1 Instrument Systems

Instrumentation is defined as "the art and science of measurement and control". Instrumentation can be used
to refer to the field in which Instrument technicians and engineers work in, or it can refer to the available
methods and use of instruments.

In abstract terms, an instrument is a device that transforms a physical variable of interest (the measurand)
into a form that is suitable for recording(the measurement).

1.1 Basic Measuring Instruments

The Structure of Measurement Systems:- Figure 1 shows the general structure of measurement systems, since

Figure 1: Structure of Basic Measurement System

a measurement system can consist of as little as one of the above steps.

• The Transducer consists of a Sensing Element Signal Conditioning (Variable Conversion Element).
The sensor detects a parameter in a physical form and the Variable Conversion Element converts it
into an electrical form. (N.B: Sometimes, sensors can do the sensing and converting, then a Variable
Conversion Element isn’t needed)

• The Signal Processing Element changes the small electrical quantities into quantities that are compatible
with the rest of the systems.

• Data Presentation is used to record the reading for the measured quantity and then it presents it in
the final display step.

A measurement system may also contain Auxiliary Functional Elements; those which may be incorporated
in a particular system depending on the type of requirement, the nature of measurement technique, e.t.c.
They are:

• Calibration Element to provide a built-in calibration facility.

• External Power Element to facilitate the working of one or more of the elements like the transducer
element, the signal conditioning element, the data processing element or the feedback element.

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 • Feedback Element to control the variation of the physical quantity that is being measured. In addition,
feedback element is provided in the null seeking potentiometric or Wheatstone bridge devices to make
them automatic or self-balancing.

• Microprocessor Element to facilitate the manipulation of data for the purpose of simplifying or accel-
erating the data interpretation. It is always used in conjunction with analog-to-digital converter which
is incorporated in the signal conditioning element.

1.2 Classification of Measuring Instruments

Instruments can be subdivided into separate classes according to several criteria as follows:

1. Passive and active instruments

The passive instrument does not contain any electrical power source. In self-generating (or passive)
instruments, the energy requirements of the instruments are met entirely from the input signal.

On the other hand, power-operated (or active) instruments are those that require some source of
auxiliary power such as compressed air, electricity, hydraulic supply, e.t.c. for their operation. The
active instrument contains a power source. The energy in the output signal comes from the external
power source
Active instruments have better resolution but the passive types are cheaper in cost.

2. Contacting and Non-Contacting Types

A contacting type of instrument is one that is kept in the measuring medium itself. A clinical ther-
mometer is an example of such instruments.

On the other hand, there are instruments that are of non-contacting or proximity type. These instru-
ments measure the desired input even though they are not in close contact with the measuring medium.
For example, an optical pyrometer monitors the temperature of, say, a blast furnace, but is kept out of
contact with the blast furnace

3. Null Type and Deflection Type Instruments

A null type instrument is the one that is provided with either a manually operated or automatic bal-
ancing device that generates an equivalent opposing effect to nullify the physical effect caused by the
quantity to be measured. The equivalent null-causing effect in turn provides the measure of the quan-
tity. Measurement is made in terms of the value of the weights needed to reach a null position.

A deflection type instrument is that in which the physical effect generated by the measuring quantity
produces an equivalent opposing effect in some part of the instrument which in turn is closely related
to some variable like mechanical displacement or deflection in the instrument. For example, the

4. Analog and digital instruments

An analog instrument gives an output that varies continuously as the quantity being measured changes
e.g. analog voltmeter

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 A digital instrument has an output that varies in discrete steps and so can only have a finite number
of values e.g. digital voltmeter
The advantages of digital instruments over analogue instruments are

• Easy readability
• Better resolution
• Greater accuracy
• Automatic polarity and zeroing

5. Indicating instruments and instruments with a signal output

Indicating Instruments
Gives an audio or visual indication of the magnitude of the physical quantity measured e.g. liquid in
glass thermometer

Instruments with a signal output

Give an output in the form of a measurement signal whose magnitude is proportional to the measured
quantity e.g. strain gauge

6. Smart and non smart instruments

Smart or intelligent instruments have or incorporate a microprocessor

Non-Smart or dumb instruments don’t have or don’t incorporate a microprocessor

1.3 Characteristics of Instrument and Measurement Systems

1.3.1 Static Characteristics

1. Accuracy
Accuracy is the closeness with which the reading measured value approaches an accepted standard
value or the true value of the measured quantity.

