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Qno1. Define International Relation, its nature, importance and significance?

Introduction:

The world today has become very small, and each nation, whether big or small, is bound to maintain
healthy relations with others. This is the basis of the study and existence of international relations.

International Relations as a separate academic discipline emerged at the beginning of the twentieth-
century basically after World War I. The decree on peace of the Soviet Union in 1917 and the 14-point
principles of US President Woodrow Wilson in 1918 are known as important documents in International
relations.

The first University Chair that formally established in the discipline was The Woodrow Wilson Chair of
International Politics at the University College of Wales in 1919.

Founder of I.R :

The Achen League was the first person who introduced I.R.

Term of IR :

The Term International Relation was first used by Jeremy Bentham in the 18th century.

Nature of I.R:

The nature of international relations denotes the study of the relationship of the state with each other.

IR and Thinkers/Definition:

Various thinkers express the definition of I.R in various styles which have been discussed below:

1. Prof. Dunn said:

“The actual relation that takes place across national boundaries or as the body of knowledge which we
have of those relations at any given time”.

2. Quincy Wright Said:

“All kinds of relations traversing state boundaries no matter whether, they are an economic, legal,
political, or any other character whether they be private or official”.

3. Hart Man Said:

“I.R includes all intercourse among the state and all movement of people, woods and ideas across
national frontiers. Howeve, as the fields of study its focus is on the Process by which states adjust their
national interest to those of others”.
4. Hans J Morgenthau:

“International Politics include analysis of political relations and problems of Peace among nations….it is
struggle for and use of power among nations”.

Growth/Evolution of l.R :

It is divided into two categories

1. Traditional/Primitive relations
2. Modern I.R

Traditional/Primitive Relations:

The traditional period of I.R was based on Italian city states and the ties of tribes states to the empire.

Modern I.R:

There are four types of modern concept of International Relations.

1. Period of 19th Century

2. Period of 1st World War
3. Period of League of Nations
4. Period of 2nd World War

Importance/Significance of International Relations:

Globalisation:

The world today has become very small, and each nation, whether big or small, is bound to maintain
healthy relations with others. This is the basis of the study and existence of international relations.

Study of Super Power’s Foreign Policy

The study of 1.R also helps to raise awareness of the national interest because big powers are neither
interested in peace nor in stability but their own security.

Awareness of National Interest

States are self centered and act accordingly to their national interest. So, study of IR gives information
about national interest.

For example: If Pakistan supports America during the war between America and Afghanistan because
there is the national interest of Pakistan.
Guidance of Crises

The study of I.R is also helpful to solve the problems of the world which damage the international
community.

Increasing In National Power

With the help of study of this subject, it becomes easy to understand the policies of states. So, it enables
other states to increase power because power is pitted against power of supremacy.

Knowledge of Govt. Systems

I.R study the state system and the domestic structure of the nation. State is very important for
international interaction because it is a decision making institution.

Knowledge of Human Right

Information about human rights is also available in this subject. This is because rights enable the person
to participate in state affairs.

Politics of Contracts

Through I.R, we know about the matter of international contracts and its impact on world politics.

Study of International Institution

I.R also helps in the study of international institutions. Through this subject the structure and policies of
international institutions can easily be gained.

Awareness about International Problem

Problems create unrest among the relations of nations. So, the study of I.R enables us to understand and
solve these problems.

Importance of 3rd World Countries

Study of I.R is also helpful for 3rd world countries because it enables them to study the programs and
policies of big powers.

Knowledge of ldeology

It is also helpful in the study of theories about different states and also discriminates between practice
and theories.

Q2. What is the Scope of International Relations? Explain it.

Ans: The international community is the instrument of international relations. The unimaginable changes
in the international community over the past seventy Years have drastically changed inter-state relations.
International relations as a distinct curriculum has followed that trend in International society since the
1930s. For this reason, it is not possible to draw a permanent line on the scope of international relations.

Scope of international relations is explained below:

1. Study of the behavior of States in International Politics

Just as when a nation builds good relations for the sake of its overall Development, it becomes the
subject of international relations, just as when there is a conflict of interest, bitterness develops among
itself and that too becomes part of international relations. Thus international relations consist of both
cooperation and conflict. International relations are also a matter of forming alliances and dealing with
the crisis.

2. Role of Non-State Actors in International Field

The content of international relations does not revolve only around the activities of the state and its
formal institutions. The state is not the only active actor in the international community. There are many
non-state actors Whose activities affect international relations.

Multinational Corporations (MNCs), European Economic Community, Council for Mutual Economic
Assistance, NATO, SEATO, WARSAW PACT, ASEAN, Organization of American States, different terrorist
organizations, Religious Organizations are the examples of the non-state elements in international
relations.

3. Question of War and Peace

Today, international relations are not free from the discussion of the determination to save mankind
from war. What was utopian in the past is Becoming more and more realistic today. The main purpose of
establishing the United Nations is to ensure world Peace and security. Large and regional powers are
often exchanging views to create an atmosphere of peace and security. All this has become the subject
of International relations.

4. Study of Foreign Policy

Another important topic in international relations is foreign policy. In the Past, kings or prime ministers
or a few individuals played an active role in determining foreign policy. Today, not only statesmen but
also the legislature and many citizens are Involved in the formulation of foreign policy. The state of affairs
or ideology in foreign policy and the ideological issues of the respective regimes are important parts of
international relations.

5. Study of Nation States

The ethnic composition, geographical location, historical background, religion or ideologies of different
states are not the same at all. And because of all these differences, the relationship between different
states is different. So international relations need to discuss all these differences in detail.

6. International Organizations

The role of national and international organizations in international relations is no less important. People
from different countries are involved with the US Congress of Industrial Organizations, the US Federation
of Labour, the French Labour Organization, and the Women’s International Democratic Federation
engagement Organization.

The non-governmental organizations are also involved in the activities of the Coalition and its various
expert organizations, such as UNESCO, the International Labour Organization and the World Health
Organization. Therefore, international relations also discusses all national and international
Organizations.

7. Global Environmental Issues

Issues of the environment are one of the key matters of international Relations now. During the 1970s
the environmental politics only focused on the question of resource issues. But from the 1990s the
environmental politics focused on the issue of ‘Climate change’ brought about through global warming.
To overcome this issue , the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC), Kyoto Protocol in
1997, the Paris Agreement on climate change, etc, have initiated. So, global environmental issues affect
every state in the world. For the protection of this beautiful world all the states are trying their best by
reduction of the usage of greenhouse gasses and that is why it is considered as the most important part
of international relations.

8. Role of the Third World

The third emergence in recent world politics has brought about qualitative Change. Most people in the
world are third generation. In 1986, 101 Countries participated in the Eighth Non-Alignment Conference.
The growing role of non-aligned countries in building new international Systems, easing tensions
between the East and the West, disarmament, ending colonial rule, etc. is significant. Therefore, the role
of the third world in world politics is also the relevant Point of discussion in international relations.

9. Affairs Of The Government:

Affairs of the government are also included in the study of I.R. It observes the shape and structure of the
government because their reaction also affects I.R. E.g Communists where it existed, it has a different
role of l.R.

10. Mercantilism:

In old times, trade was the only factor of relationship among nations. Therefore, mercantilism is one of
the main topics of I.R because economic conditions determine the status of state in the world.

11. Regional Organization:

Regional organization is also the source of relationships among nations. So, it is also included in the
science of I.R. E.g SAARC, E.C.O, O.I.C etc.

12. Political Parties and Press:

Political parties and media which included print and electronic media also come into the sphere of the
I.R. They have a tremendous impact on International Affairs.
 13. Study of Religious Organization:

Humans are religiously bound. So, I.R also discusses religious organizations who deal with religious
matters and sentiments because their activity affects I.R. For example, AKHWAN UL MUSLIMEEN,
JAMAAT E ISLAMI, AL-QAIDA and RSS etc.

In short, scope of the study of IR is quite wide and comprehensive and it is spreading itself day by day.

Qno 3. Describe idealist, Utopian School of Thoughts, its principles and characteristics.

Introduction:

The world has become a global village and each nation is dependent directly or indirectly on other
nations. So, the study of I.R is essential for human survival and progress.

Theories and Approaches To The Study Of I.R

According to Hans J. Morgenthau, one of the reasons for the wide range of approaches to the study of
I.R is the lack of basic theory. Scholars have adopted different approaches for the study of I.R.

Following are the two main approaches.

• Realist Approach

• Idealist Approach

What is the approach?

Before examining the aporoaches, we must know what is the approach? Approach may be defined as a
way of looking at and then explaining a particular phenomenon.

Nature of ldealist

The ldealist aims at bringing about a better world with the help of education and international
organizations, free from power politics, immorality, and violence.

Founder

Woodrow Wilson, Kant and J.J Rousseau are the founders of this theory.

Idealist and Theory

1. Doctrine of Utilitarianism

It is the law of nature that human beings want to achieve pleasure and want to avoid pain.
 2. Doctrine of Harmony of Interest (Economic Theory)

Everything which is economically right is also morally right. There can be no conflict between good
economics and morals.

Principles of ldealist

Peace Through International Law

According to idealists, everything would be fine after a good international law because they believe in
the supremacy of law, and the law was originally created by superhuman wisdom.

Peace Through International Organization

According to ldealists, organization plays a vital role in the international relations because “The spirit
creates organizations and organizations creates spirit”.

For example, President Wilson gave a solid shape of idealism by treaty of versailles and made strong for
peace through international relations.

Unity and Cooperation

The idealist believes in unity and cooperation because the harmony of interest doctrine maintains its
dominant position.

Balance and Power

Balance and power is a situation in which the power relationship is equalised because the idealist
beieves in “Equal against Equal”.

Against Power Politics

They don’t believe in power politics because power is pitted against power, so they believe in the
concept of a reformed international system free from politics and immorality.

Characteristics of Idealist theory

1. Collective Security

Idealists believe in and support collective security. They believe in this moto “All for one send no one for
all” and “All against the one”.

2. Support Disarmament

Idealists support disarmament and hope a day will come when bullets and bombs will be replaced by
the power of the vote.
 3. Support Morality

Idealists aim at bringing a good world through ethics and morality because the power of morality is the
ultimate and the best kind of human relationship.

4. Respect of Humanity

They believe in the essential goodness and are against human violence. So they are against the blood-
shedding of innocent people.

5. International Law, A Way Of Relation

According to idealists, intemational law is another source of relationship among nations. Moreover,
International law consists of those rules which are governed by the sovereign state in their relation and
conduct towards each other.

CRITICISM

1. Traditional Role of Organization

Organizations cannot control war and maintain peace and stability in the world. For example, the
League of Nations and the weak role of UNO.

2. International Law, Weak Law

Another objection is one must know the fact that international law is a weak law.

3. Against Balance of Power

Balance and power could not be established in the world. Man is fickle , quarrel, and brutish. So, he
cannot maintain peaceful relationships.

4. Morality Fail To Maintain Peace

The difficulty with this approach is that peace could be maintained only by following moral principles,
which is not possible in practice.

Qno 4. Explain Realist School of Thought, Morgenthau Six Principles Of Realist?

Introduction

The world has become a global village, and each nation depends directly or indirectly on other nations.
So the study of I.R is essential for human survival and progress.
Theories and Approaches To The Study Of I.R

According to Hans J. Morgenthau, one of the reasons for the wide range of approaches to the study of
1.R is the lack of basic theory. Scholars have adopted different approaches for the study of I.R.

Following are the two main approaches

• ldealist approach

• Realist approach

Nature of Realist

Realist theory consists of creatirng facts and giving their meaning through reasons. So, it is rather a sat of
ideas which are taken into account through the implication of security and power. According to realists,
the struggle for power is going on and cannot be controlled by international law and international
organizations.

Prominent Scholars (Thomas Hobbes , Machiavelli , Hans. J Morgenthau etc)

SIX PRINCIPLES OF Morgenthau’s REALISM

Morgenthau’s realism, also known as classical realism, is a theory of international relations that
emphasizes the role of power self-interest, and the pursuit of national interest in shaping the behaviour
of states. Here are six principles of Morgenthau’s realism:

1. Politics is governed by objective laws rooted in human nature:

Morgenthau believed that politics was based on certain universal principles that were inherent in human
nature, such as the pursuit of power, self-interest, and the desire for security. These principles, he
argued, were not subject to change or manipulation.

