; spinal nerves
exiting there resemble a horse’s tail Descending Tracts
§ Pathways that carry impulses from the brain to
2 Main Functions the periphery
1. Transmits info to and from the brain.
2. Controls many reflex activities of the body. Lateral corticospinal – muscle tone and skilled
movements (hand)
White Matter of the SC
1. Dorsal (posterior) Anterior corticospinal – muscle tone and movement of
2. Ventral (anterior) trunk muscles
3. Lateral Columns
a. Ascending tracts – conduct action Rubrospinal – movement coordination
potentials toward the brain
b. Descending tracts – conduct action Reticulospinal – posture adjustment
potentials away from the brain
Vestibulospinal – posture & balance
Gray Matter of the SC (shaped like the letter H)
1. Posterior horns Tectospinal – movement in response to visual reflexes
2. Anterior horns
3. Small lateral horns Cranial Nerves
§ Transmit info to the brain form the sensory
Central canal – fluid filled space in the center of the cord receptors
§ 12 pairs
Ventral root – formed by ventral rootlets;
Name Specific Function
Dorsal root – formed by dorsal rootlets I. Olfactory S S: smell
II. Optic S S: vision
Dorsal root ganglion – ganglion in a dorsal root M: 4-6 extrinsic eye
III. Oculomotor M muscles; P: constricts
Relfex Action pupils
§ Predictable, automatic response to a specific IV. Trochlear M M: 1 extrinsic eye muscle
stimulus S: face + teeth; M: muscles
V. Trigeminal B
of mastification
1. Reception of the stimulus. VI. Abducens M M: 1 extrinsic eye muscle
2. Transmission of info to the CNS. S: taste; M: facial muscles;
3. Integration (interpretation and determination of VII. Facial B
P: salivary + tear glands
an appropriate response). Acoustic /
4. Transmission of info from the CNS to a muscle. VIII. Vestibulococh- S S: hearing + balance
5. Actual response. lear
S: taste + touch to back of
Spinal Cord Reflexes Glossopharyng
IX. B tongue; M: pharyngeal
Knee-Jerk Reflex -eal
muscles; P: salivary glands
Stretch flex – simplest reflex; muscles contract in S: pharynx, larynx, viscera;
response to a stretching force applied to them M: palate, pharynx, larynx;
X. Vagus B
P: viscera of thorax +
Knee-jerk reflex – patellar reflex; used to determine if abdomen
the higher CNS centers that normally influence this M: 2 neck + upper back
reflex are functional XI. Accessory M
muscles
XII. Hypoglossal M M: tongue muscles
Withdrawal Reflex
Withdrawal Reflex – flexor reflex; to remove a limb Spinal Nerves
from a painful stimulus
§ Arise along the spinal cord; contains mixed
nerves
Ascending Tracts
§ 31 pairs
§ Pathways that carry impulses form the
periphery to various parts of the brain v 8 Cervical
v 12 Thoracic
v 5 Lumbar

M o r a n o , M . A .
 v 5 Sacral Autonomic Nervous System
v 1 Coccygeal § Preganglionic neuron
§ Postganglionic neuron
Mixed nerves – contains both sensory and somatic § Maintain internal homeostasis
motor neurons
Autonomic ganglia – where preganglionic neurons
Plexuses – where nerves come together and then synapse with postganglionic neurons
separate
Ø Cervical plexus I. Sympathetic ANS
Ø Brachial plexus § ‘Fight-or-flight’
Ø Lumbosacral plexus § Prepares the body for action
§ Most active during stressful situations
Cervical Plexus § Norepinephrine (main neurotransmitter)
§ Originates from spinal nerves C1 to C4
II. Parasympathetic ANS
Phrenic nerve – most important branc of the CP; § Activities result in conserving and restoring
innervates the diaphragm (responsible for our ability to energy
breathe) § Helps return the body to resting conditions
§ Active during periods of calm and rest
Brachial Plexus § PS fibers are in the vagus nerve
§ Originates from the spinal nerves C5 to T1
Autonomic Neurotransmitters
1. Axillary nerve – innervates 2 shoulder muscles Acetylcholine – neurotransmitters of the
+ the skin over part of it parasympathetic division
2. Median nerve – innervates the anterior forearm Norepinephrine – postganglionic neurons of the
and intrinsic muscles sympathetic division
3. Radial nerve – innervates all the muscles in the Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
posterior arm and forearm + skin over the Sympathetic Division
posterior surface of the arm, forearm, hand § Prepares a person for action by increasing HR,
BP, respiration, release of glucose
4. Musculocutaneous nerve – innervates the
anterior muscles of the arm + skin over the Parasympathetic Division
radial surface of the forearm § Involuntary activities at rest: digestion of food,
defecation, urination
5. Ulnar nerve – innervates most of the anterior
forearm muscles and some of the intrinsic hand Enteric Nervous System
muscles + skin over the radial side of the hand
§ Consists of plexus within the wall of the
digestive tract
Lumbosacral Plexus
§ Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4 1. Sensory neurons – connect the digestive tract to
the CNS
1. Obturator nerve – innervates the muscles of the 2. Sympathetic & parasympathetic neurons –
medial thigh + skin over it connect the CNS to the digestive tract
3. Enteric neurons – located entirely within enteric
2. Femoral nerve – innervates the anterior thigh plexus
muscles + skin over it & medial side of the leg
v Capable of monitoring and controlling
the digestive tract independently of the
3. Tibial nerve – innervates the posterior thigh
CNS
muscles, the anterior & posterior leg muscles,
most of the intrinsic foot muscles + skin over the
sole of the foot

4. Common fibular nerve – innervates the muscles

of the lateral thigh & leg, some intrinsic foot
muscles + skin over the anterior & lateral leg,
dorsal surface of the foot

Sciatic nerve – CT sheath that bounds the tibial and

common fibular nerve

M o r a n o , M . A .
 2. Epithalamus
Brain § Smallest area superior + posterior to the
§ Soft, wrinkled mass of tissue that is highly thalamus
complex and adaptive; 3 pounds § Consists of few small nuclei (emotional and
§ 25 billion neurons visceral response to odors) + pineal gland
§ Requires a continuous supply of oxygen and
glucose Pineal gland – an endocrine gland that may influence
the onset of puberty; role in controlling some long term
I. Brainstem cycles
§ Connects the spinal cord to the remainder of the
brain 3. Hypothalamus
§ Controls the heart rate, blood pressure, and § Most inferior part
breathing § Consists of several small nuclei; maintaining
§ Damage can cause death homeostasis
§ Control of body temp., hunger, and thirst
1. Medulla Oblongata § Sensations such as sexual pleasure, rage, fear,
§ Most inferior portion of the brainstem and relaxation
§ Important reflex actions like vomiting, sneezing,
coughing, swallowing Important Homeostatic Mechanisms
§ Gray matter consists of various nuclei that serve 1. Control center of the ANS.
as vital centers 2. The link bet. the nervous and endocrine
systems.
v Cardiac centers – control HR
3. Helps maintain fluid balance.
v Vasomotor centers – regulates BP bu
controlling blood vessel diameter v Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) –
regulates water excretion by the kidneys
v Respiratory centers – initiates and
4. Regulates body temperature.
regulates breathing
5. Regulates food intake (appetite and satiety
§ Pyramids – two prominent enalargements centers).
6. Regulates sleep-wake cycles.
2. Pons (bridge) 7. Influences sexual behavior and emotional
§ Relay information bet. the cerebrum and the aspects of sensory input.
cerebellum
§ Resembles an arched footbridge Infundibulum – controlling the secretion of hormones
§ Regulates respiration, swallowing, sleep from the pituitary gland

3. Midbrain Mammillary bodies – involved in emotional responses

§ Smallest region of the brainstem to odors and in memory
§ 4 mounds called the colliculi
v 2 inferior; major relay centers for the III. Cerebellum
auditory nerve pathways in the CNS § Second largest part of the brain; 2 hemispheres
v 2 superior; visual reflexes and receive § Responsible for coordination of movements
touch and auditory input § Comparator – a sensing device that compares
data from two sources
4. Reticular Formation § Proprioceptive neurons – innervate joints,
§ A group of nuclei scattered throughout the tendons, muscles; provide info about the
brainstem position of body parts
§ Regulating cyclical motor functions; respiration,
walking, chewing 1. Helps in smooth and coordinated body
§ Damage can result in coma movements (comparator function).
§ Reticular activating system – plays an 2. Maintains muscle tone posture.
important role in arousing and maintaining 3. Maintain balance and equilibrium
consciousness 4. Important in learning motor skills.

