CELLS

Cell theory
- All organisms consist of one or more cells
- Cell is the smallest unit of life
- All cells come from preexisting cells
General features
- Cells are structural & functional units of life (and disease processes) in all tissues, organs & organ
systems
- Each cell’s capabilities & limitations are implicit in its structures
PROCARYOTIC VS EUCARYOTIC
Prokaryotic (Bacteria) Eukaryotic (Animal)
Single celled Multicellular
Simple internal structure Complex internal structure
DNA is not enclosed by a DNA is enclosed by a membrane
membrane
No cellular organelles Contain cellular organelles

FOUR IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL

1. Cell metabolism and energy use
- Cell metabolism: chemical reactions that occur in the cell
- Energy released during metabolism is used for cell activities
- Muscle contraction
- Synthesis of new molecules
- Heat production to maintain body temperature
2. Synthesis of new molecules
- Proteins
- Lipids
- Nucleic acid
3. Communication
- Cell receive and produce chemical signals that allow them to communicate with one another
- Nerve cells communicate with muscle cells causing muscle contraction
A. Single transduction – cells have receptors with strong binding affinity for single molecules
B. Direct communications
4. Reproduction and inheritance
- Each cell contains a copy of genetic information of the individual
All cells have……
– an outer plasma membrane
- Genetic material in the form of DNA
- Cytoplasm with ribosome
- Each cells are highly organized within cells
Organelles- specialized structure that perform specific information
​PARTS
Nucleus
- Organelle containing the genetic materials
- Contains the ​nucleolus​ and is separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear envelope
- Contains the cells ​DNA​, a type of nucleic acid located in strands called ​chromatid
- Communicates through holes in the envelope called ​nuclear pores
- Histones​- bound strands of DNA
- Contains the molecular machinery to replicate its DNA and to synthesize an RNA
Cytoplasmic Organelles
- Are compartmentalized structures that perform a specialized function within a cell
Ribosomes
- Makes proteins for the cell
- Sight of protein synthesis
- Reads the DNA strand instructions to make proteins for the cell to use in its normal activities
- Made of two protein subunits
Ribosomal RNA (rRna)
- Large subunit: (2 strands of rRna and 34 protein molecules)
- Small subunit: (1 strand of rRna and 21 protein molecules)
- Eukaryotic ribosomes are larger than prokaryotic (80s-70s)
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Found attached to the outside of the nucleus. It appears rough because of the ribosomes on its surface
- Helps the attached ribosomes in finishing protein synthesis
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
- NOT attached to the nucleus, DOES NOT have attached ribosomes
- Synthesizes carbohydrates (sugars) and lipids (fats)
Golgi Apparatus or Golgi Complex
- Made up of flattened sacs
- Ships packages around the cell
- Packages are carried to the Golgi apparatus in vesicles
- Receives an incoming vesicle, tags the package and send the vesicle to the final destination
Secretory Vesicles
- Small membrane bound sacs that transports or stores materials within cells
- Pinch off from the Golgi apparatus and move the cell membrane
- Accumulate in the ​cytoplasm​ and released to the exterior when the cell receives a signal
Lysosome
- Destroys waste to clean up the cell
- Vesicles carry the waste (bacteria, old organelles) into the lysosome
- Waste is destroyed and parts are recycled
Cell membrane / Plasma membrane
- Separates the cell from its environment (intracellular & extracellular subunits)
- Forms distinct functional compartments (nucleus & organelles) in the cell
Peroxisomes
- small membrane bound vesicles containing enzymes that break down fatty acids, amino acids, and
hydrogen peroxide
- hydrogen peroxide​: a by-product of fatty acid and amino acid breakdown and can be toxic to a cell
- enzymes in peroxisomes breakdown hydrogen peroxide into ​water and O2​
- cells active in ​detoxification​ such as liver and kidney contain many peroxisomes
Mitochondria
- power house of the cell
- produces energy to the cell
- converts carbohydrates (sugar) taken from food into ATP
- has two protective shells
BIOCHEMICAL COMPUNDS
1. Lipids – phospholipids (nonpolar), cholesterol, glycolipids
2. Proteins – contribute 50% of membrane weight
A. internal membrane protein
o lodged in the lipid bilayer
o the entire membrane called ​transmembrane proteins
B. peripheral membrane protein
o associated in the outer surface
o globular or filamentous
3. Carbohydrates
o Mainly obligosaccharides which have characteristics in branching structures and protection from
the cell’s outer surface
Fatty Acid Tails – hydrophobic (non polar)
Phosphate Group Head – hydrophilic (polar)
o Arranged as a bilayer
Functions of the cell membrane
A. Selective Permeability
- Mediates the exchange of molecules
- Maintains the difference between intracellular and extracellular
- Movement of substance may be:
a. Passive Transport- does not require energy
▪ Diffusion, Osmosis, Facilitated Diffusion
b. Active transport – requires ATP
▪ Active Transport, Secondary Active Transport, Endocytosis, Exocytosis
B. Endocytosis and Exocytosis
C. Signal Transaction