2. The international system is anarchic:

According to Morgenthau, the international system is characterized by an absence of central authority or

hierarchy, and states are therefore in a state of perpetual competition with one another.

3. States are the main actors in international politics:

Morgenthau argued that states were the primary actors in international politics, and that the behavior of
states was largely driven by their own self-interest and the pursuit of power.

4. Power is the central concept in international politics:

For Morgenthau, power was the primary currency of international politics, and states were constantly
engaged in a Struggle for power and influence over one another.

Political requirement for success  ↑Benefits ↓ Risks

5. Foreign policy should be guided by national interest:

Morgenthau argued that foreign Policy should be guided by a clear understanding of a state’s national
interest, which was defined as the pursuit of power, security, and other vital interests.

6. Ethics and morality have a limited role in international politics:

Morgenthau believed that the pursuit of national interest and the pursuit of moral principles were often
in conflict, and that states were ultimately bound by the need to protect their own interests rather than
any abstract notion of morality.

Action of states → protect National interest

Popularity

Theory of realism got popularity after the failure of League of Nations.

Principles of Realist

Power Politics

Realists believe that power always ensures freedom, security, and prosperity because power is pitted
against power for survival supremacy.

1. Politics Is National Interest

Morgenthau insisted on the concept of national interest, which he defined in terms of power.

2. Human Nature

According To Realists, politics is governed by objective laws which are based on human nature and
psychology. We can understand the political scenario by developing a political theory based on human
nature, psychology and reason.

3. Moulded interest

Morgenthau holds that interest is not fixed, moulded by the environment because in I.R no friend is
permanent friend and no enemy is a permanent enemy, only the state interest is permanent.

4. Against Universal Moral Principle

Morgenthau admits that universal moral principles cannot be applied to the state and must be changed
according to the environment. So they are against moral values because politics is not a function of
ethics.

5. Against Law

According to them, international law is a weak law, and law has arrested the man physically and
mentally, and obedience to law is the end of freedom.
 6. State Principles Are Not Universal

Morgenthau doesn’t find any identity between the moral emotion of a nation and the moral law which
governs the universe and admits that political actors follow their national interests.

7. State Policy and Interest

According to them, state foreign policy must include their national interest.

8. Against Balance and Power

Balance and power cannot be established in the worid. For example, all states, even the Wilson country,
tried to minimise power but failed.

9. Autonomous Sphere

Morgenthau says that the political sphere is as autonomous as the sphere of economists and moralists.

10. Supports Evil

They don’t believe in the essential goodness because mercy is on your tongue and evil is in your heart.

11. Against Morality

According to realists, it was wrongly believed that morality functions in politics. It is ethics which
function as politics, so they don’t support morality.

Criticism On Realistic Approach

1. OVER-EMPHASIS ON POWER

Wrong fact that NATIONAL INTERESTS and NATIONAL POWER are defined In terms of Power.

2. NEITHER FULL EMPIRICAL NOR FULLY LOGICAL

“Nations always seek Power and Dominance over other”. Illogical .

3. IMPORTANCE OF VALUES HAS BEEN IGNORED

Values such as (Significance of Co-operation, Peaceful Settlement of Justice, Live and Let Live etc).

4. UNSCIENTIFIC APPROACH

Changing Nature of Human With Time and Situation.

5. NATIONAL POWER (Economic or military power) AND NATIONAL INTERESTS (economic security
and national security) CAN NOT BE MEASURED
6. IGNORES THE IMPORTANCE OF MORALITY

Policies Without Morality are Dangerous for Peace and Harmony.

 7. IGNORES THE IMPORTANCE OF NON-POLITICAL RELATIONS

Every Action of Nation Is not only Political Action E.G: Olympic Games, Film Festivals and Economic
Exhibitions Etc.

8. POLITICS IS NOT AUTONOMOUS

Individual Is Not only a Political Being.

9. NECESSITY OF MAINTAINING PEACE AND HARMONY AT INTERNATIONAL LEVEL.

10. IMPORTANCE OF IDEOLOGY HAS BEEN IGNORED

USSR → Communism

COLD War →

USA → Capitalism

11. OVER- IMPORTANCE TO PRUDENCE

Prudence also changes with Time and situation. Prudence and demands of the Situation may Be
Different.

12. UNREALISTIC VIEW OF THE WORLD

Power Not Represents the Real Picture of World.

The differences between Idealism and Realism

Idealism is in stark contrast to the second major International relations theory which is realism. Realists
strongly believe that the International System revolves around the concept of power and that states
actively pursue their self-interests in an international system that is anarchic because of the Lack of a
central government. Unlike Idealists, realists believe that democratization is not the answer to peace as
democratic countries will still go to war against each other. They believe that the state is the only actor
that matters and that the international system which is in a constant state of Anarchy, can never
transition to peace in the absence of power. Now in the light of the argument presented by Realists, a
new school of thought developed out of idealism which is the Neo-Liberalism.

Neo-Liberalism theory agrees With realism on the assumption that “states are unitary actors rationally
pursuing their self-interest in a system of anarchy.” (Goldstien & Pevehouse, 2014)

Qno 5. Define The Origin Of Modern and National States and also describe its kinds, salient features
and duties?
Introduction

The national slate is a supreme feature of internatianal relations and is one of the major actors in the
international scenario. Before we discuss modem and national states. We must know the state and its
origin.

Definition of State

State is a human institution which man has made for its own benifit. It is a community formed by people
and exercising permanent power within a specific territory.

According to Woodrow Wilson, state is “a people organised for law within a definite territory”.

Theories about evolution of state

Different theories about evolution of state are as under:

1. The Theory of Divine Origin

Salient features of the theory of divine Origin can be sumed up under:

➢ The state is created by God.

➢ The Kings are divineiy appointod; they are answerable to God alone for their rule.

➢ The state and its laws are divine institutions.

➢ To disobey the king is not only a crime but also a sin.

➢ The King is the representative or vicegerent of God.

➢ The people must obey the laws of the kings as blindly and unquestionably as they obey God.

The theory of the divine origin of the state is as old as the political thought itself. In early times, this
theory assumed a new term: viz., the Divine Rights of Kings as expounded by kind James I of England
and Sir Robert Filmier in the 17th century A.D, With the rising Importance of Social Contract Theory and
the Age of reason in the 17 and 18 centuries, the theory of Divine Origin lost its former appeal and
influence. It became discredited and was discarded.

Books

❖ King James I: True law of Free Monarchy

❖ Sir Robert Filmer: Patriarchy (1680)

 2. The Theory of Force

The theory of force has been advanced for two purposes: to explain how the state originated and how it
Was maintained afterwards?

According to this theory, i.e. state is a child of force, that is, of aggression, war, conquest and
Subjugation. In the primitive ages, strong man or king with the support of his warriors subjugated the
Weaker men of his tribe and established the political relation of command and obedience. Hence the
Saying “War begat the King”. Such was the beginning of the state, A strong man enslaved the weaker
men and became the chief of his tribe. A strong tribe subdued his weaker neighbors and founded a
kingdom. The king of a strong kingdom Conquered the weaker kingdoms around him and established an
empire. The states are always fighting Among themselves. History of mankind is nothing but an endless
story of constant wars, invasions and conquests.

Edward Jenks in his book, “A History of Politics”, explains this theory in these words:

“Historically speaking, there is not the slightest difficulty in proving that all political communities of the
Modern type owe their existence to successful warfare”.

3. The Theory of Social Contract:

The heyday of the social contract theory was in the early modern age i.e. during the 16th, 17th and 18
Centuries, when the great controversy between the freedom of the subjects and the authority of the
King began and when man was awakening from centuries old slumber of political life. From 16th to 18th
Centuries, this theory had a universal appeal and was widely believed. Its numerous supporters and
Writers put forth many version of this theory. Three of them, Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau, have
Achicved great fame and are today considered its chief exponents.

A general Statement of the Theory

Social contract theory aims at the explanation of the origin of the state and its jurisdiction. It presumes,
Following three stages being involved in evolution of the state namely:

❖ A state of nature

❖ The social contract

❖ The civil society or state

Thinker Name Life Span Country Famous Work

Thomas Hobbes 1588-1679 England Leviathan
John Locke 1632-1704 England Two treaties of Government
J.J Rousseau 1712-1778 France The Social Contact
4. Patriarchal Theory:

According to the Patriarchal Theory, the state is the enlargement of the family. The original family
Consisted of a father, a mother or mothers and their children. All of the children were under the
Complete authority of the father. With the course of time, the original family splitted as Many families
as the sons, each of whom became the paternal head of his own individual family. But all these families
remained united under the authority of the oldest living male among them. They formed a group of
families, called a gens or clan. Later several clans, tracing their descent from a common ancestor, real or
Supposed, formed a tribe, headed by a chief. They extended into a commonwealth or state, headed by a
king. The king exercised the complete authority over his subject: as did the patriarchal head over his
wives, children and servants. So the family expanded into the state and the father’s authority was
Transformed into the king’s authority.

The main exponent of the patriarchal Theory was Sir Henry Maine.

5. Matriarchal Theory:

The Matriarchal theory of state is very old. There are many people Who support this theory. There was a
Time in human history when there was no system of permanent marriage and family. At that time
people Were still in the hunting stage of human civilization, People lived in Groups, The life was
dependent on The fruits and hunting animals. When two groups were met there would be a union
between a man and woman. After this, the groups separated, children born in the result of this union
did not know their Fathers and their mothers, So, all relationships and Descent were traced through the
mother. At this Stage people were still leading a nomadic life. So there was no concept of private
property. In this way, Population increased and finally people got settled and radical changes took place
as a result of which Matriarchal Society changed into Patriarchal society and the state was born.

Even today we find traces of Matriarclal Society among the ancient people of Australia, Malaya,
Indonesia, Madagascar and Red Indians of North America.

Melanin, Morgan and Edward Jenks are Notable exponents of matriarchal theory.

6. The Evolutionary or Sociological theory:

According to Garner, “The state is neither the handiwork of God, nor the result of superior physical
Force, nor the reaction of a contract, nor a mere expansion of the family”. On contrary, the evolutionary
Theory explain the convincing origin of the state. It describes the state as the product of history which
Has been formed by social evolution, The said Evolution of the sate is stretched over a long period of
time. Finally shaping the same into the complex structure of a modern state. The social forces and
Factors created and developed the state and are involved in the evolution of the sate.

• Kinship

• Religion

• Property and the rise of economic classes

• War and force

• Political Consciousness

Special Efforts by M. TALHA NAWAZ (BS Pol Science)

0320-7878084

Definition of Modern Nation States

According to Palmer, Modern nation state system is the such pattern of political life in which people are
separately organized into sovereign states that interact with one another to different degrees and in
different ways.

Kinds of Modern Nation States

There are three kinds of modern nation states:

World Super Power State

World super powers are those countries which have worldwide possession and interest. In other words:
Great Power + Great Mobility = Super Power.

Examples are USA, Russia, UK, China, etc.

Middle Power State

These are such states which have strong political economic systems and also have strong defence
systems.

Examples are Australia, Germany, India, Holland, etc.

Small Power State

Small Power means cetending only limited interest and always in defending position.

Exarmples are Pakistan, Egypt, Iran, etc.

Salient Features of Modern Nation State

The details are as following:

Sovereignty

Sovereignty gives the state unique and virtually unlimited authority in all domestic matters and in
relation to other states.
Nationalism

Though the territory’s state as a physical shell has been shattered by the force of modern nuclear
physics, nothing can shatter the loyalty of people to their nation.

Struggle For Power

Try To Gain Power, The power always ensures freedom, security and prosperity because power is pitted
against power for survival supremacy.

Achievement of Economic Power

Each nation of the world has come to achieve economic power. Anything which is economically right is
also morally right. There can be no conflict in a good economy.

Policy Making

Policy making is an art in which nations gain their national interest.

Dialogue On International Problem

On the negotiation table, state capablities play an important role in the bargaining process.

Strong Use of Communication

Propaganda is an approach in which a state offers vigour through the media of communication on the
response of other states.

Duties/ Function of Modern States

There are two types of duties/functions of modern states:

• Compulsory

• Optional

Compulsory Duties

1. Establishment Of Peace

Peace at any price is one of their main duties of state because nation states are responsible for peace.

2. Defence of State

Another responsibility of the nation state system is to protect and defend the state from outside attacks.

