FIRST EDITION

March 2021

Understanding
Transformer Testing
A GUIDE TO DIAGNOSTIC TESTS
FOR OIL-FILLED TRANSFORMERS

Transformer oil testing gives you This guide covers a range

insight into the true condition of of tests and provides an
your high-voltage equipment so you overview of what the
can make intelligent, cost-effective results may mean for
transformer management decisions. your equipment.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION P3
TESTS P4
Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) P4
Karl Fischer Moisture (KF) P5
Liquid Power Factor (PF) P6
Oxidation Inhibitor Content (DBPC) P6
Dissolved Metals (ICP) P7
Furanic Compounds (FUR) P7
Particle Count and Filming Compounds (PC/FC) P8
Neutralization Number P9
Relative Density (Specific Gravity) P10
Color P10
Visual Examination P11
Dielectric Breakdown Voltage (Disk Electrodes) P11
Dielectric Breakdown Voltage (VDE Electrodes) P12
Resistivity P12
Flash Point/Fire Point P13
Degree of Polymerization (DP) P13
AGE Acid Scavenger (Perclene Fluid) P14
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) Content P14
Corrosive Sulfur P15
Particle Count Distribution P15
Interfacial Tension (IFT) P16
FURTHER READING P17
NEXT STEPS P17
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 INTRODUCTION
Since the turn of the 20th century, proven testing methods to collect data
transformers have been filled with mineral from samples, and we leverage what we
insulating oil. The primary functions know from scholarship, research, industry
of mineral oil are to act as a dielectric standards, and experience to accurately
and insulating material, to provide heat diagnose faults and to plan remediation.
transfer and disperse heat, and to act as a This guide is an overview of these
barrier to protect the cellulose insulation testing methods, offering a glance into
from the damaging effects of oxygen and the benefits and limitations of each
moisture. test. Similar tests are applicable in both
A secondary function of mineral oil in mineral-oil-filled and alternative-fluid-filled
transformers—and the function that we transformers, with alternatives including
hope to demystify with this guide—is to askarel, natural and synthetic esters,
act as a diagnostic tool for evaluating the silicone and Wecosol. Although there is
solid insulation inside the transformer. some overlap, this guide will focus on
You may be familiar with the idea, testing for mineral oil transformers.
“The life of the paper is the life of the Thank you for taking the time to
transformer.” A well-used phrase in the educate yourself on this topic, and for
electrical reliability industry, this statement trusting SDMyers as your source of
means that the condition of the cellulose information. We hope this guide sheds
insulation is, essentially, the condition of some light onto the value of oil testing
the entire unit. If the cellulose insulation and, most importantly, the value of
fails, so does the transformer. diagnostic analysis as the most effective
As transformer maintenance tool available for increasing the reliability
professionals, we look to the diagnostic of your transformer.
function of mineral oil to learn as much
as we can about a transformer. We use - The SDMyers team
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3
 TESTS
DISSOLVED GAS
ANALYSIS (DGA)
Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)
The primary use of dissolved gas analysis equipment. Appropriate operation of new
ASTM D3612 (DGA) is as a routine monitoring oil test equipment may require an extremely low
Standard Test Method for electrical equipment. Incipient fault gas content in the newly installed oil—a
for Analysis of Gases conditions—disruptions in the normal typical specification value is 0.5% (5000
Dissolved in Electrical electrical and mechanical operation of ppm) by volume of total gas dissolved
Insulating Oil by Gas electrical equipment—cause the oil to in the oil. There are several methods for
Chromatography break down, generating combustible running this (ASTM D831, D1827, D2945),
gases. The profile of those gases can be but a complete DGA by method D3612
DETECTS interpreted to diagnose whether fault gives the most comprehensive result. Not
Presence and conditions exist, and how severe those only does the test quantify the total gas
