Suresh Arya Michael O'Neill George Pincus Theory and practical design applications oan ys dynamically loaded structures.Design of Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines Copyright © 1979 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 78-56171 ISBN 0-87201-294-8 First Printing, May 1978 Second Printing, May 1981 Third Printing, January 1983 Fourth Printing, May 1984To our families: Sharda Arya —_Jerilyne O'Nelll Dorita Pincus Sumeer Arya Ronald O'Neill Cynthia Pincus Reena Arya David Pincus Karen PincusDesign of Structures my -—>X2 42: EQUIVALENT Kky i Zz, Cx lym, ie i 1 x > aS TO ke Ke Ce Cmand Foundations for Vibrating Machines Suresh C. Arya Principal Engineering Specialist, CE Lummus, Houston, Texas Michael W. O'Neill Associate Professor Civil Engineering, University of Houston George Pincus Professor Civil Engineering, University of Houston Gulf Publishing Company Book Division @ © Houston, London, Paris, TokyoContents 1 2. Development of Analytical Models for Dynamic Systems . introduction—Fundamentals A ‘Structural System of Foundations, 1; Theoretical Approach, 1; Fundamentals of Theory of Vibrations, 2; Single-Degree-of-Freedom System, 2; Calculation of Parameters for Mathematical Model, 2; Equivalent Mass, m,, 2; Equivalent Spring Constant, ky, 4: Equivalent Forcing Function, F(t), 4; Formulation of Mathematical Model, 4; Transient or Free Vibrations, 6; Steady-State Solution of Forced Vibrations, 8; Dynamic System Sub- jected to Rotating-Mass-Type Excitation, 11; Terminology, 12; Accelerating Bodies (Ac- Celeration, Velocity, Displacement), 12; Amplitude (Displacement, Vibration), 13; Analysis (Computer, Dynamic, Matrix Method, Modal, Static), 13; Balancing (Static, Dynamic), 14; Beat, 14; Conditions (Boundary, Constraint, Initial), 14; Damping (Coefficient or Constant, Critical, Dashpot, Factor or Ratio, Viscous), 15; Coordinates (Cartesian, Generalized, Nor. al or Principal), 18; Differential Equations (Linear, Simultaneous), 16; Dynamic (Eigen- values, Eigenvectors, Force, Load, Load Factor, System), 16; Excitation (Impulse, Inertial Harmonic, Sinusoidal, Periodic, Transient), 17; Foundation Structure (Block-Type: Elevated Frame or Table Top, Mat Slab, Overtuned and Undertuned), 18; Frequency (Angular or Circular, Damped Natural or Harmonic, Excitation—Forcing or Operating, Fundamental, Natural, Rayleigh’s), 18; Magnification or Amplification Factor, 20; Mass (Consistent or Continuous, Equivalent Lumped or Lumped), 20; Motion (Equation of Mo- tton, Periodic, Aperiodic, Simple Harmonic or Sinusoidal, Subharmonic, Superharmonic), 20; Modes (Coupled, Uncoupled, First, Lowest, Fundamental, Normal, Principal Eigenvector), 21; Modes of Vibrations, 24; Node (Points, Vibrating Systems), 24; Oscilla- tion, 24; Peak-to-Peak (Double Amplitude of Vibration), 24; Period, 24; Phase (Angle), 24; Resonance (Condition, Frequency), 25; Response (Dynamic, Steady State—Forced Part, Transient), 26; Shaft (Critical Speed, Flexible, Rigid, Stiff), 27; Spring Stiffness (Constant, Equivalent, Linear-Elastic, Nonlinear, Soil), 27; System (Continuous, Dynamic, Free, Idealized or Equivalent, Linear, Nonlinear, Lumped-Mass Spring-Dashpot, Single Degree-of-Freedom, Multipie-Degree-of-Freedom), 28; Transmissibility Factor, 31; Ref- erences, 31, +32 Modeling Techniques, 32; The Lumping of Mass, 32; Elastic Spring Constant, 32; Damp- Ing Ratio, $2; Forcing Function, 33; Models, 33; Development of Equations of Motion, 33; Model 1—Vibrating Machines Supported by Block-Type Foundation, 34; Model 2— Vibrating Machines Supported by Mat-Type Foundation, 34; Model 3--Machines Sup- Ported on an Inertia Block and Vibration Isolated from the Foundation, 35; Model 4—_ 2Vibrating Machines Supported by Cantilever, 35; Model 5—Vibrating Machines Sup- Ported by Fixed Beam, 35; Model 6—Typical Elevated Pedestal Foundation (Table Top), 36; Model A—Single-Lumped Mass (Uncoupled Superstructure and Foundation), 36: Model B—Multi-Lumped Mass (Uncoupled Superstructure and Foundation), 36: Rayleigh’s Frequency, 36; Modal Multidegree Lumped Mass Analysis, 37; Model C—Two- Lumped Mass with Coupled Soil-Structure Interaction, 37; Model D—Multi-Lumped Mass with Coupled Soil-Structure Interaction, 38; References, 38. Development of information, Trial Sizing, and Design Checklist .. 46 Machine Properties and Requirements, 46; Soil Parameters, 47; Environmental Condi- tions, 49; Trial Sizing of a Block Foundation, 49; Trial Sizing of Elevated Foundations (Table Tops), 50; Checklist for Design, $1; Design Conditions and Procedures (Static Con- ditions, Limiting Dynamic Conditions, Possible Modes of Vibration, Fatigue Failures, En- vironmental Demands), §2; References, 56. Considerations .57 Notation for Chapter 4, 57; Evaluation of Soil Parameters, 59; Shear Modulus, 62; Caloula- tion of Shear Modulus for Structure-Soll Interaction Analysis, 68; Selection of Shear Strain Magnitude for Computing Approximate Shear Modulus Beneath Footings, 63; Damping Ratio, 70; Selection of Poisson's Ratio and Soil Density, 71; Effect of Footing Embedment, 72; Effect of Stiff Underlying Stratum, 72; Effect of Stratum of Loose Granular Soil, 74; References, 76. 7 Notation for Chapter 5, 77; Modification of Foundation Response, 78; Vertical Spring and Damping Constants for Flexible Mats, 79; Deep Foundations, 80; Vertical Motion, 81; Pile Groups, 82; Horizontal Motion, 86; Uncoupled Rocking Motion, 86; Testing Methods and Empirical Correlations Based on Tests, 88; Comparison of Theory and Measured Behavior, 89; References, 90. 6. Design Examples: Block Foundations a1 Example 1: Foundation Design for Reciprocating Compressor (Footing Embedment Effect Included), 82; A. Introduction, 92; 8. Machine Parameters, 93; C. Soll and Foundation Parameters, 93; D. Selection of a Foundation Configuration, 93; E. Dynamic Analysis, 97; F. Check of Design Criteria—Static Conditions, 87; Limiting Dynamic Conditions, 97; En- vironmental Demands, 98; Nomenciature—Example 1, 98; Example 2: Design of a Foun- dation Block for a Centrifugal Machine, 98; A. Machine Parameters, 99; B, Soll and Foun- dation Parameters, 99; C. Selection of a Foundation Configuration, 100; D, Dynamic Analysis, 100; E. Check of Design Criteria, 100; Static Conditions, 100; Limiting Dynamic Conditions, 100; Possible Vibration Modes, 102; Fatigue Failures, 102; Environmental De- mands, 102; Nomenclature—Example 2, 102; Example 3: Foundation Design for Centritugal Machines with Different Operating Frequencies and Supported on an Inertia Block, 103; A. Machine Parameter, 103; B. Soil and Foundation Parameters, 105; C. Se- lection. of @ Foundation Configuration, 106; D. Dynamic Analysis, 108; Selection of ‘Springs for Inertia Block, 106; E. Dynamic Analysis as a Multi-Mass System, 107; F. Discussion of Dynamic Analysis, 107; G. Check of Design Criteria, 110; Nomenclature— Example 3, 111; References, 112:113 7. Computer Analysis and Applications: Elevated Foundation ... Example Problem, 114; Example—STRUDL Coding, 118; Computer Printout in ICES— STRUDL, 121; Interpretation of Results, 187; References, 158, A. Solution of Multi-Degree-of-Freedom System ..... 159 Introduction, 189; Dynamic Analysis, 159; Determination of Natural Frequencies ani Mode Shapes, 160; Determinant Equation Method, 160; Stodola-Vianello Method, 163; Steady-State Response Analysis, 166. Appendix B. Summary of ICES-STRUDL Commands 169 187 Index . viiPreface The design of structures and foundations supporting dynamic loads has gradually evolved from an approximate rule-of-thumb procedure to a scientifically sound engineer~ ing procedure. Current state of the art allows engineers to reliably design structures which ‘support increasingly heavier and larger machines. Recent advances in @ number of engineering disciplines, when merged with a traditional well-established body of theoretical knowledge, have resulted in definite procedures for the analysis and design of dynamically loaded structures. However, most concepts and procedures used in the design of structures carrying dynamic machines and ultimately supported by the soil have heretofore been dispersed in texts dealing with a single aspect or a limited portion of the Problem. This text brings together all those concepts and procedures for design of ‘dynamically loaded structures. Disciplines that are involved in modern design procedures include: theory of vibrations, geotechnical engineering including soil dynamics and half- space theory, computer coding and applications, and structural analysis and design. It is assumed that the reader is an engineer or designer who is familiar with these areas. However, @ basic introduction in each area is also included in the text to enhance the background of some readers. The book includes an introductory chapter which reviews basic fundamentals. Chapter 2 describes alternatives of modeling dynamically loaded systems while Chapter 8 con- siders and lists the information necessary for design. Chapters 4 and § describe the geo- technical aspects of the problem and Chapter 5 specifically considers flexible mats and deep foundations. Finally, Chapters 6 and 7 include actual examples of different types of structures supporting dynamic machines. This book is written by practicing engineers and engineering teachers. Practitioners and students will find the information contained here useful in their work. Also, the book will provide additional opportunities to merge the real world of design with senior- and graduate-level engineering classroom instruction, Finally, this book will serve as a model {for Integration of knowledge which cuts across several traditional, but previously loosely ‘connected areas. Suresh C. Arya Michael W. O'Neill George Pincus ‘March, 1979Design of Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines e e EEE1|Introduction- Fundamentals ‘The analysand design of foundations and sacar subjected to vibratory oasis coniered very complex Protem beone ofthe interacin of sacl engi ering, groechnial engineering, sa the theory of ihr "Thee. foundations may be designed ta ple lock, ether of plan conte or of tenored cone, not differnt fy resonblanoe from ong Seagned for vas lndh. The pacing cgines wh fencally not theorealy motivated. ordinal une theortal investigations partly because these in avccices on « nase concete Block donot ren fn any adaonal reinforcement otber than ordinary minivan permnage of rlfocetnnt regled bythe severing cole. Even when engineering talent avait Stic for theeredealy exact suas fer factor ach Ss cconomy, lack of highspeed computes, or deen traten emt in an apposinate nondynas dagn Thu tho become inperaive to deve praia Ge din pecelure which clade the vanow spec of Seige and anal f the foundations in away tat the leat effort involved in the theoretal nvestign- Mon. The design engineer should econ that the theretal dyenmiciveigaton is a itera ptt of the design fort Tn is book, an for hat been made to we and simplify the test theoretical nowledge aval in the eld (el). An eany-toellow sept route i developed for actual dain poblne Th adatom, at every sep of investigation, a bre deserption i presented explain the pial meaning ofthe parameters used a role they play in the dtgn — Structural System of Foundations ‘The structural form of machine foundations is gen- ‘erally determined by the information provided by the geotechnical consultant and the machine manufacturer. However, during the design phase, it may become neces sary to adjust the dimensions or shape of the foundation, partly to meet the design eriteria or to avoid interference with other fixed objects such as pipelines and building foundations. The broad categories of foundations are (a) shallow foundation (resting on seil) and (b) deep foundation (supported by piles or piers). A further classification involves the structural configuration of the foundation: 1. Block-type foundation, consisting of thick slab of concrete directly supporting the machine and other fixed auxiliary equipment. 