Get help and support AS AND

Visit our website for information, guidance, support and resources at aqa.org.uk/7182
You can talk directly to the Psychology subject team A-LEVEL
E: [email protected]
T: 01483 477 822
PSYCHOLOGY
AS (7181)
A-level (7182)
Specifications
For teaching from September 2015 onwards
For AS exams in May/June 2016 onwards
For A-level exams in May/June 2017 onwards

Version 1.2 14 October 2021

(psycholsp7182)

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 AQA AS and A-level Psychology 7181, 7182. AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.2 14 October 2021

Contents
1 Introduction 5
1.1 Why choose AQA for AS and A-level Psychology 5
1.2 Support and resources to help you teach 6

2 Specification at a glance 8
2.1 AS 8
2.2 A-level 9

3 Subject content – AS 13
3.1 Introductory topics in Psychology 13
3.2 Psychology in context 14

4 Subject content – A-level 17

4.1 Introductory topics in Psychology 17
4.2 Psychology in context 18
4.3 Issues and options in Psychology 21

5 Scheme of assessment 25
5.1 Aims 25
5.2 Assessment objectives 26
5.3 Assessment weightings 27

6 General administration 29
6.1 Entries and codes 29
6.2 Overlaps with other qualifications 29
6.3 Awarding grades and reporting results 29
6.4 Re-sits and shelf life 30
6.5 Previous learning and prerequisites 30
6.6 Access to assessment: diversity and inclusion 30
6.7 Safeguarding 31
6.8 Working with AQA for the first time 31
6.9 Private candidates 31

7 Mathematical requirements and

exemplification 33
7.1 AS 33
7.2 A-level 35

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Are you using the latest version of this specification?
• You will always find the most up-to-date version of this specification on our website at
• We will write to you if there are significant changes to the specification.

4 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Psychology 7181, 7182. AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.2 14 October 2021

1 Introduction
1.1 Why choose AQA for AS and A-level Psychology
Relevant content designed by experts
These qualifications offers an engaging and effective introduction to Psychology. Students will
learn the fundamentals of the subject and develop skills valued by Higher Education (HE) and
employers, including critical analysis, independent thinking and research.
Retaining the most popular features of our previous, market-leading qualifications, we have worked
with teachers, HE and the British Psychological Society to produce clear, up-to-date and
stimulating specifications. We have built on the success of our previous specifications by
introducing some minor amendments that reflect advances and changes in the subject and provide
a coherent and holistic programme of study.

The biggest teaching community

We are the most popular choice for AS and A-level Psychology and by choosing our specification
you will be part of the country’s largest community of psychology teachers and have access to the
widest network of support to help your teaching.

Content continuity
Our focus for these new qualifications has been on providing continuity for teachers. You will see
many familiar and popular topics from our previous specifications which include:
• approaches and methods related to the core areas of Psychology – cognitive, social,
biological, developmental, individual differences and research methods are all retained and
delivered through content similar to the previous specifications
• explanations from different approaches, along with psychological issues and debates, are
retained
• A-level students can choose from a range of attractive topic options which have been
arranged to help teachers to teach to their strengths and at the same time ensure that their
students experience an interesting, diverse and coherent course of study, regardless of
which topics they choose.

Trusted assessment
Our assessments continue to employ a variety of familiar types of question such as multiple
choice, short answer and extended writing/essays, which target the skills of knowledge and
understanding, application and evaluation.
Students’ understanding of research methods, gained through classroom experience of practical
Psychology, will be assessed using the familiar scenario-based question style and research
methods questions embedded in topics.

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Co-teachability of AS and A-level
We have designed the AS and A-level specifications to cover the core areas of Psychology and be
fully co-teachable within the first year of study. We know this will help teachers with resourcing and
timetabling and will also allow students to switch between AS and A-level during the first year if
they wish.

Progression
Our specifications will appeal to a cross-section of students, regardless of whether they have
studied the subject before. It builds on skills developed in the sciences and humanities, and
enables progression into a wide range of other subjects.
You can find out about all our Psychology qualifications at aqa.org.uk/psychology

1.2 Support and resources to help you teach

We know that support and resources are vital for your teaching and that you have limited time to
find or develop good quality materials. So we’ve worked with experienced teachers to provide you
with a range of resources that will help you confidently plan, teach and prepare for exams.

Teaching resources
We have too many Psychology resources to list here so visit aqa.org.uk/7182 to see them all. They
include:
• flexible sample schemes of work to help you plan for course delivery in your own way
• individual lesson plans on specific topic areas to assist you in providing continuity and
progression in teaching
• specimen assessment materials that will give your students a clear idea as to what is
expected in the examinations
• a range of student textbooks from AQA approved publishers
• example practical activities for research methods (teachers should ensure that the British
Psychological Societies Code of Ethics and Conduct is followed in any practical research
activity. This can be found on the British Psychological Societies website www.bps.org.uk)
• training courses to help you deliver AQA Psychology qualifications
• subject expertise courses for all teachers, from newly qualified teachers who are just getting
started to experienced teachers looking for fresh inspiration.

Preparing for exams

Visit aqa.org.uk/7182 for everything you need to prepare for our exams, including:
• past papers, mark schemes and examiners’ reports
• specimen papers and mark schemes for new courses
• Exampro: a searchable bank of past AQA exam questions
• exemplar student answers with examiner commentaries.

Analyse your students' results with Enhanced Results Analysis (ERA)

Find out which questions were the most challenging, how the results compare to previous years
and where your students need to improve. ERA, our free online results analysis tool, will help you
see where to focus your teaching. Register at aqa.org.uk/era

6 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Psychology 7181, 7182. AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.2 14 October 2021

For information about results, including maintaining standards over time, grade boundaries and our
post-results services, visit aqa.org.uk/results

Keep your skills up to date with professional development

Wherever you are in your career, there’s always something new to learn. As well as subject-
specific training, we offer a range of courses to help boost your skills.
• Improve your teaching skills in areas including differentiation, teaching literacy and meeting
Ofsted requirements.
• Prepare for a new role with our leadership and management courses.
You can attend a course at venues around the country, in your school or online – whatever suits
your needs and availability. Find out more at coursesandevents.aqa.org.uk

Get help and support

Visit our website for information, guidance, support and resources at aqa.org.uk/7182
You can talk directly to the Psychology subject team:
E: [email protected]
T: 01483 477 822

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 7
2 Specification at a glance
These qualifications are linear. Linear means that students will sit all the AS exams at the end of
their AS course and all the A-level exams at the end of their A-level course.