concentration of faults may be. in ppm, but it also tells which gases are
hydrogen, oxygen, DGA is also used to determine the present and in what quantities.
nitrogen, carbon concentration of dissolved atmospheric Also performed on samples drawn
monoxide, carbon gases (oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon during factory heat runs (and sometimes
dioxide, methane, dioxide) so that the operation of during factory electrical testing), DGA
ethane, ethylene, and oil preservation systems such as can monitor the integrity of newly
acetylene. conservators, continuous nitrogen manufactured equipment. Similarly, most
systems, and nitrogen blankets can be installations of new, large transformers
INDICATES evaluated. require close monitoring by DGA during
Fault conditions that DGA is used when new oil is placed in the first days, weeks, and months of
lead to production of a transformer, or on newly manufactured operation.
fault gases.
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 KARL FISCHER
MOISTURE (KF)
Karl Fischer Moisture (KF)
Karl Fischer (KF) testing measures water oil in ppm no longer tells the complete
ASTM D1533 content in transformer oil. Water content story. More important values from an
Standard Test Method is a chemical property of new oil related operational and maintenance standpoint
for Water in Insulating to its purity. New oil leaves the refining are the percent saturation of the oil and
Liquids by Coulometric process with very low water content, but the percent moisture by dry weight of the
Karl Fischer Titration can pick up additional moisture during solid insulation. These are calculated using
storage, transfer to delivery containers or the moisture content of the oil in ppm
DETECTS vehicles, transportation, and installation. A and the temperature of the oil at the time
Presence and typical specification value for new oil, as of sampling. A typical specification for
concentration of water in received from the supplier, is a maximum percent moisture by dry weight for a new
transformer oil. of 25 ppm moisture. unit, prior to energizing is 0.5%.
When new oil is installed in new As an in-service oil test, moisture
INDICATES equipment, it is typically processed content is a critical parameter. Again, the
Potential for further through filters, heat, and vacuum. A typical critical values are the percent saturation
degradation of cellulose specification value for new oil leaving the and the percent moisture by dry weight
insulation. processor to be filled into new equipment calculated from the oil temperature and
is a maximum of 10 ppm moisture. the moisture content in ppm reported by
Once the oil has been installed in the the Karl Fischer Titration.
equipment, the moisture content of the
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LIQUID POWER
FACTOR (PF)
Liquid Power Factor (PF)
Dissipation Factor, or Liquid Power Factor a very low liquid power factor. Moisture,
ASTM D924 (PF), is a measure of the dielectric losses oxidation, and contamination all serve to
Standard Test Method in an insulating liquid when used in an increase the liquid power factor. For new
for Dissipation Factor alternating current electric field. oil as received from a supplier, typical
(or Power Factor) and Dissipation factor and liquid power specification values for liquid power factor
Relative Permittivity factor are not exactly equivalent, but they are ≤ 0.050% when measured at 25° C and
(Dielectric Constant) vary by less than one part in a thousand 0.30% when measured at 100° C.
up to a value of approximately 5% for the Liquid power factor is a particularly
DETECTS liquid power factor. They are essentially useful in-service tool for testing and
The dielectric strength interchangeable for the values that are monitoring oil because the test is sensitive
of insulating oil. likely to be encountered in operating to moisture, the oxidation of the oil, and
electrical equipment. contamination from outside sources.
INDICATES Liquid power factor is an electrical Frequently, the pattern of increase for the
Loss of dielectric property of the oil. It relates both to the 25° C and 100° C values can be used to
properties of liquid function of the oil and to its purity. Highly identify specific conditions of concern.
insulation. refined oil, free from contamination, has