3. Establishment of Justice

The promotion of and establishment of justice is another duty of nation state because “Life can exist
where justice is provided”.
 4. International Relation

States must cooperate and link with other countries because the world has become a global village and a
country is self-sufficient.

Optional Duties

Optional Duties are as folowing:

1. Formation of Education

Education for all should be the motto of all nation states because education makes humans perfect.

2. Transportation system

Another important duty is the transportation syslem because no country progressed without speedy
and fast transportation.

3. Health

Modern states should also Greate a healthy environment for their cilizens and avoid such activitbes
which have a bad effect on the health of people.

4. Food and Agriculture

Agriculture is a basic department of economy and food and is also necessary for human beings so
modern states should take steps for the betternent.

5. Social and Moral Reforms

Social and moral reforms are also in the duties of modern nation stales because any wrong act can
disturb the intermal community.

6. Political Activities

Political training of the individual is also the responsibility of the state because a well trained person
creates gocd international relations.

Qno. 6: Describe the Elements of Modern Nation States.

Ans: These are the Four main elements of modern nation states:
 1. Population:

The most important and basic element of state is population. The existence of population is very
Important for a state. Any such area where is no population is could not be called a state. The population
Of a state is consisting on individuals of two kinds.

1. Citizen

2. Foreigner

The citizens have all the social and Political rights Whereas the foreigners have some social rights. The
Stay of foreigners is temporary and the citizens are permanent inhabitants.

How much population of a state should be?

There is a difference of opinion among philosophers. Plato has fixed 5040 the population of an ideal
State. Rosseau has suggested 10,000 population of a State.

2. Territory

The second important and basic element of state is territory. The existence of territory is compulsory for
a state, without it the existence of a state is not completed. Its best example is of Jewish nation. Before
1948 Jews were an organized nation but they had not a territory. In 1948, when they occupied the soil of
Palestine then they were succeeded to establish a state “Israel” on the basis of territory occupation.

How much the territory of a state?

There is not a categorical principle has been established about it. According to Aristotle the territory of a
State should be up to that level one can get a right of from one corner to the other. Rousseau is also in
the favour of definite territory.

3. Government:

The third important element of a state is government without it state cannot be completed. Government
is that institution by whom the All administration is conducted. It is the obligation of government to
provide justice and form laws and Getting their implementation for law and Order and public welfare.
The Government indeed represents State on international level and is the manifestation of public
aspirations.

There are three organs of Government as follows.

(i). Legislature (ii). Executive (iii). Judiciary

Legislature: This organ of the state make laws for state.

Executive: It is responsible to implement laws Of legislature.

Judiciary: This organ provides justice according to laws. Judiciary is safeguard of basic rights of public and
Constitution.
 4. Sovereignty:

The fourth important element of state is Sovereignty without it the completion of state is impossible.
Sovereignty means that superb authority of state by whom it is free from external pressure and
Comprehending all individuals and institutions internally. Sovereignty is considered the spirit of a state
Because with its end the existence of state is finished. Sovereignty is the name of authority.

Qno. 7: Describe the problems of Modern Nation States.

Ans: Problems of modem nation states are as following:

1. Financial Crisis

Foreign aid has become a very important factor influencing the policies of the state and smaller
countries have become more and more dependent upon big powers because of the foreign aid.

2. Ideological Conflict

Ideological conflicts have become a factor of international division and cause of tension because
countries are making relations because of ideological conflict. For example, no relation between Pakistan
and Israel because of ideological conflict.

3. Rise of Nuclear Weapons

The rise of nuclear weapons has also greatly weakened the nation state system because non nuclear
states depend on the nuclear states which is a strong setback to the concept of equality of States.

4. Legitimacy Crisis

Legitimacy crisis is also a setback for MN (Media Network) because there is always threat frame Big
Player to challenge the activities of MNA (Media Network Association).

5. Dependency

The growing dependency of the states compelled the states to enhance their dependence on each other.
This gave a setback to the concept of national sovereignty.

6. External Influence

The grooving interdependence af states obliged the states to reconcile their national interest and goals
with other nations.

7. Wrong use of Communication

Wrong use of communication also creates problems because some states use propaganda against others
and propaganda is an approach in which a state through the medium of communication influences the
policies of other states.
 8. Monopoly of SuperPowers

Since World War 2, the world has been dominated by two superpowers including the USA and USSR. In
addition Britain, France and Germany also play a more dominant role.

9. External Politics

External politics affects the policies of the states both within and outside the country.

10. Power Crisis

International Politics is nothing but a struggle for power. So, power crisis also create problems for
modern nation states.

11. Role of Organization

Organization tries to promote greater cooperation among states in the social, economic, cultural and
other fields. This turn greatly contributed to the dilation of the nation state system.

12. Public Opinion

The growing role of public opinion in the present years has greatly affected the character of the nation
state system.

For example, the US was forced to withdraw from Afghanistan only on the account of the strong public
opinion within and outside their country.

Q.no 8: Explain International Law: its Definition, Evolution and Scope.

In this age of equality and mutual collaboration and peaceful co-existence, no state can have an
independent and secluded existence. All the states are related to one another in variety of ways. Every
state has its relations with the other states of the world. The laws which regulate the dealings of the
States with one another are called International Laws.

Definitions of International Law:

1) In the words of Wheaton, “International law consists of those rules of Conduct which reason
deduces as consonant to justice from the nature of the society existing among independent
nations; with such definitions and Modifications as may be established by general consent”.
2) R.N. Gilchrist maintains, “International Law is the body of rules which Civilized states observe in
their dealings with each other. These rules being enforced by each particular state according to
its own moral standard or convenience”.
3) In the words of T.J. Lawrence, “Rules which determine the conduct of the General body of
civilized states in their mutual dealings”.
Evolution of International Law:

International Law is of very recent origin. The development of International Law Is the result of the
development of international relations. In his famous Book, international Law’, Professor T.J. Lawrence,
who has made a special Study of its decent developments, has divided it into three periods.

The First period begins with the origin of the European civilization and lasts till the beginning of the
Roman Empire. The Second period begins from the Roman Empire and lasts to the Reformation. The
Third period extends from 1648 up to the present time.

Scope and Contents of International Law

Scope:

The scope of International Law is extended to all the free and independent nations. According to
International Law, all the states whether they are small or big enjoy the same status. “No principle of
law”, said Chief Justice Marshall “is universally acknowledged than the perfect equality of nations”.
“Russia and Geneva have equal rights. It results from this equality that no one can rightfully impose a
rule on others”.

Contents:

Following is the more comprehensive division of the contents of International Law:

(1) Laws governing states in times of peace.

(2) Laws governing states in times of war.
(3) Laws governing states in the relation of neutrality.

(1) Laws of Peace: Laws of Peace include the rights and obligations concerning independence and
equality of the states. They also include maritime code and navigation law. They are the rules of
intercourse of States. They include the rights and duties of officials attached to foreign offices.
They include privileges and facilities of the diplomatic representatives, Organization and
procedure international conferences and nature and Method of treaty making, etc.
(2) Law governing states in times of war: Rules of War form the large portion of International Law.
The rules of war Include the declaration of war, the classification of wars, laws and customs of
War on land, sea and air, the after-effects of war, the dealings with war prisoners. According to
the laws, it is quite unconventional to use poisonous gases and Bacteria’s in the warfare and to
bombard the civil areas. These rules prohibit the states, engaged in war, from seeking foreign
military assistance and from Mining the ports.
(3) Law governing states in the relation of neutrality:
The laws of neutrality embrace the duties of belligerent states of neutral States, duties of neutral
states to belligerent states, neutral trade, commerce, Contraband and blockade, etc.
Q.no 9: What is Foreign Policy? Definition and Determinants.

Ans: Foreign Policy can be defined as a set of principles, decisions and means, adopted and followed by a
nation for securing her goals of national interest in international relations. Foreign Policy defines the
goals of national interest and then tries to secure these through the exercise of national power.

George Modelski defined foreign policy as “Foreign Policy is the system of activities Evolved by
communities for changing the behaviour of other states and for adjusting their own activities to the
international environment”.

In simple words, it can be observed that Foreign Policy is a set of principles and decisions, a plan of
action and a thought out course of action adopted and used by a nation for Conducting relations with
other nations and all international actors with a view to secure the preferred and defined goals of her
national interest.

The Foreign Policy Contains

• A set of principles, policies and decisions adopted and followed by the nation in International relations.

• Objectives, goals or aims of national interest which are to be secured.

• Means to be used for achieving the goals of national interest.

• Broad policy principles and decisions for conducting international relations.

• Assessment of the gains and failures of the nation in respect of its goals of national interest.

• Policies, decisions and action-programmes for maintaining continuity or change or both in

International relations.

Common objective of foreign policy

• Protecting national prestige and developing national power, and Maintaining the integrity of state.

• Promoting common interest

• Providing for national security

• Maintaining world order.

Determinants of Foreign Policy

The foreign policy of a nation is formulated and implemented by its policy makers. In doing so they take
into account the national interest of the nation, the internal and external environment, the national
values, the foreign policy goals and decisions of other nations and the nature of international power
structure.
 1. Size of State Territory:

The size of a state is an important factor of its Foreign Policy. Size influences the Psychological and
operational environment within which the foreign policy-makers and Public respond. It includes both
human and non-human resources. Nations with large Human and non-human resources always try to be
big powers and they have better chances of becoming big powers in international relations.

Size has been a factor in the foreign policies of the U.S.A., Russia, China, India, Brazil, France and others.
Large sized states, with few exceptions, always formulate and use an active Foreign Policy and through it
these play an active role in international relations.

2. Geographical Factor:

Geography of a state is relatively the most permanent and stable factor of its foreign Policy.

The topography of land, its fertility, climate and location are the major geographic factors which
influence the Foreign Policy of a nation. Suitable geographical factors can help and encourage the nation
to adopt and pursue higher goals. The role played by English Channel in the development of Britain as a
major naval Power and consequently as an imperial power is well known. The influence of the Atlantic
Ocean on the US Foreign Policy has been always there. Indian Foreign Policy now Definitely bears the
influence of the geographical location of India as the largest littoral state of the Indian Ocean.

3. Level and Nature of Economic Development:

One of the main reasons why the US Foreign Policy has been very often successful in Securing its
national objectives, particularly in relation to the poor and economically lowly placed states of the world
is the high degree of its economic development. The developed Countries of our times are highly
industrialized and economically developed states. These can use foreign aid as a tool for securing their
foreign policy goals.

The level of economic development also determines the scope of relations that a nation Wishes to
establish with other nations. The Foreign Policy of Japan in the contemporary times is directly and
fundamentally related to its economic development. The military Preparedness and military capability of
a nation is again directly related to the factor of Economic development and industrialization. Only
industrially and economically Developed nations can hope to become major and stable military powers.

4. Cultural and Historical Factors:

The cultural heritage and the history of a nation are again important and valuable factors of its Foreign
Policy. The norms and traditions that characterize the life of the people of a State are highly influential
factors of its foreign policy. Strong cultural unity of the people is always a source of strength for them. It
materially Influences their ability to secure the objectives of national interest during the course of
International bargaining. Historical experiences and cultural links further help them to analyze and assess
the nature and scope of relations with other nations. Indeed, the weakness of the foreign policies of
most of the Asian and African states has been largely Due to the presence of internal dissensions and
conflicts among their peoples.
 5. Social Structure:

The structure and nature of the society for which the foreign policy operates is also an Important
element. The nature of social groups and the degree of conflict and harmony that Characterize their
mutual relations are determined by the social structure. A society characterized by strong internal
conflict and strife acts as a source of weakness for the Foreign policy.

6. Government Structure:

The organisation and structure of government i.e. the organisational agencies which handle The foreign
policy-making and implementation is another important element of foreign policy. The shape of the
foreign policy is also determined by the fact as to whether the Government agencies handling it are
democratically constituted or not. Whether the authority relations are centralized or decision-making is
free and open. The Government officials also act as decision makers and this factor always influences the
Formulation of foreign policy. In a authoritarian system, foreign policy can remain and often remains
Isolated from the domestic environment.