2.1 AS
Subject content
1 Social influence (page 13)
2 Memory (page 13)
3 Attachment (page 14)
4 Approaches in Psychology (page 14)
5 Psychopathology (page 15)
6 Research methods (page 15)

Assessments
Paper 1: Introductory Topics in Psychology

What's assessed
Compulsory content 1–3 above

Assessed
• written exam: 1 hour 30 minutes
• 72 marks in total
• 50% of AS

Questions
Section A: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks
Section B: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks
Section C: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks

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 AQA AS and A-level Psychology 7181, 7182. AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.2 14 October 2021

Paper 2: Psychology in Context

What's assessed
Compulsory content 4–6 above

Assessed
• written exam: 1 hour 30 minutes
• 72 marks in total
• 50% of AS

Questions
Section A: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks
Section B: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks
Section C: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks

2.2 A-level
Subject content
Compulsory content
1 Social influence (page 13)
2 Memory (page 13)
3 Attachment (page 14)
4 Psychopathology (page 15)
5 Approaches in Psychology (page 19)
6 Biopsychology (page 19)
7 Research methods (page 20)
8 Issues and debates in Psychology (page 22)
Optional
Option 1
9 Relationships (page 22)
10 Gender (page 22)
11 Cognition and development (page 22)
Option 2
12 Schizophrenia (page 23)
13 Eating behaviour (page 23)
14 Stress (page 23)
Option 3
15 Aggression (page 24)
16 Forensic Psychology (page 24)
17 Addiction (page 24)

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Assessments
Paper 1: Introductory Topics in Psychology

What's assessed
Compulsory content 1–4 above

Assessed
• written exam: 2 hours
• 96 marks in total
• 33.3% of A-level

Questions
• Section A: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks
• Section B: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks
• Section C: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks
• Section D: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks

Paper 2: Psychology in Context

What's assessed
Compulsory content 5–7 above

Assessed
• written exam: 2 hours
• 96 marks in total
• 33.3% of A-level

Questions
• Section A: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks
• Section B: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks
• Section C: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 48 marks

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 AQA AS and A-level Psychology 7181, 7182. AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.2 14 October 2021

Paper 3: Issues and Options in Psychology

What's assessed
Compulsory content 8 above
Optional content, one from option 1, 9–11, one from option 2, 12–14, one from option 3, 15–17
above

Assessed
• written exam: 2 hours
• 96 marks in total
• 33.3% of A-level

Questions
• Section A: multiple choice, short answer and extended writing, 24 marks
• Section B: one topic from option 1, 9–11 above, multiple choice, short answer and extended
writing, 24 marks
• Section C: one topic from option 2, 12–14 above, multiple choice, short answer and
extended writing, 24 marks
• Section D: one topic from option 3, 15–17 above, multiple choice, short answer and
extended writing, 24 marks

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12 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Psychology 7181, 7182. AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.2 14 October 2021

3 Subject content – AS
3.1 Introductory topics in Psychology
Students will be expected to:
• demonstrate knowledge and understanding of psychological concepts, theories, research
studies, research methods and ethical issues in relation to the specified Paper 1 content
• apply psychological knowledge and understanding of the specified Paper 1 content in a
range of contexts
• analyse, interpret and evaluate psychological concepts, theories, research studies and
research methods in relation to the specified Paper 1 content
• evaluate therapies and treatments including in terms of their appropriateness and
effectiveness.
Knowledge and understanding of research methods, practical research skills and mathematical
skills (see Annex: Mathematical requirements and exemplifications (page 33)) will be assessed in
Paper 1. These skills should be developed through study of the specification content and through
ethical practical research activities, involving:
• designing research
• conducting research
• analysing and interpreting data.
In carrying out practical research activities, students will manage associated risks and use
information and communication technology (ICT).

3.1.1 Social influence

• Types of conformity: internalisation, identification and compliance. Explanations for
conformity: informational social influence and normative social influence, and variables
affecting conformity including group size, unanimity and task difficulty as investigated by
Asch.
• Conformity to social roles as investigated by Zimbardo.
• Explanations for obedience: agentic state and legitimacy of authority, and situational
variables affecting obedience including proximity and location, as investigated by Milgram,
and uniform. Dispositional explanation for obedience: the Authoritarian Personality.
• Explanations of resistance to social influence, including social support and locus of control.
• Minority influence including reference to consistency, commitment and flexibility.
• The role of social influence processes in social change.

3.1.2 Memory
• The multi-store model of memory: sensory register, short-term memory and long-term
memory. Features of each store: coding, capacity and duration.
• Types of long-term memory: episodic, semantic, procedural.
• The working memory model: central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad
and episodic buffer. Features of the model: coding and capacity.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 13
 • Explanations for forgetting: proactive and retroactive interference and retrieval failure due to
absence of cues.
• Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: misleading information, including
leading questions and post-event discussion; anxiety.
• Improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony, including the use of the cognitive interview.

3.1.3 Attachment
• Caregiver-infant interactions in humans: reciprocity and interactional synchrony. Stages of
attachment identified by Schaffer. Multiple attachments and the role of the father.
• Animal studies of attachment: Lorenz and Harlow.
• Explanations of attachment: learning theory and Bowlby’s monotropic theory. The concepts
of a critical period and an internal working model.
• Ainsworth’s ‘Strange Situation’. Types of attachment: secure, insecure-avoidant and
insecure-resistant. Cultural variations in attachment, including van Ijzendoorn.
• Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation. Romanian orphan studies: effects of
institutionalisation.
• The influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships, including the role of
an internal working model.

3.2 Psychology in context

Students will be expected to:
• demonstrate knowledge and understanding of psychological concepts, theories, research
studies, research methods and ethical issues in relation to the specified Paper 2 content
• apply psychological knowledge and understanding of the specified Paper 2 content in a
range of contexts
• analyse, interpret and evaluate psychological concepts, theories, research studies and
research methods in relation to the specified Paper 2 content
• evaluate therapies and treatments including in terms of their appropriateness and
effectiveness.
Knowledge and understanding of research methods, practical research skills and mathematical
skills (see Annex: Mathematical requirements and exemplification (page 33)) will be assessed in
Paper 2. These skills should be developed through study of the specification content and through
ethical practical research activities, involving:
• designing research
• conducting research
• analysing and interpreting data.
In carrying out practical research activities, students will manage associated risks and use
information and communication technology (ICT).