OXIDATION
INHIBITOR
Oxidation Inhibitor Content (DBPC)
CONTENT (DBPC) This test measures the two compounds percent, or Type II (inhibited), with a
used as added oxidation inhibitors and maximum inhibitor content of 0.30 weight
ASTM D2668 reports the total content of the two percent. An appropriate specification
Standard Test Method for compounds as total oxidation inhibitor. range for acceptance of inhibited oil is
2,6-Ditertiary Butyl Para- This is a test of the chemical properties 0.20 to 0.30 weight percent inhibitor.
Cresol and 2,6-Ditertiary of the oil. The test is performed on both For in-service oil, inhibitor should
Butyl Phenol in Insulating new oil—for acceptance testing—and as be replenished if the inhibitor content
Oil by Infrared Absorption a maintenance and monitoring test on in- decreases to below 0.1% by weight.
service oil. Under normal circumstances, mineral
DETECTS New oil is typically characterized as oil dielectric fluid will not generally
Presence and being either Type I (uninhibited), with a oxidize if the inhibitor content is properly
concentration of maximum inhibitor content of 0.08 weight maintained.
oxidation inhibitor.

INDICATES
Occurrences of
oxidation within
the insulation.

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DISSOLVED
METALS (ICP)
Dissolved Metals (ICP)
Dissolved copper and other metals act increasing due to aging or jumping due
ASTM D7151 as catalysts to promote oxidation. They to fault conditions, the recommendation
Dissolved Metals by ICP, also serve to elevate liquid power factor for in-service oil is to baseline test units
Standard Test Method to unacceptable levels. Dissolved metals and then test every few years to evaluate
for Determination of in sufficient quantity to promote aging of gradual increases in metals.
Elements in Insulating Oils the oil can be removed by reclamation. If dissolved metals content is to be
by Inductively Coupled Dissolved metals analysis is also useful used to help identify a transformer
Plasma Atomic Emission to help diagnose fault conditions such fault, the abnormality will show up in
Spectroscopy as severe overheating or arcing/sparking the dissolved gas analysis, triggering
indicated by other tests such as dissolved a recommendation to perform metals
DETECTS gas analysis. analysis. Standard procedure is to test
Presence of copper, iron, Dissolved metals analysis is sometimes samples routinely for copper, iron, and
and aluminum performed on new oil to evaluate whether aluminum, although many others can be
in transformer oil. refining or storage practices are resulting run if conditions indicate a need.
in elevated dissolved metals levels
INDICATES being introduced into the system. Since
Production of metals dissolved metals levels are generally
through arcing/sparking measurable with brand new transformers,
and potential for once energized, and tend to decrease to
accelerated oxidation. “none detected” levels before gradually

FURANIC
COMPOUNDS
Furanic Compounds (FUR)
(FUR) Analysis for furanic compounds new oil should have a negligible furanic
(2-furaldehyde and several derivatives) in compound content. New oil in a new
ASTM D5837 oil is a test of chemical properties. Furanic transformer should be baseline tested and
Standard Test Method for compounds are typically only present in should have less than 20 ppb (μg/kg) of
Furanic Compounds in oil because of paper degradation. It is an furanic compounds. Any increase in furanic
Electrical Insulating Liquids optional test of the composition of new oil. compounds content, and particularly the
by High Performance On rare occasions, furanic compounds presence of any furanic compound other
Liquid Chromatography may be present in new oil because than 2-furaldehyde, is an indication that
(HPLC) of the refining process. Since furanic the paper is being damaged by heat,
compounds analysis is a diagnostic test moisture, electrical stress, or oxidation.
DETECTS for degradation of the solid insulation,
Furans in transformer oil.

INDICATES
Cellulose insulation
damage through heat,
moisture, electrical stress,
or oxidation.