II. Diencephalon IV. Cerebrum

§ Part bet. the brainstem and the cerebrum § Largest and most prominent part of the brain

1. Thalamus 1. Sensory Function – receives info from sensory

§ Largest part of the diencephalon receptors and interprets it
§ Major relay center for all sensory info (except 2. Motor Function – responsible for all voluntary
smell) to the cerebrum; plays a gating rol movement and some involuntary ones
§ Influences mood and registers an uncomfortable 3. Association Function – responsible for all of the
perception of pain intellectual activities of brain
§ Interthalamic adhesion – connects the two
large, lateral parts of the thalamus

M o r a n o , M . A .
4 Lobes Right and Left Hemispheres
1. Frontal Lobe Right hemisphere – three dimensional or spatial
§ Control of voluntary motor functions, perception, musical ability
motivation, aggression, mood, olfactory
reception Left Hemisphere – analytical hemisphere; mathematics
§ Primary motor area: consciously move our and speech
skeletal muscles
§ Broca’s area – speech center Memory
§ Prefrontal area – reposible for executive Working memory – stores info required for the
functions immediate performance of a task; 7 digit phone no.

2. Parietal Lobe Short-term memory – last longer; can be retained for a

§ General Sensory Area – receives info from the few mins. to a few days
sensory receptors in the skin and joints
§ Wernicke’s area – sensory speech area Long-term memory – stored for only a few minutes or
become permanent by consolidation
3. Occipital Lobe
Consolidation – a gradual process involving the
§ Receiving and perceiving visual input
formation of new and stronger synaptic connections
§ Primary visual area – receives visual info
§ Visual association area – portion where visual Declarative memory – explicit memory; retains facts and
info is integrated related emotional undertones
4. Temporal Lobe Procedural memory – reflexive memory; development
§ Primary auditory area – center for reception of of motor skills
auditory messages
§ Auditory association area – where auditory Memory engrams – memory traces; long-term retention
messages are integrated of a thought/idea
§ Psychic cortex – abstract thoughts and
judgments Limbic System
§ A group of interconnected nuclei involved in
Gyri – folds and convolutions; increase the surface area memory and regulation of emotion
of the cortex and intervening grooves (sulci)
Hippocampus – formation and retrieval of memories
Sulci – shallow grooves
Amygdala – filter sensory info and evaluates it in terms
Fissures – deep groves of emotional needs
Longitudinal fissure – divides the cerebrum into left Meninges, Ventricles, and Cerebrospinal Fluid
and right hemispheres Meninges
§ Surround and protect the brain and spinal cord
Cerebral cortex – outermost layer of the cerebrum;
consists of gray matter 1. Dura mater – most superficial and thickest
meninges
Corpus callosum – connects the right and left v Epidural space – bet. the dura mater &
hemispheres the vertebrae
v Epidural anesthesia – clinically
Central sulcus – separates the frontal and parietal lobes important as the injection site of spinal
nerves; given to women during
Lateral fissure – separates the temporal love from the
childbirth
rest
2. Arachnoid mater – thin, wispy, 2nd meningeal
Insula – fifth lobe; deep within the fissure membrane
v Subdural space – space bet. the dura
Basal Nuclei
mater and the arachnoid mater; contains
§ Group of functionally related nuclei small amt. of serous fluid
v Spinal block – to inject anesthetic into
Corpus striatum – located deep within the cerebrum
the area
Substantia nigra – darkly pigmented cells in the v Spinal tap – to take a sample of CSF
midbrain
3. Pia mater – 3rd meningeal membrane; very
tightly bound to the surface of the brain and
spinal cord; filled with CSF and contains blood
vessels

M o r a n o , M . A .
 v Subarachnoid space – bet. the Aphasia – absent/defective speech/language
arachnoid and pia matter comprehension

Ventricles Brain Waves and Consciousness

§ Fluid filled cavities Electroencephalogram (EEG) -

Lateral ventricle – relatively large cavity in each cerebral Brain waves – wave like patterns
hemisphere
Alpha waves – awake but in a quiet, resting state with
Third ventricle – a smaller, midline cavity eyes close

Fourth ventricle – located at the base of the cerebellum Beta waves – occur during intense mental activity

Cerebral aqueduct – a narrow canal that connects the 3rd Delta waves – occur during deep sleep in infants and in
and 4th ventricle patients

Cerebrospinal fluid Theta waves – observed in children; also in adults who

§ Provides a protective cushion around the CNS are frustrated or have brain disorders

Choroid plexus – produces CSF; specialized structures Effects of Aging on the Nervous System
made of ependymal cells § Motor functions decline
§ Mental functions (memory) decline
Arachnoid villi – structures that project from the
arachnoid layer; where blood is reabsorbed

Hydrocephalus – accumulation of CSF in the ventricles

Motor Functions
Involuntary movements – occur without a conscious
thought

Voluntary movements – consciously activated to

achieve a specific goal; walking, typing

Upper motor neurons – have cell bodies in the cerebral

cortex

Lower motor neurons – have cell bodies in the anterior

horn

Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex

Primary motor cortex – control voluntary movements of
skeletal muscles

Premotor area – where motor functions are organized

before they are actually initiated in the primary motor
cortex

Pre-frontal area – where planning and initiating

movements occur

Other Brain Functions

Communication bet. the Right & Left Hemispheres
Commissures – connection bet. the two hemispheres

Corpus callosum – largest commissure

Speech
Sensory speech area – Wernicke area; a portion of the
parietal lobe

Motor speech area – Broca area; inferior portion of the

frontal lobe

M o r a n o , M . A .
 2. Deep/Visceral Pain – diffuse; action potentials
SENSES are propagated more slowly
§ Ability to perceive stimuli
Local anesthesia – injected near a sensory
Sensation/Perception – conscious awareness of stimuli receptor/nerve resulting in reduced pain
received
General anesthesia – loss of consciousness is produced;
affects reticular formation
GENERAL SENSES Gate control theory – inhibits action potentials carried
§ Have receptors distributed over the body
to the brain by the spinothalamic tract
§ Senses for touch, pressure, pain, temp.,
vibration, itch, proprioception Referred Pain
§ Originate in a region of the body that is not the
1. Somatic Senses – provide sensory info about the
source of the pain stimulus
body and the environment
§ Clinically useful in diagnosing the actual cause
2. Visceral Senses – provide info about various of the painful stimulus
internal organs (pain & pressure) § Occurs bcos the sensory neurons (from the
superficial area) to which the pain is referred,
Transduction – a receptor absorbs energy from stimulus and the neurons (from the deeper, visceral area)
where the pain stimulation originates, converge
Sensory Receptors – sensory nerve endings capable of onto the same ascending neurons in the spinal
responding to stimuli by developing action potentials cord; thus the brain can’t distinguish

1. Mechanoreceptors – mechanical stimuli

SPECIAL SENSES
2. Chemoreceptors – chemicals (odor molecules) § Localized to specific parts of the body
§ Smell, taste, sight, hearing, balance
3. Photoreceptors – light

4. Thermoreceptors – temperature changes OLFACTION

§ Sense of smell
5. Nociceptors – sensation of pain § Occurs in response to airborne molecules
6. Free nerve endings – simplest and most Odorants – airborne molecules
common receptors
Ø Cold receptors – decreasing temp.; stop Olfactory neurons – bipolar neurons
responding at below 12OC
Ø Warm receptors – increasing temp.; stop Olfactory epithelium – lines the superior part of the
responding above 47 OC nasal cavity

7. Touch receptors – structurally more complex; Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction

enclosed by capsules § Axons of the olfactory neurons form the
olfactory nerves, which enter the olfactory
8. Merkel disks – light touch and superficial bulb. Olfactory tracts carry action potentials
pressure from the olfactory bulbs to the olfactory cortex
of the brain.
9. Hair follicle receptors – light touch
Olfactory bulb – where olfactory neurons synapse with
10. Meissner corpuscles – fine, discriminative interneurons
touch; localizing tactile sensations
Olfactory tracts – relays action potentials to the brain
11. Ruffini corpuscles – continuous pressure in
skin Olfactory cortex – where each olfactory tract terminates

12. Pacinian corpuscles – deepest receptors; deep Adaptation – feedback + temporary decreased
pressure, vibration, position sensitivity

Pain
§ Unpleasant perceptual and emotional TASTE
experiences Taste buds – detect taste stimuli
1. Superficial Pain – localized; rapidly conducted Papillae – enlargements on the surfaced of the tongue
action potentials

M o r a n o , M . A .
Taste cells – 40 specialized epithelial cells Ø Medial rectus – turns eye inward
v Oblique muscles – two muscles to the long axis;
Taste hairs – hair-like processes superior and inferior
Ø Superior oblique – rotates counterclock
Taste pore – tiny opening in the surrounding stratified Ø Inferior oblique – rotates clockwise
epithelium
Anatomy of the Eye
Taste sensations Eyeball – hollow, fluid-filled sphere
1. Sour
2. Salty Tunics – 3 layered wall of the eye
3. Bitter v Fibrous tunic – sclera + cornea
4. Sweet Ø Sclera – firm, white, outer connective
5. Umami (savory) tissue; maintains the shape of the eye
Ø Cornea – transparent, permits light to
Neuronal Pathways for Taste
enter; refracts the entering light;
1. Facial Nerve (7) – transmits taste sensations
‘window of the eye’
from the anterior of the tongue

