CHAPTER THREE

Agriculture and the environment

3.1 Soil composition
L.O describe and explain the composition of soils
What is soil?
The upper layer of earth in which plants grow, a black or dark brown material typically
consisting of a mixture of organic remains, clay, and rock particles.
Importance of soil
 Soil performs many critical functions in almost any ecosystem (whether a farm, forest,
prairie, marsh, or suburban watershed). There are seven general roles that soils play:
 Soils serve as media for growth of all kinds of plants.
 Soils modify the atmosphere by emitting and absorbing gases (carbon dioxide, methane,
water vapor, and the like) and dust.
 Soils provide habitat for animals that live in the soil (such as groundhogs and mice) to
organisms (such as bacteria and fungi), that account for most of the living things on
Earth.
 Soils absorb, hold, release, alter, and purify most of the water in terrestrial systems.
 Soils process recycled nutrients, including carbon, so that living things can use them over
and over again.
 Soils serve as engineering media for construction of foundations, roadbeds, dams and
buildings, and preserve or destroy artifacts of human endeavors.
 Soils act as a living filter to clean water before it moves into an aquifer.
Soil composition
The major component of the soil include:
Mineral particles: These include combinations of rock fragments and other smaller inorganic
(non-living) items.
Organic content: A mixture of (living plant and animals, microorganisms and dead remains)
Air and water: which are held within pore spaces in soil useful for plant growth and survival of
animal within the soil.

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 Particle size of soil
Soil particles are classified by size. The size of the soil particle gives texture to the soil and
determines the amount of air and moisture that exists in the soil. The different particle sizes can
also hold different amounts of nutrients within the soil. The ability of different soil textures to
absorb and drain water is also determined by particle size.
The major soil particle size include:
Sand
Sand particles measure 2.0 mm to 0.06 mm.
Sand is the largest type of soil particle, and
due to its size, allows quick drainage and
plenty of airflow. Nutrients can quickly
drain out of sand particles. Sand can feel
granular, or coarse.
Silt
Silt particles measure 0.06 mm to 0.002 mm.
Silt's particles are larger than clay particles
but smaller than sand particles. Silt has a
smooth texture and forms a crust when it
gets wet. The crust makes it difficult for
water and air to get to the soil.

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 Clay
Clay particles measure less than 0.002 mm.
Clay is the smallest type of soil particle. It
feels sticky when wet, absorbs water well
and is also nutrient-rich. Soil that is dense
with clay particles does not drain water well
and obstructs airflow

3.2 Soils for plant growth

L.O describe soils as a medium for plant growth
Mineral ions:
Plants use minerals from the soil to build the complex molecules they need to survive and grow.
Poor plant growth may be due to a deficiency in one or more minerals.
Mineral requirements
Fertilizers contain minerals such as:
 Nitrates
 Phosphates
 Potassium compounds
 Magnesium compounds
These minerals are needed for healthy plant growth. The table summaries why.

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Organic content: Soil contains many living organisms such as bacteria, fungi, algae,
actinomycetes, earthworms, nematodes, and arthropods. All contribute to the biological and
microbiological activity which results in the breakdown of plant material, roots, dead organisms
and other organic residues that accumulate in soils. As this organic material starts to decompose,
soil organic matter is formed. Ten to fifteen percent of this organic material is readily
decomposable, while the remainder takes much longer. Soil organic matter is an extremely
important component of soil. It provides nutrients for crops as it decomposes and contributes to
the cation exchange complex necessary for holding applied nutrients in the soil. Soil aggregation
is improved by increased organic matter content and hence has a role in maintaining soil
structure, drainage and aeration; all of which are necessary for good crop yields. Soil organic
matter also plays a role in increasing moisture retention and consequently the drought tolerance
of the crop. A soil with an adequate level of organic matter will be less erodible, have increased
nutrient retention, and also be easier to work and plow. Other advantages include resistance to
soil crusting and compaction, greater fertility, better root growth of crops, and improved crop
yields.
pH: pH is a scale that chemists use to measure acidity. Values below 7 are considered acidic,
values above 7 are alkaline (the opposite of acidic) and 7 is neutral.