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 PARTICLE COUNT
AND FILMING
Particle Count and Filming Compounds
COMPOUNDS (PC/FC)
(PC/FC)
This testing should be done on equipment same time to help identify possible faults.
ASTM D6786 where moving parts are in contact The microscopic ferrography part of
Standard Test Method with insulating oil, such as in Load Tap the testing starts with the generation
for Particle Count Using Changers (LTCs). Following Particle of a ferrogram. A ferrogram is a special
Automatic Optical Count analysis (see page 15), microscopic microscope slide that is designed to
Particle Counters ferrography is used to visually identify the trap particles from the oil. During the
particles seen in the oil. Ferrous metals generation of the ferrogram, the slide sits
DETECTS can be differentiated from non-ferrous over a magnetic field that will cause the
Presence of particulates. types. Arcing spheres can be identified, in ferrous particles to align with the magnetic
contrast to filming compounds (polymeric field. As the oil flows over the slide, the
INDICATES varnish that can form on electrical particles are also distributed by size. The
Possible damage from contacts). slide is then flushed with a fixer and dried.
moving parts, such as a This test can help identify misaligned Once dried, the slide is examined under
Load Tap Changer. moving parts. Cutting and shearing wear a microscope by a trained technician and
can be identified and large arcing spheres the particles are identified. Identification
can be a sign of misaligned contacts or of the size, shape, and composition of the
shorts, depending on if they are copper particles is vital for proper interpretation
or iron. It is strongly recommended that a of the conditions in the unit being tested.
dissolved gas analysis be performed at the
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 NEUTRALIZATION
NUMBER
Neutralization Number
Neutralization Number—either Acid oil oxidation. Many of the oxidation
ASTM D974 Number or Base Number—is frequently products that are formed in oil as it ages
Standard Test Method for determined for many different petroleum react with potassium hydroxide and are
Acid and Base Number by products using ASTM D974. For measured as a group by the acid number
Color-Indicator Titration transformer oil, the concern is with the determination.
acid number. Impurities in new oil and in ASTM D974 is a manual method of
DETECTS in-service oil will react with the reagent titration—adding the potassium hydroxide
Relative amounts used in acid number determination solution to an oil sample which has
of acid/impurities. (potassium hydroxide—KOH). The relative had a color indicator added to it. The
amount of these impurities is quantified color indicator changes color when free
INDICATES as the acid number, which is sometimes potassium hydroxide is present. If there
The extent of referred to as “total acid number.” Acid is no color change, the added potassium
oil oxidation. number is reported as milligrams of hydroxide reagent is reacting with aging
potassium hydroxide per gram of sample compounds in the oil. When a color
(mg KOH/g). change is noted, the sample size, volume
Acid number is a chemical property of of added KOH, and concentration of the
the oil, related to its purity. Highly refined KOH added are used to calculate the acid
new oils have very little in the way of number of the oil specimen.
impurities in them and a correspondingly Some laboratories have modified ASTM
low acid number. A typical new oil D974 to allow use of an automatic titrator.
specification is a maximum acid number In this case, electrodes that measure pH
of 0.015 mg KOH/g. Acid number is are used instead of the color indicator.
also a useful in-service oil test because This can be an acceptable method, but
it is a direct measure of the extent of instrument calibration is complex.
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 RELATIVE DENSITY
(SPECIFIC GRAVITY)
Relative Density (Specific Gravity)
Relative density (more commonly, as transformer dielectric liquids typically
ASTM D1298 specific gravity) is a direct comparison have specific gravity within a relatively
Standard Practice for of the density (mass per volume) of an narrow range.
Density, Relative Density insulating liquid to water. Water has a Specific gravity is a new oil test that is
(Specific Gravity), or API specific gravity of 1.000; transformer oil is also used for in-service oil. Specific gravity
Gravity of Crude Petroleum lighter than water, so the specific gravity of oil should not change because of
and Liquid Petroleum is less than one. A typical specification for aging. Significant changes while in-service
Products by Hydrometer new oil is 0.84 to 0.91. This is a test of a are an indication that the oil has been
Method physical property that relates to the oil’s contaminated.
composition and function. Specific gravity Other dielectric fluids have different
DETECTS directly affects heat transfer. Specific ranges for relative density (specific
The density of the gravity of oil is affected by the length and gravity). The test is used for all types of
insulating liquid. structure of the hydrocarbons in the oil. new and in-service insulating liquids.
Mixtures of hydrocarbons that perform
INDICATES
Oil contamination.

COLOR Color
ASTM D1500 Color is a physical property of the oil. there can be relatively lightly colored
Standard Test Method As a new oil test, a very low color is an oils that are unacceptable for continued
for ASTM Color. indication of a highly refined oil and is a use and there are some darker oils that
relative measure of the purity of the oil. continue to provide acceptable service.
DETECTS A typical new oil value for color is less Maintenance decisions are rarely
The darkening of than 0.5 on the ASTM scale. As in-service made based strictly on color, but an
transformer fluid. oil ages and is oxidized, color typically unacceptable color may indicate the need
increases, and the oil darkens, visibly. to more closely evaluate other test results
INDICATES Care must be taken in interpreting that apply to oxidation of the oil.
The need to more color results for in-service oil because
closely evaluate other
oxidation test results.
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 VISUAL
EXAMINATION
Visual Examination
Visual examination (D1524) on either oil, is some variation of “clear and bright”
ASTM D1524 new oil or in-service oil is a pass-fail test meaning no evidence of suspended
Standard Test Method that looks for any foreign conditions or particles, cloudiness, turbidity, sediment,
for Visual Examination material in the oil sample. The “passing or any condition resulting from any
of Used Electrical grade,” whether for new oil or in-service contamination by solids or free water.
Insulating Oils.