2. Glossopharyngeal nerve (9) – carries taste v Vascular tunic – contains most of the blood
vessels of the eye
sensations from the posterior of the tongue
Ø Choroid – thin structure that consists of
3. Vagus nerve (10) – carries some taste sensations melanin containing pigment cells
form the root of the tongue (causing black appearance); absorbs
light so that it is not reflected inside
4. Gustatory portion of the brainstem nuclei Ø Ciliary body – responsible for
accommodation; near objects = CM
5. Thalamus contracts + lens become rounder; far
objects = CM relaxes + lens become
6. Taste area (Insula) ovoid
• Ciliary muscles – smooth muscles

VISION • Suspensory ligaments – attached

the perimeter of the lens
Orbits – bony cavities where the eyes are housed • Lens – flexible, biconvex,
transparent disc
Accessory Structures of the Eye o Cataract – opacity of lens
§ Protect, lubricate, and move the eye Ø Iris – colored part of the eye; regulates
diameter of the pupil
Eyebrows – protect the eyes by preventing perspiration • Pupil – controls the amt. of light
from running down entering the eyes
o Parasympathetic – light
Eyelids – protect the eyes form foreign objects intensity increases; pupillary
v Blinking – occurs about 20 times/min.; keeps constriction
the eyes lubricated o Sympathetic – light intensity
decreases; pupillary dilation
Conjunctiva – thin, transparent mucous membrane
covering the inner surface of the eyelids; lubricate the v Nervous tunic – innermost tunic
surface of the eye Ø Retina – covers the posterior 5/6 of the
v Conjunctivitis – inflammation of the eye
conjunctiva • Pigmented retina – keeps light from
reflecting back into the eye
Lacrimal Apparatus
• Sensory retina – contains rods &
v Lacrimal gland – produces tears cones (photoreceptors) which
Ø Lacrimal canaliculi – small ducts where respond to light
excess tears are collected a. Rods – can function in very dim
Ø Lacrimal duct – enlargement of light; doesn’t provide color
nasolacrimal duct vision
v Nasolacrimal duct – opens into the nasal cavity o Rhodopsin – photosensitive
pigment; breaks down into:
Extrinsic Eye Muscles – 6 skeletal muscles that § Opsin – colorless
accomplish movement of each eyeball protein
v Rectus muscles § Retinal – yellow
Ø Superior rectus – rolls eye upwards pigment
Ø Inferior rectus – rolls eye downward
Ø Lateral rectus – turns eye outward

M o r a n o , M . A .
 o Night blindness – difficulty § Optic tracts from the chiasm lead to the
seeing in dims light; caused thalamus.
by vit. A deficiency § Optic radiations extend from the thalamus to
b. Cones – require more light; the visual cortex in the occipital lobe.
provide color vision
o Red, Blue, Green – major Optic nerve – leaves the eye and exits the orbit
types of color sensitive
opsin Optic chiams – where two optic nerves connect
o Color blindness – caused
by lack of three cone types Optic tracts – the route of the ganglionic axons
o Partial color blindness –
lack of one cone type Optic radiations – formed by neurons from the
o Retinal detachment – thalamus
separation of sensory retina
from the pigmented retina Visual cortex – where vision is perceived

Regions of the Retina Visual field – image seen by each eye

1. Macula lutea – small, yellow spot near the
center of the posterior retina
Ø Fovea centralis – region of sharpest HEARING & BALANCE
vision; where light is most focused Anatomy and Function of the Ear
2. Optic disc – white spot through which a no. of 1. External Ear – outer part we see
blood vessels enter the eye; a. Auricle – fleshy part; collects sound
Ø Blind spot of the eye – contains no waves & directs them toward the EAC
photoreceptor cells and doesn’t respond b. External auditory canal – passageway
to light that leads to the eardrum
c. Ceruminous glands – lines the auditory
Chambers of the Eye canal
v Anterior chamber • Cerumen/earwax – modified
Posterior chamber sebum; protects the lining of the
Ø Bet. the cornea and lens canal
Ø Aqueous humor – watery fluid; helps d. Tympanic membrane/Eardrum – thin
maintain pressure within the eye, membrane that separates the external
refracts light, provides nutrients from the middle ear; sound waves
Ø Glaucoma – increase in the intraocular causes it to vibrate
pressure due to blockage of AH flow
2. Middle Ear – air filled chamber
v Vitreous chamber a. Oval and Round window – connects
Ø Posterior to the lens the middle to the inner
Ø Vitreous humor – transparent, jelly-like b. Auditory Ossicles – amplify vibrations
substance; helps maintain pressure i. Malleus (hammer) – medial surface
within the eye, holds the lens and retina of the tympanic m.
in place; does not circulate ii. Incus (anvil) – connects malleus to
stapes
Functions of the Eye iii. Stapes – its base is seated in the oval
1. Light Refraction window
Ø Focal point – crossing point c. Auditory/Eustachian tube – enables
Ø Focusing – causes light to converge pressure to be equalized
2. Focusing Images on the Retina
Ø Accommodation – causes greater 3. Inner Ear – fluid filled chamber; for sound
refraction of light; enables the eye to waves, balance, equilibrium
focus on images a. Bony labyrinth – interconnecting
tunnels and chambers
Neuronal Pathways for Vision i. Cochlea – hearing
ii. Vestibule – balance
§ Light passes through cornea, through the
iii. Semicircular canal – balance
aqueous humor, through the lens, through the
b. Membranous labyrinth – smaller set of
vitreous humor, image forms on photoreceptors
membranous tunnels and chambers
in retina, breakdown of rhodopsin, signals
bipolar cells. • Endolymph – clear fluid
§ Axons pass though the optic nerves to the optic c. Perilymph – fluid bet. membranous and
chiasm, where some cross. Axons from the nasal bony labyrinths
retina cross, and those from the temporal retina
do not.

M o r a n o , M . A .
Cochlea Inferior colliculus – where neurons in the cochlear
§ Contains receptors for hearing nucleus project to the other areas of the brainstem
§ Snail shell shape
Balance
Spiral lamina – threads of the screw (base) Static equilibrium – vestibule; evaluating the position of
head relative to gravity
Scala vestibuli – extends from the oval window to the
apex of the cochlea Dynamic equilibrium – semi-circular canals; evaluating
changes in the direction and rate of head movements
Scala tympani – extends in parallel with the scala v.
from the apex Vestibule
v Utricle
Vestibular membrane – wall of the ML that lines the v Saccule
scala vestibuli
Maculae – specialized patches of epithelium
Basilar membrane – wall of the ML that lines the scala
tympani Otolithic membrane – gelatinous mass

Cochlear duct – space bet. the VM and the BM; filled Otoliths – gravity detectors composed of protein and
with endolymph calcium carbonate

Spiral organ/Organ of Corti – specialized structure; Semicircular canals – involved in dynamic equilibrium;
contains hair cells enables a person to detect movements in any direction
v Ampulla – expanded base of each SC
Hair cells – specialized sensory cells; contain microvilli v Crista ampullaris – specialized epithelium
formed within each ampulla
Tectorial membrane – acellular gelatinous shelf v Cupula – curved, gelatinous mass contained in
each crista
Cochlear/Spiral ganglion – contains cell bodies of hair
cells Motion sickness – caused by continuous stimulation of
the SC; characterized by nausea & weakness
Cochlear nerve – formed by axons of sensory neurons
Neuronal Pathways for Balance
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN 8) – formed by cochlear § Axons in the vestibular portion of the
nerve + vestibular nerve vestibulocochlear nerve project to the
vestibular nucleus and on to the cerebral
Glutamate – neurotransmitter for hearing cortex.
Hearing Vestibulocochlear nerve (8) – project to the vestibular
Higher pitches – causes max. distortion of the BM nucleus in the brainstem
Sound volume – function of sound wave amplitude Balance – a complex sensation involving sensory input
Conduction deafness – results from mechanical Effects of Aging on the Senses
deficiencies Presbyopia – lenses’ ability to change shape initially
declines and is eventually lost
Sensorineural hearing loss – caused by deficiencies in
the spiral organ/nerves Presbyacusis – age-related sensorineural hearing loss
Neuronal Pathways for Hearing
§ Soundwaves enter external auditory meatus,
causing the tympanic membrane to vibrate.
§ Malleus, incus, stapes amplify the vibrations,
causing the oval window to vibrate.
§ Vibrations are conducted through perilymph,
and transmitted to the endolymph, causing the
basilar membrane to vibrate.
§ Hair cells in the organ of Corti are stimulated.
§ From the vestibulocochlear nerve, action
potentials travel to the cochlear nucleus and on
the cerebral cortex.

