UNIT-II

NOTES
Conventional sources of Energy
Conventional sources of Energy or Non-renewable energy sources are finite resources that
will deplete over time. Non-renewable energy is defined as energy that does not regenerate itself at
a sufficient pace to allow for long-term economic extraction on human timescales. Coal, crude oil,
natural gas, and uranium are examples of non-renewable energy sources.
Non-renewable energy, unlike renewable energy, requires human intervention to make it
usable. Fossil fuels are mostly made up of carbon. Fossil fuels are considered to have originated
roughly 300 million years ago when the earth’s surface looked considerably different.
Some of the conventional source of energy are coal , petroleum , Natural gas etc.
Coal
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock that occurs in seams. The
heat and pressure of deep burial turn dead plant materials into peat, which is eventually changed
into coal over millions of years. Coal is used to make iron and steel, as well as in other industrial
processes. Coal is largely utilised as a source of energy. Coal usage surged after the introduction of
the steam engine. Coal was responsible for nearly a quarter of the world’s primary energy and more
than a third of its electricity in 2020.
In India, coal is the most widely available fossil fuel. It meets a bigger proportion of the
country’s energy requirements. Coal is a heavy substance that loses weight as it decomposes into
ash. As a result, large industries and thermal power plants are built on or near coal fields.
There are several types of coal depending on the degrees of compression, the depth, and the
duration of burial during its formation:
 Peat : It is created by the decomposition of plants in marshes. It has a high
moisture content, low carbon content, and limited heating capability.
 Lignite :It is a low-quality brown coal. It has a high moisture content and is soft.
It is used to generate power. Neyveli in Tamil Nadu has significant lignite
deposits.
 Bituminous: This is the most often used coal in industry. The use of high-grade
bituminous coal in metallurgy is suitable. It’s particularly useful for melting iron
in blast furnaces. It can only be found at deeper depths.
 Anthracite: The highest grade of hard coal. Anthracite is found in areas of the
world where massive earth movements, such as the building of mountain ranges,
have occurred.
 The Appalachian Mountains, located in the eastern United States, are abundant
in anthracite.

Petroleum
Crude oil, commonly known as petroleum oil, is the only nonrenewable resource that can be
extracted as a liquid. It’s located between layers of the earth’s crust or between rocks, and it’s
extracted by digging a vertical well into the ground or ocean floor. The crude oil is then pumped to
the surface, processed at a refinery, and utilised to make a variety of goods. It used to make gasoline
and diesel for automobiles, as well as plastics, heating oil, propane, and jet fuel, and artificial food
tastes.
 Apart from carbon, oil includes a variety of compounds, and refining the oil removes some
of these chemicals. We utilize oil for a variety of purposes. Half of the world’s petroleum is used for
conversion to gasoline .The remaining may be processed and utilised in liquid products like nail
polish and rubbing alcohol, as well as solid products like water pipes, shoes, crayons, roofing,
vitamin capsules, and a variety of other things.

Natural Gas
Natural gas is a nonrenewable gaseous resource that may be discovered beneath the earth’s
crust, alongside crude oil reserves. Natural gas is primarily made up of methane, but it can also
include propane, ethane, and butane. Methane is odorless, therefore it’s blended with a particular
chemical to make it smell so it may be detected if there’s a leak. Natural gas is extracted and
delivered to processing factories where propane and butane, which are utilised as liquefied
petroleum gas, are removed .
Natural gas is utilised in gas ovens, stoves, and grills, as well as for heating houses. Natural
gas is a “cleaner” fossil fuel than oil or coal, and it may be obtained at a low cost. When natural gas
is burned, just carbon dioxide and water vapor are produced (the same gases that people exhale!).
This is a superior alternative than coal.
Natural gas extraction, on the other hand, may have significant environmental impacts.
Fractures in the rocks can create mini-earthquakes and underground injections of high-pressure
water and chemicals have the potential to contaminate nearby water sources.
Electricity
Depending on the resource used to generate it, electric energy can be renewable or non-
renewable. Electricity, like oil from the earth, is not a naturally occurring energy phenomena; it
must be manufactured and purified in electrical power plants using other energy sources. Power is
often generated by processing facilities that burn fossil fuels and “create” electricity in return for the
fuel consumed. The electricity-generating turbines are powered by non-renewable, restricted energy
sources such as coal, oil, or gasoline. Solar, wind, and geothermal energy may all be used to
generate electricity. These inexhaustible powers are continually replenishable.
Electricity may be created in two ways
 Thermal electricity is produced by the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal,
petroleum, natural gas, and others, which provides energy to power turbines.
 Thermal power plants generate energy using non-renewable resources, such as
fossil fuels.
 Hydroelectricity is produced by the movement of water.
 This energy is pollution-free and is widely used in India through multi-purpose
projects such as Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley, and the Kopili Hydropower
Project, among others.
 FOSSIL FUELS:

Fossil fuels are buried flammable geologic deposits of organic substances

such as dead plants and animals that got deposited under several thousand feet of silt.
These deposits decayed with the passage of time and got converted to natural gas, coal
and petroleum due to the extreme heat and pressure inside the earth’s crust. They are
also known as non-renewable sources of energy as it takes a very long time for it to
replenish.