7. Internal Situation:

Like the external situational factors, sudden changes, disturbances or disorders that occur Within the
internal environment of a nation also influence the nature and course of foreign policy. The resignation
of President Richard Nixon over the issue of Watergate Scandal Considerably limited the foreign policy of
USA under President Ford. The internal opposition to the military regime in Pakistan during 1947-89 was
a determinant of Pakistani foreign policy. Similarly, the declaration of emergency in India in 1975 did
materially affect the relations of India with other countries particularly the super powers. A change of
government is always a source of change in the foreign policy of a state.

8. Ideology:

Foreign Policy is a set of principles and a strategic plan of action adopted by a nation to Fulfils the goals
of national interest. It has always an ideological content. For securing Support for its goal as well as for
criticizing the foreign policy goals of other nations, it Needs and adopts an ideology or some ideological
principles.

The ideology of communism remained an important factor of the foreign policies of Communist nations
during 1945-90. Anti- Communism and Pro-Liberal Democracy Ideologies have always influenced the
shape and course of foreign policies of non-Communist Western nations. Ideological conflict remained
determining factor in the cold War policies (1945-90) of both the super powers.

9. Public Opinion:

Public Opinion, national as well as international is another important input of Foreign policy. Decision-
makers of each nation have to accept and give due place to the opinion of the people they represent as
well as to the World Public Opinion. Undoubtedly, the Decision-makers as leaders have to lead the public
yet they also have to accommodate the demands of public opinion.

The American Senate’s refusal to ratify the American membership of the League of Nations, and the
opposition of Vietnam War by the Americans and other peoples, had a big Impact on the Foreign Policy
of the U.S.A.
Qno. 10: What is National Interest? Explain its types and determinants.

Ans: Introduction

National interest is the most crucial concept in international relations. It is the key concept in foreign
policy as it provides the material based on Which foreign policy is made. While formulating foreign
policy, all statesmen Are guided by their respective national interests. It is the purpose of foreign Policy
to conduct foreign relations to achieve national interest to the Maximum extent. But it is not easy to
determine exactly what a nation’s National interest is. This concept is highly vague and difficult to define.

According to Frankel, ambiguity is caused by the different usage of the Concept in different contexts.
National interest may explain the aspirations of the state. It can also be utilized operationally in the
execution of the actual Policies and programs followed. It can be used polemically in political Arguments
to explain, rationalize, or criticize. Contemporary controversies on Foreign policy usually come out of
these ambiguities.

Napoleon said he was acting in France’s interest when he initiated the Russian campaign. Later, he
mounted a last desperate battle at Waterloo.

Adolf Hitler justified his expansionist policies, including a mindless multi-Front war, in the name of
Germany’s national interest.

Joseph Stalin destroyed or displaced Russian farmers and other anti-Soviet elements by the millions in
the name of the Soviet Union interest.

Meaning and Nature of National Interest:

Frankel divides the various attempts to define national interest into two Broad categories:

Objective approaches and subjective approaches.

The first category embraces those approaches that view national interest as a concept that can be
defined or examined with some objectively definable criteria. The second Category contains those
definitions which seek to interpret national interest as a constantly changing pluralistic set of subjective
references.

The task of defining national interest becomes more cumbersome as the Domestic and international
activities overlap. It is appropriate if national Interest is seen as a synthesis of the objective and
subjective approaches. In Most nation-states, the iron law of oligarchy is prevalent, implying that
Governmental decisions are made only by a few men and women.
Function and Purpose of National Interest:

One cannot be more specific in explaining the meaning and content of National interest as both its value
roots and the process of its synthesis are Peculiar to the history, traditions, and institutional make-up of
a country. One can, however, be quite clear about its function.

Lerche and Said explain: As the over-riding purpose governing the state’s relationship with the outside
World, it serves two purposes. It gives policy a general orientation towards the external environment.
More importantly, it serves as the controlling criterion of choice in immediate situations. The dominant
view of national Interest, in other words, dictates the nature of a state’s long-term effort in Foreign
policy and governs what it does in a short-term context.

Determinants of National Interest:

Several factors of variables, both internal and external, play their role in the formulation of national
interest. These determinants are the qualities, Personality, and ideals of decision-makers, the interests of
the most Influential groups within the nations, the types of philosophies of Governmental structures and
processes, the customs and cultural styles of different societies ideologies of the states, the geopolitical
location and the Capabilities of various countries, the types of challenges and pressures that each
country faces from neighboring countries, great powers and International organizations and finally the
general nature of international Society prevailing at a given time.

Types of National Interest:

Robinson has pointed out six types of national interest, which are as follows:

I. Primary-Interests:

These are also known as core or vital interests. These include preserving the Physical, political, and
cultural identity of the state against possible Encroachments from outside powers. These interests are
primary and vital that the state must constantly defend Them at all costs. These interests cannot be
compromised.

II. Secondary Interests:

Though less important than the first one, these are quite crucial to the Existence of the state. These
include the protection of the citizens abroad And ensuring diplomatic immunizes for the diplomatic staff.

III. Permanent Interests:

These pertain to the relatively constant and long-term interests of the state. The change in the
permanent interest, if any, is rather steady. An example of this kind is provided by Britain’s determination
to maintain freedom ofnavigation during the past few centuries for the protection of her overseas
Colonies and growing trade.
 IV. Variable Interests:

These interests are considered vital for national good in a given set of Circumstances. In this sense, the
variable interest can diverge from both Primary and permanent interest. These changeable interests can
diverge From both primary and permanent interests. These changeable interests are Mainly determined
by factors like personalities, public Opinion, sectional Interests, partisan politics, political and moral
folkways.

V. General Interests:

These refer to those positive conditions that apply to many nations or in Several specified fields such as
economics, trade, diplomatic intercourse, etc. For instance, Britain’s general national interest was to
maintain a balance of Power on the European continent.

VI. Specific Interests:

Through the logical outgrowth of the general interests, specific interests are Defined in time and space.
For example, Britain regarded it as a specific National interest to maintain the new countries’
independence for Preserving the balance of power in Europe. Besides the above six types of national
Interest, Robinson has mentioned three other interests he describes as International interests.

These are as follows:

1. Identical Interests:

These refer to interests that are held in common by several states. These are also known as common
interests. For example, both the USA and Britain Have been interested that any single power should not
dominate Europe. Third World countries have a common interest in asking for the New International
Economic Order. It must be mentioned here that the area of Commonness is always subject to change.

2. Complementary Interests:

Those interests, which though not identical, can form the basis of agreement on some specific issues are
called complementary interests. For example, Britain was interested in Portugal’s independence against
Spain because it wanted to control the region of the Atlantic Ocean. Likewise, Portugal was Interested in
the British maritime hegemony because it was a safe defence Mechanism against Spain.

3. Conflicting Interests:

Other than the identical and complementary interests fall in the category of Conflicting or opposed
interests. The conflicting interests are not fixed and Undergo a change owing to the force of events and
diplomacy. Thus the Present time, conflicting interests may become complementary interests. Similarly,
complementary and identical interests can also be converted into Conflicting interests.

Instruments and Methods for the Promotion of National Interest:

Palmer and Perkins well explain instruments and methods for the promotion of national interest. It will
be pertinent to rely on their views while dealing With these instruments and methods. These can be
briefly explained as follow:
 i. Diplomacy
ii. Alliances
iii. Propaganda
iv. Psychological and Political Warfare
v. Economic Methods
vi. Imperialism and Colonialism

Qno. 11: What is National Power? Explain its elements.

Ans: Introduction

International Politics is the struggle of power because the aim of all states now is ta achieve power. So.
Power is an ancient element of politics.

Power and Political Science

According to Morgenthau, power in pol sci means, “the power of man over the world under section of
the other man”.

Meaning

Power is a means by which the demands for change and means for change and resistance lo change are
advanced.

Power and I.R

International relations is the ability to control the behaviour of other states according to one’s own will.

Definition

According to Shwargan Bergar “the power is the capacity to impose one’s will on others by reliance and
effective sanctions in case of non compliance”.

According to V.V Dyle, “ power is both the capstone among the objective which state pursues and
cornerstone armong the methods which employ”.

Elements/Factors of National Power

There are two types of power elements

1) Tangible elements
2) Intangible elements

Tangible Elements

These are primary and basic power elements of any state. Their detail is as under:
Geography

The first tangible element of power is geography because the importance of geography factors has been
recognised since old times. For example, according to geo politicians who rules eastern europe rules the
world.

Size of Territory

The size of territory also increases the power of a nation. A smal state cannot become powerful because
the large area of the country also helps to establish a strong industrial estate.

Atomic Power

Another tangible element of power is atomic energy because it has also come to be regarded as an
important source of national power but it contributes to the natianal power when fruitfully exploited.

Location

Location is an important tangible factor of power because it determines the country’s security and its
relationship without a side world. For example, England and Japan.

National Resources

The national resources and raw material available in a country also greatly contribute to the national
power. National resources are the gifts of nature which include minerals, fertility of soil and water. Raw
materials are the result of human labour which include food, rubber and cotton, etc. For exanple, oil and
uranium have also significantly affected the national power of the country. But, it must be noted that if
natural resources and raw materials are not properly utilized, they cannol contribute to the national
power of the country.

Population

The population is a critical factor of tangibile elements of national power. Usually, populated Countries
are considered as a source of power if utilized, otherwise it can also be a source of weakness.

For example, China has a controlled population which is one of the factors upon which national power
rests.

Military Preparedness

National Power is also dependent upon military facts because following factors considered the military
preparedness of a state Technology. The faith of the nation has been determined through its technology
for war. Leadership: The quality of military leadership has always greatly impacted upon national power.

InTangible Elements of Power:

Political Structure

The pasition of material and human resources would prove useless if political structure or govemment
cannot play its role effectively. So the government plays an important role in making national power with
proper political support. Moreover, a government becomes an international power if it increases its
economic contrcl, its people, and military.

Economic Development

Economic development is another intangible element of the power of a country position of raw material
does not make a nation powerful. So, the economic system of the state is dynamic to achieve goals. Due
to this thinker experts says” The states of a state is determined by its economy”

National Morale

National morale is the degree of the determination with which a nation supports the foreign policy of its
government in peace and war. That is why Palmers and Perkins says, Morale is a thing of a spirit made up
of loyalty, Courage , faith, and impulse to the preservation of personality and dignity.

Leadership

The quality and wisdom of leadership both political and literary other elements of power. In every
political system important and critical decisions are taken by political leaders. That is why says, A Country
is bound to be strong and more powerful if its leadership has the strength cf wisdom and intelligence.

Diplomacy

The national power of a country is also determined by the quality of the leadership According to
Morgenthau, it is the quality of diplomacy which gives direction and weight to other elements of
national power. So Diplomacy in the brain of nation power of national moral is its scull.

Ideas

A body of ideas concerning economic, social and political values and goals which pose an action
programme for attaining these goals. Ldeas and ideology from the other elements of power. In the
modem world the ideologies of socialism, communism, democracy. Liberalism and nationalism have an
international appeal.

Limitations of National Power

After examining the various elements of national power, it shall be desirable to study the factors that
limit the powers of state.

The Balance of Power

The balance of power means checking power with power, like check and balance in domestic politics and
in the fleld of international politics also the power of one nation or a group of nations is used to prevent
a particular naticn from imposing its will upon others.

International Morality

Power is a crude and unreliable method of limiting the aspirations for pcwer in international science. So,
to preserve the society certain moral rules have been put forward which make the statement relaticn
between nations more powerful.
The World Public Opinion

Another limitation on the power of a nation is the concept of world putblic opinion. According to
Morgenthau the world public opinion is obviously a public opinion that transcends national boundaries.

International Law

Another limitation of national power is international law. These are the rules for human conduct in all
societies. Similarly in the society of nations there exist moral norms for the regulation of the conduct of
the nation. The sum total of these norms is known as International Law. If each nation uses its power in
unlimited terms against its neighbours or opponents. So, to overcome all this a code of conduct in the
nature of international law is necessary to limit the national power.

Disarmament

Efforts at disarmament of the League of Nations and UN have also limited the national power. This
aspect has acquired much importance in our days.

International Organization

The formation of international organisations like the League of Nation and the United Nations has also
restrained the power of the state.

Conclusion

The states are expected to act in accordance with the principles stated in the charter. It is true that the
United Nations can intervene in the national matters of any state, but it certainly acts as a check on the
unfair and unlimited use of power by the states.

Qno. 12: Define Balance of Power, its Types, Characteristics, Methods and Problems?