DETECTS
Cloudiness or
particulates in the oil.

INDICATES
Possible contamination
of transformer fluid.

DIELECTRIC
BREAKDOWN
Dielectric Breakdown Voltage
VOLTAGE (DISK (Disk Electrodes)
ELECTRODES)
Dielectric Breakdown Voltage is an inches (approximately 2.54 mm) apart.
ASTM D877 electrical property of new oil. The D877 has limited use to measure water
Standard Test measurement of Dielectric Breakdown contamination in oil because it is not
Method for Dielectric Voltage has application both to the sensitive to moisture at saturation below
Breakdown Voltage function of new oil and to its purity. about 60%. It is sensitive to contamination
Using Disk Electrodes D877 use has been reexamined by by some other materials and to the
many of the standards organizations presence of particles in addition to high
DETECTS (IEEE has virtually eliminated it as a test moisture levels. It does not do a good job
Electrical property for transformer oil in the draft revision of of detecting oxidation decay products.
of new oil. the acceptance and maintenance guide For new oil as received from a supplier,
for mineral oil), but the test is still useful a typical specification value is a minimum
INDICATES enough to justify its inclusion in both a of 30 kV. For evaluating in-service oil,
High moisture levels program for accepting new oil and for low values indicate contamination by
and contamination in evaluating oil in service. very high moisture levels, contamination
transformer oil. The D877 method has two flat disk from outside sources, or presence of
electrodes with sharp edges spaced 0.10 conductive particles.
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 DIELECTRIC
BREAKDOWN
Dielectric Breakdown Voltage
VOLTAGE (VDE (VDE Electrodes)
ELECTRODES)
Dielectric Breakdown Voltage is an for new oil as received from a supplier
ASTM D1816 electrical property of new oil. The are a minimum of 20 kV for a 1 mm gap
Standard Test Method measurement of Dielectric Breakdown and a minimum of 35 kV for a 2 mm gap.
Dielectric Breakdown Voltage has application both to the For new oil installed in new equipment
Voltage Using VDE function of new oil and to its purity. The and for in-service oil, the acceptable
Electrodes D1816 method has been used by many values depend on the voltage class of the
standards organizations to replace the equipment. A difficulty with the method
DETECTS D877 method as both a new oil test and is that it is also sensitive to dissolved
Electrical property as an in-service oil test because the VDE gases, which may not present any sort of
of new oil. electrodes more closely resemble the operational problem at levels that affect
geometry of conductors inside operating the test. So, while an acceptable D1816
INDICATES electrical equipment and because the test value can be interpreted as an indication
Presence of a is much more sensitive to moisture and to of normal operation, a questionable or
fault condition. cellulose particles. unacceptable value may not automatically
There are two possible gap settings be interpreted as a definite sign that
for the electrodes: 1 mm (approximately something is wrong; further investigation
0.04 inches) and 2 mm (approximately is needed.
0.08 inches). Typical specification values

RESISTIVITY Resistivity
ASTM D1169 Dissipation Factor, or Liquid Power Factor, This is an electrical property of the
Standard Test Method is a measure of the dielectric losses in an oil, related to its function. High resistivity
for Specific Resistance insulating liquid when used in an alternating reflects a low content of charge carrying
(Resistivity) current electric field. contaminants. In the U.S., it is most often
Specific Resistance (Resistivity) can be run on new oil and is not as widely used as
DETECTS measured in the same device, but with a power factor. There are in-service standards
The dielectric strength direct current instead of alternating current. for resistivity that are widely used overseas.
of insulating oil.