Types, Formation and Uses of Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels are of the following types:
 Coal
 Petroleum
 Natural gas
Coal
 It is a hard, black coloured substance made up of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and
sulphur.
 The major types of coal are- anthracite, bituminous and lignite.
 Anthracite has a higher carbon concentration and is the hardest type of coal.
 Lignite has a high concentration of oxygen and hydrogen but a low concentration of carbon.
 Bituminous is a moderate form of coal.
 Coal is processed industrially to obtain derivatives like coke, coal tar and coal gas.
Formation of Coal
 The process of formation of coal is known as coalification.
 The dense forest present in the low-lying wetland got buried in the earth, millions of years
ago.
 Soil kept depositing over them and they got compressed.
 As they went deeper and deeper, they faced high temperature and pressure.
 As a result, the substances slowly got converted into coal.
Uses of Coal
 Coal was used to produce steam in the railway engines initially.
 It is used to cook food.
 It is used to generate electricity in thermal plants.
 It is used in industries as fuel.
Petroleum
 It is a clear, oily liquid, usually green or black in colour.
  It has a very strange smell and is a mixture of petroleum gas, diesel, paraffin wax, petrol,
lubricating oil, etc.
 It is also termed as “Black Gold” because of its wide range of uses in many industries.
Formation of Petroleum
 The sea animals and plants died and their bodies settled at the bottom of the sea.
 They got compressed by the layers of sand and clay.
 Their encounter with high temperature and pressure converts them into petroleum.
 The petroleum is separated from the crude oil by a series of processes in a refinery. This is
known as petroleum refining.
Uses of Petroleum
 It is used to power internal combustion engines in the form of petrol.
 It is used in roofing, road pavements and as a water repellent.
 It is used in manufacturing detergents, plastics, fibres, polyethene, etc.
Natural gas
 It is a clean and non-toxic fossil fuel.
 It is colourless and odourless and can be easily transferred through pipelines.
 It is stored as compressed natural gas (CNG) under high pressure.
 It is a less polluting and less expensive fossil fuel.
 Methane is the most important natural gas.
Formation of Natural Gas
 The phytoplankton and zooplankton sink to the bottom of the ocean and mix with organic
materials to form an organic-rich mud.
 The mud buried under more sediments and lithifies to form an organic shale. This prevents
its exposure to oxygen. This is done to protect the organic materials from being decomposed
by bacteria.
 The increasing pressure and temperature transform the shale into a waxy material known as
the kerogen.
 At temperatures between 90-160°C kerogen is transformed into natural gas.
Uses of Natural gas
 Compressed Natural Gas is used for generating power.
 It is used as fuels in automobiles.
 It can be used at homes for cooking.
 It is used as a starting material in chemicals and fertilizers.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels:
Advantages:
 Fossil fuels can generate a large amount of electricity at a single location.
 They can be found very easily.
 They are cost-effective.
 Transportation of oil and gas can be done easily through pipelines.
 They have become safer over time.
 Despite being a finite resource, it is available in plenty.
Disadvantages:
 Fossil fuels emit carbon dioxide when burnt which is a major greenhouse gas and the
primary source of pollution. This has contributed to global warming.
 They are a non-renewable resource, i.e., once used they cannot be replaced.
 Combustion of fossil fuels makes the environment more acidic. This has led to unpredictable
and negative changes in the environment.
 Harvesting of fossil fuels also causes fatal diseases among the people. For eg., the coal
miners often suffer from Black Lung Disease. The natural gas drillers are constantly exposed
to chemicals and silica which is dangerous for their health.

COAL:
The word “coal” is taken from Old English word “col” which means glowing ember.
Coal is a black sedimentary rock. It usually occurs in coal beds found in coal mines. Coal
comprises of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, etc. When dead plants and animals decay
and convert into peat which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after
that bituminous coal, and lastly anthracite. Hence, coal is a fossil fuel. It takes places due to
geological process and takes millions of years to form. Coal is extracted by mining. China is
the world’s top coal producer.

Formation of Coal (Process):

Coal is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, moisture, and
incombustible mineral matter (i.e., ash). Fluorinated gases are not formed by coal combustion.
Coals are formed from the accumulation of vegetable debris in specialized environments.
Obtaining coal from the mines is a difficult job. First, the dirt above the coal deposit is
removed. When the coal is exposed, explosives are used to break it into smaller pieces. The coal
thus collected is loaded into wagons and lifted to the surface. The mines enter and leave the mine by
an elevator through a vertical space called the shaft. Coal mines can easily catch fire and it is very
difficult to bring the fire under control.
Coal takes millions of years to form. Millions of years ago, there were places on earth with
dense forests in wetlands due to natural disasters such as floods, tsunami, landslides, etc. Over the
years, over these forests more and more soil was compiling. These trees were protected by
oxidation from biodegradation, usually via mud or acidic water. This traps the carbon in the
sediments that were buried. Carbonization happens, carbonization is a phase in which vegetation
becomes carbon. It is a slow process.

Process of Formation of Coal:

Coal formed under somewhat more moderate conditions are called bituminous coals. These
coals are found in flat or gently sloping seams, indicating that the strong geologic pressures
operative in the formation of anthracite were not operative during formation of bituminous coal.
Coals formed under the least severe conditions are called sub-bituminous coal. Coals formed under
the least severe conditions are called sub-bituminous coals.
First Stage – Peat
This is the first stage in the formation of coal. It is an organic substance which is formed due to the
partial decomposition of dead matter. The partial decomposition is due to the accumulation of the
matter underwater which cuts off the oxygen supply.
Second Stage – Lignite
This is the second stage in the coal formation. It is a dark brown matter formed due to the pressure
exerted by the sediments overlying the organic matter. It consists of traces of plants
Third Stage – Bituminous Coal
This is the third stage in the formation of coal. It is formed due to the added pressure. This is also
called as soft coal.
Fourth Stage – Anthracite Coal
This is the fourth stage in the coal formation. It is formed due to the high pressure and high
temperature for a long period of time. It is hard, lustrous and has the highest percentage of carbon
among peat, lignite, bituminous and anthracite. This is also called as hard coal.
Petroleum and natural gas deposits are usually found in the coastal regions.
Uses of Coal:
 Coal is a typical conventional solid fuel that has been exploited as an important source of
fuel by humankind for thousands of years.
 The main use of coal is as fuel for electric power plants for which more than 50% of the coal
produced in the world is used.
 The simplest use of coal is to burn it for heat. Coal was once used as a household heating
and cooking fuel in Western nations.
 Other uses of coal that may be increasingly important in the future are in the production of
liquid fuel by direct or indirect liquefaction to replace fuels made from petroleum,
production of methanol a possible substitute for gasoline and production of synthetic gases.