Cochlear nucleus – where the cochlear nerve sends

axons

M o r a n o , M . A .
SKELETAL SYSTEM c. Bone substance – EM and cells
§ It consists of the bone, cartilage, tendons and
ligaments. Histology of Bone
§ Skeleton; dried (Greek) Osteoblasts – bone-forming cells; repair and remodeling
of bone
Functions (S2PMB)
1. Support Osteocytes – bone cells located between the lamellae
2. Protection (thins sheets of EM)
3. Movement
4. Storage Lacunae – spaces within the lamellae
5. Blood cell production
Canaliculi – tiny canals within the lamellae
Extracellular Matrix
§ Composed of connective tissues Types of Bone Tissue
a. Compact bone
Collagen – tough ropelike protein § Forms most of the diaphysis of long bones
§ Central Canal / Haversian Canal – concentric
Proteoglycans – large molecules consisting of rings that contains blood vessels; ‘bull’s eye’
polysaccharides attached to core proteins § Osteon / Haversian System – central canal +
lamellae + osteocytes
Tendons & Ligaments – large amounts of collagen fiber
b. Spongy bone
Cartilage – contains collagen & proteoglycans § Located mainly in the epiphyses of long bones
§ Forms the interior of all other bones
Bone – contains collagen and minerals (Calcium & § Consists of trabeculae (interconnecting rods,
Phosphate) plates of bone) without central canals

Hydroxyapatite – calcium phosphate crystals Bone Ossification

Ossification – formation of bone by osteoblasts
General Features of Bone
§ Long bones; upper and lower limbs Types of Ossification
§ Short bones; wrist and ankle a. Intramembranous ossification – osteoblasts
§ begin to produce bone in connective tissue
§ Irregular bones; vertebrae and facial bones Ø Ossification centers – where
intramembranous ossification begins
Long Bones
a) Diaphysis – central shaft b. Endochondral ossification – bone formation
b) Epiphysis – ends occurs inside the cartilage; bones at the base of
c) Epiphyseal plates – growth plate; where the the skull and remaining skeletal system are
bone grows in length formed
Ø Chondrocytes – cartilage cells; increase
Articular cartilage – covers the ends of the epiphyses in no., enlarge, and die

Epiphyseal line – bone growth stops and the epiphyseal Primary ossification center – where bone first begins to
plate is replaced by bone appear

Medullary Cavity – large cavity in the diaphysis; Osteoclasts – cells that remove calcified cartilage matrix
contains the marrow
Secondary ossification center – form in the epiphyses
Marrow – soft tissue within the cavity
Bone Growth
Yellow Marrow – consists of adipose tissue (fat) § Deposition of new bone lamellae onto existing
bone
Red Marrow – consists of bone forming cells; site of § Bone elongation occurs at the epiphyseal plate;
blood formation leads to increase in height (endochondral
ossification)
Layers of a Bone § Chondrocytes proliferate, enlarge, die, and are
a. Periosteum – outermost layer; surround the replaced by bone
diaphysis; contain blood vessels, nerves,
osteoblasts Appositional growth – increase in bone width or
diameter
b. Endosteum – innermost layer; lines the
medullary cavity (thinner connective tissue)

M o r a n o , M . A .
Bone Remodeling AXIAL SKELETON
§ Removal of existing bone by osteoclasts § Composed of the skull, vertebral column, and
§ Deposition of new bone by osteoblasts thoracic cage
§ Responsible for change in bone shape, bone § Form the longitudinal axis of the body
adjustment, repair, and calcium ion regulation
I. Skull
Bone Repair § 22 bones
§ Clot is formed in the damaged area
§ Blood vessels and cells invade the clot and form Braincase
a callus (network of fibers and islets of cartilage) § 8 bones
§ Osteoblasts enter the callus and from a spongy § Covers and protects the fragile brain tissue
bone
§ Bone is slowly remodeled to compact bone 1. Frontal Bone – forehead, bony projections
under the eyebrow, part of the eye’s orbit
Bone and Calcium Homeostasis  
§ Osteoclasts remove calcium = blood calcium 2 - 3. Parietal Bone (paired) – the superior and
levels increases lateral walls of the cranium; coronal suture
§ Osteoblasts deposit calcium = blood calcium
levels decrease 4 - 5. Temporal Bone (paired) – lies inferior to
the parietal bone; squamous suture
Hormones that maintain Calcium Homeostasis Ø External Auditory Meatus (EAM) – a
1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) canal that leads to the eardrum and the
§ Parathyroid gland; middle ear
§ Increase bone breakdown & increase blood Ø Styloid process – a sharp, needlelike
calcium levels; structure located inferior to the EAM
§ Stimulates the kidneys to from active vitamin D Ø Zygomatic process – a bridge of bone
that joins with the cheekbone anteriorly
2. Calcitonin Ø Mastoid Process – a rough projection
§ Thyroid gland posterior and inferior to the EAM
§ Decrease bone breakdown and decrease blood
calcium levels 6. Occipital Bone – inferior and posterior bone
of the cranium; lambdoid suture
General Considerations of Bone Anatomy Ø Foramen magnum – where the spinal
§ 206 bones = adult cord joins the brain
§ 276 bones = newborn baby Ø Occipital condyles –rests on the first
vertebra of the vertebral column
Foramen – hole in a bone Ø Foramen ovale – allows the fiber of
cranial nerve 5 to pass
Canal / Meatus – elongated hole in a tunnel like body
7. Sphenoid Bone – butterfly-shaped bone that
Fossa – depression in a bone spans the width of the skull
Ø Sella Turtica – saddle-shaped structure
Tubercle / Tuberosity – lump on a bone at the central region; contains the
pituitary gand
Process – projection from a bone
8. Ethmoid Bone –   irregularly shaped bone that
Condyle – end of a bine that forms a joint with another lies anterior to the sphenoid bone
bone
Facial bones
Facet – small flattened articular surface § 14 bones; 13 solidly connected, 1 movable
(mandible)
Crest – prominent ridge § Holds the facial muscles in place
§ Joined together by sutures (interlocking,
Trochanter – tuberosity found only on proximal femur immovable)
Fissure – cleft 1-2. Maxillae – main bones of the face; carries
the upper teeth
Sinus – cavity
3-4. Palatine Bones – lies posterior to the
Suture – a joint uniting the bones of the skull palatine processes of the maxilla

5-6. Zygomatic Bones – cheekbones

M o r a n o , M . A .
 7-8. Lacrimal Bones – bones forming part of the Ø Vertebral canal – where the spinal cord is
medial wall of each orbit located; protects the spinal cord from injury

9-10. Nasal Bones – bones forming the bridge Ø Intervertebral foramina – where spnal nerves
of the bone exit the spinal cord

11-12. Inferior Nasal Conchae – thin curved Ø Articular process – where the vertebra articulate
bones projecting from the lateral wall of the with each other
nasal cavity
Ø Articular facet – smooth ‘little face’
13. Vomer Bone – single bone in the median of
the nasal cavity Regional Differences in Vertebrae
1. Cervical Vertebrae – very small bodies,
14. Mandible – lower jaw; only freely movable dislocation and fractures are common int his
joint of the face area
Ø Atlas – 1st CV; holds up the head; ‘yes’ shaking
Hyoid Bone – U-shaped bone; provides attachment to Ø Axis – 2nd CV; considerable amount of rotation;
tongue muscles; elevates the larynx during speech and ‘no’ shaking
swallowing
v Dens – where the rotation occurs
II. Vertebral Column
2. Thoracic vertebrae – long, thin spinous
§
Central axis of the skeleton processes; articulate the ribs
§
26 individual bones;
Ø 7 cervical vertebrae 3. Lumbar vertebrae – large, thick bodies; heavy,
Ø 12 thoracic vertebrae rectangular transverse + spinous processes;
Ø 5 lumbar vertebrae carry large amount of weight; ruptured
Ø 1 sacral bone intervertebral disks are common
Ø 1 coccyx bone
Functions 4. Sacrum – five sacral vertebrae fused in one
1. Supports the weight of the head and the trunk. Ø Median Sacral Crest – spinous process of the 1st
2. Protects the spinal cord. four SV
3. Allows the spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord. Ø Sacral Hiatus – inferior end of the sacrum; the
4. Site for muscle attachment. 5th process of the SV that does not form;
5. Permits movement of the head and trunk. common side of caudal anesthetic injections
Ø Sacral Promontory – anterior edge of the 1sy SV
Kyphosis – posterior curvature; hunchback that bulges; landmark felt during vaginal
examination; reference point in vaginal delivery
Lordosis – anterior curvature; swayback condition of a baby
Scoliosis – lateral curvature 5. Coccyx – tailbone; fusion of 4 or more/less
fused vertebrae; easily broken
General Plan of the Vertebral Column
Body – weight-bearing portion III. Rib Cage
Ø Intervertebral disks body – separates the § Also called the thoracic cage
vertebral bodies § Protects the vital organs
§ Prevents thorax collapse during respiration
Ø Vertebral arch – surrounds the vertebral
foramen 1. Rib Cage
v 2 Pedicles – extends from the body to § 12 pair of ribs
the transverse process Ø 1 – 7 true ribs (attached directly to the sternum)
v 2 Laminae – extends from the transverse Ø 8 – 12 false ribs (do not attach directly to the
to the spinous process sternum)
v Provides attachment sites for the muscles v 11 – 12 floating ribs (do not attach to
that move the vertebral column; the sternum)
• Transverse process – extends
laterally bet. the lamina and 2. Sternum
pedicle § Also called the breastbone
• Spinous process – projects Ø Jugular notch – a depression bet. the ends of the
dorsally where the two laminae clavicles where they articulate with the sternum
meet Ø Sternal angle – a slight elevation felt at the
junction of the manubrium and the sternum;
Ø Vertebral foramen – a large opening important landmark bcos it identifies the 2nd rib