2. Precision
Precision is the closeness with which individual measurements are distributed about the mean value.
It refers to the degree of agreement of a set of measurements among themselves.

3. Sensitivity
This is the ability of an instrument to respond to small changes in the quantity that it measures.

4. Reproducibility
It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured.

5. Drift
This is the variation of the measured value with time.

6. Resolution
This is the smallest increament in the input or quantity being measured which can be detected with
certainty by an instrument. Hence resolution defines the smallest measurable input change which.

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 7. Threshold
This is the smallest measurable value of the quantity being measured.

8. Static error
This is the difference between the measured value and the true value of the quantity being measured.

1.3.2 Dynamic Characteristics

1. Speed of response
This is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to changes in the measured
quantity.

2. Measuring lag
It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in the measured
quantity.

3. Fidelity
This is the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the measured quantity without
any dynamic error.

4. Dynamic error
It is the difference between the true value of the quantity being measured changing with time and the
value indicated by the measurement system.

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2 Transducers

2.1 Introduction

A generalized measurement system consists of 3 major components

1. An input device

2. A signal conditioning or processing device

3. An output device

The input device receives the measurand or the quantity under measurement and delivers a proportional or
analogous electrical signal to the signal conditioning device. Here the signal amplified, attenuated, filtered,
modulated or otherwise modified in a format acceptable to the output device.
The input quantity for most instrumentation systems is a non electrical quantity. In order to use electrical
methods and techniques for measurement, manipulation or control, the non electrical quantity is generally
converted into an electrical form by a device called a transducer. A transducer can be broadly defined as a
device which converts a non electrical quantity into an electrical quantity and vice versa.
For example these devices which convert mechanical force into an electrical signal which form a very large
and important group of transducers commonly used in industrial instrumentation.
Many other physical parameters such as heat, intensity of light, flow rate, liquid level, humidity and pH value
may also be converted into electrical form by means of transducers.
These transducers provide an output signal when stimulated by a mechanical or non mechanical input.
A photoconductor converts light intensity into a change of resistance.
A thermocouple converts heat energy into electrical voltage, a force produces a change of resistance in a
strain gauge, an accelerator produces a voltage in a piezoelectric crystal etc
In all cases however, the electrical output is measured by standard methods giving the magnitude of the
input in terms of an analogous output

2.2 Functional Parts of a Transducer

The transducers may be thought of consisting of 2 important and closely related parts. These 2 parts are

1. sensing element

2. transduction element

In addition there may be many other auxiliary parts such as amplifiers and other signal processing equipment,
power supplies, calibrating and reference sources and mechanical mounting features.

2.2.1 Sensing element / detector element

A detector or a sensing element is that part of a transducer which responds to a physical phenomena. The
response of the sensing element must be closely related to the physical phenomena.

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2.2.2 Transduction elements

A transduction element transforms the output of a sensing element to an electrical output. The transducer
element in a way acts as a secondary transducer.

Characteristics of the transducer

i. The transducer should recognize and sense the desired input signal and should be insensitive to other
signals present simultaneously in the measurand. For example, a velocity transducer should sense the
instantaneous velocity and should be insensitive to the local pressure or temperature.

ii. It should not alter the event to be measured.

iii. The output should preferably be electrical to obtain the advantages of modern computing and display
devices.

iv. It should have good accuracy.

v. It should have good reproducibility

vi. It should have amplitude linearity.

vii. It should have adequate frequency response (i.e., good dynamic response).

viii. It should not induce phase distortions (i.e. should not induce time lag between the input and output
transducer signals).

ix. It should be able to withstand hostile environments without damage and should maintain the accuracy
within acceptable limits.

x. It should have high signal level and low impedance. .

xi. It should be easily available, reasonably priced and compact in shape and size (preferably portable).

xii. It should have good reliability and ruggedness. In other words, if a transducer gets dropped by chance,
it should still be operative.

xiii. Leads of the transducer should be sturdy and not be easily pulled off.

xiv. The rating of the transducer should be sufficient and it should not break down.