Fossil Fuels:
Fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum mainly originate from the buried plants, animals and
microorganisms which were buried more than a hundred million years ago and were subjected to
high temperature and pressure continuously. Overlaying of sediments over the burial results in the
formation of fossil fuels due to exposure to high pressure for a very long period of time.
The 3 main types of Fossil Fuels are Coal, Oil & Natural Gas.
1. Natural coal is formed due to the burial of plants and animals.
2. Petroleum and natural gas are a result of the buried marine life.
3. Fossil fuels are mainly made up of Hydrocarbons.

Process:
The process that creates coal varies slightly in different areas depending on the plants and
conditions that are present, but the overall process is similar. There are two main phases in coal
formation: peatification and coalification. Bacterial activity is the main process that creates the peat
during peatification. Increasing temperature and pressure from burial are the main factors in
coalification. To form coal, the following steps are followed (Figure 2 illustrates these steps):
1. Plant matter in mires and wetlands, such as ferns, shrubs, vines, trees, and algae dies and
accumulates on the surface. Initially the organic matter is decomposed by bacteria, yielding
carbon dioxide and methane.
2. The plant matter becomes buried, and are no longer exposed to air. Anaerobic bacteria then
starts to decompose the material. Burial and accumulation can occur for several thousands of
years, producing several meters of partially decayed plant matter known as peat.
3. When this peat is deeply buried, water and other compounds is squeezed out from the
increasing pressure and the lowest quality of coal, lignite, begins for form.
4. Continued burial, resulting in increasing pressures and temperatures, causes this low quality
lignite coal to be transformed into higher quality "black coals". First lignite becomes sub-
bituminous coal, then bituminous coal, and finally the highest quality anthracite coal. As
these transformations occur, the amount of water and other compounds in the coal decreases
and the coal becomes more dense. Along with this comes a higher carbon concentration.
Temperature is one of the prime factors that are most important as compared to other factors like
pressure or even the time of burial. Sub-bituminous coal can be formed at a very low temperature of
35℃ to 80℃ while anthracite is formed under a very high temperature of at least 180 ℃ to 245 ℃.
Also, favourable geology does not only contribute to the formation of coal but other factors like the
presence of oxygen also contribute to the high coal deposition. Thirty per cent of the wildfires were
contributed by the presence of high oxygen levels in the atmosphere resulting in the formation of
charcoal. The nature of the Carboniferous forests and promote plant growth are the contributors to
the high level of carbon dioxide.
Uses of coal

Coal has various purposes, the following are the uses of coal :
 Thermal coal is used to produce electricity.
 Coking coal is used in the production of steel.
 Coal is also used to make silicon metal which is used to produce silicones and silanes, which
are in turn used to make lubricants, water repellents, resins, cosmetics, hair shampoos, and
toothpaste.
 Activated charcoal is used to make face packs and cosmetics.
 Carbon fibre is made from coal. Carbon fibre is an extremely strong but lightweight
reinforcement material used in construction, mountain bikes, and tennis rackets.
 Activated carbon is used in filters for water and air purification and in kidney dialysis
machines. Coal is used to make activated carbon.
 Paper manufacturers use coal to make paper.
 Coal helps to create alumina refineries.
 Thousands of different products have coal or coal by-products as components: soap,
aspirins, solvents, dyes, plastics, and fibres, such as rayon and nylon.
Properties of Coal
The physical properties of coal are as follows:-

1. The Density of Coal: The degree of mineral impurity and the rank of the coal determine the
relative density for the specific gravity of the coal. In order to determine the properties of the
composites and the blend, it is very important to have a thought knowledge of the density of
each coal. For the conversion of the resources into reserves, the density of the coal seam is
necessary. The loss of weight of the sample in water determines the relative density. This can
be achieved by using finely ground coal as bulk samples get white porous in nature. It is
important to however preserve the white space when measuring the specific gravity so as to
determine the in-place coal tonnage.
 2. Particle Size Distribution: The rank of the coal determines the particle size distribution of
the coal which in turn determines the brittleness, and the handling, crushing and milling it
has undergone. Generally, a certain size of coal is required for the furnace and the coke oven
and therefore, its crushability needs to be determined and its behaviour quantified.

The chemical properties of coal are as follows:-

1. Moisture: As all the coals are mined in wet conditions, thus the moisture content in the coal
is an important factor. Groundwater and other extraneous moisture is known as adventitious
moisture and can easily be evaporated. The coals trapping the moisture in itself is known as
inherent moisture and undergoes quantitative analysis. In coal, moisture may occur in four
forms, namely:

 Surface moisture is the water held on the surface of the coal.

 Hygroscopic moisture is the water held by the microcapillary within the

microfractures of the coal.

 Decomposition moisture is the water that is held within the decomposed organic
matter of the coal.

 Mineral Moisture is the water that comprises part of the crystal structure of hydrous
silicates such as clays.