M o r a n o , M . A .
 Ø Xiphoid process – important landmark of the 4. Hand – 5 metacarpal bones are attached to the
sternum during CPR carpal bones
Ø Phalanges – 3 small bones on each finger
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
§ 126 bones III. Pelvic Girdle
§ Consists of the bones of the upper and lower § Where lower limbs attach to the body
limbs, as well as the girdles
Coxal bones – hip bones; join each other anteriorly and
I. Pectoral Girdle the sacrum posteriorly to form a ring of bone called the
§ Also called the shoulder girdle pelvic girdle
§ Consists of 4 bones; 2 scapulae + 2 clavicles Ø Ilium – most superior
Ø Ischium – inferior and posterior; sit down bone
1. Scapula – shoulder blade; where muscles Ø Pubis – inferior and anterior
extending to the arm are attached
Iliac crest – seen along the superior margin of each ilim
2. Glenoid cavity – 4th fossa; where the head of the Ø Anterior Superior Iliac Spine – important hip
humerus connects to the scapula landmark; anterior end of the iliac crest
Ø Spine – a ridge that runs across the posterior
surface fo the scapula Pubic symphysis – where coxal bones join anteriorly
Ø Sacroiliac joints – joins the sacrum posteriorly
3. Acromion process – extends from the scapular
spine to form the point of the shoulder Acetabulum – socket of the hip joint

4. Clavicle – collarbone; articulates with the Obturator foramen – large hole in each coxal bone
scapula art the acromion process
Pelvic inlet – formed by the pelvic brim and the sacral
5. Coracoid process – provides for the attachment promontory
of arm and chest muscles
Pelvic outlet – bounded by the ischial spines, pubic
II. Upper Limb symphysis, and coccyx
1. Arm – region bet, the shoulder and the elbow;
contains the humerus; has two tubercles: greater Male pelvis: larger and massive; Female pelvis; broader
tubercle and lesser tubercle
Ø Deltoid Tuberosity – where the deltoid muscle IV. Lower Limbs
attaches 1. Thigh – region bet. the hip and the knee;
Ø Epicondyles – provide attachment sites for contains the femur
forearm muscles Ø Head of the femur – articulates with the
acetabulum of the coxal bone
2. Forearm Ø Condyles – articulates with the tibia
Ø Radius – lateral to the thumb Ø Epidondyles – points of ligaments attachments
v Radial tuberosity – where the arm Ø Trochanters – lateral to the head after the neck
muscles (biceps brachii) attaches Ø Patella – knee cap; enables the tendon to bend
Ø Ulna – medial to the little finger over the knee
v Trochlear notch – forms most of the
elbow joint 2. Leg – region bet. the knee and the ankle
v Coronoid process – helps complete the Ø Tibia – shinbone; larger; major weight-bearing
grip of the ulna bone of the leg; medial malleolus
v Olecranon process – extension of the Ø Fibula – thin and sticklike that forms the lateral
ulna side of the leg; lateral malleolus
v Styloid process – articulates with the
bones of the wrist 3. Ankle – 7 tarsla bones
Ø Talus – ankle bone
3. Wrist – short region bet. the forearm and the Ø Calcaneus – heel bone
hand; 8 carpal bones (SLTPHCTT) Ø Cuboid
Ø Scaphiod Ø Navicular
Ø Lunate Ø Cuneiforms; medial, intermediate, lateral
Ø Triquetrum
Ø Pisiform 4. Foot
Ø Hamate Ø Metatarsal bones and phalanges – arranged
Ø Capitate and numbered in a similar manner to the hand
Ø Trapezoi Ø Has 3 primary arches
Ø Trapezium

M o r a n o , M . A .
JOINTS Types
§ Also called an articulation 1. Plane/Gliding Joints – two opposed flat
§ Where two bones come together surfaces that glide over each other

a. Synarthrosis joints – non-movable 2. Saddle Joints – two saddle shaped articulating

surfaces oriented at right angles; joint bet. the
b. Amphiarthrosis joints – slight movable metacarpal bone and the carpal bone of the
thumb
c. Diarthrosis – freely movable
3. Hinge Joints – permit movement in one plane
I. Fibrous Joints only; elbow and knee joints
§ 2 bones that are united by fibrous tissue Ø Menisci – shock-absorbing fibrocartilage pads
§ Exhibit little or no movement
4. Pivot Joints – restrict movement to rotation
1. Sutures – bet. the bones of the skull; squamous, around a single axis; rotation that occurs bet. the
lambdoid, coronal axis and atlas; articulation bet. the ulna and
Ø Fontanels – sutures that are quite wide in a radius
newborn
5. Ball and socket Joints – consist of a ball (head)
2. Syndesmoses – bones are separated by some and a socket; shoulder and hip joints
distance and held together by ligaments; FB
connecting the radius and ulna 6. Ellipsoid/Condyloid Joints – elongated ball and
socket joints; joint bet. the occipital condyles
3. Gomphoses – consists of pegs fitted into sockets (skull) and the atlas (vertebral column); joints
and held in place by ligaments; joint bet. a tooth bet. the metacarpals and phalanges
and its socket
Types of Movement
II. Cartilaginous Joints 1. Flexion – movement that takes place in a
§ Unites two bones by means of cartilage frontal/coronal plane
§ Slight movement can occur Ø Plantar flexion – when standing on the toes
§ Epiphyseal plates of growing long bones Ø Dorsiflexion – movement of the foot toward the
§ Cartilage bet. the ribs and the sternum shin (walking on heels)
2. Extension – movement that takes place in a
§ Fibrocartilage forms joints such as the
posterior direction
intervertebral disks
3. Lateral Flexion – movement of the trunk in the
coronal plane
III. Synovial Joints
4. Abduction – movement away from the median
§ Freely movable joints plane
§ Contains fluid in a cavity surrounding the ends 5. Adduction – movement toward the median
of articulating bones plane
6. Pronation – rotation of the forearm so that the
Articulating cartilage – thin layer that covers the palm is down
articular surfaces of bones w/in the synovial joints 7. Supination – rotation of the forearm so that the
palm faces up
Joint cavity – filled with fluid 8. Eversion – opposite movement of the foot so
that the sole faces in a lateral direction
Joint capsule – encloses the cavity that helps hold the 9. Inversion – movement of the foot so that the
bones together and allows for movement sole faces medially
10. Rotation – movement of a part of the body
Synovial membrane – lines the joint cavity everywhere around its long axis
11. Circumduction – combination in sequence of
Synovial fluid – produced by the SM; covers the the flexion, extension, abduction, adduction
surfaces of the joint 12. Protraction – to move forward
13. Retraction – to move backward
Bursa – a pocket or sac; located bet. Structures that rub 14. Hyperextension – abnormal, forced extension of
together a joint beyond its normal range of motion
Bursitis – inflammation of the bursa; often results to
abrasion

Tendon Sheath – extension of SM along some tendons

M o r a n o , M . A .
TISSUES §
§
Cilia  –  propel  materials  
Goblet   Cells   –   specialized   mucus-­‐‑producing  
§ A   group   of   cells   with   similar   structure   and   cells  
function   that   have   similar   extracellular    
substances  located  between  them.   Cell  Connections  
  § Tight   Junctions   -­‐‑   bind   adjacent   cells   together  
Histology   and   form   permeability   barriers;   prevent   the  
The  microscopic  study  of  tissue  structure   passage  of  materials  between  epithelial  cells  
  § Desmosomes   –   mechanical   links   that   bind   cells  
Epithelial  Tissue   together  
§ Covers  external  and  internal  surfaces;   Ø Hemidesmosomes  -­‐‑    anchor  cells  to  the  
§ Has  a  basement  membrane,   basement  membrane  
§ Little  EM  (extracellular  matrix),   § Gap  Junctions  –  allow  small  molecules  and  ions  
§ No  blood  vessels.   to  pass  
   