INDICATES
Charge-carrying
contaminants.
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FLASH POINT/
FIRE POINT
Flash Point/Fire Point
Fire point and flash point are physical within the transformer environment.
ASTM D92 properties of the oil. Because the When standard design practices began to
Standard Test Method fire point and flash point are directly incorporate higher hot spot temperatures,
for Flash and Fire affected by the molecular weight and the specification limit for flash point of
Points type of hydrocarbons in the oil, their the oil had to be increased to maintain a
measurement (particularly that of flash margin of safety. Further, the fire point
DETECTS point) is an indication of the composition of the liquid is frequently an important
Electrical property of of the oil. consideration in design of fire suppression
new oil. These tests also test the oil’s function. equipment and facilities associated with
Transformer oil must operate safely liquid-filled electrical equipment.
INDICATES
The composition of
the oil, specifically
the presence of
hydrocarbons.

DEGREE OF
POLYMERIZATION
Degree of Polymerization (DP)
(DP) Paper insulation is made of cellulose, a level of 200, it is brittle and is at the
which is composed of chains of glucose end of its useful life as defined in C57.91,
D4243 monomers. The degree of polymerization the IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-
Standard Test Method for (DP) test determines the average number Immersed Transformers. At this level, the
Measurement of Average of glucose monomers that make up such a electrical and mechanical strength of the
Viscometric Degree of cellulose chain in the paper sample. transformer is severely compromised.
Polymerization of New The test is performed by first dissolving This test is not performed very often,
and Aged Electrical a measured amount of the de-oiled paper because of the difficulty in obtaining a
Papers and Boards, ASTM sample in a particular solvent. Then the paper sample from a working transformer.
viscosity of the solution is measured, as In addition, sampling the paper insulation
DETECTS is the viscosity of the blank solvent. The would weaken the transformer at the
Average number of DP of the paper is calculated from the point of sampling. Therefore, on the rare
glucose monomers that viscosity of the dissolved paper solution, occasion that this test is performed, the
make up a cellulose chain versus that of the blank solvent. sample is often from a lead, where a repair
in paper insulation. The paper in a new transformer is can more easily be made.
mechanically strong (has high tensile In other instances, failed units can be
INDICATES strength) and has a DP value of between sampled to aid in diagnosing the cause of
Weakening of 800 and 1200. As the paper ages, it the failure. Much more typically, however,
cellulose insulation. breaks down because of heat, moisture, information about the state of aging of
oxygen, and acids. As this breakdown the paper insulation is obtained from
occurs, the chains become successively performing furanic compounds analysis on
shorter, and thus the DP declines, resulting the insulating fluid.
in weakened paper. When the DP reaches

13
AGE ACID
SCAVENGER
AGE Acid Scavenger (Perclene Fluid)
AGE is an abbreviation for a chemical equipment perchloroethylene insulating
SDMyers, LLC, In-house whose full name is allyl glycidyl ether. liquids addressed the prospect of
Test Method. (The abbreviation is usually pronounced fluid breakdown and acid formation
by pronouncing the individual letters differently. (Wecosol by Westinghouse
DETECTS A-G-E, rather than like the word “age”.) is the most frequently encountered
Presence and AGE is a chemical that is added to some original equipment perchloroethylene
concentration of allyl perchloroethylene-based insulating insulating liquid.) Therefore, the AGE test
glycidyl ether (AGE). liquids. The purpose of the AGE additive is appropriate for samples from former
is to act as an acid scavenger when these Askarel-filled transformers that were
INDICATES liquids were used as retrofill fluids for retrofilled with a perchloroethylene-based
Levels of AGE additive. Askarel transformers. liquid (most frequently Perclene).
As perchloroethylene fluid ages, it The AGE test determines the amount
breaks down and forms hydrochloric acid. of the AGE additive that is in the fluid. The
The AGE additive acts to neutralize this amount of sample needed for the test is
acid, so that the acid does not react with small, about 5 ml. Test results are reported
the metals in the transformer. in custom letter format, giving the AGE
Note that AGE additive applies concentration in ppm, together with
to perchloroethylene-based retrofill recommendations.
fluids only. Manufacturers of original

POLYCHLORINATED
BIPHENYLS (PCB)
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) Content
CONTENT Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) content ND is less than this value. In-service
in insulating liquids is a test of a chemical equipment and equipment for disposal
ASTM D4059 property. It is done primarily for purposes is frequently regulated according to the
Standard Test Method of complying with various environmental insulating fluid’s PCBs content. Of the
for Analysis of and regulatory requirements governing many PCBs analysis methods, ASTM
Polychlorinated Biphenyls management of PCBs. New oil should be D4059 is the most useful for measuring
in Insulating Liquids by “none detected” for PCBs—the detection PCB content in electrical equipment in the
Gas Chromatography. limit is typically specified as 2 ppm, so United States.