3.2.1 Approaches in Psychology

Origins of Psychology: Wundt, introspection and the emergence of Psychology as a science.
The basic assumptions of the following approaches:
• Learning approaches: i) the behaviourist approach, including classical conditioning and
Pavlov’s research, operant conditioning, types of reinforcement and Skinner’s research; ii)

14 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Psychology 7181, 7182. AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.2 14 October 2021

social learning theory including imitation, identification, modelling, vicarious reinforcement,

the role of mediational processes and Bandura’s research.
• The cognitive approach: the study of internal mental processes, the role of schema, the use
of theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes.
The emergence of cognitive neuroscience.
• The biological approach: the influence of genes, biological structures and neurochemistry on
behaviour. Genotype and phenotype, genetic basis of behaviour, evolution and behaviour.

3.2.1.1 Biopsychology
• The divisions of the nervous system: central and peripheral (somatic and autonomic).
• The structure and function of sensory, relay and motor neurons. The process of synaptic
transmission, including reference to neurotransmitters, excitation and inhibition.
• The function of the endocrine system: glands and hormones.
• The fight or flight response including the role of adrenaline.

3.2.2 Psychopathology
• Definitions of abnormality, including deviation from social norms, failure to function
adequately, statistical infrequency and deviation from ideal mental health.
• The behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics of phobias, depression and
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).
• The behavioural approach to explaining and treating phobias: the two-process model,
including classical and operant conditioning; systematic desensitisation, including relaxation
and use of hierarchy; flooding.
• The cognitive approach to explaining and treating depression: Beck’s negative triad and
Ellis’s ABC model; cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT), including challenging irrational
thoughts.
• The biological approach to explaining and treating OCD: genetic and neural explanations;
drug therapy.

3.2.3 Research methods

Students should demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the following research methods,
scientific processes and techniques of data handling and analysis, be familiar with their use and be
aware of their strengths and limitations:
• Experimental method. Types of experiment, laboratory and field experiments; natural and
quasi-experiments.
• Observational techniques. Types of observation: naturalistic and controlled observation;
covert and overt observation; participant and non-participant observation.
• Self-report techniques. Questionnaires; interviews, structured and unstructured.
• Correlations. Analysis of the relationship between co-variables. The difference between
correlations and experiments.

3.2.3.1 Scientific processes

• Aims: stating aims, the difference between aims and hypotheses.
• Hypotheses: directional and non-directional.
• Sampling: the difference between population and sample; sampling techniques including:
random, systematic, stratified, opportunity and volunteer; implications of sampling
techniques, including bias and generalisation.
• Pilot studies and the aims of piloting.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 15
 • Experimental designs: repeated measures, independent groups, matched pairs.
• Observational design: behavioural categories; event sampling; time sampling.
• Questionnaire construction, including use of open and closed questions; design of interviews.
• Variables: manipulation and control of variables, including independent, dependent,
extraneous, confounding; operationalisation of variables.
• Control: random allocation and counterbalancing, randomisation and standardisation.
• Demand characteristics and investigator effects.
• Ethics, including the role of the British Psychological Society’s code of ethics; ethical issues
in the design and conduct of psychological studies; dealing with ethical issues in research.
• The role of peer review in the scientific process.
• The implications of psychological research for the economy.

3.2.3.2 Data handling and analysis

• Quantitative and qualitative data; the distinction between qualitative and quantitative data
collection techniques.
• Primary and secondary data, including meta-analysis.
• Descriptive statistics: measures of central tendency – mean, median, mode; calculation of
mean, median and mode; measures of dispersion; range and standard deviation; calculation
of range; calculation of percentages; positive, negative and zero correlations.
• Presentation and display of quantitative data: graphs, tables, scattergrams, bar charts.
• Distributions: normal and skewed distributions; characteristics of normal and skewed
distributions.
• Introduction to statistical testing; the sign test. When to use the sign test; calculation of the
sign test.

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 AQA AS and A-level Psychology 7181, 7182. AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.2 14 October 2021

4 Subject content – A-level

4.1 Introductory topics in Psychology
Students will be expected to:
• demonstrate knowledge and understanding of psychological concepts, theories, research
studies, research methods and ethical issues in relation to the specified Paper 1 content
• apply psychological knowledge and understanding of the specified Paper 1 content in a
range of contexts
• analyse, interpret and evaluate psychological concepts, theories, research studies and
research methods in relation to the specified Paper 1 content
• evaluate therapies and treatments including in terms of their appropriateness and
effectiveness.
Knowledge and understanding of research methods, practical research skills and mathematical
skills (see Annex: Mathematical requirements and exemplifications (page 35)) will be assessed in
Paper 1. These skills should be developed through study of the specification content and through
ethical practical research activities, involving:
• designing research
• conducting research
• analysing and interpreting data.
In carrying out practical research activities, students will manage associated risks and use
information and communication technology (ICT).

4.1.1 Social influence

• Types of conformity: internalisation, identification and compliance. Explanations for
conformity: informational social influence and normative social influence, and variables
affecting conformity including group size, unanimity and task difficulty as investigated by
Asch.
• Conformity to social roles as investigated by Zimbardo.
• Explanations for obedience: agentic state and legitimacy of authority, and situational
variables affecting obedience including proximity and location, as investigated by Milgram,
and uniform. Dispositional explanation for obedience: the Authoritarian Personality.
• Explanations of resistance to social influence, including social support and locus of control.
• Minority influence including reference to consistency, commitment and flexibility.
• The role of social influence processes in social change.

4.1.2 Memory
• The multi-store model of memory: sensory register, short-term memory and long-term
memory. Features of each store: coding, capacity and duration.
• Types of long-term memory: episodic, semantic, procedural.
• The working memory model: central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad
and episodic buffer. Features of the model: coding and capacity.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 17
 • Explanations for forgetting: proactive and retroactive interference and retrieval failure due to
absence of cues.
• Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: misleading information, including
leading questions and post-event discussion; anxiety.
• Improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony, including the use of the cognitive interview.