2, Blevated pedestal foundation (table top), consist- ing of a base-lab and vertical columns supporting fa grid of beams at the top on which rests skid- mounted machinery. These types of foundations are illustrated in Figure 1-1. Theoretical Approach Vibrations developed by operating machinery produce several effects which must be considered in the design of their foundations in addition to the usual design static loads. In some cases, if the size of the machine involved is small, it may be appropriate to design the foundation for equivalent static loads instead of strictly applying the vibration design criteria. However, once the design engineer has recognized the need for a vibration analysis, it is necessary that the designer possess a clear understanding of the fundamentals of the theory of vibration (refs. 3, 5, 6 and 7), modeling techniques (refs. 2 and 8), soil dynamics (ref. 1), and in some ‘cases, the application of computer programs (refs. 2 and 3 of Chapter 7) In the step following the selection of the foundation gross geometry, the design engineer is faced with the2 Design of Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines (2) Block-type foundation supporting reciprocating compressor (Table Top) — (b) Typical pedestal foundation Figure 1-1. Types of foundations for vibrating machines. vibration analysis. The usual procedure is to establish ‘a mathematical model of the real structure which is ‘@ necessary prerequisite in order to apply the theory of vibrations. The mathematical representation of & structural system is usually defined in terms of a lumped mass, an elastic spring, and dashpot for each degree of freedom. The terms which are used in the develop- ment of the theory of vibrations are described in the ‘Terminology section provided at the end of this chapter, Fundamentals of Theory of Vibrations, ‘Dhe subject of vibration deals with the oscillatory’ behavior of physical systems. All physical systems built of material possessing mass and elasticity are capable of vibration at their own natural frequency which is known as a dynamic characteristic. Engineering structures sub- jected to vibratory forces experience vibration in differ- ing degrees, and their design generally requires. deter- mination of their oscillatory behavior, The present “design office” state-of-the-art considers only their Linear behavior because of the convenience afforded by apply- ing the principle of superposition, and also because the mathematical techniques available for their treat- ‘ment are well developed. In contrast, nonlinear’ be- havior of systems is less well known, and the mathema- tical treatment is difficult to apply. However, all struc tures tend to become nonlinear at high amplitude of oscillation, and a nonlinear analysis is required under those conditions. Single-Degree-of-Freedom System An engineering structure (a fixed beam) is illustrated in Figure 1-2a, The beam is supporting a machine generating a harmonic centrifugal force. A step-by-step procedure will be described for’ modeling the actual structure. Calculation of Parameters for Mathematical Model Equivalent Mass, m, ‘The beam has distributed mass along its length, and its ends are fixed against rotation, In calculating the ‘mass for the mathetnatical model, itis necessary to lump the mast only at points where the dynamic force is act- ing, and also at those points where the dynamic response is required. In this example, the dynamic force is acting at the middle and the response is also required at the middle. The technique for obtaining the lumped mass is to equate the kinetic energies of the real and the equiva- lent systems (refs. 2 and 8). First, a deflected shape of the real system is assumed, Figure 1-26 which corre sponds to the predominant mode. In this example, the beam can have predominant translational modes in the xy plane, the x-2 plane, and a rotational mode about the a-axis. Thus, the model has three single-degree-of- freedom systems independent of each other. Considering only the deflected shape in the sy plane, and assuming the shape is the same as that which would be caused by ‘a concentrated load P applied statically in the middle, Ju = (Ps! /AB EL) (81 — 43) a Samer = PP/I92 Ely (2) Assuming the beam's behavior stays within the elastic range and the maximum velocity at any point along theL we. (b) Detection Curve Concentrated toad Introduction-Fundamentals 3 we — Wn x? 486, (31 - 4x) Unit. dist toad = 22% ge 2ael, (spring constant) | e w (6) Initial (6) Detected —_(e) Oscillatory Position Position due Condition to Weight W_ Figure 1-2. SDOF representation of a fixed beam supporting machinery in the middle. beam is proportional to the ordinate of the deflection curve at that point, then the velocities of the beam are Vu = (CP#/48 EL) (81 4x) and Vaux = O(PF/192 EL) , where = constant relating velocity to deflection. ‘Thus, Vy = (48/2) (Bl — 42) Venus (3) @ ress sinesc nr tne beam gen by KEy Si dims Vids = 8 my/t Pe(2) JOU + 16E — 2412) dy (4) where my mass per unit length Then, Silt + 16a" — 24te de = 13/1207 Equation (1-4) after integration rediuces 10 Ey = (13/70) Vieux m1 5 where me; = ms the total mass of the beam. The kinetic energy of the equivalent system is given by KE, = 3mVE EE4“ Design of Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines Since the kinetic energies must be equal in both sys- tems, and since Vig, must equal Ve, KE, = KE, (13/70) ry Vinax 4 me Ver 0.371 m, = me as) ‘Therefore, 37.19 of the total distribution mass should be included as the corresponding mass of the mathemati cal model. However, the mass of the machine is located at the middle; herice, that entire mass should be con- sidered part of the equivalent mass. me = 0.371 m+ tim (1-8) Similarly, equivalent mass can be calculated in the xz plane which will also have the same magnitude since the deflection curve of the beam remains the same. Table 1-1 lists equivalent mass factors for beams and slabs with different ype of loads and support conigions Equivalent Spring Constant, k, ‘The spring constant of an equivalent system is obtained by equating the resistances to deformation of the proto- type and the mathematical model, in this case, the uni- formly distributed loaded beam vs. the modeled middle Toaded beam. The resistance offered by the beam per unit load is given by the reciprocal of the deflection, produced by the same unit static load applied at that point. Therefore, in the example under consideration, the resistance offered due to a unit concentrated load at, midspan (ref. 9) is Ry = 1/(P/192 EL) = 192 EL,/, a7) which when equated to the resistance of the equivalent system gives k, = 192 EL/? (a8) In Table 1-1, values of spring constants for equivalent systems are presented for different types of loads ard support conditions. Equivalent Forcing Function, F(t) The dynamic force may be distributed over a certain length of the element, and in order to obtain its equiva- lent, concentrated load value for application in the single-degree-of-freedom system, the work done by the actual system is equated to that done on the equivalent system. The load factor, ky, with which the distributed dynamic force should be modified to determine the equivalent, concentrated dynamic force is given in Table 1-1. For the model shown in Figure 1-2a, the dynamic force acts at the middle of the beam, thus, a force modification factor is not required. Formulation of Mathematical Model A procedure for obtaining the values of various parameters in a mathematical model which equal those in an actual system is given in the preceding section, An equivalent mathematical model is shown in Figure 1-2. ‘The mass and the spring constants are the equivalent parameters corresponding to an actual'system. An equiv- alent damping coefficient is not required in this partic ular model since it is associated with the velocity of the system only, and its effect is implicitly included when the equivalent values of mass and spring constant parame- ters are calculated. The chosen model has three inde- pendent degrees of displacement and/or rotation, and therefore, there are three individual equivalent models having a single degree of freedom each. The technique of mathematical formulation for each of the three models is the same, and therefore, only one single-degree-of- freedom model will be examined in detail. ‘A model, shown in Figure 1-2d with a weight W, is attached to a weightless spring &, and the spring stretches, by an amount 84; =W/k. The system is initially in a state of static equilibrium with the dead weight W bal- anced by the restoring pull of the spring #84. Subse ‘quently, the weight W is set into oscillation by the appli- cation of some disturbance. Starting at time equal to zero, the system vibrates freely with an amplitude of =ty displacement (Figure 1-26) ‘The forces acting on the body are applied against the direction of motion and include: the resistance offered, by the spring & (y+ 8,4), the resistance Cy offered by the viscous damping C, and inertia force mj given by Newton's second law of motion. The latter force is equal to the mass of the system multiplied by its negative acceleration (the state of motion of a mass at any instant may be considered as in a state of static equilibrium ‘upon introduction of the inertia force). The force acting in the direction of motion is the weight W. Summing up the forces, the resulting equation of motion is m+ G+ko+ad = Ww, which reduces to ny + G+ iyo (1-9)Introduction-Fundamentals 5 Table 1-1 Dynamic Design Factors for Beams and One-Way Slabs Equivalent Parameters of @ Type of Type of Single-Degree-ot-Freedom System Equivalent Structural Dynamic [oyramic | — Mass actork, —] Spr Mathematical Member Loading Load =| Constant Model Factork, | one, La] Unit. Ld. | A(/unit length a 0.64 = 0.50 | A Uinttorm toss Z | L zs Fit) 1. Simply sara | 1 oag | 48.061 supported FalBpighi2g 10 rr] | co beam B, One concen- trated load Hy Fl sph ee | oar | ore | ose | 222) run peSe S/S Tt 18 | dynamic load [c. Two equal (on the span) concentrated load: a X (otal ‘ty/unit length mass on the span) a = 053 — | oar | 2956) 4, constant of a real system Fy 2. Fixed ends i tooo ey | “EA parte ofthe Cae ieee | 10 10 | a7 | 19208] concentrated oscar. 