2.3 Sensor Technologies

2.3.1 Capacitive and Resistive Sensors

Capacitive sensors consist of two parallel metal plates in which the dielectric between the plates is either air
or some other medium. The capacitance C is given by

 r A
C= 0
d

where 0 is the absolute permittivity, r is the relative permittivity of the dielectric medium between the
plates, A is the area of the plates and d is the distance between them. Capacitive devices are often used as

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displacement sensors, in which motion of a moveable capacitive plate relative to a fixed one changes the ca-
pacitance. Often, the measured displacement is part of instruments measuring pressure, sound or acceleration.

Alternatively, fixed plate capacitors can also be used as sensors, in which the capacitance value is changed by
causing the measured variable to change the dielectric constant of the material between the plates in some
way. This principle is used in devices to measure moisture content, humidity values and liquid level.

Resistive sensors rely on the variation of the resistance of a material when the measured variable is applied
to it. This principle is most commonly applied in temperature measurement using resistance thermometers
or thermistors, and in displacement measurement using strain gauges or piezoresistive sensors. In addition,
some moisture meters work on the resistance-variation principle.

2.3.2 Magnetic Sensors

Magnetic sensors utilize the magnetic phenomena of inductance, reluctance and eddy currents to indicate
the value of the measured quantity, which is usually some form of displacement.

Inductive sensors translate movement into a change in the mutual inductance between magnetically coupled
parts. One example of this is the inductive displacement transducer shown in Figure 2

Figure 2: Inductive sensor

In this, the single winding on the central limb of an ’E’-shaped ferromagnetic body is excited with an alter-
nating voltage. The displacement to be measured is applied to a ferromagnetic plate in close proximity to the
’E’ piece. Movements of the plate alter the flux paths and hence cause a change in the current flowing in the
V
winding. By Ohm’s law, the current flowing in the winding is I = . For fixed values of ω and V , this equa-
1
tion becomes I = , where K is a constant. The relationship between L and the displacement, d, applied
KL
to the plate is a non-linear one, and hence the output-current/displacement characteristic has to be calibrated.

In variable reluctance sensors, a coil is wound on a permanent magnet rather than on an iron core as in
variable inductance sensors. Such devices are commonly used to measure rotational velocities. Figure 3
shows a typical instrument in which a ferromagnetic gearwheel is placed next to the sensor.

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 Figure 3: Reluctance sensor

As the tip of each tooth on the gearwheel moves towards and away from the pick-up unit, the changing
magnetic flux in the pick-up coil causes a voltage to be induced in the coil whose magnitude is proportional
to the rate of change of flux. Thus, the output is a sequence of positive and negative pulses whose frequency
is proportional to the rotational velocity of the gearwheel.

Eddy current sensors consist of a probe containing a coil, as shown in Figure 4, that is excited at a high
frequency, which is typically 1 MHz.

Figure 4: Eddy Current sensor

This is used to measure the displacement of the probe relative to a moving metal target. Because of the high
frequency of excitation, eddy currents are induced only in the surface of the target, and negative pulses whose
frequency is proportional to the rotational velocity of the gearwheel and the current magnitude reduces to
almost zero a short distance inside the target.

This allows the sensor to work with very thin targets, such as the steel diaphragm of a pressure sensor. The
eddy currents alter the inductance of the probe coil, and this change can be translated into a d.c. voltage
output that is proportional to the distance between the probe and the target.

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2.3.3 Hall-effect Sensors

Basically, a Hall-effect sensor is a device that is used to measure the magnitude of a magnetic field. It consists
of a conductor carrying a current that is aligned orthogonally with the magnetic field, as shown in Figure 5.
This produces a transverse voltage difference across the device that is directly proportional to the magnetic
field strength. For an excitation current I and magnetic field strength B, the output voltage is given by
V = KIB, where K is known as the Hall constant.