Introduction

Power and its distributions is one of the major determinants of national power. The traditional relational
among the independent nations have been explained in terms of Balance of Power. It is one of the oldest
concepts of I.R from the 15th to 19th century; this is the sibs of power politics. It is based on the equality
of states.

Theories of Peace

Theories of peace in I.R are following:

Peace through Balance of Power

Peace through International Law

Peace through International Organization

Peace through Disarmament

Peace through Collective Security

Definitions

Some various thinkers define it in different styles. Some important definitions are as following:

According to Palmer and Perkins, balance of power means that through shifting alliances and
countervailing pressures no one power or combination of power will be allowed to grow strong enough
to threaten the security of the rest.

According to Morgenthau, It is an actual state of affairs in which power is distributed among severals
with approximate equality.

Idealist and Balance of Power

Idealist supports balance of power for keeping and promoting international peace

Realist and Balance of Power

They are against balance of power because states are interested only in a balance which is in their
power.

Characteristics of Balance of Power

Constant Change: The balance of power is subjected to constant changes from equilibrium to
disequilibrium.

Acquiring Process: It is not a gift of god but it is achieved by the active intervention o 24/3 No state can
wait for long to allow the balance of power to establish automatically.

Status Quo: Balance of power favours the status quo but to be effective.

Seldom Existence: Real balance of power seldom exists. If real war takes place it means the real balance
of power was not there.

Objective and Subjective Approach: It offers both the objective approach of an historian and subjective
approach of a statesman.

Identified Policy: It is sometimes identified as a policy.

Game of a Big Power: This game is meant of big powers and the small powers are like weights in a
balance used by others.

Types/Kinds

Simple and Complex Balance Of Power

Simple Balance of Power means only two countries are involved e.g. US and USSr during cold wars.
Whereas, a complex balance of power means more than two countries are involved in war and this
situation was formed during the 1st and 2nd world war.

General and Local Balance of Power

General balance of power means the balance of power and on other hand local balance of power means
balance of power at sub system level.

For example, the India balance of power between India and Pakistan.

Objective and Subjective balance of power

Objective balance of power can be forced by objective things, for example, power of geographical
supremacy, and advanced military etc. The subjective balance of power existed in the shape of beliefs,
for example, ideological favour. Afghanistan is an example of objective and subjective balance of power.

Natural and Contrived balance of power

Natural balance of power means the system of balance of power that actually exists, for example, USA
and USSR during the cold war. On the other hand, contrived balance of power means states intentionally
using the system to play war games.

Methods

Divide and Rule

This technique has also been used by nations who want to keep their competitors to wars.

Alliance and Counter Alliance

The most commonly used device of balance of power has been the aliances. It has beer traditional
instruments to strengthen one state against another when the state feels cannot defend itself and then
enter into the alliance with each other.

For example, NATO alliances are followed by the counter alliances and play a major role in the security of
balance of power e.g. war is an alliance against NATO.
Compensation

Compensations of tavitorial nature were also used to maintain balance of power in the 18th and 19th
century. Tavitorial compensation has been made by strong power at the expense of weaker and it is also
used by victorious nations at the end of the war.

Armaments and Disarmaments

Military preparedness is the best means of national defence. This policy is bound to lead to armaments
race. The development in science and technology and the methods of war has increased the fear of
distraction. So, to attain the balance of power disarmament is necessary.

Intervention and Non Intervention

It is a very crude method of maintaining balance of power. Intervention is a doctoral interference in the
internal affairs of another country by a powerful nation for some goallpurpose. For example, the UK
interval in Greek, US and Cuba etc. It is a political term which also has the same meaning of intervention.
This policy is followed by small states to preserve Balance of Power.

Partition

It can also be used for the maintenance of balance of power. Mostly, the major power: 26/ 3% the
territory in such a way that there is no danger in achieving a dominant positio. . .. example, the partition
of Poland between Russia and Germany.

War

War is also a method of maintaining balance of power. When a nation feels that a particular state has
become more powerful and can disturb international peace anytime and then several nations decide to
start war to spire the system e.g 2nd world war.

Buffer State

This is another technique of maintaining the balance of power between the two powerful states. Buffer
states are of great importance between great powers because of their interest in inquiring the equality
of power. For example, Afghanistan was the buffer state between the USA and USSR during the cold war.

Neutralization

Sometimes a country is neutralized to create a kind of buffer between two powerful countries and they
avoid attack or interference in its affairs e.g Belgium in Europe.

Vitality of Balance of Power

Protection of Peace

The first benefit of balance of power is the protection of peace because after equality of power no one
state can be shared about to victory and shall not dare to start war.
Protection of Modern State System

Balance of power is also benefited from securing’prote cting the modem state system because it is
shared by preventing any single state from becoming powerful.

Obedience of International Law

The balance of power also forced the state to obey international law.

Problems:

1. The theory wrongly assumes that attraction of states is motivated by increasing their power. No doubt
power is one of the goals of the state but it is not the sole goal. The economic and cultural interests of
the states also greatily influence their actions.

2. The theory wrongly assumes that states can shift sides according to their sweet will. In Fact the states
are chiefly motivated by the consideration their national interest and choose allies to promote the same.
3. The theory of balance of power assumes that balance of power is the n” preponderance of power is
an exception. At present, the US has a preponder. R power and we can say that the balance of power is
an exception and preponderance of power has been the rule in the international.

4. The theory of balance of power flantis all norms of international morality and justice and attaches
more importance to self interest in other worlds if forced on principles of expendacy rather than justice.

5. The states increase their power not only through armaments conquests of alliances but also through
industrialisation, improvement in national character and several other methods.

Qno. 13: What is Diplomacy? Define its definition, kinds/channels, problems, difficulties and purpose?

Introduction

Diplomacy occupies an important position in I.R not only because it provides valuable information about
I.R history but also provides latest information of events of I.R which have shaped IR.

Development of Diplomacy/Origin

The origin of organized diplomacy can be traced from the times of the ancient Greek city states. Other
civilizations like Chinese, Romans and Islamic etc also had a significant contribution in the development
of diplomacy.

Origin of Modern Diplomacy

In the 19th century, diplomacy was known as modern diplomacy because of the change in the nature of
diplomacy. Moreover, In 19th and 20th century, Harold Nicholson’s three developments greatly affected
the practice and theory of diplomacy.
Styles of Diplomacy

There are two styles of diplomacy:

• Open Diplomacy

In open diplomacy negotiations are conducted openly and avoid secrecy. Far example, US President
Willson’s 14 points was an example of open diplomacy.

• Secret Diplomacy

Another style which the state adopted is secret diplomacy. Secret negotiations are conducted in this
style of diplomacy.

Kinds/Sources

The channels of diplomacy can be divided into two categories that are mentioned below:

1. Traditional Diplomacy
2. New Diplomacy

Traditional Diplomacy

The old or traditional diplomacy operated on the concept that great power has a special duty for keeping
world peace. But it was limited to Europe and was secret. Traditional diplomacy emerged with the
formation of the nation state system and continued till the 19th century.

New Modern Diplomacy

Traditional diplomacy was replaced by new diplomacy in the early 20th century.

The channels adopted under new department are as following:

1. Summit Diplomacy

The term summit iplomacy was introduced by Churchill in 1953 when he proposed a conference of the
head of the government. It applied direct participation of the head of the state in diplomatic negotiation.
E.g Congress of Vienna held in 1815.

2. Foreign Diplomacy

It is another style of summit diplomacy but in this channel of diplomacy foreign ministers participate in
foreign negotiations.

3. Multilateral diplomacy

Another important channel of new diplomacy is multilateral diplomacy. In fact the problem of any state
has a worldwide impact and there is no international body of the state to solve these problems. So,
multilateral diplomatic conferences are being held e.g congress of Westphalia (1648) and congress of
Vienna (1815).

4. Personal Diplomacy

In this type of diplomacy the head of the states tried to establish direct contact with other countries and
mostly they contacted each other on phones and direct correspondence. E.g Churchill and Roservely
developed this practice.

5. Democratic Diplomacy

This channel of diplomacy is specially conducted by European countries in which diplomatic negotiations
are conducted openly.

6. Totalitarian Diplomacy

This style of diplomacy is adopted by those countries which established dictatorship.

7. Parliamentary Diplomacy Through UN

Parliamentary diplomacy is another channel of getting international public opinion. This is done by UN
conducted conferences.

Terms Of Diplomacy

1. Shuttle Diplomacy
2. Sports Diplomacy
3. Defense Diplomacy
4. Economic Diplomacy
5. Environmental Diplomacy
6. Cultural Diplomacy

Problems Of Diplomacy

1. Developing of Communication

The development of communication factors that has changed the role of diplomacy is the development
of transport and communication. This development has brought change in the internet.

2. Power Politics

Power politics means struggle for power and this struggle has changed the role of diplomacy in the
world.
 3. Open Diplomacy

It is another problem of diplomacy. In this diplomacy people participate in the international negotiation
which also reduces the role of diplomate.

4. The Role of Super Power

After the 2nd world war, the role of superpowers was strongly established. This resulted in a great
setback in diplomacy.

5. Secrecy

Secret diplomacy is back channel diplomacy which creates problems for democratic world.

6. Diplomacy of Third World Countries

Diplomacy of third world countries has failed to perform their diplomatic function properly. This style
also creates problems for diplomacy.

Qno. 14: What are the kinds of diplomats, characteristicas and duties?

“When a diplomat says yes he means perhaps, when he says perhaps he means no and when he says no
he is not a diplomate”.

Who is a Diplomat?

A diplomat is an essential element of practicing diplomacy in International Relations. Representatives are

sent from country to country to exchange Dialogues and present opportunities for mutual interests on
behalf of their Country. These representatives represent their heads of state in different countries and
on different occasions. These are the Diplomats.

Kinds of Diplomate

Kinds of diplomate are mentioned below:

1. Ambassador

2. Councilor General

3. Councilor

4. Minister Plenipotentiary
Qualities of Diplomat

According to H. Nicholson: He has highlighted the following qualities of an ideal diplomat, including
truth, calm, patience, good tempor, modesty, and loyalty.

Duties of Diplomat

1. Representation

A diplomate is a formal representative of his country in a foreign state

2. Negotiation

Diplomates are defined by negotiation and their duties are to protect the national interest of state.

3. Reporting

Reports from diplomats are the raw materials of foreign policy. So, diplomats must be good reporters.

4. Protection of Interest

It is a duty of a diplomat to look after the interest of the country and never make compromises on it.

5. Solve the Problem

Another purpose of diplomacy or a diplomat is to solve the problems of their country with the help of
foreign state.

Q.no. 15: What is Power? Explain its meaning and Elements.

Ans: Introduction

Power in international relations is like the weather and just as Meteorologists and farmers try to forecast
storms and rains, Similarly analysts and leaders try to understand the dynamics of major changes in the
distribution of power among nations. Power transitions impact the fortunes of nations and are often
associated with the disastrous storms of world war.

What is Power really?

In international relations, the concept of power takes in a variety of connotations. We have political and
economic power, civilian or Military power, ideological and religious power, normative and Legislative
power etc.

Robert Dahl defines it as “the ability to get others to do what they otherwise would not do”.
The different types of power in IR have been clearly presented in Three basic forms:

Domineering Power, Compromise Power, and United Power

Domineering power

Domineering power is the power of the ‘strong’ (S) to impose their Will on the ‘weak’ (W). Domineering
power encompasses power as Strength and as control over resources and outcomes––and this Primarily
to the extent that they are exercised against the Resistance of the Weak. It is the power of S to impose
their will Unilaterally, and even against resistance on W, to get W to do Something W would not do
otherwise, to get the outcomes they Want without offering something in return. W’s resistance does not
have to be explicit or overt. If S imposes its will on W without Regard to W’s interests, we would call it
domineering power even if W made no observable attempt to resist. There is a presumption, However,
that W’s compliance is not voluntary and that W prefers a different outcome, and would resist if it could.

Compromising power

Compromising power is the relative ability of actors or parties in a Specific situation to exert influence
over each other. If both parties are on an equal footing in a debate, then they will have equal
Compromising power, like in a perfectly competitive economic Market, but if the actors are not on an
equal footing, then they will Have an unequal compromising power eventually creating a Monopolistic
economic market.