4.1.3 Attachment
• Caregiver-infant interactions in humans: reciprocity and interactional synchrony. Stages of
attachment identified by Schaffer. Multiple attachments and the role of the father.
• Animal studies of attachment: Lorenz and Harlow.
• Explanations of attachment: learning theory and Bowlby’s monotropic theory. The concepts
of a critical period and an internal working model.
• Ainsworth’s ‘Strange Situation’. Types of attachment: secure, insecure-avoidant and
insecure-resistant. Cultural variations in attachment, including van Ijzendoorn.
• Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation. Romanian orphan studies: effects of
institutionalisation.
• The influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships, including the role of
an internal working model.

4.1.4 Psychopathology
• Definitions of abnormality, including deviation from social norms, failure to function
adequately, statistical infrequency and deviation from ideal mental health.
• The behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics of phobias, depression and
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).
• The behavioural approach to explaining and treating phobias: the two-process model,
including classical and operant conditioning; systematic desensitisation, including relaxation
and use of hierarchy; flooding.
• The cognitive approach to explaining and treating depression: Beck’s negative triad and
Ellis’s ABC model; cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT), including challenging irrational
thoughts.
• The biological approach to explaining and treating OCD: genetic and neural explanations;
drug therapy.

4.2 Psychology in context

Students will be expected to:
• demonstrate knowledge and understanding of psychological concepts, theories, research
studies, research methods and ethical issues in relation to the specified Paper 2 content
• apply psychological knowledge and understanding of the specified Paper 2 content in a
range of contexts
• analyse, interpret and evaluate psychological concepts, theories, research studies and
research methods in relation to the specified Paper 2 content
• evaluate therapies and treatments including in terms of their appropriateness and
effectiveness.
Knowledge and understanding of research methods, practical research skills and mathematical
skills (see Annex: Mathematical requirements and exemplification (page 33)) will be assessed in

18 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Psychology 7181, 7182. AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.2 14 October 2021

Paper 2. These skills should be developed through study of the specification content and through
ethical practical research activities, involving:
• designing research
• conducting research
• analysing and interpreting data.
In carrying out practical research activities, students will manage associated risks and use
information and communication technology (ICT).

4.2.1 Approaches in Psychology

Origins of Psychology: Wundt, introspection and the emergence of Psychology as a science.
The basic assumptions of the following approaches:
• Learning approaches: i) the behaviourist approach, including classical conditioning and
Pavlov’s research, operant conditioning, types of reinforcement and Skinner’s research; ii)
social learning theory including imitation, identification, modelling, vicarious reinforcement,
the role of mediational processes and Bandura’s research.
• The cognitive approach: the study of internal mental processes, the role of schema, the use
of theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes.
The emergence of cognitive neuroscience.
• The biological approach: the influence of genes, biological structures and neurochemistry on
behaviour. Genotype and phenotype, genetic basis of behaviour, evolution and behaviour.
• The psychodynamic approach: the role of the unconscious, the structure of personality, that
is Id, Ego and Superego, defence mechanisms including repression, denial and
displacement, psychosexual stages.
• Humanistic Psychology: free will, self-actualisation and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, focus
on the self, congruence, the role of conditions of worth. The influence on counselling
Psychology.
• Comparison of approaches.

4.2.2 Biopsychology
• The divisions of the nervous system: central and peripheral (somatic and autonomic).
• The structure and function of sensory, relay and motor neurons. The process of synaptic
transmission, including reference to neurotransmitters, excitation and inhibition.
• The function of the endocrine system: glands and hormones.
• The fight or flight response including the role of adrenaline.
• Localisation of function in the brain and hemispheric lateralisation: motor, somatosensory,
visual, auditory and language centres; Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas, split brain research.
Plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma.
• Ways of studying the brain: scanning techniques, including functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI); electroencephalogram (EEGs) and event-related potentials (ERPs); post-
mortem examinations.
• Biological rhythms: circadian, infradian and ultradian and the difference between these
rhythms. The effect of endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers on the sleep/
wake cycle.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 19
4.2.3 Research methods
Students should demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the following research methods,
scientific processes and techniques of data handling and analysis, be familiar with their use and be
aware of their strengths and limitations.
• Experimental method. Types of experiment, laboratory and field experiments; natural and
quasi-experiments.
• Observational techniques. Types of observation: naturalistic and controlled observation;
covert and overt observation; participant and non-participant observation.
• Self-report techniques. Questionnaires; interviews, structured and unstructured.
• Correlations. Analysis of the relationship between co-variables. The difference between
correlations and experiments.
• Content analysis.
• Case studies.

4.2.3.1 Scientific processes

• Aims: stating aims, the difference between aims and hypotheses.
• Hypotheses: directional and non-directional.
• Sampling: the difference between population and sample; sampling techniques including:
random, systematic, stratified, opportunity and volunteer; implications of sampling
techniques, including bias and generalisation.
• Pilot studies and the aims of piloting.
• Experimental designs: repeated measures, independent groups, matched pairs.
• Observational design: behavioural categories; event sampling; time sampling.
• Questionnaire construction, including use of open and closed questions; design of interviews.
• Variables: manipulation and control of variables, including independent, dependent,
extraneous, confounding; operationalisation of variables.
• Control: random allocation and counterbalancing, randomisation and standardisation.
• Demand characteristics and investigator effects.
• Ethics, including the role of the British Psychological Society’s code of ethics; ethical issues
in the design and conduct of psychological studies; dealing with ethical issues in research.
• The role of peer review in the scientific process.
• The implications of psychological research for the economy.
• Reliability across all methods of investigation. Ways of assessing reliability: test-retest and
inter-observer; improving reliability.
• Types of validity across all methods of investigation: face validity, concurrent validity,
ecological validity and temporal validity. Assessment of validity. Improving validity.
• Features of science: objectivity and the empirical method; replicability and falsifiability; theory
construction and hypothesis testing; paradigms and paradigm shifts.
• Reporting psychological investigations. Sections of a scientific report: abstract, introduction,
method, results, discussion and referencing.

4.2.3.2 Data handling and analysis

• Quantitative and qualitative data; the distinction between qualitative and quantitative data
collection techniques.
• Primary and secondary data, including meta-analysis.
• Descriptive statistics: measures of central tendency – mean, median, mode; calculation of
mean, median and mode; measures of dispersion; range and standard deviation; calculation
of range; calculation of percentages; positive, negative and zero correlations.