1 | masses are lumped trated loac at each concen- ae trated dynamic Tigran tenaih load. ed 107.9 Et ose oes |e el et» 2 x J | A Unitorm ead a La 1 Fi 3. Simply support | ea ar tos Sa 1 sa | ove | 107081 trated load HAD Pye AigTBig | on | oer | os | Eee \c. Two equal : concentrated loads e6 _ Design of Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines ‘This equation is an ordinary second-order linear dif- ferential equation with constant coefficient, also called a homogenous equation. For the case when a forcing function F(t) is also acting, the resulting equation is classified as nonhomogenous (ref. 10) and is written as i+ Gtbh= Ko (1-10) The solution of Equation (1-9) yields the dynamic ‘haracteristc of the system such as the natural frequency, the damped natural frequency, the critical dampil coefficient, or the transient motion of the system. Bae! of these terms has a special significance depending upon the particular problem at hand. ‘Transient or Free Vibrations A solution of the form y = e* is assumed for Equa- tion (1-9) where s is a constant to be determined, and ¢ is the independent time variable; then, paw G ste au Upon substitution of y, 5, jf into Equation (1-9), the following expression is obtained: E+ [O/ms + [e/m)) ef = 0 2) Since e** must be greater than zero for all values of ¢, F+ Cim)s + (b/m) = 0 (1-13) Equation (1-13) is a quadratic equation having wo roots: f= (1/2m) (-C + VHT] ~ (14) 42 = (1/2n) (-¢ — Y= Fn] Several terms, relating various parameters of Equa- tion (1-9), are defined as: on = VEjm is called the eizcular natural frequency of the aystem in radians sec; Go= 2, i the eal dating of units of force/ velocity; D=C/Co=C/2V/km is called the damping ratio; and os oy Vi—D? is named the frequency of oscilla: tion of the system with damping included, “The complete solution of Equation (1-9) is of the system in ym At Be, (1-15) where A and B are arbitrary constants which depend upon the initial problem conditions. The motion de scribed by Equation (1-15) is called transient motion of the system, and the oscillations die out in a short, interval of time when significant damping is present. Equations (1-14) and (1-15) show that the nature of orcillation depends upon the value of C. Four possible values of C will be considered here (ref. 6) to illustrate the physical significance of Equation (1-15) Gase 1: C=0 (no damping), ‘This case reduces the problem to an undamped system, and the roots obtained from Equation (1-14) ate 4,2 = ivy. Equation (1-15) can be written as om Ae Bett (1-16) Equation (1-16) can be written in three alternate forms by the use of trigonometric identities and complex numbers: y= Oe a-i7) = By cos agt + By sin oot (18) = Cc08 (ot 9% (19) Equation (1-17) is in terms of phasors, while C, and # are components of a complex number. B; and By are arbitrary constants in Equation (1-18) representing the real part of the solution and can be evaluated from the initial boundary conditions. For example, at time ¢= 0, the system has a given initial displacement 9(0) = yy and an initial velocity (0) = ve. Equation (1-18) then becomes Y= 70008 cnt + (09/e,) sin eat (1-20) and the velocity function, Siltog = —yy Sit oat + (be/eeg) 608 wat aay) Equation (1-19) can be obtained from Equation (1-18) if the following substitutions are made: B, = C, cos $, and By=Cysing. Then tan ¢=B,/Bs, and C#= B+ By. By sing the trigonometric identities, y= Cy cos (ont — $) (1-22) ~ 51 = —Grsin (ot — 8) (1-23) In Equation (1-22), C= VP + amplitude of vibration, and = tan" (vo/eqys) is called the phase angle, A graphical representation of Equation (1-22) is given in Figure 1-Ba by the projec- tions of a vector G; rotating about a fixed point O, with ‘constant velocity ay. The projection upon the ordinate axis represents the instantaneous displacement y, while the projection on the abscissa gives the velocity function y/oy according to Equations (1-22) and (1-23), respec- tively. A displacement time curve based on Equa: tion (1-20) can be obtained fom Figure 1-Ba by projectBycos wnt tle als te) ing instantaneous values of point P to the right, as shown in Figure 1-36. A velocity versus time plot based on Equation (1-21) can be obtained by projecting point P vertically, as shown in Figure 1-3c, ‘The variation of ‘these terms with time is shown for a complete cycle. The time required for one complete cycle is called the period T and equals 2x/om sec. The corresponding cycle fre- quency is f= 1/T = on/2r ops. These cycles are iden. tically repeated since this system is undamped, Case 2: C* < 4 km, but > 0 (underdamped). In this cate, the roots of Equation (1-14) are complex con- jugates, and s, and s, become A= Os (—D+iVT=Dy peated (29 f= (—D~iV1—D) when the damping ratio D= €/C)=C/2Viar= C/2eum is introduced. Farther subsivition of Bona: tion (I-24) into Equation (1-15) and comvenion oy a trigonometric form with the aid of Euler formola e0 cos 6s isn 8, gives = EP (By sin tog VT DP 2 (1-25) C ee C008 (wat) See8,sinagt £ S F Figure 1-3. Undamped free vibrations ini- tial conditions, y (0) = \ AH. Chureh, Mechanical Vibrations, seo. ‘ond edition, New York: John Wiley, 1968. Introduction-Fundamentals 7 ¥ (0) i9 Source: = PY sin (wat + 8) (1-26) Where B,=Yeos and B=Ysing and w= VED. The term og is called the damped natural frequency, and Y and ¢ are arbitrary constants to be determined from the initial boundary conditions in a similar way to the procedure used in Case 1. The type of motion described by Equation (1-26) is oscillatory with frequency of wg and is shown in Figure 1-ta. The ampli- tude of oscillation Y will diminish with time and is Proportional to es! as shown by the datted lines Case 3: C* = 4 km (critical damping). The damping ‘corresponding to this case (C= 2V/im, C=C, or C/o =D = 10) is referred to a8 critical damping. For this value of C?= 4 km, Equation (1-13) has two equal 0015, 5,2=— C/2m. In this case, the general whaton of the second-order differential equation pe Are 4 Byte cn Substituting the value of C/2m = 2V/Fii/2m = uy and applying the initial boundary condition, y (t= 0) =o and 9 (t= 0) = 04 in Equation (1-27) gives 2 = Lie + [(oa/e) + yo] gt} oe (1-28) Le8 Design of Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines A graphical representation of Equation (1-28) is shown in Figure 1-4. The motion described by Equa tion (1-28) is aperiodic. Since critical damping repre- sents the limit of aperiodic damping, motion is reduced to rest in the shortest possible time with no oscillation. Case 4: C* > 4 km (overdamped). Referring to Equation (1-14), the roots of Equation (1-13) are real and unequal. The value of the roots, after substituting the relationship G/m = 20 D, is given by fg = aD to V1 (1-29) and the resulting solution by using Equation ( given by ye APN TTB 4. 3fO0- VIRB (90) Since the roots in Equation (1.29) are real and nega- tive for all values of D> 1.0, the value of y in Equa- tion (1-80) will decrease exponentially without a change 15) is veo y Fy yer (a) Underdamped periodic oscillation (c2 <4kmor D <1.0) “aA ON eco- JF ot in sign. A graphical representation of Equation (1-80) is shown in Figure 1-4c, which indicates that there are no ‘oscillations, and the system is said to be overdamped. ‘Steady-State Solution of Forced Vibrations ‘The solution of Equation (1-10) includes two parts (ref. 3): (a) transient or free vibrations and (b) steady- state or forced vibrations. Transient motion, which in ‘mathematical terms is called the complementary func- tion, is a solution of the homogenous equation, as previ- ously noted. ‘The particular integral of Equation (1-10) gives the steady-state or forced-vibrations solution. This solution includes the influence of the forcing function. Structures and machines which are subjected to excitation forces which vary with time are susceptible to vibrations, The excitation can be in the form of a pute, simple, harmonic Dot GE yedantle-et Ye — ot (©) Critical damped aperiodic oscillation = (68 = 4km or D = 1.0) oF (c) Overdamped aperiodic oscillation (c2> 4km or D > 1.0) Figure 1-4. Damped free-vibration response of SDOF system. Source: William T. Thompson, Vibration Theory and Applications, © 1965, pp. 39-40. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.ae Tht other pro dtrbarcr en be Feed Go i apa foo oversea Tate 12,8 ted pea ciuedepndetencatnn tne fool slo repel secs and imu, pbs wave op fe Sono face or dplcencn spl toe ot Sn nner ond nthe mateo he eral Sulan praca by a nenthy das ye Ths Seadytae coo and il be fre condred Introduction-Fundamentals 9 Equation (1-10) with a harmonic force is mi + G+ b= Fsinot, (31) where w is the frequency of the harmonic excitation, The particular integral solution for this equation is Jp = Arsin wt + Ay cos wt (1-32) with j, = 04s cos wt — ads sin at (1-38a) and jy = —a!Ay sin ot — u¥Ay cos wt (1-336) Substitution of Equations (1-32), (1-33a), and (1-836) in Equation (1-31) and collections ofthe coei- cients multiplying the sine and cosine terms yield Table 1-2 Harmonic Components of Periodic Disturbances (Ref. 7) rere wo Het) hy etn (s) 0 lot) = twn= B- adem ot 2 a oF oli whet Loa ces kat10 Design of Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines [0k — ma) dy ~ Gods) sin ot + [Gods + (be!) As} cos ot = Rosin ot (1-34) and equating the sine and cosine terms on the two sides of the equation yields [= mut) Ay — Gods sin ot = Fe sin wt [Gedy + (Ema) Ay} cos wt = 0 Solving of these two simultaneous equations for the two constants 4, and 4; and substituting in Equa- tion (1-82) yields ak — me!) sin wl — Fy Cw cos ot 2S Ge mal? F Ga)® (1-36) “The particular integrals for various forms of the fore- ing function are presented (in Table 1-3) to illustrate the physical feel of resulting oscillation. An alternate form for Equation (1-36) is (1-35) J = FIVE = aT GAP sin (et — $1) = Yasin (60), 37 where ¥ = Fo/V/(E= ma + (Gay" and gy = tan™ [Cuo/(k — ma*)] Y is the amplitude of the steady-state response, anc 4 is the “phase lag” of 35 (t) with respect to the fore ing function Fy sinet. Substitution of the expression fo: D and ow in the expression for Y and g and replacing f/m by the frequency ratio r in Equation (1-37) anc nging Equation (1-37) in nondimensional form L Vil—rF + Gor } (1-38; gu = ta! 2Dr/(1=r') 2] on ' ho-p Fl : Fe Temawhere M is called the dynamic magnification factor, $3 been defined earlier. Equation (1-38) shows that the Ind ¢, factors are functions of the frequency ratio r and the damping ratio D. These functions are shown in Figure 1-5. These curves indicate that the damping ratio Dis effective in reducing the amplitude and phase angle in the region of resonance, that is when + approaches unity, the particular values of M and 4: depend on the damping ratio D. Dynamic System Subjected to Rotating-Mass-Type Excitation In some dynamic systems, the excitation force present arises out of unbalances in the rotating masses, Examples of such systems are reciprocating and centrifugal ma- chines. The forces generated by a reciprocating machine are of the form (ref. 1) Fe = (Meee + mt) 1127008 eat (13%) (1-398) where Fe and Fy are horizontal and vertical inertia forces, rexpectively. There are two masses: one moving with the piston at point P in Figure 1-6a called Meee (reciprocating) ; and one moving with the crank pin at SC called M,.y (rotating). The crank mechanism The forces generated by the unbalanced rotating mass of the centeifugal machine shown in Figure 1-6b are given by + tree (CVE) oF cos 2et Fy = (ae) 1 sin et F, = meo*cos at (1-40) (1-406) Equations (1-39) and (1-40) indicate that the magni- tude of the forcing function is proportional to the rotat- ing mass ms, its eccentricity to the true axis e, and the speed o, The rotating mass and its eccentricity remain constant, but the value of w varies from start-up of the machine to its stable steady-state condition. Therefore, during that period, the maximum amplitude of the forc- ing function given by Equations (1-39) or (1-40) is directly proportional to the square of the operating speed. ‘The equation of motion for the forcing function in the centrifugal machine is given by a damped single-degree of-freedom system in the y-direction Fy = mae! sin ot mi + G+ iy = (meu!) sin ot (as) By comparing Equation (1-41) with a constant-force- amplitude expression, Equation (1-31), and substituting = Fy in Equation (1-37), the following expression SP raincd: Inteoduction-Fundamentals 14 4 == Phase angio (es) 8 + | Frequency ratio (7) Magnification factor (M), T T + | @ Frequency ratio (7) Figure 1-5. Magnification factor (M) versus fre- quency ratio (7); (a) and phase angle (¢,) versus frequency ratio (7); (b) for a single-degree-ot- freedom system subjected to @ constant force amplitude force, F = Fo sin wt. Source: William T. Thompson, Vibration Theory and Applications, © 4965, p. 54. Reprinted by permission of Prentice- Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ. o le) Figure 1-6. (a) Crank mechanism of a reciprocating machine; (b) Forces from a centrifugal machine (rotating mass excitation), Jp = mest sin(at—on)// Ema + (Ga)? (1-420) ¥ = meu'/ Ema} F (CoP and b= an ee (1-420) hams)12 Design of Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines Manipulating and rearranging Equation (1-42a) in a similar manner as was done with Equations (1-37) to (1-38) gives ¥/[(meu*)/k] = 1/17 FF DP = or ¥/(me/m) =) M = My, (1-43) where M, is the dynamic magnification factor for the rotating-mass-type excitation case. Figure 1-7 shows the plot of M, in relation to the frequency ratio r for w various values of damping ratio D. Substituting = mi/m in Equation (1-43) yields Vive = (ME (1-44) The term pe is called the free amplitude, For a given system, the values of y, ¢, D, and a are constant, so that Figure 1-7 is, in effect, a plot of the amplitude of the mass against the rotating speed of the unbalanced force for various amounts of damping. For a small value of 7, or at low rotating speed, the total mass m moves very little; at a speed approaching the natural frequency of the system, r= 1, the amplitude builds up to large values for small amount of damping. Further on, at higher rotating speeds, r > eo, the curves approach the value M, equal to unity since the inertial force of the total mass is then’ approximately 180° out of phase with the unbalanced force. Comparing the curves of Figures 1-5 and 1-?, it may be observed that resonant peaks occur at r <1 for the case of a constant force excitation, and r> 1 for the case of rotating-mass-type excitation. ‘The various expressions which may be derived from the equations of motion of these two cases are listed in Table 1-4. ‘The combination of transient or free vibration (com- plementary function) and steady-state vibration (partic lular integral) gives the complete solution for Equa tion (1-10). Terminology A single-degiee-of-freedom lumped mass system is presented above including the derivation of the differ- ‘ential equation describing the behavior of the model leading up to the development of formulae for the calc Iation of the dynamic response. In the area of dynamics of foundations and structures, the investigation may extend to a variety of systems, some having several degrees of freedom, and as a result, the modeling tech~ niques and derived formulae are more complex. The fundamental principles of single-degree-of-freedom sys- tems are also applicable to the multidegree-of-freedom, systems; however, additional information from theory of vibrations is required for consideration of the more com- plex multidegree-of-freedom systems. A completé intro- (b) Frequency ratio (7) ‘Magnification factor (M,) ° Frequency ratio (ty? /),, SNA Figure 1-7. Magnification factor (M,) vs. frequency ratio (r): (a) and phase angle (g,) versus frequency ratio (r): (b) for a single-degree-of-freedom system subjected to a rotating-type excitation, F = meat sin wt. Source: William T. Thompson, Vibration Theory and Applications, © 1965, p. 60. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, Nu. duction to the theory of vibration is not presented heres however, Chapter { lists a number of references on the subject. The following list of terminologies summarizes the most commonly used terms (refs. 4 and 5) in the field of vibrations. An example of each defined term is also included to provide further information on its application. -1, Accelerating Bodies Acceleration Definition: Newton’s Law of Motion—a vector quan- tity when applied to the mass, produces a force in the direction of application, Example: the rate of change of velocity with time, For the x-coordinate it is denoted by dx/dt* or ¥. See Figures 1-8 and 1-9. Velocity Definition: a vector quantity which represents time rate change of position for a particle or body. Example: the rate of change of displacement with time. For the x-coordinate it is denoted by dx/dt or x, See Figures 1-8 and 1-9, Displacement Definition: a vector quantity that represents the change of position of a particle or body from a state of, equilibrium. ‘Example: a displacement which is a function of time. For the -coordinate it is denoted by x. See Figures 1-8 and 1-9.Introduction-Fundamentals 18 iz Table 1-4 Summary of Derived Expressions for a Single-Degree-ofFreedom System E Constant Force Excitation Rotating Mass-type Excitation, Bxprostion 1H, Consane ett T = S—_Magnication factor M — VSP ODF Reoeaciag = Amplitude at frequeney AC (Raf) Acmeim) afaral fm Fees. Resonant freuency f. VT=ED Totel : ral Amplitude at resonant frequeney f, ne Damping 2DvinB ODF EOD ‘Tranemissibility factor Te va=FP + ODF va=" + Gor ‘where r= w/e 6, (Undamped natural circular frequency) ‘(Damping ratio) = C/Cy , (Ceteal Dansping) = 2 Far T, = Force transmitted) P. T, = Porc transmitted/m, eu vOrm) XXX Figure 1-8. Rotating vector representation of a har- monic function x = A sin wt. VEL. Reuasinlut ez) : Mec. Ree siatato7) Figure 1-9. Harmonic motion representation of dis- placement velocity and acceleration. 2. Amplitude lacement Definition: the maximum change of position of a body or some part of the system from a reference point (generally equilibrium position) at any given time. Example: the maximum displacement of a sinusoidal (quantity x= A sin of, which is A in this function. Vibration Definition: the time-varying magnitude of peak dis. placement (of a physical body) from a reference point. Example: a time-varying displacement of a rotor shaft of a machine, or a foundation structure from the static equilibrium condition. 3. Analysis Computer Definition: resolution of complex mathematical prob- Jems into simple elements with digital (discrete number operation) or analog (continuous chart operation) com- puters. Example: solution of indeterminate structures or determination of vibration in a dynamic system using computer programs.14 Design of Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines Dynamic (Vibration) Definition: a study of motion of a physical system at a particular time. Example: the calculation of the amplitude of vibra- tions in a machine or in a foundation structure, Matrix Method Definition: the study of motion of masses in multe degree-of-ireedom systems. Example: the solutions of simultaneous equations using the techniques of matrix algebra Modal Definition: the dynamic analysis of a multidegree-of- freedom system, where the responses in the normal modes (each treated as independent one-degree systems) are determined separately, and then superimposed to pro- vide the total response. Example: vibration analysis of a “Table top”, when a computer program is employed. Static Definition: the investigation of a physical system in equilibrium under the action of a system of stationary forces Example: dead-load analysis of a structural system. 4. Balancing Static Definition: adjustment of mass distribution of a rotat- ing body such that statically the system is at neutral equilibrium. Example: see Figure 1-10. Dynamic Definition: the adjustment of mass distribution in a rotating body such that the vibrations are controlled. Example: see Figure L-1 5. Beat Definition: the maximum resulting amplitude of two simple harmonic wave forms of slightly different fre- quencies which are superimposed. Example: see Figure 1-12 in which beat frequency (fs) = Abs. [01 — 02]/2x. Frequency of combined oscil lation (f) = (1 +42) /4e. Beat period (Ts) = 1/fo. Period of resulting oscillation (T') = 1/f; sue = 4s + Ae} Sain = Abs, (Aa ~ Aa) 6. Conditions Boundary Definition: the known physical relationships at specific points of a structural body, usually at the supports Example: see Figure 1-13 in which (Boundary Condi- tions) Deflection: y (x=0,L) =0; Slope: El dy/dx (x= 1/2) =0; Moment: EI d'y/dx? (x= 0,L) Shear: EI dy/dx* (x=L/2) =0. BALANCING MASS UNBALANCED MASS Figure 1-10. Static balancing. This system under ro- tation produces equal centrifugal forces, but pro- duces unbalanced moments in shaft and pressure on the bearings. ADJUSTOR, MASS UNBALANCED MASS Figure 1-11. Dynamic balancing. For this system during rotation, not only are centrifugal forces balanced but the forces and moments in the shaft (in ‘one revolution) are also balanced. X= Ay sim (a t— os) + Aa sin (ust ~ oa) Ka Figure 1-12. Resulting motion of two simple har- monic wave forms containing a beat. Figure 1-13. Simple beam loaded with uniform load w, Constraint Definition: the imposition of limitations on the be- havior of a physical body. ‘Example: see Figure 1-14,Figure 1-14. Cantilever of uniformly distributed mass. The cantilever is constrained to deform in a circular profile. ts td 2 a Figure 1-15. Single lumped-mass dashpot system. x ot 22+ Xe)eni}eat t Figure 1-16. Critical damped oscillation of a single lumped-mass system. dashpot c lo Figure 1-17. Symbol used in a lumped-mass system. Figure 1-18. Coordinates of element “0” in space. EE E_—_—_E_—_—_—_—_———— Introduction-Fundamentals 15 Initial Definition: the known motion of a physical body at the reference time, often taken as zero, Example: the application of brakes on a steadily moving vehicle. At the time of application of brakes, velocity = V and deceleration = 0. 7. Damping Coefficient or Constant Definition: a factor used in a dynamic system to account for dissipation of energy. Example: see Figure 1-15, where equation of motion is m¥+ Ci+ kx =0. In this equation, the constant C accounts for viscous damping in the system. Critical Definition: a mathematical equality derived in vis. cously damped system, such that the free displacement ‘comes to rest without oscillation Example: see Figure 1-16 in which critical damping (Co) = 2. Vim. Dashpot Definition: a schematic representation of a viscous damper. Example: see Figure 1-17, Factor or Ratio Definition: the ratio of actual resistance in damped harmonic motion to that necessary to produce ertical damping Example: D= C/C.= C/2 vim Viscous Definition: a type of damping assumed in a dynamics ‘model such that the disipation of energy during esila- tion is lineaely proportional to the velocity of the mass. Example: damping force 8. Coordinates Cartesian Definition: linear quantities that describe the location of a point in space with respect to a system of three- dimensional orthogonal axes. Example: see Figure 1-18, Generalized Definition: a specification of a configuration by a set of independent geometric quantities, which may be lengths, angles, or their combinations Example: a set of m independent geometric coordi nates which specify the configuration of an n-degree-of- freedom system,16 Design of Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines Normal or Principal Definition: a particular set of generalized coordinates which describes equations of motion such that there is neither static nor dynamic coupling among them, Example: a procedure followed in modal analysis in which the general motions of the masses of a multi- degree-of-freedom system can be expressed as a super- position of its principal modes of vibration, 9. Differential Equations (Equations of Motion) Linear Definition: an equation relating to two or more vari- ables in terms of derivatives or differentials such that no terms involving the unknown function or its derivatives appear as products or are raised to a power different from unity. The order of a differential equation is equal to the order of the highest derivative in the equation. ‘When the independent variable is a time function, then it is ealled an Equation of Motion Example: see Figure 1-19 for which the Equation of Motion is m¥+Ci+kz=F(t) or m(d's/di*) + C(dz/dt) + ke = F(t). This is a nonhomogenous ordi nary second-order linear differential equation with con- stant coefficients, In this equation, z and # are variables, where z is the dependent variable. In case z is dependent on more than one independent