Thus, the total moisture content is determined by the total mass of the untreated coal minus
the total mass of the treated coal once the sample is analysed. This is achieved by:-

 Heating the coal with Toluene.

 Within a nitrogen atmosphere, the drying is done in minimum-free space over

150℃.

 Drying in the air at 100℃ to 105℃ and then the loss of mass is analysed.

2. Volatile matter: The component of the coal except for moisture is referred to as the
volatile matter in coal which is liberated at high temperature in absence of air. It is
usually an amalgamation of long and short-chain hydrocarbons and aromatic
hydrocarbons along with sulphur. In order to evaluate the absorption application of
activated carbon, volatile matter comes into play. Under rigid control standards, the
volatile matter of the coal is determined.
 3. Ash: The non-combustible residue that is left after the coal has been burnt is known as ash.
After the carbon, oxygen, sulphur, and water have been driven off, during conversion, the
bulk matter that is left behind is represented by ash. The determination of the percentage of
ash is very simple. It is evaluated when the coal is thoroughly bonded and is expressed as the
percentage of the original weight. It also gives a fair idea about the nature of coal. The air-
dried basis on the oven-dried bases is the two ways of determining the ash content. The
difference between the two processes is determined after the entire moisture in the coal has
been expelled.

4. Fixed Carbon: The fixed carbon can be found determined as the carbon which is left after
the entire volatile materials are driven off. This is different from the ultimate carbon content
of the coal because some carbon is lost in hydrocarbons with the volatiles. To estimate the
amount of coke that would be either from a sample of coal, fixed carbon is taken into
consideration. When the mass of volatile is removed, it is only then the fixed carbon is
determined. Therefore, it is determined by the volatile test from the original mass of the coal
sample.

Types of Coal
Coal is divided into four main types and these are anthracite, bituminous, sub-bituminous, and
lignite. The ranking of the coal is done by the amount and the type of carbon that is present in the
coal and its ability to produce heat when it is burned. The rank of the coal deposit determines the
amount of pressure and the heat that has acted on the dead and decayed matter over a prolonged
period of time.

 Anthracite: It has the highest heating value of all the other coal types as it contains about
86–97% carbon. It summed up to less than 1% of the coal mined in the USA in the year
2020. Northeastern Pennsylvania and the United States are the two major anthracite coal
mines in the world. In the United States, anthracite coal mines are generally used for the
metal industries.

 Bituminous: The carbon content in bituminous coal is 45–86%. It is the most abundant type
of coal that is found in the United States that accounting for about 44% of the total
production of coal in the USA in 2020. In order to generate electricity, bituminous coal is
used as it is an important fuel and raw material for making coking coal.

 Sub-Bituminous: The carbon content in sub-bituminous coal is about 35–45% and it has a
lower heating value than bituminous coal. In the United States, a total of 46% of the coal
production in 2020 was sub-bituminous among which 88% of it was produced by Wyoming
and 8% was in Montana. The remaining was produced in Alaska Colorado and New Mexico.
  lignite: The carbon content in lignite coal is about 25–35% and has a low energy content
among all the coal types known. Lignite has a high moisture content which contributes to its
low heating value. Only 9% of the lignite coal was mined in the USA in the year 2020
among which 54% was mined in North Dakota and 39% was mined in Texas. Another 7%
was in Louisiana Mississippi and Montana.

Under suitable conditions, as geological processes apply pressure to dead biotic material over time,
its metamorphic grade or rank increases successively into:

1. Peat, a coal precursor.

2. Lignite, or brown coal, the lowest rank of coal and the most hazardous to one's health, is
almost solely utilised to generate electricity.

3. Jet, is a polished form of lignite that has been utilised as a decorative stone since the Upper
Palaeolithic period.

4. Sub-bituminous coal, which has qualities that fall in between lignite and bituminous coal, is
largely employed as a fuel for steam-electric power generation.

5. Bituminous coal is a solid sedimentary rock that is normally black but can sometimes be
dark brown and has distinct bands of bright and dull stuff. It is principally utilised as a fuel
in the production of coke and in the manufacture of steam-electric power. In the United
Kingdom, it's known as steam coal, and it was once used to generate steam in steam
locomotives and ships.

Uses of Coal
 Coal is a very widely used natural resource because of its unique characteristics.

 Because of its affordability, it is used in several countries for electricity and power
generation.

 Generally, powdered coal is used to create steam, which in turn generates electricity with
high pressure.

 Coal also serves as a raw material in the making of several things like steel and iron, which
we use in our everyday lives.

 Coal is available easily in countries like India and China and is used by many households,
especially in rural areas, for activities like cooking.
  Electricity Production: Coal is commonly used in thermal power generation, which aids in
the generation of energy. Powdered coal is burned at a high temperature, turning water into
steam in the process. In a strong magnetic field, this steam is used to turn turbines at high
speeds. Then, and only then, is electricity generated.

 Steel Manufacturing: Coal is used indirectly to create steel in the steel industry. Coal is
baked in furnaces to produce coal coke in this process. Manufacturers utilise coal coke to
smelt iron ore into iron and make steel after this is generated. In the meantime, ammonia gas
is recovered from coke ovens and utilised to make nitric acid, ammonia salts, and fertilisers.

 Industries: Coal is used in a variety of sectors to make a variety of products. Cement, paper
and aluminium manufacturing, chemical and pharmaceutical manufacturing are just a few of
the industries that use coal. Chemical businesses rely on coal for a variety of raw materials
such as benozle, coal tar, sulphate of ammonia, creosote, and so on. The majority of
industries rely on coal as a source of energy.