DETECTS
Presence of PCBs.

INDICATES
Compliance/
noncompliance with
environmental regulations.

14
 CORROSIVE
SULFUR
Corrosive Sulfur
Corrosive sulfur is a chemical property the corrosive sulfur test.
ASTM D1275B of the oil, and the test for it is either pass There has been some use of the test
Standard Test Method for or fail. While sulfur content relates to for in-service oils. Where corrosion of
Corrosive Sulfur. the composition of the oil, the presence conductor or unusual deposits of hard,
or absence of corrosive sulfur in new oil black material have been noted, the test
DETECTS is more appropriately considered to be is run to determine whether corrosive
Sulfur and sulfur a test for purity—properly refined new sulfur from the oil is responsible. There
containing compounds. transformer oil should pass the corrosive have been some suggestions that new oil
sulfur test. which passes a corrosive sulfur test may
INDICATES Free, elemental sulfur and some sulfur develop a corrosive sulfur content while
Corrosion. containing compounds in new oil will react in-service as certain compounds in the oil
with metals in the transformer, particularly which contain tightly bound sulfur (these
copper and silver, which leads to corrosion do not react in the corrosive sulfur test)
of conductor, connections, and soldered may change chemically under thermal
or braised joints. This is foremost a new or electrical stress, allowing reformed
oil test—virtually all specifications in use corrosive sulfur compounds to react
in North America require that new oil pass with metals.

PARTICLE COUNT
DISTRIBUTION
Particle Count Distribution
Several interpretations of particle size count in insulating liquids used overseas.
ASTM D6786 and particle size distribution analysis In optical methods, an instrument is used
Standard Test Method have been applied to electrical insulating to count and to determine the size of
for Particle Count Using liquids. The optical method (ASTM D6786) particles in an insulating liquid that block
Automatic Optical is similar to methods used for lubricating out light.
Particle Counters. oils and to standard methods for particle

DETECTS
Size and quantity
of particles in
transformer oil.

INDICATES
Degradation of
wear parts.
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 INTERFACIAL
TENSION (IFT)
Interfacial Tension (IFT)
The Interfacial Tension (IFT) test detects The oil side of the interface becomes
ASTM D971 small amounts of dissolved polar more polar (more water-like), causing
Standard Test Method contaminants and products of oxidation in the interfacial tension to decrease at the
for Interfacial Tension electrical insulating oils. interface. This test provides an indication
of Oil Against Water by The test is done by measuring the of the sludge precursors in the oil long
the Ring Method surface tension at the interface between before any sludge precipitates from the oil.
the oil sample and distilled water. The Acids formed by oil oxidation also have a
DETECTS water and the polar contaminants in the large effect on the IFT value, and acids are
Dissolved polar oil are attracted to each other and meet necessary for the formation of sludge.
contaminants and at the interface between the oil and water.
oxidation products.

INDICATES
Precursors for
formation of sludge.
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16
 FURTHER READING
Information on the testing standards for oil-filled transformers listed in this guide
are available online. If you need more information on specific testing standards,
testing processes, or the testing, diagnostic, and analytical services provided by
SDMyers, please call a Transformer Specialist on 330.630.7000 or reach out to
us HERE.

ASTM International
Formerly the American Standards for Testing and Materials, ASTM International now
operates globally, publishing more than 12,000 standards for materials, products,
systems, and processes.
(Fees and registration required)
www.astm.org

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 Understanding Transformer Testing:
A Guide to Diagnostic Tests
for Oil-Filled Transformers
by SDMyers, LLC

Published by
Good Place Holdings
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Stow, 44244 USA
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© 2021 SDMyers, LLC

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by U.S. copyright law. For permissions, email [email protected]. SDMyers.com