Functions  of  Epithelial  Tissues  (PAPSA)   Glands  
1. Protecting  underlying  structures.   Glands  –  secrete  substances  onto  a  surface  
2. Acting  as  a  barrier.   a. Exocrine  –  secrete  through  ducts  
3. Permitting  the  passage  of  substances.   Ø Unicellular  
4. Secreting  substances.   Ø Multicellular  
5. Absorbing  substances.   v Simple  –  non  branched  
  v Compound  -­‐‑  branched  
Classification  of  Epithelium   • Tubular  
Accdg.  To  Layers   o Straight  
1. Simple  E.  –  single  layered   o Coiled  
2. Stratified  E.  –  multi-­‐‑layered   • Acinus   (grapelike)   or  
3. Pseudostratified   Columnar   E   –   single   layered   Alveolus  (small  cavity)  
but  appears  to  be  stratified    
4. Transitional   E   –   stratified   x   can   be   greatly   Mode  of  Secretion  
stretched   Ø Merocrine   –   products   are   released   but  
  no   actual   cellular   material   is   lost;  
Accdg.  To  Shape   pancreas  
1. Squamous  –  flat   Ø Apocrine   –   secretory   products   are  
a. Non-­‐‑keratinized   -­‐‑   in   the   deepest   and   released  as  fragments;  mammary  glands  
outermost  layers,  moist   Ø Holocrine   -­‐‑     shedding   of   entire   cells;  
b. Keratinized   -­‐‑   composed   of   dead   cells   sebaceous  glands  
containing   the   protein   keratin;   durable,    
moisture-­‐‑resistant,  dry  character.   b. Endocrine  -­‐‑   release  hormones  that  are  absorbed  
2. Cuboidal  –  cube-­‐‑like   directly  into  the  blood  
3. Columnar  –  tall  and  thin    
  Connective  Tissue  
Functional  Characteristics   § Large  amounts  of  EM  
Cell  Layers  and  Cell  Shapes    
§ Simple   E.   -­‐‑   diffusion,   filtration,   secretion,   or   Functions  of  Connective  Tissue  (EC2S2PT)  
absorption;  found  in  organs:  to  move  materials   1. Enclosing  and  separating  other  tissues.  
§ Stratified  E.  -­‐‑  protection   2. Connecting  tissues  to  one  another.  
§ Squamous  Cells  -­‐‑  diffusion  and  filtration   3. Supporting  and  moving  parts  of  the  body.  
§ Cuboidal   and   Columnar   Cells   –   secretion   and   4. Storing  compounds.  
absorption   5. Cushioning  and  insulating.  
  6. Transporting.  
Free  Surfaces   7. Protecting.  
§ Smooth  free  surface  –  reduces  friction    
§ Microvilli  –  increase  the  free  surface  are    

M o r a n o , M . A .
Cells  of  Connective  Tissue   II. Supporting  Connective  Tissue  
§ Blast  (germ)  –  froms  the  matrix   1. Cartilage  
§ Cyte  (cells)  –  maintains   § Composed   of   chondrocytes,   in   spaces   called  
§ Clast  (break)  –  breaks  down   lacunae  
  § Flexibility  and  strength  
§ Adipocytes  –  contain  large  amount  of  lipids   § Provides  support  
§ Macrophages   –   WBCs   that   move   about   and   a. Hyaline   –   most   abundant,   covers   the  
ingest  foreign  substances   ends   of   bones,   can   withstand   repeated  
§ Mast   Cells   –   play   an   important   role   in   compressions  
inflammation   b. Fibro   –   more   collagen,   able   to   resists  
§ Mesenchymal   Cells   –   have   the   potential   to   pulling   or   tearing,   found   in   disks  
differentiate  to  form  adult  cell  types   between   vertebrae   and   some   joints  
  (knee  and  jaw)  
Extracellular  Matrix   c. Elastic   –   contains   elastic   fibers,   able   to  
§ Protein  Fibers   recoil   to   its   original,   external   ear,  
Ø Collagen   Fibers   –   microscopic   ropes;   epiglottis,  auditory  tube  
flexible  but  resist  stretching    
Ø Reticular   Fibers   –   fine,   short   that   2. Bone  
branch;  support  network   § Hard  connective  tissue  
Ø Elastic  Fibers  –  coiled;  can  recoil  back  to   § Consists  of  living  cells,  mineralized  matrix  
shape   § Osteocytes   (bone   cells),   are   located   within  
§ Ground   Substance   –   shapeless   background   lacunae  
where   cells   and   collagen   fibers   can   be   seen;   § Support  and  protect  other  organs  
highly  structured  molecules   a. Spongy  
Ø Proteoglycans   –   pine   trees:   branches   =   b. Compact  
proteins,   pine   needles   =    
polysaccharides;  trap  large  quantities  of   III. Fluid  Connective  Tissue  
water   a. Blood   –   liquid   matrix:   enables   blood   to  
§ Fluid   flow   rapidly;   carry   nutrients,   oxygen,  
  waste  products  
Classification  of  Connective  Tissue   Ø RBCs  
Adult  Connective  Tissue   Ø WBCs  
I. Connective  Tissue  Proper   Ø Platelets  
1. Loose  Connective  Tissue   b. Hemopoietic  -­‐‑    forms  bloods  cells  
§ Few  protein  fibers,  numerous  spaces    
a. Areolar   –   EM:   collagen   fibers   and   few   Muscle  Tissue  
elastic  fibers   § Has  the  ability  to  contract.  
b. Adipose   –   consists   of   adipocytes   (fat   § Muscle  fibers  –  resemble  tiny  threads  
cells):  contain  large  amounts  of  lipid  (for    
energy   storage);   EM:   loose   arranged   Types  of  Muscular  Tissue  
collagen   and   reticular   fibers,   scattered   I. Skeletal  (striated  voluntary)  
elastic  fibers   § Large,  long,  cylindrical  cells  
c. Reticular   § Multinucleated  
  § Attached  to  bones  
2. Dense  Connective  Tissue   § Responsible  for  body  movement  
§ Large  amount  of  protein  fibers    
a. Collagenous  –  EM:  collagen  fibers   II. Cardiac  (striated  involuntary)  
b. Elastic  –  abundant   elastic   fibers   (stretch   § Cylindrical  cells  
and  recoil)  in  its  collagen  fibers   § Branched   and   connected   to   one   another   by  
  intercalated  disks  
  § Single  nucleated  
  § Found  in  the  heart  
  § Pumps  the  blood  

M o r a n o , M . A .
 III. Smooth  (nonstriated  involuntary)   Tissue  Damage  and  Inflammation  
§ End  tapered  cells   Inflammation  –  occurs  when  tissues  are  damaged  
§ Single  nucleated    
§ Found   in   hollow   organs:   stomach,   intestine;   Histamine   &   Prostaglandins   –   chemical   mediators   of  
skin,  eyes   inflammation  
§ Regulates   size   of   organs,   forces   fluid   through    
tubes,   controls   the   amount   of   light   entering   the   Edema  -­‐‑  swelling  
eye,  produces  ‘goose  bumps’    
  Neutrophil  –  phagocytic  WBC  that  fights  infection  
Nervous  Tissue    
§ Found  in  the  brain,  spinal  cord,  and  nerves   Pus  –  mixture  of  dead  neutrophils,  other  cells,  fluid  
§ Responsible  for  coordinating  and  controlling    
  Chronic  Inflammation  
Action   potentials   –   ability   of   nervous   tissue   cells   to   § Results   when   the   agent   causing   injury   is   not  
communicate   with   one   another   by   means   of   electric   removed   or   something   else   interferes   with   the  
signals   healing  process  
   