United power

United power is a form of power that is generated horizontally Between people who “act in concert.” It is
the capacity of a group to construct political orders or mould existing political orders. United power is
not hierarchical and neither it is the property of an individual actor but always belongs to the group.
Where Domineering power and compromising power depend on strength and resources, united power
depends on numbers and conviction.

Q.no 16: Explain the concept of Disarmaments & Arms control.

Ans: Meaning of Disarmament

Disarmament literally means the reduction or elimination of armaments. The term ‘Disarmament’ is
used in very general sense and as such it connotes the idea of limitation, or control, or reduction, or
elimination of armaments.

According to Morgenthau, “Disarmament is the reduction or elimination of certain or all armaments for
the purpose of ending the armament race”.

 Enormous destruction caused by the Second World War

  Fearing that another war may completely wipe out the human race

Kinds of Disarmament

General and local disarmament:

In General Disarmament, all or most of the great powers participate. Examples are the Washington
Treaty of 1922 for the limitation of naval armaments, signed by all major naval powers, and the World
Disarmament Conference of 1932.

We refer to Local Disarmament when only limited numbers of nations are involved. The Rush-Bagot
agreement of 1817 between the United States and Canada is an example of this type of Disarmament.

Quantitative and Qualitative Disarmament:

Quantitative Disarmament refers to an overall reduction of armaments of most or all types. This was the
goal of most nations represented at the world conference in 1932.

Qualitative disarmament aims at the reduction or abolition of only certain special types of armaments as
was discussed by the Atomic Energy Commission of the United Nations.

Total Disarmament:

Total disarmament aims at complete elimination of armaments. There would be no weapon of any kind
whatsoever.

Arms control

Arms control is concerned with regulating the armaments race in the future.

As such, disarmament is concerned with the control of existing weapons and arms control with that of
future weapons. Disarmament seeks to control armaments and arms control tries to check the
armaments raceDisarmamen is concerned with the reduction or elimination of armament, but this
applies only to the control of existing weapons.

Need for Disarmament

1. The prevention of War and the Establishment of Peace

2. Nuclear Threat
3. Economic Argument- resources, other avenues of public and private expenditure, Immediate
consumption as well as future economic growth
4. Social argument- problem of poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, housing and that of raising
standard of Political Argument- Armaments cause international suspicious and fears
5. Psychological Grounds- uncertainty, fear and anxiety.
For ensuring an effective disarmament process the United Nations Organization Undertook the
following steps

 Atomic Energy Commission- In 1945 the UN general assembly setup an Atomic energy
Commission to make specific proposals for the control of atomic energy for peaceful purpose
and for bringing about the total prohibition of atomic weapons and other weapons of mass
destruction.
 Commission on Conventional Armaments - Expected to prepare and submit to the council within
three months proposals for “the general regulation and reduction at armaments and armed
forces;” and to suggest practical and effective safeguards. Disarmament Commission Draft treaty
for the regulation of conventional as well as atomic armaments.
 The Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT)- 1963 , Banned nuclear testing in the atmosphere, underwater
and in space; however, nuclear weapons testing continued underground.
 Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968) – (India, Israel and Pakistan)
Stopping the spread of nuclear weapons and related technology
 Biological Weapons Convention(1972)
Prohibition of the development, production and Toxin weapon
 The Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty(1972)
Prohibits the use of defensive systemsthat might give an advantage to one side in a nuclear war.
 Strategic Arms Limitation talks (SALT-I and SALT-II)
Between the USSR and the US, During cold war.
 Helsinki conference, 1975-Communist governments and the Western world, Consensus among
participating nations to promote human rights, adherence to international law and the peaceful
resolution of disputes.
 The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) 1996
To Prevent testing of nuclear weapons and hence reduce the chance of an arms race.

Hindrances in the way of Disarmament

■ The problem of disarmament is closely related to the problem of security.

■ Fear and mutual distrust.

■ The nations lack the real desire for disarmament (Lack of willingness)

■ Unstable balance of power- Armaments are the result of certain psychological factors. So long as these
factors persist, disarmament seems to be a distant possibility

■ Power equality as the ideal situation for disbarment. Since this situation is highly improbable,
disarmament also appears improbable in the near future.
Q.no 17: What is Cold War? Explain its causes, origin, important events and Effects.

Ans: Introduction

After the Second World War, the USA and USSR became two Super Powers. One nation tried to reduce
the power of other. Indirectly the competition between the Super Powers led to the Cold War. Then
America took the leadership of all the Capitalist Countries. Soviet Russia took the leadership of all the
Communist Countries. As a result of which both stood as rivals to each other. The Cold War was a period
(1945-1991) of geopolitical tension between the Soviet Union and its satellite states (the Eastern
European countries), and the United States with its allies (the Western European countries) after World
War II.

In the graphic language of Hartman, “Cold War is a state of tension between countries in which each
side adopts policies designed to strengthen it and weaken the other by falling short by actual war”. In
fact, Cold War is a kind of verbal war which is fought through newspapers, magazines, radio and other
propaganda methods. It is a propaganda to which a great power resorts against the other power. It is a
sort of diplomatic war.

Note:

The Cold War was between Allied countries (UK, France etc. who were led by the US) and Soviet Union.

Origin of Cold War

There is no unanimity amongst scholars regarding the origin of the Cold War In 1941 when Hitler invaded
Russia, Roosevelt the President of USA sent armaments to Russia. It is only because the relationship
between Roosevelt and Stalin was very good. But after the defeat of Germany, when Stalin wanted to
implement Communist ideology in Poland, Hungery, Bulgaria and Rumania, at that time England and
America suspected Stalin.

Winston Churchill, the Prime Minister of England in his ‘Fulton Speech’ on 5 March 1946 said that Soviet
Russia was covered by an Iron Curtain. It led Stalin to think deeply. As a result of which suspicion became
wider between Soviet Russia and western countries and thus the Cold War took birth.

Causes of The Cold War

Various causes are responsible for the outbreak of the Cold War. During the World War Allied countries
(US, UK and France) and Soviet Union fought together against the Axis powers (Nazi Germany, Japan,
Austria). However, this wartime alliance could not workout after World War II, due to multiple factors.

I. Potsdam conference

The Potsdam conference was held at Berlin in 1945 among US, UK and Soviet Union to discuss:

➤ Immediate administration of defeated Germany.

➤ Demarcation of boundary of Poland.

➤ Occupation of Austria.

II. Role of the Soviet Union in Eastern Europe

Soviet Union wanted some portion of Poland (bordering Soviet Union) to be maintained as a buffer zone.
However, the USA and UK didn’t agree to this demand. Also, the USA did not inform the Soviet Union
about the exact nature of the atomic bomb, dropped on Japan.

This created suspicion in Soviet Union about the intentions of western countries, embittering of the
alliance. This created suspicion in the Soviet leadership.

III. Truman’s Doctrine

Truman Doctrine was announced on March 12, 1947,by US President Harry S. Truman.

The Truman Doctrine was a US policy to stop the Soviet Union’s communist and imperialist endeavors,
through various ways like providing economic aid to other countries.

For example, US appropriated financial aid to support the economies and militaries of Greece and
Turkey. Historians believe that the announcement of this doctrine marked the official declaration of the
Cold War.

IV. Iron Curtain

Iron Curtain is the political, military, and ideological barrier erected by the Soviet Union after World War
II to seal off itself and its dependent eastern and central European allies from open contact with the
West and other noncommunist areas.

➡ Important Events of the Cold War

Berlin Blockade 1948

As the tension between Soviet Union and Allied countries grew, Soviet Union applied Berlin Blockade in
1948. The Berlin Blockade was an attempt by the Soviet Union to limit the ability of Allied countries to
travel to their sectors of Berlin. Further, on August 13, 1961, the Communist government of the German
Democratic Republic began to build a barbed wire and concrete wall (Berlin Wall) between East and
West Berlin. This Berlin Wall served as a symbol of the Cold War (US and Soviet Union), until its fall in
1989.

Afghanistan War

In the 1980s, just as the United States had done in Vietnam, the Soviet Union intervened in Afghanistan
In response, the US supported the Mujahideen (Afghani guerrillas) against the USSR, by sending them
money and weapons.
Vietnam War

The Vietnam War was an extremely long and costly conflict that pitted North Vietnam against South
Vietnam and the United States in the 1960s.

The Soviet Union sent money and supplied weapons to the communist forces. By 1975, the US was
forced to withdraw, and the North seized control of south Vietnam.

NATO vs Warsaw Pact

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

The Berlin blockade showed the West’s military unreadiness and frightened them into making definite
preparations. Therefore, in 1948, mainly the countries of western Europe signed the Brussels Defence
Treaty, promising military collaboration in case of war.

Later on Brussels Defence Treaty was joined by the USA, Canada, Portugal, Denmark, Iceland, Italy and
Norway. This led to the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in April 1949.

NATO countries agreed to regard an attack on any one of them as an attack on all of them, and placing
their defence forces under a joint command.

Warsaw Pact

The Warsaw Pact (1955) was signed between Russia and her satellite states shortly after West Germany
was admitted to NATO. The Pact was a mutual defense agreement, which the Western countries
perceived as a reaction against West Germany’s membership of NATO.

Arms Race

The containment strategy of US provided the rationale for an unprecedented arms buildup in the United
States, reciprocated by Soviet Union. Development of nuclear weapons took place on a massive scale
and the world entered into the age of nuclear age.

The Cuban Missiles Crisis, 1962

The Cuba got involved in the Cold War when US broke off its diplomatic relations with Cuba in 1961, and
Soviet Union increased their economic aid to Cuba.

In 1961, the USA planned Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba, intending to overthrow the head of Cuban state
(Fidel Castro), who was backed by the Soviet Union. However, the operation failed. Fidel Castro then
appealed to the Soviet Union for military help, to which Soviet Union decided to set up a nuclear missile
launchers in Cuba aimed at the USA.

Cuban Missile Crisis, brought two superpowers on the brink of a nuclear war. However, the crisis was
averted Diplomatically.
End of the Cold War

In 1991, Soviet Union collapsed due to multiple factors which marked the end of the Cold War, as one of
the superpowers was weakened.

Reasons of the collapse of the Soviet Union

Military reasons

➤ The space race and the arms race drained a considerable proportion of Soviet Union’s resources for
military needs.

Policies of Mikhail Gorbachev- perestroika and glasnost

➤ In order to kick start moribund Soviet economy, Gorbachev instituted the policies of glasnost
(“openness”) and perestroika (“restructuring”).

Glasnost was intended for liberalization of the political landscape.

Perestroika intended to introduce quasi free market policies in place of government-run industries.

➤ It allowed more independent actions from various ministries and introduced many market-like
reforms.

Fall of Berlin Wall

➤ Berlin Wall fell on 9/11/1989, marking a symbolic end to the cold war.

Afghanistan War

➤ The Soviet-Afghan (1979-89) was another key factor in the breakup of the Soviet Union, as it drained
the economic and military resources of Soviet Union.

Result of the Cold War

The Cold War had far-reaching implications in the international affairs.

➡ At first, it gave rise to a fear psychosis which resulted in a mad race for the manufacture of more
sophisticated armaments. Various alliances like NATO, SEATO, WARSAW PACT, CENTO, ANZUS etc. were
formed only to increase world tension.

➡ Secondly, Cold War rendered the UNO ineffective because both super powers tried to oppose the
actions proposed by the opponent. The Korean Crisis, Cuban Missile Crisis, Vietnam War etc. were the
bright examples in this direction.

➡ Thirdly, due to the Cold War, a Third World was created. A large number of nations of Africa, Asia and
Latin America decided to keep away from the military alliances of the two super powers. They liked to
remain neutral. So, Non-Alignments Movement became the direct, outcome of the Cold War.
➡ Fourthly, Cold War was designed against mankind. The unnecessary expenditure in the armament
production created a barrier against the progress of the world and adversely affected a country and
prevented improvement in the living standards of the people.

➡ Fifthly, the principle ‘Whole World as a Family’, was shattered on the rock of frustration due to the Cold
War. It Divided the world into two groups which was not a healthy sign for mankind.

➡ Sixthly, The Cold War created an atmosphere of disbelief among the countries. They questioned among
themselves how unsafe were they under Russia or America.

➡ Finally, The Cold War disturbed the World Peace. The alliances and counter-alliances created a
disturbing atmosphere. It was a curse for the world. Though Russia and America, being super powers,
came forward to solve the crisis, yet they could not be able to establish a perpetual peace in the world.