Figure 5: Hall-effect sensor

The conductor in Hall-effect sensors is usually made from a semiconductor material as opposed to a metal,
because a larger voltage output is produced for a magnetic field of a given size. In one common use of the
device as a proximity sensor, the magnetic field is provided by a permanent magnet that is built into the
device. The magnitude of this field changes when the device becomes close to any ferrous metal object or
boundary. The Hall effect is also commonly used in keyboard push buttons, in which a magnet is attached
underneath the button. When the button is depressed, the magnet moves past a Hall-effect sensor. The
induced voltage is then converted by a trigger circuit into a digital output. Such push button switches can
operate at high frequencies without contact bounce.

2.3.4 Piezoelectric Sensors

Piezoelectric transducers produce an output voltage when a force is applied to them. They are frequently
used as ultrasonic receivers and also as displacement transducers, particularly as part of devices measuring
acceleration, force and pressure.

Piezoelectric transducers are made from piezoelectric materials. These have an asymmetrical lattice of
molecules that distorts when a mechanical force is applied to it. This distortion causes a reorientation of
electric charges within the material, resulting in a relative displacement of positive and negative charges. The
charge displacement induces surface charges on the material of opposite polarity between the two sides. By

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implanting electrodes into the surface of the material, these surface charges can be measured as an output
voltage.

For a rectangular block of material, the induced voltage is given by:

kF d
V =
A

where F is the applied force in g, A is the area of the material in mm, d is the thickness of the material
and k is the piezoelectric constant. The polarity of the induced voltage depends on whether the material is
compressed or stretched.

2.3.5 Optical Sensors

Optical sensors are based on the modulation of light travelling between a light source and a light detector
as shown in Figure 6. The transmitted light can travel along either an air path or a fibre-optic cable. Either
form of transmission gives immunity to electromagnetically induced noise, and also provides greater safety
than electrical sensors when used in hazardous environments. Light sources suitable for transmission across
an air path include tungsten-filament lamps, laser diodes and light-emitting diodes (LEDs).

Figure 6: Optical sensor

As an alternative to using air as the transmission medium, optical sensors can use fibre optic cable instead
to transmit light between a source and a detector. The basis of operation of fibre-optic sensors is the
translation of the physical quantity measured into a change in one or more parameters of a light beam.
The light parameters that can be modulated are one or more of the following: intensity, wavelength, phase,
transmission time e.t.c.

2.3.6 Piezoresistive Sensors

A piezoresistive sensor is made from semiconductor material in which a p-type region has been diffused into
an n-type base. The resistance of this varies greatly when the sensor is compressed or stretched. This is
frequently used as a strain gauge, where it produces a significantly higher gauge factor than that given by
metal wire or foil gauges. It is also used in semiconductor-diaphragm pressure sensors and in semiconductor
accelerometers.

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2.3.7 Strain gauges

Strain gauges are devices that experience a change in resistance when they are stretched or strained. They
are able to detect very small displacements, usually in the range 0-50 , and are typically used as part of other
transducers, for example diaphragm pressure sensors that convert pressure changes into small displacements
of the diaphragm.

2.3.8 Ultrasonic sensors

Ultrasound is a band of frequencies in the range above 20 kHz, that is, above the sonic range that humans can
usually hear. Measurement devices that use ultrasound consist of one device that transmits an ultrasound
wave and another device that receives the wave. Changes in the measured variable are determined either by
measuring the change in time taken for the ultrasound wave to travel between the transmitter and receiver,
or, alternatively, by measuring the change in phase or frequency of the transmitted wave.

2.4 Typical Transducers

2.4.1 Light Transducers

Light transducers are devices which transform the light radiation into an electrical quantity (resistance, cur-
rent) and can be used in industry as light transducers and also as indirect transducers of other physical
quantities such as position, angular speed and so on.

When incident on a material, the light radiation produces different effects, among which, there is the Photo-
electric Effect which consists in the liberation of electrons by electromagnetic radiation incident on a metal
surface and in case of semiconductors, in the generation of electron-hole pairs.