Disadvantages of Coal
Coal has a set of disadvantages: coal mining accidents, coal pollution, etc. There are a large
number of accidents that take place in coal mines because it is a dangerous and challenging activity
involving heavy equipment. Moreover, coal emissions are very harmful to human beings, especially
to the lungs. Coal pollution is widespread in areas that lie near coal reserves. When coal is burnt, it
releases carbon dioxide in vast quantities, which is harmful to human beings. Moreover, coal is a
non-renewable and exhaustive natural resource which implies that we should not depend on it for
everyday activities. Coal is also one of the biggest contributors to global warming today.

PETROLEUM:
The word petroleum translates to “rock oil.” It is derived from the Greek word “petra”
and the Latin word “oleum”. When it is drilled from the ground in the liquid form, it is called
crude oil. Humans have known about its existence for 4000 years. However, the first time
crude oil was pumped from the ground was 2500 years ago in China and the world’s first
crude oil well was drilled in Pennsylvania, USA only in the year 1859.
Petroleum, which is also called crude oil, is a fossil fuel that is a naturally occurring
yellowish-black liquid mixture that is mainly made of hydrocarbons. Petroleum is also
popular as “Black Gold.” It occurs in rock formations naturally.
Petroleum or mineral oil is India’s next biggest source of energy after coal. It supplies
heat and lighting power, machinery lubricants, and raw materials for a variety of
manufacturing industries. Petroleum refineries for synthetic textiles, fertilisers and numerous
chemical industries act as a “nodal industry.”
PETROLEUM FORMATION:
1. Petroleum is formed from the remains of dead plants and animals.
2. When plants and animals die, they sink and settle on the seabed.
3. Millions of years ago, these dead wildlife and vegetation decomposed and got mixed with
sand and silt.
4. Certain bacteria helped in the decomposition of this organic matter and caused some
chemical changes.
5. Matter consisting largely of carbon and hydrogen was left behind. However, as there is no
sufficient oxygen at the bottom of the sea, the matter could not decompose completely.
6. The partially decomposed matter remained on the seabed and eventually was covered with
multiple layers of sand and silt.
7. This burying took millions of years, and finally, due to high temperature and pressure, the
organic matter decomposed completely and formed oil.

PETROLEUM REFINING PROCESS:

 An oil refinery or petroleum refining is an industrial manufacturing facility where
crude oil is extracted and converted into more valuable goods, such as petroleum naphtha,
gasoline, jet fuel, asphalt foundation, heating oil, petroleum kerosene, and liquefied gas. Oil
refineries are usually huge, vast industrial facilities with extensive pipelines running
throughout, holding fluid streams in between.
1. Petroleum is a mixture of many substances such as gas, petrol, diesel, kerosene, lubricating
oil, paraffin wax, etc.
2. As these constituents serve different purposes, it is important to separate them, or in other
words, refine the crude oil. This process of separation of various constituents of petroleum is
called petroleum refining.
3. This is done in oil refineries. It is a three-step process.
4. The first step is separation where the crude oil is separated into various components through
the distillation process. The heavier constituents remain settled at the bottom whereas lighter
constituents rise up as vapour, or remain liquid.
5. Next, these constituents, which are still quite heavy, are converted into gas, gasoline, and
diesel. Thus, the next step is conversion.
6. These have certain impurities, so the last step is treating, where they are treated to obtain
pure forms of various products.
The oldest and most common way of separating things into different components (called
fractions) is to do it using the boiling temperature differences. That process is known as fractional
distillation. You essentially heat up crude oil, let it spray, then condense the vapour.
New methods, in a method called conversion, use Chemical processing on certain fractions
to produce others. For example, chemical processing may split lengthier chains into shorter chains.
This allows a refinery to convert diesel fuel into gasoline, depending on the gasoline demand.
 In industry, the refining process is generally called the “downstream” sector, while the
“upstream” sector is known as the raw crude oil output. The word downstream is synonymous with
the idea of sending oil down the supply chain of a commodity to an oil refinery to be refined into
petrol. The downstream phase also includes the actual sale of petroleum products to other
companies , governments or private individuals.
Uses of Petroleum
Refined products obtained from crude oil have a number of uses.
1. Liquefied Petroleum Gas or LPG is used in households as well as in the industry.
2. Diesel and petrol are used as fuels for vehicles. Diesel is generally preferred for heavy motor
vehicles.
3. Petrol is also used as a solvent for dry cleaning, whereas diesel is also used to run electric
generators.
4. Kerosene is used as a fuel for stoves and jet planes.
5. Lubricating oil reduces wear and tear and corrosion of machines.
6. Paraffin wax is used to make candles, ointments, ink, crayons, etc.
7. Bitumen or asphalt is mainly used to surface roads.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Petroleum

Advantages of Petroleum:
 Petroleum is a fossil fuel that is easy to extract. The technologies that are being used for
extracting petroleum are well developed.

 It is a very important element for the industries. It is widely used in the industrial sector of
the economy.

 Petroleum can be used to power up nearly all types of vehicles.

 Petroleum has a higher density, on average, one kg of petroleum burnt can help in generating
10,000 kilocalories. Thus, it can help in generating a substantial amount of energy.

 Petroleum has very broader areas for application. It is used to power all types of machines
including heavy machines, power generators, etc.

 Petroleum can be easily transported.

Disadvantages of Petroleum
 Petroleum is a form of energy that is non-renewable.
  Petroleum emits certain carbon elements which are toxic to the environment.

 Petroleum produces certain hazardous substances and toxic materials such as plastic and
carbon monoxide.

 Petroleum is a fossil fuel, the extraction of which can be harmful to the environment.

 The transportation of petroleum can cause oil spills.

 Petroleum is a limited resource.