Neurons  –  responsible  for  conducting  action  potentials   Tissue  Repair  
Ø Cell  Body  –  contains  the  nucleus;  site  of  general   § Substitution  of  viable  cells  for  dead  cells  
cell  functions   § Can  occur  by  regeneration  or  by  fibrosis  
Ø Dendrites  –  receive  electric  impulses    
Ø Axon  –  conduct  electric  impulses   Regeneration  –  new  cells  are  the  same  type  as  those  that  
  were  destroyed  
Membranes    
§ A  thin  layer  of  tissue  that  covers  a  structure   Fibrosis/Replacement   –   a   new   type   of   tissue   develops  
§ Mostly   consists   of   epithelium   and   connective   that  eventually  causes  scar  production  
tissue    
  Stem   Cells   –   self-­‐‑renewing,   undifferentiated   cells   that  
I. Mucous  Membrances   continue  to  divide  throughout  life  
§ Consists   of   epithelium   and   loose   connective    
tissue   Clot   –   contains   protein   fibrin   (binds   the   edges   of   a  
§ Line   the   digestive,   respiratory,   reproductive   wound  together  and  stops  the  bleeding)  
tracts    
§ Protection,  absorption,  secretion   Scab  –  dried  surface  of  a  clot;  seals  the  wound  and  helps  
  prevent  infection  
II. Serous  Membranes    
§ Simple   squamous   epithelium   and   loose   Granulation   Tissue   –   delicate,   granular   appearing  
connective  tissue   connective   tissue   that   consists   of   fibroblasts,   collagen,  
§ Line   the   trunk   cavities   and   cover   the   organs   capillaries  
within  it    
§ Serous  fluid  prevents  damage  from  abrasion   Effects  of  Aging  on  Tissues  
  § Cells  divide  more  slowly.  
a. Pleural  –  lungs   § Injuries  heal  more  slowly.  
b. Pericardial  –  heart   § EM   containing   collagen   &   elastic   fibers  
c. Peritoneal  –  abdominopelvic  cavity   becomes  less  flexible  and  less  elastic.  
  § Skin  wrinkles.  
III. Synovial  Membranes   § Elasticity  in  blood  arteries  is  reduced.  
§ Formed  by  connective  tissue   § Bones  break  more  easily.  
§ Line  the  inside  of  joint  cavities  
§ Synovial  fluid  –  reduce  friction  to  allow  smooth  
movement  within  the  joints  
 
 

M o r a n o , M . A .
CELL STRUCTURES Crenation – cell shrinking

AND FUNCTIONS Carrier-Mediated Transport Mechanisms

Carrier-mediated transport – movement of a substance
Cell Structure
Cell – basic unit of life across a membrane by means of a carrier molecule

Organelles – specialized structures Facilitated diffusion – moves substances from a higher

to lower concentration; does not require ATP
1. Nucleus – contains genetic material
Active transport – moves substances from a lower to
2. Cytoplasm – living material higher concentration; requires ATP
Ø Cystic fibrosis – genetic disorder that affects the
3. Plasma membrane – encloses the cytoplasm and active transport of Cl- into cells
nucleus
Secondary active transport – moving concentration
Functions of the Cell (CSCR) gradient to move another substance
1. Cell metabolism and energy use. Ø Cotransport – same direction
2. Synthesis of molecules. Ø Countertransport – opposite direction
3. Communication.
4. Reproduction and inheritance. Endocytosis and Exocytosis
Endocytosis – movement of materials into cells by
Cell Membrane formation of vesicles
§ Outer boundary of the cell Ø Phagocytosis – cell eating; solid particles are
§ Determines what enters and leaves the cell ingested
Ø Pinocytosis – cell drinking; smaller vesicles are
Extracellular – substances outside the cell formed and contains liquid

Intracellular – substances inside the cell Exocytosis – secretion of materials from cells

Fluid-Mosaic Model – arrangement of molecules in the Organelles

cell membrane Nucleus
Nuclear envelope – two-layered membrane that bounds
Selectively permeable – allows some substances to pass the nucleus
into or out of the cells
Nuclear pores – where materials can can pass into or out
Movement Through the Cell Membrane the nucleus
Diffusion
§ Movement of a solute from an area of higher to Chromatin – loosely coiled chromosomes
lower concentration gradient
Nucleoli – consists of ribosomal RNA and proteins
Concentration gradient – difference in the concentration
of a solute in a solvent minus the concentration of the Ribosomes
solute at another point § Site of protein synthesis

Leak channels – allow ions to pass through Endoplasmic Reticulum

§ Forms tubules/sacs throughout the cell
Gated channels – limit the movement of ions across the
membrane Rough E.R. – protein synthesis and modification;
contains ribosomes
Osmosis
§ Diffusion of water across a selectively Smooth E.R. – lipid synthesis, detoxification, and Ca
permeable membrane storage

Osmotic pressure – force required to prevent movement Golgi Apparatus

of water across a selectively permeable membrane § Modifies, packages, and distributes lipids and
proteins
Hypotonic – lower concentration
Secretory vesicles
Isotonic – same concentration § Transports and stores materials within cells

Hypertonic – higher concentration Lysosomes

§ Membrane bound sacs containing hydrolytic
Lysis – when cells swell, then ruptures enzymes

M o r a n o , M . A .
Peroxisomes Two Phases of the Cell Life Cycle
§ Enzymes that digest fatty acids and amino acids 1. Interphase – non-dividing phase
§ Enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of 2. Cell Division – formation of daughter cells from
hydrogen peroxide a single parent cell

Proteasomes 46 Chromosomes – diploid no. of chromosomes

§ Not bound by membranes
§ Digest selected proteins 2 X Chromosome = Female
X + Y Chromosome = Male
Mitochondria
§ Major site of ATP production Autosomes – 22 remaining pairs of chromosomes

Cytoskeleton Mitosis
§ Holds organelles in place; enables the cell to 1. Prophase – chromatin condenses
change shape
2. Metaphase – chromosomes align at the center
§ Microtubules – support the cytoplasm; assist in
3. Anaphase – chromatids separate at the
cell division
centromere and migrate to opposite poles
Microfilaments – involved in cell movement
4. Telophase – chromosomes unravel to become
chromatin
Intermediate filaments – provide mechanical support
Differentiation
Centrioles
Centrosome – where microtubule formation occurs § Cells develop specialized structures and
functions
Centrioles – specialized zone of the cytoplasm
Apoptosis
Spindle fibers – involved in separation of chromosome § Programmed cell death
during mitosis
Cellular Aspects of Aging
Cillia, Flagella, and Microvilli 1. Cellular clock.
Cilia – moves substances over the surface 2. Death genes.
3. DNA damage.
Flagella – propel sperm cells 4. Free radicals.
5. Mitochondrial damage.
Microvilli – increase the surface area of cells; aids in
absorption

Whole-Cell Activity
Gene Expression
Gene – sequence of nucleotides

Transcription – making a copy of a gene

Messenger RNA (mRNA) – the copy itself

Codons – groups of three nucleotides

Translation – converting that copied information into a

protein

Translation RNA (tRNA) – carry the amino acids

Anti-codon – series of three nucleotides of tRNA

Nucleotide Pairs

Cytosine Guanine
Thymine Adenine
Uracil Adenine

UAA – stop codon

Cell Life Cycle

M o r a n o , M . A .
 Compound – two or more diff. types of atoms that are
CHEMICAL BASIS chemically combined

OF LIFE Dissociation
Basic Chemistry § Separation of ions in an ionic compound by
Chemistry – concerned with atomic composition and polar water molecules
structure of substances and the reactions they undergo
Electrolytes – dissociated ions
Matter, Mass, and Weight
Matter – anything that occupies space and has mass Chemical Rxns
§ Substances interact either to form or to break
Mass – amount of matter in an object; kilogram chemical bonds

Weight – gravitational force acting on an object Reactants – substances that enter into a chemical
reaction
Elements and Atoms
Element – simplest type of matter having unique Products – substances that result from the chemical rxn
properties
Classification of Chemical Rxns
Atom – smallest particle of an element 1. Synthesis – combination of reactants
2. Decomposition – breakdown of larger reactants
Atomic Structure 3. Exchange – decomposition + synthesis
Neutrons – no electrical charge
Anabolism – synthesis rxns that occur in the body
Protons – positive charges
Catabolism – decomposition rxns that occur in the body
Electrons – negative charges
Metabolism – anabolic + catabolic rxns in the body
Nucleus – formed by protons and neutrons
Reversible Rxns
Electron cloud – where electrons are most likely to be § Reactants can form products, products can form
found reactants

Atomic number – no of protons in each atom Energy and Chemical Rxns

Energy – capacity to do work
Mass number – no. of protons + no. of neutrons
Potential Energy – stored energy
Electrons and Chemical Bonding
Chemical Bonding – electrons are transferred or shared Kinetic Energy – energy caused by movement
between atoms
Chemical Energy – form of potential energy stored in
Ionic Bond – electrons are transferred chemical bonds

Covalent Bond – electrons are shared Rate of Chemical Rxns (RCTC)