20 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Psychology 7181, 7182. AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.2 14 October 2021

• Presentation and display of quantitative data: graphs, tables, scattergrams, bar charts,
histograms.
• Distributions: normal and skewed distributions; characteristics of normal and skewed
distributions.
• Analysis and interpretation of correlation, including correlation coefficients.
• Levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal and interval.
• Content analysis and coding. Thematic analysis.

4.2.3.3 Inferential testing

Students should demonstrate knowledge and understanding of inferential testing and be familiar
with the use of inferential tests.
• Introduction to statistical testing; the sign test. When to use the sign test; calculation of the
sign test.
• Probability and significance: use of statistical tables and critical values in interpretation of
significance; Type I and Type II errors.
• Factors affecting the choice of statistical test, including level of measurement and
experimental design. When to use the following tests: Spearman’s rho, Pearson’s r,
Wilcoxon, Mann-Whitney, related t-test, unrelated t-test and Chi-Squared test.

4.3 Issues and options in Psychology

Students will be expected to:
• demonstrate knowledge and understanding of psychological concepts, theories, research
studies, research methods and ethical issues in relation to the specified Paper 3 content
• apply psychological knowledge and understanding of the specified Paper 3 content in a
range of contexts
• analyse, interpret and evaluate psychological concepts, theories, research studies and
research methods in relation to the specified Paper 3 content
• evaluate therapies and treatments including in terms of their appropriateness and
effectiveness.
Knowledge and understanding of research methods, practical research skills and mathematical
skills (see Annex: Mathematical requirements and exemplification (page 33)) will be assessed in
Paper 3. These skills should be developed through study of the specification content and through
ethical practical research activities, involving:
• designing research
• conducting research
• analysing and interpreting data.
In answering questions on Issues and Debates in Psychology students will be expected to illustrate
their answers with knowledge and understanding of topics studied elsewhere in the specification as
appropriate.
In carrying out practical research activities, students will manage associated risks and use
information and communication technology (ICT).

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4.3.1 Issues and debates in Psychology
• Gender and culture in Psychology – universality and bias. Gender bias including
androcentrism and alpha and beta bias; cultural bias, including ethnocentrism and cultural
relativism.
• Free will and determinism: hard determinism and soft determinism; biological, environmental
and psychic determinism. The scientific emphasis on causal explanations.
• The nature-nurture debate: the relative importance of heredity and environment in
determining behaviour; the interactionist approach.
• Holism and reductionism: levels of explanation in Psychology. Biological reductionism and
environmental (stimulus-response) reductionism.
• Idiographic and nomothetic approaches to psychological investigation.
• Ethical implications of research studies and theory, including reference to social sensitivity.

4.3.2 Relationships
• The evolutionary explanations for partner preferences, including the relationship between
sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour.
• Factors affecting attraction in romantic relationships: self-disclosure; physical attractiveness,
including the matching hypothesis; filter theory, including social demography, similarity in
attitudes and complementarity.
• Theories of romantic relationships: social exchange theory, equity theory and Rusbult’s
investment model of commitment, satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investment.
Duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown: intra-psychic, dyadic, social and grave
dressing phases.
• Virtual relationships in social media: self-disclosure in virtual relationships; effects of absence
of gating on the nature of virtual relationships.
• Parasocial relationships: levels of parasocial relationships, the absorption addiction model
and the attachment theory explanation.

4.3.3 Gender
• Sex and gender. Sex-role stereotypes. Androgyny and measuring androgyny including the
Bem Sex Role Inventory.
• The role of chromosomes and hormones (testosterone, oestrogen and oxytocin) in sex and
gender. Atypical sex chromosome patterns: Klinefelter’s syndrome and Turner’s syndrome.
• Cognitive explanations of gender development, Kohlberg’s theory, gender identity, gender
stability and gender constancy; gender schema theory.
• Psychodynamic explanation of gender development, Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, Oedipus
complex; Electra complex; identification and internalisation.
• Social learning theory as applied to gender development. The influence of culture and media
on gender roles.
• Atypical gender development: gender dysphoria; biological and social explanations for
gender dysphoria.

4.3.4 Cognition and development

• Piaget’s theory of cognitive development: schemas, assimilation, accommodation,
equilibration, stages of intellectual development. Characteristics of these stages, including
object permanence, conservation, egocentrism and class inclusion.
• Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development, including the zone of proximal development and
scaffolding.

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• Baillargeon’s explanation of early infant abilities, including knowledge of the physical world;
violation of expectation research.
• The development of social cognition: Selman’s levels of perspective-taking; theory of mind,
including theory of mind as an explanation for autism; the Sally-Anne study. The role of the
mirror neuron system in social cognition.

4.3.5 Schizophrenia
• Classification of schizophrenia. Positive symptoms of schizophrenia, including hallucinations
and delusions. Negative symptoms of schizophrenia, including speech poverty and avolition.
Reliability and validity in diagnosis and classification of schizophrenia, including reference to
co-morbidity, culture and gender bias and symptom overlap.
• Biological explanations for schizophrenia: genetics and neural correlates, including the
dopamine hypothesis.
• Psychological explanations for schizophrenia: family dysfunction and cognitive explanations,
including dysfunctional thought processing.
• Drug therapy: typical and atypical antipsychotics.
• Cognitive behaviour therapy and family therapy as used in the treatment of schizophrenia.
Token economies as used in the management of schizophrenia.
• The importance of an interactionist approach in explaining and treating schizophrenia; the
diathesis-stress model.

4.3.6 Eating behaviour

• Explanations for food preferences: the evolutionary explanation, including reference to
neophobia and taste aversion; the role of learning in food preference, including social and
cultural influences.
• Neural and hormonal mechanisms involved in the control of eating behaviour, including the
role of the hypothalamus, ghrelin and leptin.
• Biological explanations for anorexia nervosa, including genetic and neural explanations.
• Psychological explanations for anorexia nervosa: family systems theory, including
enmeshment, autonomy and control; social learning theory, including modelling,
reinforcement and media; cognitive theory, including distortions and irrational beliefs.
• Biological explanations for obesity, including genetic and neural explanations.
• Psychological explanations for obesity, including restraint theory, disinhibition and the
boundary model. Explanations for the success and failure of dieting.