● Cell membranes are ​selectively permeable

● Enzymes, glycogen, and potassium ions are found at higher concentration Intracellular
● Sodium, calcium, and chloride ions are found in greater concentration Extracellular
● Nutrients must enter the cell continuously and waste products must exit
● Selective permeability of the cell membrane maintains the proper intracellular concentration of
molecules
● Alteration of its selective permeability will lead to cell death
Diffusion
- Movement of solutes from a ​higher concentration​ to an area of ​lower concentration
- very important for transporting substances through the intracellular and extracellular fluid
*in the phosphate bilayer
- ions pass through the membrane channels
-leak channels constantly allow ions to pass through
- Gated ion channels limit the movement of ions across the membrane by opening and closing
Osmosis (Passive Transport)
- Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration
to a lower water concentration
- When fluid moves passively from the areas with more fluid (fewer solutes) to areas with less fluid (more
solutes)
- Water diffuses toward areas with high solute concentration and dilute those solutes
Osmotic Pressure
- Force required to prevent the movement of water across a semi permeable membrane
- Minimum pressure that stops osmosis
Hypotonic Solution
- Lower concentration​ solute, ​higher concentration​ of water than the cytoplasm of the cell
- Water moves into cell, causes ​swelling
Hypertonic Solution
- Higher concentration​ solute, ​lower concentration​ of water than the cytoplasm of the cell
- Water moves into cell, causes ​crenation
Isotonic Solution
- Solution is in equilibrium to the cell thus no effect in the cell
Carrier- mediated transport mechanism
- Many substances cannot pass through diffusion thus requires carrier molecules (ex. Glucose,
Electrolytes, Proteins)
- Carrier molecules exhibit specificity
Facilitated Diffusion
- Carrier- mediated transport that DOES NOT need ATP to move substances from Higher to Lower
Concentration (ex. Glucose)
Active Transport
- Lower to higher concentration
- Needs ATP
- Ex. Sodium- Potassium Pump
Endocytosis & Exocytosis (Active)
- Transport of larger molecules in membrane- bound sacs called ​vesicles
Endocytosis – uptake of material through the membrane
A. Phagocytosis – uptake of solid materials like bacteria & solids
B. Pinocytosis – uptake of liquid. “Cell-drinking”
Exocytosis – ejects substances form the cell
GENE AND GENE EXPRESSION
Dividing phase of eukaryotic cells: Mitosis
Non dividing phase: Interphase
Sub phase: G1, S, G2
Alternating cycle of Mitosis and Interphase: Cell Cycle
Cell Division
- Formation of daughter cells from a single parent cell
- Each cell of the human body except the sex cells has 46 chromosomes (diploid)
- 23 pairs, 1 pair is the sex chromosome
MITOSIS
Interphase
- DNA is found as thin threads of chromatin in the nucleus
- DNA replication occurs
Prophase
- chromatin condenses into chromosomes
- each chromosome is consisting of two chromatids joined at the centromere
- centrioles move to the opposite ends of the cell and the nucleolus and the nuclear envelope disappear
Metaphase
- chromosomes align at the center of the cell in association with the spindle fibers
Anaphase
- chromatids separate to form two sets of identical chromosomes
- chromosomes assisted by the spindle fibers
- cytoplasm begins to divide
Telophase
- chromosomes disperse
- nuclear envelope and nuclei form
- cytoplasm continues to divide into two cells
Cellular Aspects of Aging
Cellular Clock -After a certain number of cell division, they die
Death Genes – turn on late in life, causing cells to die
DNA Damage – causes cell degeneration and death
Free Radicals – one major source of DNA Damage
Mitochondrial Damage – loss of energy critical to cell function
Made by: Kathleen Kate Ong Lo 7/1/2019