PETROLEUM FORMATION:
Petroleum is a fossil fuel that is formed from the remains of dead animals and plants.When
the animals and plants die, they sink down and settle on the sea bed of the oceans.Millions of years
ago, the dead vegetation and wildlife got decomposed and then got mixed with the silt and
sand.Then certain bacteria helped in decomposing this organic matter with which some chemical
changes were caused.The matter consisting of hugely hydrogen and carbon was left behind.
Because there is no adequate oxygen at the sea bottom, all the matter could not completely
decompose. The matter that was partially decomposed settled on the sea bed and was covered
eventually with multiple layers of silt and sand.This burying process took a million years and then
due to high pressure and temperature, the remaining organic matter got completely decomposed and
oil was formed.

Products produced in Petroleum Refining Process

 Petroleum Gas: Generally, liquefied petroleum gas is useful for domestic fuel.
 Gasoline: Procuration of petrol occurs from this fraction.
 Kerosene:It is used as domestic fuel and also as fuel in jet engines.
 Diesel oil or light oil:It is useful in the automobile industry.
 Heavy Oil or Lubricating Oil:This type of oil is used in making lubricating oils.
 Fuel Oil:It is essential for ships, central heating, and factories.
  Residue: We can procure products like paraffin wax, bitumen from this residue. It is useful
for making roads and roofing.

NATURAL GAS:
Natural gas is a fossil fuel. Like other fossil fuels such as coal and oil, natural gas forms
from the plants, animals, and microorganisms that lived millions of years ago.
As plants, animals, and microorganisms decompose, they are gradually covered by layers of
soil, sediment, and sometimes rock. Over millions of years, the organic matter is compressed. As
the organic matter moves deeper into Earth’s crust, it encounters higher and higher temperatures.

The combination of compression and high temperature causes the carbon bonds in the
organic matter to break down. This molecular breakdown produces thermogenic methane—natural
gas. Methane, probably the most abundant organic compound on Earth, is made of carbon and
hydrogen (CH4).

Natural gas deposits are often found near oil deposits. Deposits of natural gas close to the
Earth’s surface are usually dwarfed by nearby oil deposits. Deeper deposits—formed at higher
temperatures and under more pressure—have more natural gas than oil. The deepest deposits can be
made up of pure natural gas.

Natural gas does not have to be formed deep underground, however. It can also be formed
by tiny microorganisms called methanogens. Methanogens live in the intestines of animals
(including humans) and in low-oxygen areas near the surface of the Earth. Landfills, for example,
are full of decomposing matter that methanogens break down into a type of methane called biogenic
methane. The process of methanogens creating natural gas (methane) is called methanogenesis.

Although most biogenic methane escapes into the atmosphere, there are new technologies
being created to contain and harvest this potential energysource.

What is Methane?
Methane is the simplest of saturated hydrocarbons with a chemical formula CH4. It consists of four
hydrogen atoms and one carbon atom and is the simplest alkane.
Methane is colourless, odourless, and highly flammable.

USES OF METHANE GAS:

 It is used in automobiles, ovens and water heater as a fuel
 It is used in the generation of electricity.
  It is used as rocket fuel in its refined liquid form
 It is used as an antifreeze ingredient in industries
 It is a common ingredient in fertilizer
 It is used to sanitize products
 It is used in gas-fired power stations
 It is used in gas cookers.
 It is used in the testing of gas appliances.

Types of Natural Gas

Natural gas that is economical to extract and easily accessible is considered “conventional.”
Conventional gas is trapped in permeable material beneath impermeable rock.

Biogas is a type of gas that is produced when organic matter decomposes without oxygen
being present. This process is called anaerobic decomposition, and it takes place in landfills or
where organic material such as animal waste, sewage, or industrial byproducts are decomposing.

Biogas is biological matter that comes from plants or animals, which can be living or not-
living. This material, such as forest residues, can be combusted to create a renewable energy source.
Biogas contains less methane than natural gas, but can be refined and used as an energy source.

Deep Natural Gas

Deep natural gas is an unconventional gas. While most conventional gas can be found just a
few thousand meters deep, deep natural gas is located in deposits at least 4,500 meters (15,000 feet)
below the surface of the Earth. Drilling for deep natural gas is not always economically practical,
although techniques to extract it have been developed and improved.

Shale
Shale gas is another type of unconventional deposit. Shale is a fine-grained, sedimentary rock that
does not disintegrate in water. Some scientists say shale is so impermeable that marble is considered
“spongy” in comparison. Thick sheets of this impermeable rock can “sandwich” a layer of natural
gas between them.

Shale gas is considered an unconventional source because of the difficult processes necessary to
access it: hydraulic fracturing (also known as fracking) and horizontal drilling. Fracking is a
procedure that splits open rock with a high-pressure stream of water, and then “props” it open with
tiny grains of sand, glass, or silica. This allows gas to flow more freely out of the well. Horizontal
drilling is a process of drilling straight down into the ground, then drilling sideways, or parallel, to
the Earth’s surface.

Tight Gas
Tight gas is an unconventional natural gas trapped underground in an impermeable rock formation
that makes it extremely difficult to extract. Extracting gas from “tight” rock formations usually
requires expensive and difficult methods, such as fracking and acidizing.

Acidizing is similar to fracking. An acid (usually hydrochloric acid) is injected into the natural gas
well. The acid dissolves the tight rock that is blocking the flow of gas.

Coalbed Methane
Coalbed methane is another type of unconventional natural gas. As its name implies, coalbed
methane is commonly found along seams of coal that run underground. Historically, when coal was
mined, the natural gas was intentionally vented out of the mine and into the atmosphere as a waste
product. Today, coalbed methane is collected and is a popular energy source.