4.3.7 Stress
• The physiology of stress, including general adaptation syndrome, the hypothalamic pituitary-
adrenal system, the sympathomedullary pathway and the role of cortisol.
• The role of stress in illness, including reference to immunosuppression and cardiovascular
disorders.
• Sources of stress: life changes and daily hassles. Workplace stress, including the effects of
workload and control.
• Measuring stress: self-report scales (Social Readjustment Ratings Scale and Hassles and
Uplifts Scale) and physiological measures, including skin conductance response.
• Individual differences in stress: personality types A, B and C and associated behaviours;
hardiness, including commitment, challenge and control.
• Managing and coping with stress: drug therapy (benzodiazepines, beta blockers), stress
inoculation therapy and biofeedback. Gender differences in coping with stress. The role of

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 social support in coping with stress; types of social support, including instrumental, emotional
and esteem support.

4.3.8 Aggression
• Neural and hormonal mechanisms in aggression, including the roles of the limbic system,
serotonin and testosterone. Genetic factors in aggression, including the MAOA gene.
• The ethological explanation of aggression, including reference to innate releasing
mechanisms and fixed action patterns. Evolutionary explanations of human aggression.
• Social psychological explanations of human aggression, including the frustration-aggression
hypothesis, social learning theory as applied to human aggression, and de-individuation.
• Institutional aggression in the context of prisons: dispositional and situational explanations.
• Media influences on aggression, including the effects of computer games. The role of
desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming.

4.3.9 Forensic Psychology

• Offender profiling: the top-down approach, including organised and disorganised types of
offender; the bottom-up approach, including investigative Psychology; geographical profiling.
• Biological explanations of offending behaviour: an historical approach (atavistic form);
genetics and neural explanations.
• Psychological explanations of offending behaviour: Eysenck’s theory of the criminal
personality; cognitive explanations; level of moral reasoning and cognitive distortions,
including hostile attribution bias and minimalisation; differential association theory;
psychodynamic explanations.
• Dealing with offending behaviour: the aims of custodial sentencing and the psychological
effects of custodial sentencing. Recidivism. Behaviour modification in custody. Anger
management and restorative justice programmes.

4.3.10 Addiction
• Describing addiction: physical and psychological dependence, tolerance and withdrawal
syndrome.
• Risk factors in the development of addiction, including genetic vulnerability, stress,
personality, family influences and peers.
• Explanations for nicotine addiction: brain neurochemistry, including the role of dopamine, and
learning theory as applied to smoking behaviour, including reference to cue reactivity.
• Explanations for gambling addiction: learning theory as applied to gambling, including
reference to partial and variable reinforcement; cognitive theory as applied to gambling,
including reference to cognitive bias.
• Reducing addiction: drug therapy; behavioural interventions, including aversion therapy and
covert sensitisation; cognitive behaviour therapy.
• The application of the following theories of behaviour change to addictive behaviour; the
theory of planned behaviour and Prochaska’s six-stage model of behaviour change.

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5 Scheme of assessment
Find past papers and mark schemes, and specimen papers for new courses, on our website at
aqa.org.uk/pastpapers
The AS specification is designed to be taken over one or two years with all assessments taken at
the end of the course. The A-level specification is designed to be taken over two years with all
assessments taken at the end of the course.
Assessments and certification for the AS specification are available for the first time in May/June
and then every May/June for the life of the specification.
Assessments and certification for the A-level specification are available for the first time in May/
June and then every May/June for the life of the specification.
These are linear qualifications. In order to achieve the award, students must complete all exams in
May/June in a single year. All assessments must be taken in the same series.
All materials are available in English only.

AS
Our assessment in AS Psychology includes questions that allow students to demonstrate their
ability to:
• draw together their skills, knowledge and understanding from across the full course of study
• provide extended responses.
For example, section A of Paper 1 contains an extended response question. An ‘extended
response’ is evidence of sufficient length generated to allow students to demonstrate their ability to
construct and develop a sustained line of reasoning which is coherent, relevant, substantiated and
logically structured.

A-level
Our assessment in A-level Psychology includes questions that allow students to demonstrate their
ability to:
• draw together their skills, knowledge and understanding from across the full course of study
• provide extended responses.
For example, sections B, C and D of Paper 3 contain extended response questions. An ‘extended
response’ is evidence of sufficient length generated to allow students to demonstrate their ability to
construct and develop a sustained line of reasoning which is coherent, relevant, substantiated and
logically structured.

5.1 Aims
Courses based on these specifications must encourage students to:
• develop essential knowledge and understanding of different areas of the subject and how
they relate to each other
• develop and demonstrate a deep appreciation of the skills, knowledge and understanding of
scientific methods

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 • develop competence and confidence in a variety of practical, mathematical and problem-
solving skills
• develop their interest in and enthusiasm for the subject, including developing an interest in
further study and careers associated with the subject
• understand how society makes decisions about scientific issues and how the sciences
contribute to the success of the economy and society.

5.2 Assessment objectives

Assessment objectives (AOs) are set by Ofqual and are the same across all AS and A-level
Psychology specifications and all exam boards.
The exams will measure how students have achieved the following assessment objectives.
• AO1: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, techniques
and procedures.
• AO2: Apply knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, techniques and
procedures:
• in a theoretical context
• in a practical context
• when handling qualitative data
• when handling quantitative data.
• AO3: Analyse, interpret and evaluate scientific information, ideas and evidence, including in
relation to issues, to:
• make judgements and reach conclusions
• develop and refine practical design and procedures.

Weighting of assessment objectives for AS Psychology

Assessment objectives (AOs) Component Overall weighting
weightings (approx (approx %)
%)
Paper 1 Paper 2
AO1 19–22 14–17 35–37
AO2 12–15 18–21 32–34
AO3 15–18 13–16 30–32
Overall weighting of components 50 50 100

At least 10% of the overall assessment of Psychology will contain mathematical skills equivalent to
Level 2 or above.
At least 25–30% of the overall assessment will assess skills, knowledge and understanding in
relation to research methods.

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Weighting of assessment objectives for A-level Psychology

Assessment objectives (AOs) Component weightings Overall weighting
(approx %) (approx %)
Paper 1 Paper 2 Paper 3
AO1 11–14 7–10 9–12 30–33
AO2 6–9 16–19 5–8 30–33
AO3 12–14 7–9 15–17 36–38
Overall weighting of components 33.3 33.3 33.3 100

At least 10% of the overall assessment of Psychology will contain mathematical skills equivalent to
Level 2 or above.
At least 25–30% of the overall assessment will assess skills, knowledge and understanding in
relation to research methods.