1. Reactants
Polar covalent bond – unequal, asymmetrical sharing of 2. Concentration
electrons 3. Temperature
4. Catalysts (increases the rate of chem rxn without
Polar molecules – molecules with asymmetrical itself being permanently changed or depleted)
electrical charge
Acids and Bases
Nonpolar covalent bond – equal sharing of electrons Acid – proton donor
bet. atoms
Base – proton acceptor
Nonpolar molecules – molecules with symmetrical
electrical charge The pH Scale
§ Indicates the H+ concentration of a solution
Hydrogen Bonds Ø Neutral – equal no. of H+ and OH-; pH of 7.0
§ Weak attraction bet the oppositely charged Ø Acidic – H+ > OH-; pH less than 7.0
regions of polar molecules Ø Basic – H+ > OH-; pH greater than 7.0

Molecules and Compounds 7.35 – 7.45 – normal pH range of blood

Molecule – two or more atoms that are chemically
combined Acidosis – blood pH drops beow 7.35

M o r a n o , M . A .
Alkalosis – blood pH rises above 7.45 Polyunsaturated fats – two or more double covalent
bonds; safflower, sunflower, corn, fish oils
Salts
§ Forms when an acid reacts with a base Trans fats – unsaturated fats tha have been altered by
addition of H atoms
Buffer
§ Chemicals that resist changes in pH Phospholipids – phosphorus containing molecues

Inorganic Molecules Hydrophilic – water loving; polar end of molecules are

§ Do not contain Carbon attracted to water

Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Hydrophobic – water fearing; non polar end is repelled
Oxygen – involved with the extraction of energy from by water
food molecules
Eicosanoids – important chemicals derived form fatty
Carbon Dioxide – by-product of the breakdown of food acids; important regulatory molecules
molecules
Prostaglandins – regulates secretion of hormones, blood
Water clotting, and some reproductive functions
1. Stabilizing body temperature.
2. Protection; lubricant/cushion. Steroids – carbon atoms in four ring-like structures
3. Facilitating chemical reactions.
4. Transporting substances Cholesterol – important steroid bcos steroid molecules
are synthesized from it; important component of cell
Organic Molecules membranes
§ Carbon containing
Proteins
Carbohydrates § CHON + S
§ CHO § Regulate chemical reactions
§ Serve as structural components
Monosaccharides – smallest carbohydrates; simple § Cause muscle contraction
sugars
Ø Glucose – blood sugar Amino acids – building blocks of proteins; amine group
Ø Fructose – fruit sugar + carboxyl group; 20 basic types: 12 simple org.
molecules + 8 obtained in diet
Disaccharides – 2 monosaccharides
Ø Sucrose – table sugar Denaturation – change in shape caused by abnormally
high temp. or change in pH
Polysaccharides – many monosaccharides
Ø Glycogen – animal starch Enzymes – protein catalysts; lower the activation energy
v Plant starch
Activation energy – energy needed to start a chem rxn
v Cellulose
Lock-and-key model – the shapes of an enzyme and
Lipids
those of the reactant allow the enzymes to bind easily to
§ Substances that dissolve in non polar solvents the reactants
§ CHO + P + N
Nucleic Acids: DNA + RNA
Fats – important energy-storage molecules; pad and Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – genetic material of cells
insulate the body
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) – important role in gene
Glycerol & Fatty Acids – building blocks of fats expression/protein synthesis
Triglycerides – most common type of fat molecules Nucleic acid – large molecules composed of CHONP
Saturated Fatty Acid – single covalent bond; beef, pork, Nucleotides – basic building clocks of DNA + RNA
whole milk, cheese, butter, eggs, coconut oil, palm oil
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Unsaturated Fatty Acid – one of more double covalent
§ Important organic molecule
bonds
§ Energy currency of cells
Mono-unsaturated fats – double covalent bonds bet. § Stores and provides energy
carbon; olive and peanut oil

M o r a n o , M . A .
 5. Development – changes an organism undergoes
THE HUMAN through time

ORGANISM 6. Reproduction
cells/organisms
– formation of new
Anatomy
§ Study of the structures of the body
Homeostasis
§ Anatomy; to dissect, or cut apart, or separate
§ Ability to maintain relatively stable internal
Approaches to the Study of Anatomy conditions
1. Systemic Anatomy – study of the body by § Homeo: same; stasis: standing still
organ system § Balance / Equilibirum

2. Regional Anatomy – study of the body by areas Homeostatic mechanisms – normally maintain body
temp near an ideal normal value; sweating, shivering
Gen. Ways to Examine the Internal Structures
1. Surface Anatomy – study of external features; Variables – conditions that can change
superficial structures to locate deeper structures
Set point – ideal value
2. Anatomical Imaging – non-invasive method for
examining deep structures; x-ray, CT scan, PET Normal range – acceptable range of values on which
scan, MRI HM can still be met

Physiology Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

§ Study of the processes and functions of the 1. Negative-feedback Mechanism
body § Regulates most systems of the body to maintain
§ Main goals; to understand and predict; to homeostasis
understand how the body maintains conditions § Negative; any deviation from the set point is
resisted
Structural and Functional Organization
1. Chemical Level 2. Positive-feedback Mechanism
§ How atoms interact and combine into molecules § Not homeostatic and is rare in a healthy individ
§ Positive; when a value deviates from normal, the
2. Cell Level system’s response is to make it greater
§ Cell – basic structural and functional unit of § Massive blood loss, child birth
organisms
Components to Maintain Homeostasis
3. Tissue Level a. Receptors
§ Tissue – group of similar cells b. Control center – analyzes information and
determines the appropriate response
4. Organ Level c. Effector – provides the meant o control the
§ Organ – composed of two or more tissue types value of a variable
that perform common functions
Terminology and The Body Plan
5. Organ System Level Body Positions
Anatomical Position – a person standing erect with the
§ Organ System – group of organs classified as a
unit with a common set of functions face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging to the
sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward
6. Organism Level
Supine – lying face upward
§ Organism – any living thing considered as a
whole
Prone – lying face downward
Characteristics of Life
1. Organization – interrelationship among the
parts of an organism and how those parts
interact to perform specific functions

2. Metabolism – ability to use energy to perform

vital functions

3. Responsiveness – ability to sense changes in the

environment and make the adjustments

4. Growth – increase in size

M o r a n o , M . A .
Directional Terms LOWER LIMB
Hip Coxal
Inferior Lower Thigh Femoral
Superior Higher Kneecap Pat`ellar
Leg Crural
Anterior Front
Posterior Back Foot Pedal
Ankle Talus
Ventral Belly Top of foot Dorsum
Dorsal Back Toes Digital

Proximal Nearest Skull Cranial

Distal Distant Base of Skull Occipital
Back of Neck Nuchal
Away from the
Lateral
midline TRUNK
Medial Towards the midline Back Dorsal
Shoulder blade Scapular
Superficial Toward or on surface Spinal Column Vertebral
Deep Internal Lumbar Loin

Between hips Sacral

Body Parts and Regions Buttock Gluteal
Perineum Perineal
Head Cephalic
Forehead Frontal UPPER LIMB
Eye Orbital Point of shoulder Acromial
Nose Nasal Point of elbow Olecranon
Mouth Oral Back of hand Dorsum
Ear Otic
Cheek Buccal LOWER LIMB
Chin Mental Hollow behind knee Popliteal
Calf Sural
Neck Cervical Sole Plantar
Heel Calcaneal
TRUNK
Thoracic Thorax
Chest Pectoral Subdivisions of the Abdomen
Breastbone Sternal
Breast Mammary Right Left
Upper Upper
Abdomen Abdominal Quadrant Quadrant
Navel Umbilical Right Left
Pelvis Pelvic Lower Lower
Groin Inguinal Quadrant Quadrant
Genital Pubic

UPPER LIMBS Right Left

Epigastric
Collarbone Clavicular Hypochondriac Hypochondriac
Armpit Axillary Right Left
Umbilical
Arm Brachial Lumbar Lumbar
Front of elbow Antecubital Right Left
Hypogastric
Forearm Antebrachial Iliac Iliac

Hand Manual
Wrist Carpal
Palm Palmar
Fingers Digital

M o r a n o , M . A .
Planes

Body Cavities
Thoracic cavity – bounded by ribs and the diaphragm
Ø Mediastinum – partition containing the heart,
thymus, trachea, esophagus

Abdominal cavity – bounded by the diaphragm and the

abdominal mucles

Pelvic Cavity – surrounded by the pelvic bones

Pericardial cavity – surrounds the heart

Pleural cavity – surrounds the lungs

Peritoneal cavity – surrounds certain abdominal and

pelvic organs

Serous Membranes
§ Line the trunk cavities and cover the organs

Visceral Serous Membrane – covers the internal organs

Parietal Serous Membrane – lines the wall of the cavity

Mesenteries – hold the abdominal organs in place and

provide a passageway for blood vessels and nerves to
organs

Pericarditis – inflammation of the pericardium

Pleurisy – inflammation of the pleura

Peritonitis – inflammation of the peritoneum

M M o r a n o , n . .