Most plants can tolerate a wide pH range in solution culture, but they cannot tolerate a wide
range of acidity in the soil.

When soil acidity changes, the solubility of a number of metal ions also change. Plant growth is
really affected by the varying concentration of these metals in solution rather than by the acidity
itself.

Under acidic conditions, many soil minerals dissolve and increase the concentration of metal
ions to toxic levels. The primary toxic metal is aluminum, but high levels of manganese and iron
can also inhibit plant growth under these conditions. The nutrients phosphorus and molybdenum
are less available in acidic soils and calcium and/or magnesium may also be deficient.

Under alkaline conditions, the solubility of minerals decrease to the point that nutrient
deficiencies occur. Plant growth is therefore limited by deficiencies in iron, manganese, zinc,
copper and boron. Phosphorus is also less available in alkaline soils and high levels of calcium
may inhibit the uptake of potassium and magnesium.

The aim in managing soil pH is not to achieve a particular pH value, but to adjust the acidity to
the point where there are no toxic metals in solution and the availability of nutrients is at its
maximum. This condition is usually achieved when the soil pH is between 5.8 and 6.5, however
some plants have special acidity requirement.
L.O describe the differences between a sandy and clay soil
Clay Soil Sandy Soil
1. The proportion of fine particle is 1. The proportion of large particles is
higher. higher.
2. Particles are packed tightly. 2. Particles are loosely packed.
3. It can hold good amount of water. 3. Its ability to retain water is low.
4. Water cannot drain quickly. 4. Water can drain quickly.

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 5. It is heavy in weight. 5. It is light in weight.
6. Less air is trapped between the 6. More air is trapped between the
particles. particles.
7. It is rich in humus. 7. It is not rich in humus.

3.3 Agriculture types

L.O: Describe the different types of agriculture
What products they farm
 Arable farming = growing crops
 Pastoral farming = rearing livestock (animals)
 Mixed farming = rearing livestock and growing crops on the same farm
Why they are farming
 Commercial farming = produce is grown/reared to sell for profit (cash crops)
 Subsistence farming = produce is grown/ reared mainly for the farmer and their family to
consume ( food crops)
3.4 Increasing agricultural yields
L.O describe techniques used to increase agricultural yields
Crop rotation: Crop rotation is based on growing a series of different types of crops in the same
area in sequential seasons. The planned rotation may vary from a growing season to a few years
or even longer periods. Farmers usually do not follow one specific plan. They choose to alternate
crops based on their individual requirements, possibilities, environmental conditions and budget.
For example, one farmer might follow a seven-year rotation scheme as follows:

 First year: Corn

 Second year: Oats
 Third to fifth year: Alfalfa or clover
 Sixth to seventh year: Fallow or use as a pasture for livestock

Another farmer might choose a simpler scheme:

 First year: Carrots

 Second year: Wheat
 Third to seventh year: Bluegrass

Even though these two plans differ, they both stick to the general rule of crop rotation. The basic
principle is to plant leguminous crops (e.g. pulses, alfalfa, bluegrass, clover) after the cereal
crops (e.g. wheat, oats, maize, rice), and then leave the land undisturbed for at least one season.

Following this rotation sequence helps prevent three main problems we see when planting
only one crop year after year. These problems are:
o Loss of soil fertility: If the same crop is grown continuously, the plant drains always the
same nutrients from the soil. This eventually leads to nutrient depletion and soil infertility.
o Pest infestations: Many pests specialize in a certain kind of crops. When we plant
repeatedly their crop of choice, we are providing them favorable conditions to strive.
o Erosion: Repeated planting of the same crop makes soils more susceptible to erosion. Each
crop species has a specific shape of the root system, water requirements, spacing between

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 plants and canopy. When growing only one kind of crop over prolonged periods of time,
soil will start eroding in places where plants leave it uncovered and weakened.
The practice of crop rotation is, therefore, one of the most effective agricultural control
strategies, as it comes with numerous advantages that are very important for reducing the use of
chemicals on farms and supporting long-term soil fertility.