Photoelectric effects on semiconductors can be divided into two kinds and precisely:

• Photoconductive Effect
The conductivity of a semiconductor bar depends on the intensity of the light radiation which strikes
it.Devices belonging to this category are called photoresistors

• Photovoltaic Effect
The current across a reversely biased P-N junction depends on the intensity of the light radiation. If
the junction is not biased, an electromotive force is generated across it (Photovoltaic effect).
Devices belonging to this category are called photodiodes, photoelectric cells and phototransistors.

a) Photoresistors
The photoresistor is a passive semiconductor component without junction. When crossed by light radia-
tion, it varies its resistance as a result of the photoconductive effect: the resistance drops when the light
increases.
In dark conditions, the photoresistor practically acts as an insulating piece, as it has resistance values
measured in M Ω (dark resistance); if strongly illuminated it has very low resistance values measured up
to some tens of Ω

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 Figure 7: Photoresistor

b) Photodiode
The photodiode is a device which structure is similar to a common semiconductor diode, with a P-N
junction, and, for this kind of use, it is reversely biased.
In dark conditions, the photodiode operates as a common semiconductor diode, while, when the junction
is crossed by a light radiation, the reverse current increases.

Figure 8: Photodiode

c) Phototransistor
The phototransistor is a device with a structure similar to the one of a standard transistor, but with a
photosensible base. It is generally NPN kind, it is powered with a positive voltage between Collector and
Emitter and the Base can be left open or connected to the emitter with a resistor.
In this second case, the sensitivity of the phototransistor can be adjusted by varying the value of the resistor
used. On dark conditions, the current of the collector Ic is minimum and increases with illumination.

Photo Conductive Cell

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 Figure 9: Phototransistor

This works on the principle that the resistance of the photo cell varies with incident light. Typical control
circuit showing the application of a photo cell is shown in Figure 10 below

Figure 10: Photo Conductive Cell

The potentiometer is used to make adjustment to compensate for manufacturing tolerances in photocell
sensitivity and relay operating sensitivity. When light is incident on the photocell, its resistance becomes low
and the current through the relay is consequently high to operate the relay.
When the light is intercepted, the resistance increases reducing the current through the relay. This drop in
current may de-energize the relay. These transducers are used

1. for counting packages moving in a conveyor belt

2. in burglar alarm circuit where the interception of the light activates an alarm circuit. This application
mostly uses infra red light which a burglar cannot see.

2.4.2 Temperature Transducers

Instruments to measure temperature can be divided into separate classes according to the physical principle
on which they operate. The main principles used are:

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• The thermoelectric effect

• Resistance change

• Sensitivity of semiconductor device

• Radiative heat emission

• Thermography

• Thermal expansion

• Resonant frequency change

• Sensitivity of fibre optic devices

• Acoustic thermometry

• Colour change

• Change of state of material.

a) Thermoelectric effect (Thermocouple)

This works on the principle that an emf is generated across the junction of two dissimilar metals or
semiconductors when that junction is heated. Thermocouples are used to measure temperature, heat
flow and radiation. The emf produced in a thermocouple junction is given by

E = a (∆θ) + b (∆θ)2 (1)

where
∆θ = temperature difference between the hot thermocouple and the reference junction of the thermo-
couple in °C
a, b are constants
a is usually large as compared to b and therefore the emf is approximated as

E ' a (∆θ)

E
∆θ '
a
The thermocouple temperature measuring circuit , the emf setup is measured by sending a current
through a moving coil instrument whereby the deflection is directly proportional to the emf.
Since the emf is a function of the temperature difference ∆θ , the instrument can be calibrated to read
the temperature
Thermocouples are used for measurement of temperatures upto 1400°C. Note that thermocouples are
active transducers unlike resistance transducers and thermistors which are passive transducers

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 Figure 11: Thermocouple

Construction of thermocouples
In industrial application the choice of material used to make a thermocouple depends upon the temper-
ature range to be measured, the kind of atmosphere to which the material will be exposed, the output
emf and its stability, mechanical strength and its accuracy required in measurement.
Thermocouple materials are divided into 2 categories