variable, then the equa- tion will change from an ordinary to a partial differen- tial equation, If m, G, and & are not constant and are independent of z or its derivatives, but are dependent of the variable f, then the equation is called a differential equation with variable coefficients, If the right-hand term of the equation F(t) is zero, then the equation is called homogenous. The solution of a homogenous equa- tion is called its complementary function and is given by ze (0) = AP sin (ust +) where A and y are constants to be specified by the initial conditions. This solution gives the transient motion of the system, The solution which satisfies the nonhomoge- nous equation is called the particular integral. For F(t) = Fysin at itis given by a4 () = Fosin (wt — 8)/V/ =m + (Cay ‘This solution gives the steady-state response or steady state vibration, The complete solution of the equation is the sum of the complementary function z(t) and the particular integral z(t). ‘Simultaneous Definition: linear differential equation which contains more than one dependent variable related to a single independent variable t. Figure 1-19. Single degree spring-lumped-mass- dashpot system. Figure 1-20. Two-degree-of-freedom system (multi- degree). Example: see Figure 1-20 in which the Equations of Motion are mii Cy (4 — #4) + hs (2s — #2) = F(t} and mais + Coés ~ Cr (& ~ de) + hata — hx (4 — 22) = Fa(t). This two-degree-of-freedom system contains two dependent variables, =, 2, and an independent vari- abie, t, The general solution of these two simultaneous ifferential equations will consist of a complementary function and a particular integral 10. Dynamic Eigenvalues (characteristic values or natural frequencies) Definition: the roots of the characteristic equation which results from the expansion of the determinant of the simultaneous differential equations, (See also definition of normal modes.) ‘Example: when the simultaneous equations are equa- tions of motion of the free undamped multidegree-of- freedom system, then their roots are called eigenvalues ‘which are equal to the squares of the natural frequencies of the modes, Eigenvectors (characteristic vectors or natural modes) Definition: these are the characteristic vectors which ate obtained by substituting the characteristic values oreva in 9st of lanes difereia et ter at's mule feiom yen Aten @eercee te te penn vbeing Rede multidegree-of-freedom system such that during vibra- . tion the ratio of the displacements of any of two masses is constant with time, ‘Example: a multidegree system has exactly the same number of natural modes as degrees of freedom, Associ- ated with each mode is a natural frequency and a char- acteristic shape. Force, load Definition: a force whose duration and amplitude is a funetion of time. Example: centrifugal force generated by an unbal- anced rotating mass is given by F = myes® sin ot, Load Factor Definition: the ratio of the dynamic deflection at any time to the deflection which would have resulted from the static application of the dynamic load ‘Example: the dynamic load factor caused by the con- stant centrifugal force of rotating mass on undamped one-degree system is given by DLF = 1/{1 ~ (w/ex)*] System ese sec pte hen posses mass and whose parts are capable of relative motion, Example: an engineering structure, machine, or its components, and most physical bodies consisting of 11. Excitation Impulse Definition: the product of force and time while force is acting on the snass, Example: see Figure 1-21 Inertial Definition: excitation generated by the mass in motion, Example: see Figure 1-22. Harmonic, Sinusoidal Definition: a pulsating force of the form: Fy sin of or Fe cos wf Example: see Figure 1-23, Periodic Definition: a time-function excitation which repeats if identically at regular intervals of time. Introduction-Fundamentals 17 s bar 1 —T=F-Ay t+ sla IMPULSE: = FxAy Figure 1-21. Rectangular pulse. ISL) a tre 2mjec?sinot Figure 1-22. Rotating mass oscillator generated ex- citation: F(t) = 2m, eu? sin ut. FORCE FORCING FUNCTION = Fosinut Figure 1-23. Harmonic force. The figure shows a centrifugal force of amplitude Fy generated by a rotating machine. F, sinut naan ; Figure 1-24. Forcing function generated by the cam of a machine. Example: see Figure 1-24 for which the following equation holds:18 Design of Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines Transient Definition: a temporary arbitrary excitation which disappears with time. Example: see Figure 1-25, 12, Foundation Structure (for Machines) Block-type Definition: a small area concrete foundation of such thickness so that the structural deformation caused by the superimposed load is negligible. Example: see Figure 1-26, Elevated Frame (Table Top) Definition: a three-dimensional elevated reinforced concrete structure consisting of beams framing into columns and supported by a heavy foundation slab. The tops of the columns are connected by a top slab or heavy longitudinal and transverse beams forming a rigid table fon which the machinery rests. The foundation structure may be supported by piles or directly on the soil, Example: see Figure 1-27. Mat Slab Definition: a flexible concrete slab which is resting on soil and supports a machine or battery of similar machinery Example: see Figure 1-28. Overtuned and Undertuned Definition: 2 machine foundation is said to be over- ‘tuned when the ratio of the speed of mounted machine to the natural frequency of the foundation is Tess than 1.0 and is called undertuned when that ratio is greater than 10, Example: see Figure 1-29, 13. Frequency ‘Angular or Circular Definition: the time rate of change of angular dis- placement given in units of radians per second. For an ‘oscillating system, it is the number of vibrations in units of radians per second, Example: see Figure 1-30. Damped Natural or Harmonic Definition: the natural frequency of a linear system ‘which includes viscous damping C. Example: see Figures 1-31 and 1-32 for which the following equation holds: Damped Frequency, ue = &, VI B® Damping Ratio, D = 6/2 Jim < 1.0 vai, Figure 1-25. An arbitrary transient forcing function, Figure 1-26. Block-type foundation for a recipro- cating machine. MAT FOUNDATION Figure 1-28. Vibrating machine supported by a mat- type foundation.nification factor, 191 . Frequency ratio w/o, Figure 1-29. Magnification factor (M) versus fre- quency ratio for various amounts of damping ratio (). w (RAD/SEC) ae e or ye : k. Ic circular frequency w. m Figure 1-31. Damped- free linear system, Wire 132. vampee-re esision Introduction-Fundamentals 19 Excitation, Forcing or Operating Definition: the number of times a dynamic force achieves an identical amplitude in a time period of one second, and is given in cycles per second (Hertz). Example: see Figure 1-33, Fundamental Definition: the lowest value of all natural frequencies of an oscillating system, Example: the frequency associated with the first mode of vibration tion: the dynamic property of an elastic body or system by which it oscillates repeatedly back and forth from a fixed reference point when the extemal force application is removed Example: see Figure 1-34 for which the following equation of motion holds: ; Natural fre quency in Hertz (fy) = (1/22) V Ein mi ke Rayleigh’s Definition: natural frequency of a system computed by an arbitrary selection of a deflected shape which satis. fies the system boundary condition so that it gives the values of maximum kinetic energy to make the lowest natural frequency a minimum. In a multidegree system, the displacement 8, 8; of the masses, caused by the masses acting as static loads, PEL = } Wik +} Wo + wt Figure 1-96. Weightiess cantilever supporting load W at Its end, Figure 1-34. Un- damped free sin- gle-degree-of-free- dom system.20 Design of Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines Example: see Figure 1-35 for which the following holds: Rayleigh’s Frequency (f,) = + VaWilwe -tva we where = 357 acceleration of gravity 14, Magnification or Amplification Factor Definition: in a dynamic system, it is the ratio of a steady-state displacement response caused by a dynamic force to the displacement caused by an equivalent static force of a magnitude equal to the amplitude of the dynamic force. Example: see Figure 1-36. The figure gives the re- sponse curves for a damped system subjected to a forcing function, F(t) = Fysin ot. Steady-state Displacement Response Amplitude, x= FeV mF CoP Static Displacement x5 = Pa/k ‘Therefore, Magnification Factor, M = s/o = UND OFF + DET 15. Mass Consistent or Continuous Definition: a mass function which is distributed at ‘each point of its domain and has infinite possible num- ber of independent degrees of freedom, Example: see Figure 1-37 Equivalent Lumped or Lumped ‘Definition: a concentrated rigid mass in an idealized systemn which ss obtained by equating the total kinetic energy of the actual system to that of the equivalent system. Example: see Figure 1-38. scncaron raeron (a nenecr ne (#4) Figure 1-36. Magnification factor (M) versus fre- ‘quency ratio (w/,) for various amounts of damping ratio (). EI 1c Figure 1-37. A fixed ended beam with distributed mass over the span, 203.5 EI e che Alm Figure 1-98. \dealized SOOF system for a fixed beam of Figure 1-27 (see ts also Table 1-1). Figure 1-38, Free-body diagram of SDOF system of Figure 1-19, 16. Motion Equation of Motion ‘Definition: a differential equation describing the rela: tionship among acceleration, velocity, and displacement of a mass in a dynamic system. Example: see Figure 1-39 for which the dynamic equi librium condition = equation of motion, mé-+ Ci+ k=O. Periodic, Aperiodic Definition: motion of mass which repeats itself at equal intervals of time and can be resolved into har- monies, These harmonies may be of different amplitudes and frequencies. Conversely, when the mass slowly moves back to the equilibrium position, rather than vibrating about it, the motion is said to be aperiodic. Example: see Figure 1-40 and 141.aL, sindettygsinS uta} gure 1-40, Periodic motion of a cam in a machine. ot igure 1-41. Aperiodic motion of damped-free DOF system, 11-42. Harmonic motion A sin wt and its vector cepresentation. (A) Asinut (HARMONIC) xbet)= (A) + (B), (PERIODIC) Figure 1-43. Subharmonic, harmonic, and periodic motions. ll =A! 9 oat 1+ Std Maron) Aint (HARMONIC) X(t) | Ben2ot (SUPERHARMONIC) je 1-44, Superharmonic, harmonic, and periodic motions. Introduction-Fundamentals 24 ‘Simple Harmonic or Sinusoidal Definition: motion of a body or parts of a system described by a trigonometric function, a sine or a cosine ‘which repeats itself in any equal interval of time, Example: see Figure 1-42. Subharmonic Definition: a sinusoidal quantity having frequencies that are fractional (1/2, 1/3, 1/n) or a submultiple of the exciting frequency of a periodic function to which it is relaced Example: see Figure 1-43. ‘Superharmonic Definition: a sinusoidal quantity having frequencies that are multiple (2, 3, n) of the exciting frequency of a periodic function to which itis related, Example: see Figure 1-H, 17. Modes Coupled Definition; modes of vibration of a multidegree sys- tem where the motions are not independent but influ- fence each other because of energy transfer from one ‘mode to the other. Example: see Figure 1-45 with two degrees of free- dom, x and @ for vertical and pitching oscillations, respectively. Caze I: Coupling due to mass (Center of Gravity of ‘mass eccentric but equal strength supporting springs), alto called dynamic coupling, Equations of motion: mi + hx — hi (a - Le) 0 = 0 @ (b) In these equations, coupling is due to a mass which does not have its center of gravity at the midpoint of the system, If Ls = Za, then Equations (a) and (b) are