5.3 Assessment weightings

The marks awarded on the papers will be scaled to meet the weighting of the components.
Students' final marks will be calculated by adding together the scaled marks for each component.
Grade boundaries will be set using this total scaled mark. The scaling and total scaled marks are
shown in the table below.

AS
Component Maximum raw mark Scaling factor Maximum scaled mark
Paper 1: Introductory 72 x1 72
Topics in Psychology
Paper 2: Psychology in 72 x1 72
Context
Total scaled mark: 144

A-level
Component Maximum raw mark Scaling factor Maximum scaled mark
Paper 1: Introductory 96 x1 96
Topics in Psychology
Paper 2: Psychology in 96 x1 96
Context
Paper 3: Issues and 96 x1 96
Options in Psychology
Total scaled mark: 288

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6 General administration
You can find information about all aspects of administration, as well as all the forms you need, at
aqa.org.uk/examsadmin

6.1 Entries and codes

You only need to make one entry for each qualification – this will cover all the question papers and
certification.
Every specification is given a national discount (classification) code by the Department for
Education (DfE), which indicates its subject area.
If a student takes two specifications with the same discount code, Further and Higher Education
providers are likely to take the view that they have only achieved one of the two qualifications.
Please check this before your students start their course.

Qualification title AQA DfE

entry discount
code code
AQA Advanced Subsidiary GCE in Psychology 7181 4850
(post-16)
, PK1
(KS4)
AQA Advanced Level GCE in Psychology 7182 4850

These specifications comply with Ofqual’s:

• General conditions of recognition that apply to all regulated qualifications
• GCE qualification level conditions that apply to all GCEs
• GCE subject level conditions that apply to all GCEs in this subject
• all relevant regulatory documents.
Ofqual has accredited these specifications. The qualification accreditation number (QAN) for the
AS is 601/4837/8. The QAN for the A-level is 601/4838/X.

6.2 Overlaps with other qualifications

There is overlapping content in the AS and A-level Psychology specifications. This helps you teach
the AS and A-level together.

6.3 Awarding grades and reporting results

The AS qualification will be graded on a five-point scale: A, B, C, D and E.
The A-level qualification will be graded on a six-point scale: A*, A, B, C, D and E.

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Students who fail to reach the minimum standard for grade E will be recorded as U (unclassified)
and will not receive a qualification certificate.

6.4 Re-sits and shelf life

Students can re-sit these qualifications as many times as they wish, within the shelf life of the
qualifications.

6.5 Previous learning and prerequisites

There are no previous learning requirements. Any requirements for entry to a course based on
these specifications are at the discretion of schools and colleges.
However, we recommend that students should have the skills associated with a GCSE course or
equivalent.

6.6 Access to assessment: diversity and inclusion

General qualifications are designed to prepare students for a wide range of occupations and
further study. Therefore our qualifications must assess a wide range of competences.
The subject criteria have been assessed to see if any of the skills or knowledge required present
any possible difficulty to any students, whatever their ethnic background, religion, sex, age,
disability or sexuality. If any difficulties were encountered, the criteria were reviewed again to make
sure that tests of specific competences were only included if they were important to the subject.
As members of the Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ) we participate in the production of the
JCQ document Access Arrangements and Reasonable Adjustments: General and Vocational
qualifications. We follow these guidelines when assessing the needs of individual students who
may require an access arrangement or reasonable adjustment. This document is published on the
JCQ website at jcq.org.uk

Students with disabilities and special needs

We can make arrangements for disabled students and students with special needs to help them
access the assessments, as long as the competences being tested are not changed. Access
arrangements must be agreed before the assessment. For example, a Braille paper would be a
reasonable adjustment for a Braille reader but not for a student who does not read Braille.
We are required by the Equality Act 2010 to make reasonable adjustments to remove or lessen
any disadvantage that affects a disabled student.
If you have students who need access arrangements or reasonable adjustments, you can apply
using the Access arrangements online service at aqa.org.uk/eaqa

Special consideration
We can give special consideration to students who have been disadvantaged at the time of the
assessment through no fault of their own – for example a temporary illness, injury or serious
problem such as the death of a relative. We can only do this after the assessment.
Your exams officer should apply online for special consideration at aqa.org.uk/eaqa

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For more information and advice about access arrangements, reasonable adjustments and special
consideration please see aqa.org.uk/access or email [email protected]

6.7 Safeguarding
Some of the content within this curriculum may generate discussions or disclosures from students
which raise safeguarding concerns. If this happens, please follow your centre’s safeguarding policy
to arrange support.

6.8 Working with AQA for the first time

If your school or college has not previously offered any AQA specification, you need to register as
an AQA centre to offer our specifications to your students. Find out how at aqa.org.uk/
becomeacentre
If your school or college is new to these specifications, please let us know by completing an
Intention to enter form. The easiest way to do this is via e-AQA at aqa.org.uk/eaqa

6.9 Private candidates

A private candidate is someone who enters for exams through an AQA-approved school or college
but is not enrolled as a student there.
If you are a private candidate you may be self-taught, home-schooled or have private tuition, either
with a tutor or through a distance learning organisation. You must be based in the UK.
If you have any queries as a private candidate, you can:
• speak to the exams officer at the school or college where you intend to take your exams
• visit our website at aqa.org.uk/examsadmin
• email: [email protected]

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7 Mathematical requirements
and exemplification
7.1 AS
In order to be able to develop their skills, knowledge and understanding in Psychology, students
need to have been taught, and to have acquired competence in, the appropriate areas of
mathematics as indicated in the table of coverage below.
Overall, at least 10% of the marks in assessments for Psychology will require the use of
mathematical skills. These skills will be applied in the context of AS Psychology and will be at least
the standard of higher tier GCSE mathematics.
The following tables illustrate where these mathematical skills may be developed during teaching
or could be assessed.
This list of examples is not exhaustive. These skills could be developed in other areas of
specification content. Other areas where these skills could be developed have been exemplified
throughout the specification.

Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the

context of AS Psychology
Arithmetic and numerical computation
Recognise and use expressions in decimal and For example, converting data in standard form
standard form. from a results table into decimal form in order
to construct a pie chart.
Use ratios, fractions and percentages. For example, calculating the percentages of
cases that fall into different categories in an
observation study.
Estimate results. For example, commenting on the spread of
scores for a set of data, which would require
estimating the range.
Handling data
Use an appropriate number of significant figures. For example, expressing a correlation
coefficient to two or three significant figures.
Find arithmetic means. For example, calculating the means for two
conditions using raw data from a class
experiment.
Construct and interpret frequency tables and For example, selecting and sketching an
diagrams, bar charts and histograms. appropriate form of data display for a given set
of data.