THERMAL POWER PLANT WORKING PRINCIPLE:

The working fluid is water and steam. This is called feed water and steam cycle. The ideal
Thermodynamic Cycle to which the operation of a Thermal Power Station closely resembles is the
RANKINE CYCLE.
In a steam boiler, the water is heated up by burning the fuel in the air in the furnace, and the
function of the boiler is to give dry superheated steam at the required temperature. The steam so
produced is used in driving the steam Turbines. This turbine is coupled to synchronous generator
(usually three-phase synchronous alternator), which generates electrical energy. The exhaust steam
from the turbine is allowed to condense into the water in steam condenser of turbine, which creates
suction at very low pressure and allows the expansion of the steam in the turbine to very low
pressure. The principal advantages of the condensing operation are the increased amount of energy
extracted per kg of steam and thereby increasing efficiency, and the condensate which is fed into the
boiler again reduces the amount of fresh feed water.
The condensate along with some fresh makeup feed water is again fed into the boiler by a
pump (called the boiler feed pump). In the condenser, the steam is condensed by cooling water.
Cooling water recycles through the cooling tower. This constitutes a cooling water circuit.
The ambient air is allowed to enter the boiler after dust filtration. Also, the flue gas comes
out of the boiler and gets exhausted into the atmosphere through stacks. These constitute air and
flue gas circuit. The flow of air and also the static pressure inside the steam boiler (called draught)
is maintained by two fans called Forced Draught (FD) fan and Induced Draught (ID) fan.
 Inside the

boiler there are various heat exchangers, viz. Economiser, Evaporator (not shown in the fig above,
it is basically the water tubes, i.e. downcomer riser circuit), Super Heater (sometimes Reheater, air
preheater are also present).
 In Economiser the feed water is heated to a considerable amount by the remaining heat of
flue gas. The Boiler Drum maintains a head for natural circulation of a two-phase mixture (steam +
water) through the water tubes.
There is also Super Heater which also takes heat from flue gas and raises the temperature of
steam as per requirement.
Advantages of thermal power plant are:
• Thermal power station has less initial cost as compared to hydro-electric generating station.
• It requires less space as compared to the hydro-electric power station.
• The fuel cost is less as compared to gas.
• Hung amount of power can be generated by TPS.
• The cost of generation is less as compared to diesel power station.

Disadvantages of thermal power plant are:

• The running cost of thermal power station is more as compared to hydro power station.
• It pollutes the atmosphere due to production of large amount of smoke and fumes.
• Maintenance cost is more.
• Skilled persons are required for erecting and maintaining the power station.
• Land requirement is more for storage of coal and ash.

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT:

The power plant that is used to warm the water to generate steam, then this steam can be used
for rotating huge turbines for generating electricity. These plants use the heat to warm the
water which is generated by nuclear fission. So the atoms in the nuclear fission will split into
different smaller atoms for generating energy. The nuclear power plant diagram is shown
below.

COMPONENTS OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS:

Basic components of a nuclear power plant Nuclear Reactor:

A nuclear reactor is a special apparatus used to perform nuclear fission. Since the nuclear
fission is radioactive, the reactor is covered by a protective shield. Splitting up of nuclei of heavy
atoms is called as nuclear fission, during which huge amount of energy is released. Nuclear fission
is done by bombarding slow moving neutrons on the nuclei of heavy element. As the nuclei break
up, it releases energy as well as more neutrons which further cause fission of neighboring atoms.
Hence, it is a chain reaction and it must be controlled, otherwise it may result in explosion. A
nuclear reactor consists of fuel rods, control rods and moderator. A fuel rod contains small round
fuel pallets (uranium pallets). Control rods are of cadmium which absorb neutrons. They are
inserted into reactor and can be moved in or out to control the reaction. The moderator can be
graphite rods or the coolant itself. Moderator slows down the neutrons before they bombard on the
fuel rods.

Two types of nuclear reactors that are widely used -

1. Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR) -
This type of reactor uses regular water as coolant. The coolant (water) is kept at very high
pressure so that it does not boil. The heated water is transferred through heat exchanger
where water from secondary coolant loop is converted into steam. Thus the secondary loop
is completely free from radioactive stuff. In a PWR, the coolant water itself acts as a
moderator. Due to these advantages, pressurised water reactors are most commonly used.
2. Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) -
In this type of reactor only one coolant loop is present. The water is allowed to boil in the
reactor. The steam is generated as it heads out of the reactor and then flows through the
steam turbine. One major disadvantage of a BWR is that, the coolant water comes in direct
 contact with fuel rods as well as the turbine. So, there is a possibility that radioactive
material could be placed on the turbine.
Heat exchanger
In the heat exchanger, the primary coolant transfers heat to the secondary coolant (water).
Thus water from the secondary loop is converted into steam. The primary system and secondary
system are closed loop, and they are never allowed to mix up with each other. Thus, heat exchanger
helps in keeping secondary system free from radioactive stuff. Heat exchanger is absent in boiling
water reactors.
Steam Turbine
Generated steam is passed through a steam turbine, which runs due to pressure of the steam.
As the steam is passed through the turbine blades, the pressure of steam gradually decreases and it
expands in volume. The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator through a rotating shaft.

Alternator
The steam turbine rotates the shaft of an alternator thus generating electrical energy.
Electrical output of the alternator is the delivered to a step up transformer to transfer it over
distances.

Condenser
The steam coming out of the turbine, after it has done its work, is then converted back into
water in a condenser. The steam is cooled by passing it through a third cold water loop.