inde- pendent. JG + h(i + LO h(a - Le) x =0 CENTER OF GRAVITY Figure 1-45. Simplified two-degree-ol-freedom model of an automobile:22 Design of Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines Case I: Coupling due to spring (center of gravity of mass centric, but unequal strength supporting springs) also called static coupling. See Figure 1-46. Equations of motion: ni + (ht h)x-Lih—h)o=0 @) Job + L(+ h)O— Lh — mh) x (b) In these equations, coupling is due to the unequal strength springs &,, ks, If these springs are equal, then both Equations (a) and (b) are independent and thus, represent uncoupled (independent) modes. Uncoupled Definition: the modes of vibration of a multidegree system where each mode describes the complete motion of a particular type by a single independent coordinate Example: see Figure 147 with two degrees of freedom, y and 8, for vertical and pitching oscillation. Equation of motion: ni + hy = FO Sob + (kd?) 6 = Md) Because of symmetry of mass center of gravity and equal values of supporting springs &, the vertical oscillation described by y and pitching oscillation described by 9 are independent of each other. First, Lowest, Fundamental Definition: in a multidegreeot-ireedom system, rode shape which corresponds to the lowest Trequency i called fundamental or first mode. ‘The mode shapes ate determined from characteristic equations. Example: see Figure 1-48 wheve the beam with con- Vinuously distributed mass has infinite degrees of free. dom. The frequencies wy and mode shapes gu are given by: oy = nhs? VEIg/Ay /L? , by = sin nax/L, where n = 1,2,3.. modulus of elasticity ‘moment of inertia cross-sectional area y= material density Also, see Figure 1-49 for the various mode shapes. Normal, Principal (Eigenvector) Definition: the independent natural modes which satisfy the solution of 2 multidegree-of-freedom system They have the following characteristics a. They represent undamped free vibration. b. They are harmonic. GRAVITY Figure 1-46. Two-degree-ot-freedom system, Figure 1-47. Mass with two independent degrees of freedom, x iE Figure 1-48. Hinged-hinged beam. —_ —~9.5L 0.3333. O.6667L, 9.25. O75. 0.5L, Figure 1-49. Various mode shapes of a hinged- hinged beam,adi + (Fi + he) ei — Rete = F(t) l no These are linear second-order differential equations and coupling between coordinates is due to spring ke To solve for free vibration of the system, the initial conditions are (1-45) msi + (Fat he) Xe — Koes sin (ot + 9) asin (at + i Substituting Equation (1-46) in the homogenous part in the equations of motion the following are obtained: -0} ‘These equations are satisfied for any value of A, and Ay if the following determinant is zero: ; is assumed that motion of every point in the system (1-46) it ke mat) Ay ~ feds = (47) hey + (bat he mae) | Gtk—me) (bk) | (rk) (at hme’) | Expanding this determinant, fey bth (1-48) hh + (s+ he 9 Introduction-Fundamentals 23 Figure 1-50. Normal mode vibration of a two-degree- of-freedom system. This characteristic equation in quadratic form in leads to two roots on? and ant, which give the natural frequencies w and ws Ratio of amplitudes: From Equations (1-46), frst mode (a = o:*) Second mode (e* = ai): (if)? = hel hs + a — msi) | | (1-49) Symmetrical Case: k= kak Substituting in the characteristic Equation (1-48), ot = (4k/m)o + (BK/ O which results in two roots 2k/m) & VAR /m) = BCE) frm (2 1] and a corresponding amplitude ratio in Equation (1-49) First Mode w, (Ai/As) Vim /[2k — (kfm) ] ‘The masses appear to move as a single mass in either direction without deflecting the central spring. Second Mode #2 = V3EPm (Aaj As) © = [2k ma(Bk/m)24 Design of Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines The two masses move in opposite direction and there is a node at the center of the middle spring. Each half then behaves as a single-degree-of-freedom system, See also Figure 1-51. 18. Modes of Vibrations Definition: a dynamic system which is undergoing free vibration, where the characteristic shape is such that the motion of every particle is a simple harmonic with com- mon frequency. Example: see Figure 1-52 with motion described by harmonic displacement x, and xs. 19. Node Points Definition: fictitious points used in a computer mathe- ‘matical model for the purpose of determining response values usually located where the masses are lumped and/or response is to be determined. Example: see Figure 1-53 Vibrating Systems Definition: a stationary point in a particular mode shape which has a constant zero amplitude from equilib- rium position. Example: see Figure 1-54, 20. Oscillation Definition: in dynamics itis a displacement of a mass which moves back and forth with respect to time from a reference point. Example: see Figure 1-55, 21. Peak-to-Peak (Double Amplitude of Vibration) Definition: an algebraic difference between opposite ‘extremes of vibration displacement measured in a rotat- ing mass. Example: see Figure 1-56, 22. Period Definition: the time duration for a single repetition of a periodic motion. Example: see Figure 1-57, where period (T) = 1/f, and f= number of eycles/sec. 23. Phase Angle Definition A: in d dynamic system it is a measure of the time difference between a periodic excitation and i + + ix, k . + +I oT i Figure 1-51. Normal modes of vibration. wl a nO re x | ~ 1 ob / FIRST ‘SECOND MODE MODE, Figure 1-52. Modes of vibration of a two-degree-of- freedom system. N NODE POINTS= Y KR Figure 1-53. Node points in a space frame model (usually located where masses are lumped and response is determined).—_ @ = First wove 10 NODE. 09 a ° SECOND MODE NODE: 0d ass to THIRD MODE Figure 1-54, Node points in vibrating strings. REFERENCE POINT Figure 1-85. Oscillation of a simple pendulum. feaw-t0-PeaK or = DOUBLE AMPLITUDE. OF VIBRATION VIBRATION AMPLITUDE | PEAK Figure 1-56. Peak-to-peak (double amplitude) of vibration. ONE CYCLE i ft x DISPLACEMENT eo 1-57. Period of periodic motion. Introduction-Fundamentals 25 the resulting displacement response oscillating at the same frequency. Example: see igures 1-58 and 1-59. Definition B: alternately, in rotating vector form, it is the angle lag by which the response vectors stays be- hind the excitation vector. Example: see Figure 1.60. ‘Definition ©: phase angle in a damped SDOF is given by @ = tan [Co/(k—mo*)] tan-* [2D (w/ox) /(1— (0/e%)*) ] Example: see Figure 1-61, 24. Resonance Condi ‘Definition: a phenomenon of uncontrolled increase in vibration amplitude exhibited by a physical system when it is subjected to an external vibration force of a fre- quency (w) that approaches the natural free oscillation frequency (wn), it, (o/s) = 1.0. In a damped system, a resonance condition occurs when the displacement be- comes maximized as w goes from 0 t0 wy Ly Cas k T Ix F(t)=Fosinwt — AsinWwt-¢$) (EXCITATION (DISPLACEMENT FORCE) RESPONSE) Figure 1-58. Damped SDOF subject to harmonic force, F(t) = Fo sin wt. AMPLITUDE fouase ancte OF uss TIME LAG (ime tag, t= fa) Figure 1-59. Response motion lags harmonic load- Ing by phase angle 4.26 Design of Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines Example: see Figures 1-62 and 1-63. Due to the presence of damping in every system, a resonance condi tion at which the vibration amplitude will approach infinity is in fact seldom achieved. Frequency Definitions when the frequency of a dynamic system (related to the undamped natural frequency) equal the frequency of the applied force, a resonance condition cccurs In this condition, the response is maximize, Example (formulae for resonance frequency) 1. For maximum amplitude magnifcaton ‘A. Damped resonance frequency (constant force oscil lator, F'= Fysin et). See Figure 1-64 for aehich the following hold Resonance frequency (fa) fa V1 2D (Ds v2) Magnification factor (1 1/(2DV1=B*) = 1/20 B, Damped resonance frequency (fotating mats oscil Intor), Fm ea sina. See Figure 1-65 for which the following holds: Resonance frequency (fy) = fa/ YTD" (D<1/V3) Magnification factor (M,) = A/mse/m =1/(2DV1— Dy 1/2D 2.For maximum transmissibility factor, >, Damped resonance frequency (constant force oscillator, F sin ot) Resonance frequency (fmr) VU 1/2p PIP NETS © DAD where U = V8D'4T and Fy = transmitted force, 25. Response Dynamic Definition: the time-varying displacement and/or stresses which result when a dynamic force is applied to 1a physical system, Example: see Figure 1.66 for which the equation of motion is mi-+ Ci+ kx =F, sin wt. The complete gene eral solution x(¢) of this equation of motion is called dynamic response. Steady State (forced part) Definition: the sustained periodic motion of a physical system which has the same frequency and duration as the dynamic force, Keuta (ACCELERATION) kA (SPRING RESISTANCE) = A (vetoorryy F. toaweine FN (Eker tarion) ‘RESISTANCE PN xa mute (ispLacement) (INERTIA) MOTION VECTORS FORCE VECTORS by phase angle 6. Figure 1-61. Phase angle in damped SDOF system, Besin(t-d) Feslnwt Figure 1-62. Damped SDOF system subjected to F(t) F, sist. RESONANCE CONDITION Figure 1-63. Response curve for damped SDOF sys- tem (Figure 1-62). Sea | fe Cm FeFy sinwt Fs t Figure 1-64. SDOF sys- tem subjected to F = Fysin at. jeu?sinwt Figure 1-65. SDOF sys- tem subjected to F = 1m, ew? in wt.ixample: see Figure 1-67 for which the following las: seneral Solution x(#) = a9(2) + xe(¢), where a(t) = particular integral or steady-state response z(t) = complementary function or transient solution ‘Transient Definition: a form of free vibration, which quickly vanishes due to the presence of damping. Example: see Figure 1-67, 26. Shaft Critical Speed Definition: the angular speed at which a rotating shaft exhibits dynamic instability with rapid increase in lateral amplitude, This develops when the angular speed jg in resonance with the natural frequencies of lateral vibration of the shaft. Example: see Figure 1-68. Flexible Definition: a rotating shaft of a machine which has a first lateral natural frequency which is lower than the rotating speed. Example: according to an industry standard for gas surbines, the fist lateral frequency of a shaft shall be at least 15% below any operating speed; the second lateral speed must be 20% above the maximum continuous speed. Rigid (Stiff) Definition: a rotating shaft of a machine which has a first lateral natural frequency which is greater than the rotating speed. ‘Example: according to industry standards for rigid- shaft compressors, the first lateral frequency of the shaft shall be at least 20% higher than the forcing frequency which may be the roter speed or some multiple thereof. 