(a) Rare metal types - using platinum, rhodium etc

(b) Base metal type

Several combinations of dissimilar metals make good thermocouples for industrial use. These combina-
tions apart from having linear response and high sensitivity should be physically strong to withstand
high temperature, rapid temperature changes and the effect of corrosive and reducing atmosphere.
The pair of two dissimilar metals in physical contact may be twisted, screwed, clamped or welded
together. The most commonly used method for fabricating is to weld the metals together.
Industrial thermocouples employ protective sheathing surrounding the junction and a portion of the
extension leads. The leads and the junction are internally insulated from the sheath using various
potting compounds, ceramics beads or oxides.
The type of insulation used depends upon the process being monitored. The most common pairs of
metals used for thermocouples are

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 + -
1.Copper Constantine
temp range −250°C − 400°C
2. Iron Constantine
temp range −200°C − 850°C
3. Chrome Constantine
temp range −200°C − 850°C
4. Chrome 90% Alumel
Nickel 10% Al, Si and Mn 2%
temp range −200°C − 1100°C
5. Platinum 90% Platinum
Rhodium 10%
temp range 0°C − 1400°C
6. Tungsten 95% Tungsten 75%
Rhenium 5% rhenium 28%
temp range 0°C − 2600°C
The five standard base-metal thermocouples are chromel-constantan (type E), iron-constantan (type J),
chromel-alumel (type K), nicrosil-nisil (type N) and copper-constantan (type T). These are all relatively
cheap to manufacture but they become inaccurate with age and have a short life. In many applications,
performance is also affected through contamination by the working environment. To overcome this,
The sensitivity of thermocouples can be increased by reducing the mass of the measuring junction.
One method of reducing the mass is to butt-weld the two thermocouple wires. In application where
the mechanical strength of the butt-weld is not sufficient, the two wires are twisted together and the
ends are welded
Measurement of thermocouple output
The output emf of a thermocouple as a result of the difference between temperatures of the reference
junction and the measuring junction can be measured by the following methods

(a) Measuring the output voltage directly with a micrometer since the output is in the order of mV

(b) Measuring the output voltage with the help of a dc potentiometer.

(c) measuring the output voltage after amplifying it

Lead Compensation
In many applications it is desirable to place the reference junction at a point far moved from the
measurement junction. The connecting wires from thermocouple head to the meter are thus very long
and are usually not at the same temperature throughout their length. These causes errors which can
be avoided by using connecting wires made of the same materials as the thermocouple wires.
The implementation of this arrangement may not be possible in many cases due to cost and other
considerations. Under these circumstances, materials are chosen such that the relationship between
emf and temperature is the same or almost the same as that of the thermocouple wires.
These wires are known as compensating leads.

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 Advantages of Thermocouples

(a) Are cheaper than resistance thermocouples

(b) They follow temperature changes with a small time lag and as such are suitable for recording
comparatively rapid changes in temperature.

Disadvantages

(a) They have a lower accuracy and hence cannot be used for precision wire

(b) They need to be protected in an open or closed end metal protecting tube to prevent contamination
of the thermocouple from precision metals e.g platinum or its alloys are being used, the protective
tube has to be made chemically inert or vacuum type.

(c) The compensating leads may be very long for a thermocouple placed in a remote place.

EXAMPLE
A thermocouple circuit uses a Chrome - Alumel which gives an emf of 33.3mV when measuring a
temperature of 800o °C with reference temperature of 0o °C. The resistance of the metal coil is Rm =
50Ω and current of 0.1mA gives a full scale deflection. The resistance of the junction and leads Re =
12Ω. Calculate

(a) Resistance of the series resistance if a temperature of 800o °C is to give full scale deflection

(b) The approximate error due to rise of 1Ω in Re

(c) The approximate error due to rise of 10o °C in a copper coil of the meter. The resistance temperature
coefficient of the coil is 0.00426/o °C

SOLUTION

(a)
emf = i (Rm + Re + Rs )

33.3 × 10−3 = 1 × 10−4 (50 + 12 + Rs )

33.3 × 10−3
Rs = − 62
1 × 10−4

= 271Ω

(b) current in the circuit with increased resistance Re = 13Ω

33.3 × 10−3
= = 0.0997mA
(50 + 271 + 13)

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