Conclusion

The end of the Cold War marked the victory of the US and the bipolar world order turned into a unipolar.

However, over the last decade, the position of the US as the world’s most powerful state has appeared
increasingly unstable. The US invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq, non-traditional security threats, global
economic instability, the apparent spread of religious fundamentalism, together with the rise of
emerging economic powers (like Japan, Australia, India, China etc.) have made the world look more
multipolar and has led many to predict the decline of the west and the rise of the rest.

Q no. 18: Explain the Concept of Polarity. Also discuss the Present World Order.

Ans: Polarity

The distribution of power and influence over a state, region, or globally is called polarity. It is described
as the nature of the international system at any given period.

Polarity can be distinguished into different types – unipolarity, bipolarity, and multiplicity.

Unipolar World

In international politics and systems, the unipolar world order is the distribution of power in Which only
one state dominates the economic, social, cultural, and military influence over the globe.

After the end of the Cold War between the USA and the Soviet Union, the Soviet Union collapsed, and
the USA emerged as a single powerful nation globally. Scholars of International relations believe that this
was the beginning of America’s emerging unipolar world order.

The US asserted a certain global dominance through economics and military support and also with
political influence. US dollar is considered to be the world’s dominant reserve currency.

Culture, Alliances or Organizations

In the First World War, which was fought from 1914 to 1918, the power was divided between the Central
Powers and the Allied Powers.

The Axis power and the Allies of the world in World War 2, which was fought from 1939 to 1945, formed
a military alliance, and the axis power was defeated.

Bipolarity

International Theorists use the term “bipolarity” to refer to the condition of international affairs when
two superpowers dominate all others. Superpowers or “poles” are terms used to describe these two
nations.

The cold war period, which was characterized as a ‘bipolar’ world order.

Multi-polar World

Multipolarity can be defined as the distribution of power in which more than two nations have almost
equal amounts of power and influence on the global economy, society, culture and military.

There is visible cooperation even amongst adversarial nations. For instance, US-Russia space cooperation
despite a mini-Cold War situation between them or US-China trade relations despite their trade war.

Present World Order

Today’s world order is characterized by existence of multiple powers like USA, European Union, China,
Russia, India and Japan.

Therefore, rather than a replay of “Cold war”, the US-China current crisis showcases that a new kind of
competition is emerging. It is a classic example of “Thucydides trap”, where a rising power (China)
challenges an incumbent power (USA).

It is often described as the age of complex interdependence which makes the polarity of power thesis
irrelevant. We are witnessing the rise of the multipolar world symbolized by BRICS nations.

British bank Standard Chartered believes India and China will both leapfrog U.S. GDP by 2030 and
forecasts that the world’s 10 biggest economies will by then be made primarily of today’s emerging
markets.

China’s Belt and Road Initiative (2013)

The 21st century will be an “Asian century. Today the world as it is fragmented, torn by crosscurrents,
contradictions, and multivalent forcefields, not singular visions. Internal political pressures generated by
social divides drive domestic political dominance over addressing global existential imperatives.

The votes in the United Nations General Assembly on condemning the Russian invasion of Ukraine on
March 2 and on suspending Russia from the U.N. Human Rights Council on April 7 reveal the scale of the
thrust toward independent and countervailing position taking.

This new era of complexity, contradiction, and multivalent forcefields invites new approaches which are
characterized by greater openness to diversity, difference, and eclecticism.
Qno. 19: What do you know about TREATY OF WESTPHALIA?

Introduction:

■ Peace of Westphalia was a series of Peace Treaties signed between May and October in 1648.

■ This treaty brought an end to the Thirty Years War (1618-48) in the Holy Roman Empire (Between
Protestant & the Roman Catholics) and the Eight Year War between Spain and Dutch Republic.

■ This treaty established a new system of IR based on its fundamental principle- the state’s sovereignty.

The Thirty Years War

The Thirty Years War (1618-48) destroyed a good portion of central Europe and led to a population
decline in the area of almost 40%.

The Holy Roman Emperor’s ultimate war aim was to conquer all of Europe and to restore the domination
of the Catholic faith within it.

The whole issue of religion that had torn Europe apart into civil war, massacres, and the terrible
consequences.

This treaty was based on 3 principles:

 The king is the highest authority in his land and all states are equal.
 King determines which religion is to be followed in the state.
 The balance of power will develop to keep in check the hegemonic ambitions of a state.

With the Treaty of Westphalia of 1648, the state emerged as an ideal unit of mankind.

International Relations from the mid-17th century to the mid- 20th century were founded on the
decisions by this Peace Treaty This treaty established the principle of sovereignty.

The Treaty of Westphalia was a series of peace treaties signed in 1648 in the Westphalian cities of
Osnabrück and Münster, which ended the Thirty Years’ War in Europe. The treaty is considered a
landmark in the history of international relations and is often seen as the beginning of the Modern
system of sovereign nation-states.

The treaty established the principle of territorial Sovereignty, which meant that states had exclusive
control over their own territory and could make decisions without interference from other states. This
was a significant departure from the feudal system that had prevailed in Europe for centuries, in which
political authority was based on personal relationships and obligations.
The Treaty of Westphalia also established the principle of state equality, which meant that all states were
considered equal in terms of sovereignty and had the right to conduct their own affairs without
interference from more powerful states.

Qn.o. 20: What was NON-ALIGNMENT MOVEMENT? Explain it.

Introduction

The concept of Non-Alignment propounded by the developing nations during the reign of cold war, who
decided not to align with either of the power blocs in order to safeguard their national and economic
interest and to protect their national sovereignty and freedom as most of them had recently gained
freedom from the shackles of imperialism or colonialism. I have tried to examine the origin of NAM with
special emphasis on the role of India because non-alignment is often considered as the brainchild of
India’s first Prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru and have also tried to examine the relevance of NAM after
60 years of its formal announcement at the Belgrade Conference of 1961.

According to Indira Gandhi, NAM is the biggest peace movement in the world. The Non-alignment
movement is an international forum of 120 developing countries that believe in the idea of non-
alignment with the major power blocks.

The term non-alignment is used to describe the foreign policies of those states that refused to align with
either of two blocks led by the two superpowers i.e., the USA and the USSR. Instead, they opted to
pursue an independent course of action in international politics.

FACTORS THAT HELPED IN FORMATION OF NAM

Followed independent foreign policy: Newly independent countries Asian and African countries want to
establish as independent through NAM.

➤ Economic development: Economic reason is the base of NAM. All NAM countries were economically
backward. The main aim of their foreign policy is increase the rapid economic growth.

➤ Cold War: After Second World War, Cold War had started. There were two superpowers in the world:
United States and Soviet Union. NAM wants to take help from both the superpowers.

Historical Evolution of NAM

• Bandung Asian-African Conference, 1955 is considered as the most immediate antecedent to the
creation of the Non-Aligned Movement.

• The principles that would govern relations among large and small nations, known as the “Ten Principles
of Bandung”, were proclaimed at that Conference.
• Six years after Bandung, the Movement of Non-Aligned Countries was founded on a wider
geographical basis at the First Summit Conference of Belgrade, which was held in 1961.

• During the 1970s and 1980s, the Movement of Non-Aligned Countries played a key role in the struggle
for the establishment of a new international economic order that allowed all the peoples of the world to
make use of their wealth and natural resources and provided a wide platform for a fundamental change
in international economic relations and the economic emancipation of the countries of the South.

• The demise of one of the blocks has not done away with the pressing problems of the world. On the
contrary, renewed strategic interests bent on domination grow stronger and, even, acquire new and
more dangerous dimensions for underdeveloped countries.

Objectives

NAM has sought to “create an independent path in world politics that would not result in member States
becoming pawns in the struggles between the major powers.”

It identifies the right of independent judgment, the struggle against imperialism and neo- colonialism,
and the use of moderation in relations with all big powers as the three basic elements that have
influenced its approach.

At present, an additional goal is facilitating a restructuring of the international economic order.

ROLE/ACHIEVEMENTS OF NAM

i Fight against Colonialism, imperialism, racialism: In the first phase, NAM members Fought against the
colonial rule being remained in the large part of Asia, Africa and Latin America. For it, the movement of
NAM has to oppose all kinds of dominance and hegemony by foreign ruler.

ii Efforts towards disarmament: In the early 1960s, NAM was instrumental in approval of Moscow Test
Ban Treaty through the conference on Disarmament in the UN. India always raised the problem of
discriminatory nature of nuclear proliferation regime through the forum of NAM.

iii Efforts for the Establishment of NIEO: It was realized that without economic independence, political
freedom is false. Hence, since NAM’s Algiers summit in 1973 economic agenda acquired the centre
stage. It is envisaged that this new model needs to be egalitarian and ‘just’. Havana Declaration of 2006

iv To promote and reinforce multilateralism

v To serve as a forum of political coordination of the developing countries

vi To promote unity, solidarity and cooperation between developing countries based on shared values

vii To defend international peace and security and settle all international disputes by peaceful means

viii To encourage the respect, enjoyment and protection of all human rights and fundamental freedoms
for all
Critics

➤ Former NSA Brajesh Mishra, questioned the approach of the report, especially its view that India not
take sides in the rivalry between China and the U.S.

➤ Bharat Karnad called it a regressive foreign policy roadmap. It Misunderstands power, ignores the
centrality of balance of power politics in inter-state relations. This, in turn, leads to questionable analysis
and doubtful policy prescriptions.

Conclusion

According to MK Narayan, while non-alignment giving way to strategic alignment, organization such as
NAM may seem anachronistic. But it still resonates with many third world countries. It also offers
alternative platform for putting forward a different viewpoint. It would hence be premature to announce
death of NAM.

NAM as a concept can never be irrelevant, principally it provides a strong base to foreign policy of its
members.

It should be seen as “Strategic Autonomy”, which is the need of the hour of today’s world. The principles
of NAM still can guide the nations towards it. NAM is a platform where India can assert its soft power
and provide an active leadership and by being a torchbearer for smaller countries at multilateral
platforms. The conference of Heads of the State or Government of the Non-Aligned Countries, often
referred to as Non-Aligned Movement Summit is to be held in Azerbaijan in June 2019. Platform should
be used for consensus making on spectrum of global issues.

It should be used as a platform to raise global issues like terrorism, climate change and trade
protectionism and others.

Qno. 21: What do you know about the theory “Clash of Civilizations”? Discuss it.

Ans: Overview

The Clash of Civilizations is a thesis that people’s cultural and religious identities will be the primary
source of conflict in the post-Cold War world.

This was proposed by Samuel P. Huntington. It was proposed in a 1992 lecture at the American
Enterprise Institute.

The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order

Prior to the end of the Cold War, societies were divided by ideological differences.
• “The most important distinctions among peoples are [no longer] ideological, political, or economic.
Now they are cultural”

• Patterns of conflict will occur along the boundaries of different cultures.

Part One: A World of Civilizations

⚫ Huntington divides the world into eight “major” civilizations:

1) Sinic

2) Japanese

3) Islamic

4) Hindu

5) Orthodox

6) Western

7) Latin American

8) Africa

Part Two: The Shifting Balance of Civilizations

⚫ Western power and influence is fading

⚫ Three characteristics of the Western decline:

I) The current Western decline is a very slow process and is not an immediate threat to World powers
today.

II) Decline of power does not occur in a straight line; it may reverse, speed up, or pause.

III) The power of a state is controlled and influenced by the behavior and decisions of those holding
power.

Part III: The Emerging Order of Civilizations

During the Cold War, the bipolar world order enabled countries to identify themselves as either aligned
or non-aligned.
• In the post-Cold War world order, countries are no longer able to easily categorize themselves and
have entered into an identity crisis.

• Countries started “rallying to those [cultures] with similar ancestry, religion, language, values, and
institutions.

Part IV: Clashes of Civilizations

Coalition or cooperation between Islamic and Sinic cultures to work against a common enemy, the West.

1) The West’s ability to maintain military superiority through the nonproliferation of emerging
powers.
2) The promotion of Western political values such as human rights and democracy.
3) The Restriction of non-Western immigrants and refugees into Western societies.

Part V: The Future of Civilizations

• The ability for the West to remain a global political power, it needs to adapt to increasing power and
influence of different civilizations.

• Without adapting, the West is destined to decline in power and influence, or it will clash with other
powerful civilizations.