Working of Nuclear Power Plant

The elements like Uranium or Thorium are sued nuclear fission reaction of a nuclear reactor.
Because of this fission, a huge amount of heat energy can be generated and it is transmitted to the
coolant reactor. Here, the coolant is nothing but water, liquid metal otherwise gas. The water is
heated to flow in a heat exchanger so that it changes into high-temperature steam. Then the steam
which is produced is permitted to make a steam turbine run. Again the steam can be changed back
into the coolant & recycled to use for the heat exchanger. So, the turbine and alternator are
connected to produce electricity. By using a transformer, the electricity which is produced can be
increased to use in long-distance communication.
Advantages
The advantages of nuclear power plants include the following.
 It uses less space compared with other power plants
 It is extremely economical and generates huge electric power.
 These plants are located near the load center because there is no requirement of huge fuel.
 It generates a huge amount of power in the process of each nuclear fission
 It uses less fuel to generate huge energy
 Its operation is reliable
 When compared with steam power plants, it is very clean and neat
 The operating cost is small
 It doesn’t produce polluting gases
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of nuclear power plants include the following.
 The cost of primary installation is extremely high when compared with other power stations.
  The nuclear fuel is expensive so recovering is difficult
 High capital cost compare with other power plants
 Technical knowledge is required to operate this plat. So maintenance, as well as salary, will
be high.
 There is a chance of radioactive pollution
 The response is not efficient
 The requirement of cooling water is double compare with a steam power plant.

NUCLEAR REACTOR:
1. Nuclear Reactor:-
Nuclear reactor is the main component of nuclear power plant and nuclear fuel is subjected to
nuclear fission. Nuclear fission is a process where a heavy nucleus is spitted into two or more
smaller nuclei. . A heavy isotope generally uranium-235(U-235) is used as a nuclear fuel in the
nuclear reactor because it has the ability to control the chain reaction in the nuclear reactor. Nuclear
fission is done by bombarding uranium nuclei with slow moving neutrons. The energy released by
the fission of nuclei is called nuclear fission energy or nuclear energy. By the braking of uranium
atom, tremendous amount of heat energy and radiation is formed in the reactor and the chain
reaction is continuously running until it is controlled by a reactor control chain reaction. A large
amount of fission neutrons are removed in this process, only small amount of fission uranium is
used to generate the electrical power.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF NUCLEAR REACTOR:
The nuclear reactor is cylindrical type shape. Main body of reactor is enclosed by reactor core,
reflector and thermal shielding. It prevent reactor wall from getting heated. It is also used to protect
alpha ( α), bita (β) , gama (γ) rays and neutrons which are bounce back at the time of fission within
the reactor. Mainly Nuclear reactor consists, some fuel rods of uranium, moderator and control rods.
Fuel rods are made of the fission materials and released large number of energy at the time of
bombarding with slow moving neutrons. Moderator consists full of graphite which is enclosed by
the fuel rods. Moderator maintains the chain reaction by releasing the neutrons in a suitable manner
before they mixed with the fissile materials. Control rods are made of boron-10 and cadmium or
hafnium which is a highly neutron absorber and it is inserted into the nuclear reactor. When control
rods are push down into the reactor core, it absorbs most of fission neutrons and power of the
reactor is reduced. But when it is pulling out from the reactor, it releases the fission neutrons and
power is increased. Real practice, this arrangement depends upon according to the requirement of
load. A coolant, basically sodium metal is used to reduce the heat produce in the reactor and it
carries the heat to the heat exchanger.
NUCLEAR FISSION VS NUCLEAR FUSION:
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom is bombarded with low-
energy neutrons which split the nucleus into smaller nuclei. An abundant amount of energy is
released in this process. Nuclear fission reactions are used in nuclear power reactors since it is easy
to control and produces large amounts of energy.
When the nuclear fission process breaks, a large amount of energy is released, indicating that the
nuclear fission process is exothermic.

Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion is a reaction that occurs when two or more atoms combine together to form
to a single heavier nucleus. An enormous amount of energy is released in this process, much greater
than the energy released during the nuclear fission reaction.
ADVANTAGES & LIMITATIONS OF CONVENTIONAL / NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY
SOURCES:
Advantages of Non-Renewable Sources of Energy
1. Resources such as oil and coal tend to provide us with more energy as compared to renewable
energy like wind or solar energy, and the reason behind it is that non-renewable resources are high
in energy.
2. In the construction of natural gas pipelines, mining of coal and selling of oil and petroleum, huge
profits can be generated.
3. Non-renewable resources are easy to use and quite easy to store. Also, non-renewable resources
can be conveniently moved across the world.
4. Most significantly, non-renewable resources are helpful in generating employment. Extracting,
refining and transporting are the portions of non-renewable sources that provide employment for the
people in gulf countries.

Disadvantages of Non-Renewable Source of Energy

1. One of the main drawbacks of non-renewable energy is that it consumes a lot of time and it
takes a lot of effort. For instance, the process involved in the mining of coal is searching for the coal
mines, installation of complex machines, drilling, extracting, refining and transporting. All these
processes are very time-consuming processes.
2. Non-renewable energy sources are slowly vanishing from the earth because they are formed over
billions of years.
3. Since some non-renewable sources emit carbon monoxide, like fossil fuels, it means that non-
renewable energy causes pollution and also, they can cause respiratory problems in humans.
Sources like coal, oil and natural gas are responsible for rapidly destroying the ozone layer because
these sources release a large amount of carbon dioxide when burnt.
4. Transportation of non-renewable sources is a very risky process because when huge oil tanks and
cargo ships crash and spill the contents in the sea or somewhere else, then it can be deadly for
human beings, sea animals and the vegetation in that area.