Fertilizers: Fertilisers contain minerals such as nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus, which help
plants to grow. Fertilisers increase crop yields but cause the problem of eutrophication when
they're washed into rivers and lakes by rainwater. Most chemical fertilisers are made by the
reaction of an acid with an alkali.
Fertilisers make crops grow faster and bigger so that crop yields are increased. They are water-
soluble minerals. They must be able to dissolve in water so that plants can absorb them through
their roots.
Fertilisers provide plants with the essential chemical elements needed for growth particularly
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
Irrigation: By watering crops more frequently it may be possible to grow crops over a longer
season, grow for two seasons or farm land that was previously too arid.
Insect control (insecticide and biological control), weed control (herbicide), fungi control
(fungicide)
Mechanization: Using machinery might not always be possible of small plots of land, but it may
be possible if neighbouring farmers are cooperating. Machinery should make farming more
efficient and may increase yields by ploughing better and harvesting quicker.
Selective breeding of animals and plants: Selective breeding is the traditional method for
improving crops and livestock, such as increasing disease resistance or milk yield.
These are the steps in selective breeding:
1. Decide which characteristics are important
2. Choose parents that show these characteristics
3. Select the best offspring from parents to breed the next generation
4. Repeat the process continuously
Genetically modified organisms: Genetic engineering is also called genetic modification or
GM. It involves modifying the genome of an organism by introducing a gene from another
organism to result in a desired characteristic.
Genetic engineering involves these steps:

1. Selection of the desired characteristic.

2. The gene responsible for the characteristic is 'cut out' of the chromosome.
3. The gene is transferred and inserted into another organism.
4. Replication of the modified organism.
Plant crops have been genetically engineered to be disease resistant or to produce bigger fruits.

Controlled environments: greenhouses and hydroponics

Hydroponics involves growing plants in a porous material (other than soil) and allowing water
containing nutrients to filter through it.

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Importance of hydroponics
 No need for soil
 Can be used anywhere
 Easy to harvest
 An intensive system that can provide high yield
 Water is recycled, so used efficiently.
 No weed or pest
A greenhouse (also called a glasshouse or hothouse) is a building where plants such as flowers
and vegetables are grown. It usually has a glass or translucent plastic roof. Many greenhouses
also have glass or plastic walls. Greenhouses warm up during the day via penetration of the sun's
rays which heat the plants, soil and structure. This heat is given up gradually throughout the
night.

IMPACT OF AGRICULTURE
L.O describe and explain the impact of agricultural practices on the environment and
people
Overuse of insecticides and herbicides
 Leads to resistance in pest population.
 Can leads to environmental damage e.g. It can kill useful insect which aid in pollination
like bees
 There can be issue of spray drift where leaching can occur and the insecticide can be
washed to a river and leads to dead of aquatic plants and animals.
Overuse of fertilisers
 It leads to eutrophication if excess of fertilizers are drained into water bodies
 Changes the soil pH
 It can lead to death of plant and animal in the case of eutrophication
 It lead to excessive growth in water bodies which reduces the oxygen availability in water

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 Causes of eutrophication

Mismanagement of irrigation
 Damage to the soil structure: when wet, air pockets are lost and the soil is compacted
 Death of plant roots: waterlogged soils prevents plant roots getting sufficient oxygen to
respire and cells start to die.
 Loss of nutrients: nutrients dissolve in the water in soil, as water drains away nutrient is
taken away from it.
 Soil erosion: large amounts of water run-off will take some of the soil particles away.
 Salinization: salt dissolve into the water within the soil but are normally at their highest
concentrations deeper in the soil. Over irrigated soils become waterlogged and therefore
the salts are able to move throughout the soil. When the sun causes evaporation of water
from the soil, the salt are left behind. If the salt level become too high, plants will have
difficulty taking up water (by osmosis) and water supplies may also become unsuitable
for drinking.

• exhaustion of mineral ion content:

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 Soil erosion
The soil is exposed and vulnerable to erosion as a result of the removal of vegetation and
overgrazing.
Trees, which provide protection from the wind and rain, are removed to be used as fuel

Cash crops replacing food crops:

3.6 Causes and impacts of soil erosion
L.O describe the causes of soil erosion
Soil erosion is the washing away or blowing away of top soil. Basically the wearing away and loss
of exposed top soil, mainly by the action of wind and rain (as surface run-off).