27. Spring Stiffness Constant Definition: a constant of proportionality between the force and the relative deformation it produces in the direction of application in a massless structural element. ‘An elastic spring observes Hooke’s Law, that is, the spring force is linearly proportional to the spring de formation. Example: see Figures 1.69 and 1-70. Introduction-Fundamentals 27 Lt Lt wt Figure 1-66, Damped SDOF system subjected to dy- namic force, Fit) = Fosin wt. r £ 2 Em sin(wt-9) DISPLACEMENT X(t) a SAX Ket Xp nt sin(wgt +) Figure 1-67. General solution of the equation of motion of Figure 1-66. From Introduction to Struc- tural Dynamics by John M. Biggs, Copyright 1964, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Disk Shaft (El) Figure 1-68. Rotating shaft with lateral amplitude in x and y directions. Tay Figure 1-69. Linear spring constant. Figure 1-70. Torsional spring constant.28 Design of Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines Equivalent Definition: an assumed theoretical representation of an actual physical system such that force-displacement relationship in the former is equivalent to the latter. Example: see Figures 1-71 and 1-72, For Figure 1-71 assume the following: 1. Frame weight is negligible 2. Girder is sufficiently rigid to prevent rotation at top of columns. Equivalent spring s 2X2 x 30 x 5 2 20 x 144 fe 35,250 Ibs, Linear (Elastic) Definition: an elastic spring observes Hooke’s Law, that is, the spring force is linearly proportional to the spring deformation, Example: see Figure 1-73, Nonlinear Definition: in a nonlinear spring, the load in the spring is not linearly propertional to the displacement, Example: see Figure 1-74, for which the following holds: &(#) = ap(e) /a3(:) Soil Definition: in a soil dynamics system, a schematic representation of linear loadleformation relationship of the soil using a linear force displacement spring. Example: see Figures 1-75 and 1-76, 28. System Continuous. Definition: a body which has continuously distributed ‘mass density (p) and elasticity (2) in its domain, In a vibration analysis, this body has an infinite number of degrees of freedom. Example: see Figure 1-77 Dynamic Definition: a structural body which has mass and elas- ticity and whose parts are capable of relative motion, Example: see Figures 1-78 and 1-79, Free Definition: if a dynamic system is set into motion by some disturbance at initial time equal to zero and there- after no force is applied, the resulting oscillations caused im the system are called free vibrations and the system is called a free system. Example: see Figure 1-80, Idealized or Equivalent Definition: an idealized system is a convenient repre- sentation of an actual structure such that a mathematical investigation can be performed. The parameters of an idealized system are usually selected so that the deflec- tion of the concentrated mass is the same as that for some significant point on the prototype structure. The idealized system with the equivalent parameters is called an equivalent systema, Example: see Figures {-B1 and 1-82, From Table 1-1, Case 2, equivalent parameter values are ke = (in) 384 E1/L? = 0.53 x 384 BI/L* 203.5 B1/L? m,= 04 mL Fe= 053 FL Linear Definition: system where the principle of superposi- tion is applicable and where cause and effect are linearly related. Example: the influence of various forces acting on a ‘mass is algebraically additive, as in the case of static analysis, Nonlinear Definition: in dynamics, the vibration whose amplic tude is large such as when sin 6 cannot be represented by only the first term in its expansion but must include several terms (sin@=0—83/348%/5— ...); ot when the spring-restoring force on the vibrating mass is not proportional to its displacement. ‘Example: see Figures 1-83 and 1-84, Lumped-Mass Spring-Dashpot Definition: an idealized system in which the parame- ters of a real elastic system have been lumped and where the translational displacements are defined. Example: see Figure 1-85. ‘Single-Degree-of-Freedom (SDOF) Definition: rectilinear or rotational motion described by a single coordinate associated with a mass Example: see Figures 1-86 and 1-87 Multiple-Degree-of-Freedom (MDOF) Definition: a rigid body in space has six degrees of freedom, namely, three coordinates to define rectilinear positions and three to define the angular positions. IfW = 1000 Ibs/tt ohm Ft, = 30x 10%psi g 1= 56.4in¢ " = Figure 1-71. Unit Figure 1-72, Mathematical model of portal frame (Figure 1-71) with equivalent spring stiffness, K,. LA 8 DEFORMATION Figure 1-73. Characteristic of a linear (elastic) spring constant “k.” P (FORCE) = \, ‘SLOPE =k(t) ae at AS(t) 3 fom § oa bara F DEFORMATION Figure 1-74, Characteristic of a nonlinear spring constant “k.” Introduction-Fundamentals 29 Footing Ft) Elastic i TOS Naspace mi] footing Figure 1-75. A circular a footing subjected to dy- 2 namic force F = Fy sinut pak and resting on semi-in- finite soil medium (elas- tic half-space). Figure 1-78. Math- ‘ematical model of the footing with an z equivalent. soil spring stiffness, ky x Figure 1-77. A body of continuous mass in three- dimensional space. @ Head ( Upper two seme Thorax: Shoulder ae Teomen : ED) Sen Stitt 7s (simplified) Seacty of spinal Hips mai ciate subject a anoles Voxina aoa Figure 1-78. The hue Figure 1-78. Rheo- mman'bodycayplcal fosleel model of dynamic nate amen body Figures 1-78 and 1-79 are from Shock and Vibration Handbook by C.M. Harris and C.E. Crede, © 1976, Used with permission of McGraw-Hill Book Co.| j 30 Design of Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines inital , 8 TS, aeturbance wn i) wa My m9 Figure 1-80. Free oscillation of a simple pendulum system. Figure 1-81. An actual physical structure of a fixed beam of a uniform mass and subjected to a uniform dynamic force. F(t) = Fy sinat. Ft) Figure 1-82. Equivalent (idealized) SDOF system. e , Plastic ( hinge + Figure 1-88, Elato-placlc ehavier ina xed steel cane Plastic Elastic rebound Resistance Yo Deformation Figure 1-84. Bilinear spring representation of the elasto-plastic system of Figure 1-83. oat — Figure 1-85. Lumped mass, spring and dashpot. oy Figure 1-86. Single recti- linear motion in x-direc- tion in a cantilever, ° Figure 1-87. Single rota- tional motion in a 8 direc- tion in a torsional pen- dulum. OZ Figure 1-88. A mass element with a six-degree-of- freedom system.Frequency Ratio (r) Figure 1-89. Transmissibility factor vs. frequency ratio for various damping factors. Frequency Ratio (”) igure 1-80. Transmissibility factor vs. frequency Tatio for various damping factors. Introduction-Fundamentals 31 there are n masses in a system with no constraints, then the total degrees of freedom for that system will be 6xXn Example: see Figure 1-88. 29. Transmissibility Factor Definition: the ratio of the magnitude of the force transmitted to that of the impressed force. Example: 1. See Figure 1-09. Constant Force Amplitude Excitation F = Fy sin ot Transmissbilty (I) = Fr/Fe = VIF @DV/ VGH PIF BDNF, where Fr isthe force trans- rnited See Figure 1-90. Rotating Mass-Type Excitation, rmgeet si ot ‘Transmisbiity (T) =PVit DNV =PT, References 1. Richart, R.E., Jr, Hall, J. R., Jr, and Woods, R. D., Vibrations of Soils and Foundations, Englewood Ciliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1970. Biggs, John M., Introduction to Structural Dynamics, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964. 3, Tse, Francis $., Morse, Ivan E., and Hinkle, Rol- land T., Mechanical Vibrations, Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1963. 4, Lapedes, Daniel N., Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974. 5, Harris, Cyril M,, and Crede, Charles E., Shock and Vibration Handbook, second edition, New York: ‘McGraw-Hill, 1976. 6. Thompson, William T., Vibration Theory and Ap- plications, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1965, Church, Austin H., Mechanical Vibrations, second edition, New York: John Wiley, 1963. 8, Norris, Charles H., et al, Structural Design for Dy- iamic Loads, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1958. 9. Roark, Raymond J., and Young, Warren C., Form ulas for Stress and Strain, filth edition, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975. 10, Clough, Ray W., and Penzien, Joseph, Dynamics of Structures, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975, a2|Development of Analytical Models for Dynamic Systems A detailed dynamic analysis of a structural system as it physically appears in real life is rarely attempted, The usuall practice is to choose an idealized model consisting of springs and lumped masses which will closely perform in the same way as the actual structure. It is only neces- sary that a proper selection of the system parameters be made such that equivalence of the idealized spring, damping element, and lumped mass in the model results in equivalent displacements at analogous points of signifi cance in the prototype structure. In addition, the idealized model should behave, time-wise in exactly the same manner as the actual prototype structure. Modeling Techniques ‘The techniques adopted in the modeling of structures subjected to dynamic loads are still in the developing stage. The approach used in the modeling of simple systems, such as a beam supporting a vibrating load or a rigid block-type foundation supporting a machine, is straightforward. However, when the structures involved ave of an indeterminate type which rest on soils and are subjected wo complex dynamic forces, the modeling approach differs depending on the analyst (ref. 2). These differences do not necessarily mean disagreement in the basic fundamentals, but rather relate mostly to the accu- racy and efficiency achieved in the solution. During the 1960s, the investigation of structural systems used in space exploration and more recently in structures used in nuclear power plants and offshore structures has resulted in an established state-of-the-art in the field of structural dynamics (refs, 3 and 5). The rigorous use of digital computers and finite-element analysis techniques have been the principal agents in the development of the state-of-the-art (ref. 6). Therefore, itis imperative that designers who wish to solve structural problems should have adequate exposure to these analytical tools. Model- 32 ing of any structual system is dictated by the requite- ments imposed on the solution. The desired solution may be for one fundamental frequency or for a spectrum of frequencies of all possible modes. In some cases it may be necessary to find the vibration response at various points of interest. There are a few practical considera tions which are commonly used in all model representa- tions. These include the following: 1. The Lumping of Mass. The logical location of equivalent lumped mass in 2 model should be at: (a) the point where dynamic force or load is acting; (b) a point Where vibration response is desired; (c) a point where maximum static deffection will occur, eg., at the free end of a cantilever or at the midspan of a beam; (4) the intersection point of a beam and a column; (e) the node point of finite elements in a continuous system; (f) the center of gravity of all masses, when a single-degre®-of- freedom system is employed. 2. Elastic Spring Constant. ‘The spring constant rep- resents a linear relationship between the applied load and the displacement of the mass. A value for the spring constant is derived by determining the structural stiff ness of the elastic medium existing between oscillating ‘masses or between a mass and another infinite stiff sup- port. Specifically, the elastic properties of: (a) a pris- ‘matic member can be represented by three linear springs and three rotational springs; (b) a thin plate can be represented by two linear springs and two rotational Springs which are equivalent to stretching and bending occurring in the plane of the plate; (c) a massive con crete block approaches infinite stiffness; (d) soil reactions to the foundation loads can be represented by elastic springs capable of acting in tension and compression. 