• West clashing with another civilization is “the greatest threat to world peace, and an international
order”.

Criticism:

The theory of the “clash of civilizations” has been widely debated and criticized by scholars and
policymakers, who argue that it oversimplifies the complex dynamics of global politics and can lead to a
self-fulfilling prophecy of conflict and division.

Critics have also pointed out that the theory fails to account for the role of economic and political
factors, as well as the potential for cooperation and dialogue across civilizations.

Despite these criticisms, the concept of the “clash of civilizations” continues to be influential in shaping
public discourse and policy, particularly in relation to issues of conflict and security in the post-9/11
world.

However, many experts argue that it is important to move beyond this simplistic and reductionist view of
global politics and to focus instead on promoting intercultural understanding, cooperation, and dialogue
between different civilizations.
Qno. 22: The End of History. Explain this Theory.

Ans: Overview of the Topic

The End of History was firstly an article which was published in 1989 when the cold war had entered into
its final phase.

This Article transformed into full fledge book in 1992 with the title “The End of History and The Last
Man”.

This work was done by an American Political Scientist Francis Fukuyama.

Main point of The End of History

• Fukuyama declared ultimate victory of liberal democracy

He argued that “it may constitute the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the final form of
human government and as such constitute the end of history.”

• Evolutionary struggle of different ideologies have come to its end. Countries will prefer only liberal
democratic government setup from now.

Thoughts of Fukuyama

• Liberal democracy comes much closer to fitting human nature than any form of government or political
organization.

• In the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, communism was undermined by the fact that people did not
believe that was a viable form of government.

• In fact democratic ideas were the primary ones that people found exciting and just.

Fukuyama’s prediction about future

• The end of history will be very sad.

• The struggle for recognition will be replaced with economic aims.

• There will not be a phase in the world history which would be totally peaceful and without any
contradictions and challenges.

Criticism

The book was widely debated and controversial, with some critics arguing that liberal democracy was
not the final form of government and that other ideologies and forms of government could still emerge.
Others have pointed to the continuing challenges faced by liberal democracies, such as corruption,
income inequality, and political polarization, as evidence that the end of history has not yet been
reached.

However, critics like CW Mills held that political and economy power is still concentrated in the hands of
few.

Macintyre called end of ideology as an ideology in itself to project western liberal democratic system as
an ideal one.

UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION (UNO)

An International Organization, Founded in 1945 with the purpose to:

o To maintain international peace and security

o To promote economic and social development
o To promote Human Rights

Original Members - 51; Present Members – 193.

(Latest – South Sudan – July 2011)

Headquarters – in New York

 After World War II – nations were in ruins and world wanted peace
 50 countries gathered in San Francisco in 1945 to sign a document – The UN Charter ( which
created an organisation – The United Nations
 The Charter signed on 26 June 1945 by the representatives of 50 countries. Poland signed it later
and became one of the original 51 Member States
 Charter came into force/ The UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945
 The forerunner of UN was the League of Nations

The name ‘United Nations’ – coined by the U.S. President – Franklin D. Roosevelt

First used in the Declaration by United Nations of 1 January 1942, during Second World War.

 Original UN logo-created by a team of designers in 1945-led by Oliver Lincoln Lundquist

 Official languages of UN - Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, Spanish

There are Six main organs of UN:

➡ GENERAL ASSEMBLY

 Main Deliberative, Policymaking and Representative organ of UN

 All 193 members represented in the General Assembly (only UN body with universal
representation)
 Located in New York
 Meets each year – in September and Elects a General Assembly President each year
 Membership of States in UN- by a decision of General Assembly upon recommendation of
Security Council

Decisions Making in General Assembly

- Two-Third Majority: on decisions of importance (peace and security, admission

of new members and budgetary matters)
- Simple Majority: other decisions
- Sitting arrangements in the General Assembly Hall Changes each session
- During the 74th Session (2019-2020) – Ghana occupied the first seat in the
Hall

Qiuz: Q. Where did the first General Assembly meeting held?

Ans: Westminster Central Hall, London.

➡ Security Council

 Role to maintain International peace and security

 Takes lead in determining existence of threat to the peace or act of aggression
 Located in New York
 Security Council President – changes every month on rotation
 Total Members – 15 (5 permanent and 10 non permanent- for 2 year term). Each Member has
one vote.
 5 permanent members – China, France, Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United
States of America.
 A member state of UN which is not a member of Security Council may participate in discussions
(without a vote) when the Council considers that country’s interests are affected

Veto Power: refers to the power of permanent member to veto (Reject) any resolution of Security
Council.

• The unconditional veto possessed by the five governments has been seen as the most undemocratic
character of the UN.
➡ Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

 UN’s central platform for reflection, debate, and innovative thinking on sustainable development
 Work towards 3 dimensions of sustainable . development-economic, social and environmental
 Also responsible for follow-up to major UN conferences and summits
 Members-54-for overlapping 3 year terms
 Located in New York
 Current President – Her Excellency Mona Juul of Norway.

➡ Trusteeship Council

⚫ It was established to provide International supervision for 11 Trust Territories ( and to promote their
advancement towards self-government or independence).

⚫ Trust territory – a non-self-governing territory placed under an administrative authority by the

Trusteeship Council of UN.

⚫ Aims of Trusteeship System got fulfilled by 1994 all Trust Territories attained self-government or
independence, either as separate States or by joining neighbouring independent countries.

⚫ By a resolution adopted on 25 May 1994- Trusteeship Council amended its rules of procedure
dropped annual meets and agreed to meet as occasion required.

➡ International Court of Justice

• Principal judicial organ of UN

Role:

To settle legal disputes submitted to it by States (in accordance with international law)

To give advisory opinions on legal questions.

About:

 Composed of 15 judges, elected for 9 years by the UN General Assembly and the Security
Council
 Its seat is at the Peace Palace in the Hague (Netherlands)
 The only Principal organ of UN not located in New York (USA)
 Its official languages are English and French

ICJ is the successor of the Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ), which was established by the
League of Nations in 1920.
➡ The Secretariat

o Comprises – Secretary General and tens of thousands of International UN staff members

o Organized along departmental lines, each department/office having distinct action and
responsibility
o Appointment of Secretary General – by the General Assembly – for a 5 year, renewable term
o Secretary-General is the Chief Administrative Officer and Head of the Secretariat
o Located in New York

Specialized agencies

The specialized agencies report annually to ECOSOC and often cooperate with each other and with
various UN organs. However, they also have their own principles, goals, and rules, which at times may
conflict with those of Other UN organs and agencies. The specialized agencies are autonomous Insofar as
they control their own budgets and have their own boards of Directors, who appoint agency heads
independently of the General Assembly or secretary-general. Major specialized agencies and
relatedorgans of the UN include the International Labour Organisation (ILO), The Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO), The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO), and the World Health Organization (WHO). Two of the most powerful
specialized agencies, which also are the most Independent with respect to UN decision making, are the
World Bank and The International Monetary Fund (IMF). The United Nations, along with its Specialized
agencies, is often referred to collectively as the United Nations system.

Qno. 24: What is SAARC? Discuss its objectives and Significance.

Ans: South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is the Regional intergovernmental
organization and geopolitical union of states in South Asia. SAARC was established with the signing of the
SAARC Charter in Dhaka on 8 December, 1985. Its secretariat is in Kathmandu, Nepal.

Current Head: Esala Ruwan Weerakoon (Sri Lanka)

Members: 8 countries – Afghanistan (joined in 2005), Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal,
Pakistan and Sri Lanka.

Objectives of SAARC

To promote the welfare of people of South Asia, strengthen collective self-reliance, promote active
collaboration and mutual assistance in various fields, and cooperate with international and regional
organizations.
SAARC, as an organisation, reflects the South Asian identity of the Countries, historically and
contemporarily. It is a naturally made Geographical identity. Equally, there is a cultural, linguistic,
religious and culinary affinity that defines South Asia.

Significance of SAARC – General

SAARC is the world’s most densely populated region and one of the Most fertile areas. It comprises 3% of
the world’s area, 21% of the world’s population and 3.8% of the global economy. SAARC countries have
the common tradition, dress, food and culture and political aspects thereby synergizing their actions.

The SAARC nations have common problems and solutions such as Poverty, illiteracy, malnutrition, natural
disasters, internal conflicts, Industrial and technological backwardness, low GDP, and poor socio-
Economic condition. These nations can uplift their living standards by creating common areas of
development.

Existing Scenario of SAARC

• The last SAARC summit was held in 2014 and subsequent Summits could not be held after 2016
Summit scheduled in Pakistan got cancelled in the backdrop of terrorist attacks in Pathankot and Uri.

• In 2016, India along with Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, and Sri Lanka declined from
participating in the Islamabad SAARC summit.

• In the regional outreach of BRICS summit of 2016, rather than SAARC, BIMSTEC leaders were invited
giving message that BIMSTEC (of which Pakistan is not a member), has come to be flaunted as an
alternative to SAARC

• In SAARC Ministers Meeting 2019, both countries’ ministers Boycotted each other’s speeches. The
South Asian region is beset with unsettled territorial disputes, as well as trans-border criminal and
subversive activities and cross-border terrorism. The region also remains a theatre for ethnic, cultural
and religious tensions and rivalries besides a current rise in ultra-Nationalism.

Failures & Challenges within SAARC

• Poor Economic integration – As per world Bank report, With intra-regional trade at less than 5% of
total trade, South Asia is the least integrated region in the world, dwarfed by East Asia’s 35% and
Europe’s 60%.o Independent India’s choice of closed Economic Model led to a Steady deterioration of
commercial connectivity with the Neighbours.

• Intra-regional investment is <1% of the region’s overall global Investment.

• South Asia Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) that came into Force in 2006 is often highlighted as a
prominent outcome of SAARC, but given the presence of sensitive lists, it is yet to be Implemented in
spirit.
• Internal Tussles – Pakistan’s non-cooperation has stalled some major initiatives under SAARC. For
example: SAARC-Motor Vehicles Agreement (MVA) and SAARC satellite project were replaced with BBIN-
MVA and South Asia satellite respectively (without Pakistan).

• Taliban takeover of Afghanistan also pose a concern over its Cooperation within SAARC.

• Unstable Financial Positions – SAARC members are Financially and economically not very much
developed, which creates an uncertain future for this organization.

• SAARC faces shortage of resources, but countries have been reluctant to increase their contribution.

• Exclusion of Contentious Issues from SAARC Charter – The Charter of SAARC itself has some self-
imposed anomalies as its Charter has the provision of not discussing the contentious and Bilateral
disputes.

On the one hand, it asks for increased cooperation and Exchanges and avoids negotiations on Bilateral
disputes.

• Lack of Strong Infrastructure – South Asian countries share some common features like cheap labour,
low incomes, low Value-added commodities and comparative advantage in the same commodities as
tea, garments etc.

Qno. 25: What do you know about European Union (EU). Discuss its Role in detail.

Ans: The European Union (EU) is a unique economic and political partnership between European
countries that together cover much of the continent.

Established in: 1993

Member Countries: 27; On 1 February 2020, the United Kingdom became the first member state to
leave the EU. This incident is known as Brexit.

EU was created in the aftermath of the Second World War to foster economic cooperation and to avoid
conflict. The result was the European Economic Community (EEC), created in 1958, and initially
increasing economic cooperation between six countries: Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg
and the Netherlands.

Law-making

There are 3 main institutions involved in EU legislation:

European Parliament, which represents the EU’s citizens and is directly elected by them;

Council of the European Union, which represents the governments of the individual member countries.
The Presidency of the Council is shared by the member states on a rotating basis.
The European Commission, which represents the interests of the Union as a whole. 19 of these
countries use EURO as their official currency. 8 EU members (Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark,
Hungary, Poland, Romania, Sweden) do not use the euro.

Role of EU

 Promote scientific and technological progress.

 Enhance economic, social and territorial cohesion and solidarity among EU countries.
 Respect its rich cultural and linguistic diversity.
 Establish an economic and monetary union whose currency is euro.

European Union was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 2012.

Objectives of EU

➡ Promote peace, values and the well-being of all citizens of EU.

➡Offer freedom, security and justice without internal borders.

➡Sustainable development based on balanced economic growth and price stability, a highly competitive
market economy with full employment and social progress, and environmental protection.

➡Combat social exclusion and discrimination.

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