Soil erosion can result in reduce soil fertility. It is a natural process, but it is made worse by people.
Activities that cause problems include:

 Removing vegetation by cutting down trees and bushes for fuel or to make way for more
farmland. This exposes the soil to the wind and rain.
 Overgrazing by animals-rearing too many animals in relation to amount of grass available.
Result: ditto above.
 Over-cultivating the soil by failing to 'feed' it with fertilisers or by growing the same crop
in the same field year after year. This monoculture weakens the soil structure and removes vital
minerals from the soil. (The same crop uses up the same nutrients until it is all depleted.) The net
result is that crops will fail and the soil will be left exposed to the forces of erosion.
 Compacting the soil by the use of heavy machinery. (e.g. if a tractor went over a patch of
soil, the weight of it would increase pressure on the soil, squashing it together and making it more
compact.) This reduces the rate at which rainwater is able to infiltrate the soil. So much of the
rainwater flows across the soil surface and erodes the soil as it does so.
 Ploughing fields in the same direction as the slope. This readily encourages gullying.
(Ploughing up and down hill creates channels down which rain water can flow. Increases amount
and speed of surface run-off.)
L.O describe and explain the impacts of soil erosion
The impact of soil erosion include the following:
1. loss of habitats
2. desertification
3. silting of rivers: the sand particles are washed into rivers
4. Displacement of people: people will migrate to seek environment with better soil quality
for food production.
5. malnutrition and famine: poor nutrient in soil thereby leads to reduction in food
production
3.7 Managing soil erosion
L.O describe and explain strategies to reduce soil erosion
Terracing: Terracing is a soil conservation practice applied to prevent rainfall runoff on sloping
land from accumulating and causing serious erosion. Terraces consist of ridges and channels
constructed across-the-slope.

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Contour ploughing: Contour plowing or contour farming or Contour ploughing is the
farming practice of plowing and or planting across a slope following its elevation contour lines.
These contour lines create a water break which reduces the formation of rills and gullies during
times of heavy water run-off; which is a major cause of soil erosion. The water break also allows
more time for the water to settle into the soil.
NOTE: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COUNTOUR PLOUGHING AND TERRACING
Contour ploughing follows the “natural shape” of the slope without altering it.

Terrace farming alters the shape of the slope to produce flat areas that provide a catchment for
water.

Bunds: Magic stones (or bunds) are circles of stones placed on the ground to hold water on the
soil rather than letting it run quickly over the surface.

Wind breaks: A windbreak (shelterbelt) is a planting usually made up of one or more rows
of trees or shrubs planted in such a manner as to provide shelter from the wind and to protect soil
from erosion. They are commonly planted in hedgerows around the edges of fields on farms.

Other methods of controlling soil erosion include:

• maintaining vegetation cover
• Addition of organic matter to improve soil structure
• planting trees, mixed cropping, intercropping and crop rotation

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 3.8 Sustainable agriculture
L.O describe and explain strategies for sustainable agriculture
1. Organic fertilizer (crop residue, manure):
2. Managed grazing (livestock rotation): reduce the removal of vegetation.
3. Crop rotation: it helps to give the soil time for it to replenish itself naturally.
4. Use of pest resistant and drought resistant varieties of crops
5. Trickle drip irrigation: While surface irrigation methods rely on watering the whole
surface of the field and overhead irrigation leaves the plants wet and produces runoff,
drip irrigation is far more controlled. Water is slowly provided to a very specific area,
close to the roots of the plant, by a network of drip emitters.

Rainwater harvesting: Rainwater harvesting refers to the collecting of rainwater, mostly on a

roof, from where it flows through gutters into a collection tank. In other words, it refers to a
storage system-could be either above or below the ground-that collects, stores and distributes
run-off of rain or snow from roofs. The will help to reduce water availability for erosion and
increase water availability for irrigation.

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EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

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MARK SCHEME

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