3. Damping Ratio. The dashpot of the lumped sys- tem (Figure 1-2) represents the damping in a dynamic system. Damping may occur due to several factors presentDevelopment of Analytical Models for Dynamic Systems 33 the system, for example, the frictional resistance and page occurring at the interface of surfaces at the Jct joints or the sliding phenomenon in the molec- lar structure of the elastic spring. “The damping assumed in the structural system is of the viscous {pe and includes the following additional sumptions: (a) the intemal damping present in con- ete and steel structures is nominal, ie. the damping fatio varies from 2.0 to 5.0 percent for concrete struc- tures and 1.0 to 7.0 percent for stel structures and nor~ nally is neglected; (b) the damping agent associated With the soil is in the form of internal damping and Geometric damping. The internal damping value is of Small magnitude in all modes of oscillation except in the ocking mode. Geometsic damping has considerable ‘flect on the dynamic response of the system and is {generally included in the model representation. Chap- ter 4 further describes the nature and evaluation of soil damping, 4. Forcing Function. The forcing function is normally treated as an equivalent concentrated force applied at points where masses are lumped. Torques are applied at Jats points either in concentrated form or are converted jnto an equivalent force-couple. The effect of earthquake forces may be obtained by the application of a time- oe: rceleration- at the mass points. A timechistory splacement applied at the supports may also be used earthquake loads as a type of forcing function (refs 3, 4 and 5 of this chapter and ref, 4, 5 and 6 of chap- ter 3). Models Civil engineering structures of various kinds use dif- ferent modeling techniques depending on the type of solution desired (ref. 1). Modeling types arg given in Figures 2-1 through 2-11 (Page $9)for typical structures using diferent constraint conditions, Alo shown is the mathematical model used to represent each phytical j= tem and a short description of the model, as well as list- ing the applicable equations of motion. Each model is further described below. Development of Equations of Motion ‘The equations of motion which describe the behavior of the mathematical model are developed using one of the following swo methods (ref. 3) (@). Dynamic equilibrium equation. Tn this method, the condition of equilibrium of a mass at any instant of time under the influence of forces and reactions is con- ee cee cunt for dynanie equim, the mass inertia force is included. Consider, for example, the vertical excitation for the “Machine supported on inertia-block and vibration isolated from the foundation” shown in Figure 2-3(a). The dynamic equilibrium equa- tions are derived as follows: ‘Assuming that at any instant of time, the masses ms land m, have moved up through displacements Z, and Za, respectively, from their reference position, then, for 1. Resistance of spring f downward) 2, Inertia force of mast m, = ma(a*Zs/di#) = mz, (acting downward—opposit to the direction of dis- placement). 3, Excitation force =F, (0) (acting upward) Since summation of downward forces = upward forces, “+ mada + he, (1 ~ Za) = Felt) (21) Similarly for mass ma: 1. Resistance of spring kn = fs (Zs — Za) (acting upward) 2. Resistance of spring kre ward) 3, Resistance of damping Css = Crs Zs (acting oppo- site to'the direction of movement Z, thus acting downward) 4, Resistance of inertia force of mass m= miZs (acting opposite to the direction of movement Zs, thus acting downivard) Equating the downward resistance to the upward resistance, ky (Z,— 7a) (acting Zs (acting down- mika + Cea Ba ke Ze is (2x ~ Za) mihy+ Crs Lat her (Za 2x) thee Z2=0 (2-2) Equations (2-1) and (2-2) are the same set of Equa tions (a) shown in Figure 2-3 of model. It should be noted that Z and Z stand for the first and second deriva- tives of the displacement Z with respect to time t, ie, Z> dejdt and 2= e/a. (b) Lagrange’s Equation. Lagrange’s. equation, in its’ fundamental form for a conservative system in generalized coordinates qi is given by 4 PE) _ 2D.) aq, Oa netic energy of the system, potential energy of the system, lssipation energy of the system, work done by the real external forces on the system. —34 Design of Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines The use of Lagrange’s equation will directly yield as many equations of motion as the number of degrees of freedom of the system, given that basic energy expres sions of the system are known, “This method is applied to the model discussed earlier where the dynamic equilibrium equation method was used in section (a). In this example, there are two co- ordinates, that is, 91 = Zin ds = Ze ‘The energy expressions in terms of Z are as follows Kinetic Energy = KE. = % m, (Zs)? + 4 ma (2s)? Potential Energy B. = ¥ kes (Zs)? + 1 ker (Z-Z)* Dissipation Energy = D.E. Cu ZsNZa) Work by external force = We= F, (Z,) ‘The dissipation energy due to damping force must be taken as negative, since a positive damping force is always in a direction opposite to the positive displace- ‘ment, The derivatives with respect to Z, are AGE) EE). 93,4 QUE) «aif a EA "a aty “ ORE: os OPE) _ 2) ODE) _9(DE) _ 4 oO 2) _ ay _ a. Substitution of the above in Equation (2-3) leads to ms B+ by (Za = Z) = Felt) (2-4) ‘The derivatives with respect to Z. are BRED 2B). 4g, ¢ (2 (ED) an ay as a OPE) _ 9 (PE) OED ED a bad — by (iB) CC Qs ms = 20) «9 024 ‘Substitution of the above in Equation (2-3) leads to the equation of motion: tials + Cuba + hn Za ~ Zs) + hls = 0 (265) ‘These equations are readily verified by consideration of dynamic equilibrium given by Equations (2-1) and (2-2). The above method is generally an inefficient way of obtaining the equation of motion. Furthermore, it should ‘be recognized that the Lagrange equation is merely a device for writing the equation of motion and is, not an independent method of solution. Mode! 1—Vibrating Machine Supported by Block-type Foundation (Figure 2-1) ‘This type of foundition is a very common form of physical system and is usually considered by design engi- neers in petrochemical and industrial plants. Three forms of dynamic mode shapes are possible and should be investigated (ref. 2). Vertical and horizontal modes are described by linear differential equations, and the solution for the natural frequencies and vibration response are easy to obtain, In the rocking mode, the coupling effect of the horizontal mode may be ignored for very shallow foundations. In that case, hy is zero, therefore, no coupling effect is present and thus Equa- tion (c) of Figure 2-1 reduces to Equation (b). Simi- larly, Equation (d) of Figure 2-1 is also “reduced” (uncoupled) and describes the motion in coordinate y and is as follows E+ OY + ye = ROH = Ty cos ot (2-6) This equation along with Equations (a) and (b) of Figure 2-1 can be solved according to the procedures given in Chapter 1. An example is solved in Chapter 6 which describes the required steps in the calculation procedure. When the vibration response of the coupled ‘otis is desited for Equations (c) and (4) of Figure 2-1, then the solution can be found by substituting 7 = Ay sin wt + Ay, cos wt Y = Ag, sin wt + Ay, 008 wt (2-7) (2-7b) in Equations (c) and (d) and then separating the equations containing either sines or cosines. This pro- cedure will result in four simultaneous equations with four unknowns. A complete solution of this type of equation is given in Appendix A. Model 2—Vibrating Machine Supported by Mat-type Foundation (Figure 2-2) ‘This type of foundation system may be used for the situation where several small units are placed side by side or where a firm soil with a high water table is en-Development of Analytical Models for Dynamic Systems 95 countered at plant grade level, Due tothe Rexibilty of ee eee ‘ill centered in the rocking snd horizontal modes MThorfore, only the frequency and vibration response itutatons in the vertical mode are required se tngle Tummped tass model may be used when one el of tachines is supported by a relatively rigid mat He lation, However, the model is divided into discrete Named mawes when several sts of machines are o- aan a exible mat foundation. Tn tis case, con- sah conditions are applied to the boundaries in the Srowions of translation for the sake of stability. The Sng cooatans for each element depend on the mat Beit as described ix Chapter 5 Model 3—Machine Supported on an Inertia Block and Vibration Isolated from the Foundation (Figure 2-3) tn special cates al due to environmental condition, «eee Macey to litte vibration amplitude at the flandarton bat tach Tower values than the ty aed. Ths requirement nay at be practical ary at tren by proper lection of mam oF base rea wae foundation, En nach ess, use ofan inertia block ha spring aborbers recommended ‘irrrmat behavior, tree forms of excitation ae elise Eicon tothe vertical diction is inde seat of the other fons of ecilaton. Excitation ia Feet rection i genealy coupled wit the a araerdes however fora machi which i eated STabney tye height (hs < 358) Sen investigation seg todeontal and tocking exciton independent “rie tttceen fa and ka are properties ofthe spring Rhuotem, Parameter mi the combined mast spre eve andthe inertia block sopether. The seks Bs and Cn, Cy Cou BF ENS OP sarc damping coutcient cepectiely, of the sll SIS Ue moter coniered and shoud be determined ee canie atfspace theory as described in Sener, Parmeter: ms and Ie ave the mas and mas aarrer of inert sapectvely, ofthe foundation “The atuton of the aiferettial Equation (a) and (by ai Hague 23 can readily be found forthe natural eee se hapa, tamsniity factor, and seg Mlan enpone Often, the fundamental fre seenty and the tonality factor ae the principal SeeTe atthe ania The so of diferent equations To) big 2. in sultans frm, and 2 anal sere ediour to peronn, This sptem of simul wanton equations i cae) solved by Rand unles 4 eeauta Toveigaion of the xem fs required, and eet chton i obsained with the help ofa computer program. However, solution for a similar type of equa- tion of motion has been performed in Appendix A. Model 4—Vibrating Machine Supported by a Cantilever (Figure 2-4) It is sometimes required that a vibrating machine be supported on a cantilever, In such instances, a vibra- tion analysis is considered necessary. Two modes (verti- cal and rocking) are possible (ref, $). The calculation of the rocking mode may be ignored if the distance is found to be small, and the cantilever arm is rigidly secured. The calculation of the vertical mode is generally performed because this provides the fundamental fre- quency and the largest vibration response. The mass parameter me is considered lumped at point O and con- sists of the mass of the machine plus an equivalent mass for a portion of the cantilever calculated according to the procedure explained in Chapter 1. The spring stiff: nes parameter fy is the flexural stifiness of the canti- lever at point O. Damping in the system varies from 0.005 to 0.05 of critical, depending on the material. "The investigation for the rocking mode is performed on a similar basis as for the vertical mode. The mass moment of inertia parameter I» is calculated for the equivalent mass m, about the point. 0. The rotational spring constant ke is calculated by applying a moment at point O about the x-axis (the x-axis is perpendicular to the figure) ‘The maximum vibration response calculated for each, mode may occur at different times. Therefore, in ob- taining the total response, the maximum of the sum may ‘occur at some specific time within the interval of inter- ‘est. However, obtaining this maximum value may be Gifficult. Therefore, a simple summation of the individ tual maxima is generally performed, which results in a conservative estimate of total displacement. ‘The solution of the equations of motion has previously been deseribed in Chapter 1. ‘Model 5—Vibrating Machine Supported by a Fixed Beam (Figure 2-5) Mathematical modeling technique for this physical system is similar to the cantilever system above except that the parameter determination differs. ‘The mass parameter m, is the combined mass of machine and a certain length of beam and is lumped at the intersecting axes of the machine and the beam. ‘The spring constant k, is a function of the flexural stff- ness of the beam. Both parameters m, and k, can be eval- uated by using the expression given for Case IT in Table I-L. The parameters I+ and #» can be determined by following the procedure described under Model 4 above,