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 Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of AS Psychology
Understand simple probability. For example, explaining the difference
between the 0.05 and 0.01 levels of
significance.
Understand the principles of sampling as applied For example, explaining how a random or
to scientific data. stratified sample could be obtained from a
target population.
Understand the terms mean, median and mode. For example, explaining the differences
between the mean, median and mode and
selecting which measure of central tendency is
most appropriate for a given set of data.
Calculate standard deviation.
Use a scatter diagram to identify a correlation For example, plotting two variables from an
between two variables. investigation on a scatter diagram and
identifying the pattern as a positive correlation,
a negative correlation or no correlation.
Use a statistical test. For example, calculating a non-parametric test
of differences using the data from a given
experiment.
Make order of magnitude calculations. For example, estimating the mean test score
for a large number of participants on the basis
of the total overall score.
Know the characteristics of normal and skewed For example, being presented with a set of
distributions. scores from an experiment and being asked to
indicate the position of the mean (or median,
or mode).
Understand measures of dispersion, including For example, explaining why the standard
standard deviation and range. deviation might be a more useful measure of
dispersion for a given set of scores, eg where
there is an outlying score.
Understand the differences between qualitative For example, explaining how a given
and quantitative data. qualitative measure (for example, an interview
transcript) might be converted into quantitative
data.
Understand the difference between primary and For example, stating whether data collected by
secondary data. a researcher dealing directly with participants
is primary or secondary data.
Algebra
Understand and use the symbols: =, <, <<, >>, For example, expressing the outcome of an
>, ∝, ~. inferential test in the conventional form by
stating the level of significance at the 0.05
level or 0.01 level by using symbols
appropriately.
Graphs

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Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the

context of AS Psychology
Translate information between graphical, For example, using a set of numerical data (a
numerical and algebraic forms. set of scores) from a record sheet to construct
a bar graph.
Plot two variables from experimental or other For example, sketching a scatter diagram
data. using two sets of data from a correlational
investigation.

7.2 A-level
In order to be able to develop their skills, knowledge and understanding in Psychology, students
need to have been taught, and to have acquired competence in, the appropriate areas of
mathematics as indicated in the table of coverage below.
Overall, at least 10% of the marks in assessments for Psychology will require the use of
mathematical skills. These skills will be applied in the context of A-level Psychology and will be at
least the standard of higher tier GCSE mathematics.
The following tables illustrate where these mathematical skills may be developed during teaching
or could be assessed.
This list of examples is not exhaustive. These skills could be developed in other areas of
specification content. Other areas where these skills could be developed have been exemplified
throughout the specification.

Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the

context of A-level Psychology
Arithmetic and numerical computation
Recognise and use expressions in decimal and For example, converting data in standard form
standard form. from a results table into decimal form in order to
construct a pie chart.
Use ratios, fractions and percentages. For example, calculating the percentages of
cases that fall into different categories in an
observation study.
Estimate results. For example, commenting on the spread of
scores for a set of data, which would require
estimating the range.
Handling data
Use an appropriate number of significant For example, expressing a correlation
figures. coefficient to two or three significant figures.
Find arithmetic means. For example, calculating the means for two
conditions using raw data from a class
experiment.
Construct and interpret frequency tables and For example, selecting and sketching an
diagrams, bar charts and histograms. appropriate form of data display for a given set
of data.

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 Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of A-level Psychology
Understand simple probability. For example, explaining the difference between
the 0.05 and 0.01 levels of significance.
Understand the principles of sampling as For example, explaining how a random or
applied to scientific data. stratified sample could be obtained from a
target population.
Understand the terms mean, median and mode. For example, explaining the differences
between the mean, median and mode and
selecting which measure of central tendency is
most appropriate for a given set of data.
Calculate standard deviation.
Use a scatter diagram to identify a correlation For example, plotting two variables from an
between two variables. investigation on a scatter diagram and
identifying the pattern as a positive correlation,
a negative correlation or no correlation.
Use a statistical test. For example, calculating a non-parametric test
of differences using data from a given
experiment.
Make order of magnitude calculations. For example, estimating the mean test score for
a large number of participants on the basis of
the total overall score.
Distinguish between levels of measurement. For example, stating the level of measurement
(nominal, ordinal or interval) that has been used
in a study.
Know the characteristics of normal and skewed For example, being presented with a set of
distributions. scores from an experiment and being asked to
indicate the position of the mean (or median, or
mode).
Select an appropriate statistical test. For example, selecting a suitable inferential test
for a given practical investigation and explaining
why the chosen test is appropriate.
Use statistical tables to determine significance. For example, using an extract from statistical
tables to say whether or not a given observed
value is significant at the 0.05 level of
significance for a one-tailed test.
Understand measures of dispersion, including For example, explaining why the standard
standard deviation and range. deviation might be a more useful measure of
dispersion for a given set of scores, eg where
there is an outlying score.
Understand the differences between qualitative For example, explaining how a given qualitative
and quantitative data. measure (for example, an interview transcript)
might be converted into quantitative data.
Understand the difference between primary and For example, stating whether data collected by
secondary data. a researcher dealing directly with participants is
primary or secondary data.

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Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the

context of A-level Psychology
Algebra
Understand and use the symbols: =, <, <<, >>, For example, expressing the outcome of an
>, ∝, ~. inferential test in the conventional form by
stating the level of significance at the 0.05 level
or 0.01 level by using symbols appropriately.
Substitute numerical values into algebraic For example, inserting the appropriate values
equations using appropriate units for physical from a given set of data into the formula for a
quantities. statistical test, eg inserting the N value (for the
number of scores) into the Chi Square formula.
Solve simple algebraic equations. For example, calculating the degrees of
freedom for a Chi Square test.
Graphs
Translate information between graphical, For example, using a set of numerical data (a
numerical and algebraic forms. set of scores) from a record sheet to construct a
bar graph.
Plot two variables from experimental or other For example, sketching a scatter diagram using
data. two sets of data from a correlational
investigation.

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Get help and support
Visit our website for information, guidance, support and resources at
You can talk directly to the Psychology subject team:
E: [email protected]
T: 01483 477 822

aqa.org.uk
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