MAT125 ABSTRACT ALGEBRA I

I. SETS, RELATIONS, AND INTEGERS

1.1 SETS

Definitions.
1. A set is a collection of objects.

2. A set S with only a finite number of elements is called a finite set; otherwise, S is called an infinite set.

Notation:
Let |S| denote the number of elements of S.

Examples:
1. N = {1, 2, 3, 4, · · · }
2. W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, · · · }

3. Z = {· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · }

4. The set of positive integers N = 1, 2, 3, ... is an infinite set.
5. The set E = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} is a finite set.
6. |E|=5

Notation:
x ∈ S means ”x is a member of S”
x < S means ”x is not a member of S”
For the set S = {1, 2, 3}, we have 1 ∈ S and 4 < S.

Definitions.
1. A set A is said to be a subset of a set S if every element of A is an element of S.
In this case, we write A ⊆ S and say that A is contained in S.
2. If A ⊆ S, but A , S, then we write A ⊂ S and say that A is properly contained in S or A is a proper
subset of S.
3. If every member of A is a member of B and every member of B is a member of A, then we say that A
and B are the same or equal. In this case, we write A = B.

Examples:

1. The set of positive integers N = 1, 2, 3, ... is an infinite set.

2. The set E = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} is a finite set.
3. {1, 2, 3} ⊆ {1, 2, 3}.

4. {1, 2} ⊂ {1, 2, 3}.

5. |E|=5

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Theorem 1.1.1
Let A and B be sets. Then A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

Definition.
The null set or empty set is the set with no elements. We usually denote the empty set by ∅. For any set
A, we have ∅ ⊆ A.

We also describe the sets in the following manner. Given a set S, the notation

A = {x | x ∈ S, P(x)}

or
A = {x ∈ S | P(x)}
means that A is the set of all elements x of S such that x satisfies the property P.

For example, N = {x | x ∈ Z, x > 0}.

Definition 1.1.2
The union of two sets A and B, written A ∪ B, is defined to be the set

A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.

In the above definition, we mean x is a member of A or x is a member of B or x is a member of both A

and B.

Definition 1.1.3
The intersection of two sets A and B, written A ∩ B, is defined to be the set

A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.

Here, x is an element of A ∩ B if and only if x is a member of A and x is a member of B.

Theorem 1.1.4
Let A and B be sets. Then the following statements hold:
(i) A ⊆ A ∪ B and B ⊆ A ∪ B.
(ii) A ∩ B ⊆ A and A ∩ B ⊆ B.

Proof:
Let A and B be sets. By the definition of the union of sets, every element of A is an element of A ∪ B.
That is, A ⊆ A ∪ B. Similarly, every element of B is also an element of A ∪ B and so B ⊆ A ∪ B. Also, by
definition of the intersection of sets, every element of A ∩ B is an element of A and also an element of B.
Hence, A ∩ B ⊆ A and A ∩ B ⊆ B. 

Definition.
Two sets are said to be disjoint if A ∩ B = ∅.

Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}. Then

A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

and A ∩ B = {3, 4}. If C = {5, 6}, then

A ∪ C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
while A ∩ C = ∅.

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 Here, A and C are disjoint.

Notation:
• Tni=1 Ai = A1 ∪ A2 · · · ∪ An is the set of all elements x such that x is an element of some Ai , where 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
S
• ni=1 Ai = A1 ∩ A2 · · · ∩ An is the set of all elements x such that x ∈ Ai , for all i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

Definition.
We say that a set I is an index set for a collection of sets A if for any α ∈ I, there exist a set Aα ∈ A and
A = {Aα | α ∈ I}. I can be any nonempty set, finite or infinite.

Notation:
• Tα∈I Aα = {x | x ∈ Aα for at least one α ∈ I}
S
• α∈I Aα = {x | x ∈ Aα for all α ∈ I}

Definition 1.1.5
Given two sets A and B, the relative complement of B in A, denoted by the set difference A \ B, the set

A \ B = {x | x ∈ A, but x < B}.

Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}. Then A \ B = {1, 2}.

Definition 1.1.6
Let A and B be nonempty sets and x ∈ A, y ∈ B.
(i) The ordered pair (x, y) is defined to be the set {{x}, {x, y}}.
(ii)The Cartesian cross product (Cartesian product) of A and B, written A × B, is defined to be the set

A × B = {(x, y) | x ∈ A, y ∈ B}.

Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4}. Then

A × B = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4)}.

Definition 1.1.7
For any set X, the power set of X, written P(X), is defined to be the set {A | A is a subset of X}.

Example:
Let X = {1, 2, 3}. Then
P(X) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}.
Here, P(X) has 23 elements.

Exercises:
1. Let A = {x, y, z} and B = {y, w}. Determine each of the following sets.
(a) A ∪ B
(b) A ∩ B
(c) A \ B
(d) B \ A
(e) A × B
(f) P(A).
2. Prove for sets A and B that A ⊆ B if and only if A ∪ B = B.

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 3. Prove for sets A, B, and C that
(a) A ∪ B = B ∪ A,
(b) A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A,
(c) A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A.

1.2 INTEGERS

Throughout abstract algebra, the set of integers provides a source of examples. In fact, many algebraic
abstractions come from integers.
In this section, we review and prove some important properties of integers.

Principle of Well-Ordering
Every nonempty subset of Z# has a smallest (least) element, that is, if ∅ , S ⊆ Z# , there exists x ∈ S such
that x ≤ y for all y ∈ S.

Theorem 1.2.1 (Principle of Mathematical Induction)

Let S ⊆ Z# . Let n0 ∈ S. Suppose S satisfies either of the following conditions.
(i) For all n ≥ n0 , n ∈ Z# , if n ∈ S, then n + 1 ∈ S.
(ii) For all m < n, n ∈ Z# , if m ∈ S, then n ∈ S.
Then
{n ∈ Z# | n ≥ n0 } ⊆ S.

Note: Z# is the set of nonnegative integers.

A proof by the principle of mathematical induction consists of three steps.

Step 1: Show that n0 ∈ S, i.e., the statement S(n0 ) is true for some n0 ∈ Z# .
Step 2: Write the induction hypothesis: n is an integer such that n ≥ n0 (or k is an integer such that n0 ≤ k ≤ n
and S(k) is true).
Step 3: Show that n + 1 ∈ S, i.e., S(n + 1) is true.

Example:
Show that 2n + 1 ≤ 2n for all n ≥ 3.
Proof:
Let S(n) be the statement: S(n) : 2n + 1 ≤ 2n , n ≥ 3.
We want to show that S(n) is true for all n ≥ 3. First, we verify that S(3) is true. Let n = 3. Now,
2n + 1 = 2(3) + 1 = 7 and 2n = 23 = 8. Thus, for n = 3, 2n + 1 ≤ 2n . This shows that S(3) is true. Suppose that
2n + 1 ≤ 2n for some n ≥ 3, i.e., S(n) is true for some n ≥ 3. Consider S(n + 1),

S(n + 1) : 2(n + 1) + 1 ≤ 2n+1 .

Let us evaluate the left-hand side of S(n + 1). We have

2(n + 1) + 1 = 2n + 2 + 1
= (2n + 1) + 2
≤ 2n + 2
≤ 2n + 2n
= 2n+1 .

Thus, S(n + 1) is true. Hence, by the principle of mathematical induction, 2n + 1 ≤ 2n for all n ≥ 3. 

Theorem 1.2.2 (Division Algorithm)

Let x, y ∈ Z with y , 0. Then there exist unique integers q and r such that x = qy + r, 0 ≤ r < |y|.

Note: In the above theorem, q is called the quotient of x and y on dividing x by y and the integer r is called
the remainder of x and y on dividing x by y.

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Corollary 1.2.3
For any two integers x and y with y > 0, there exist unique integers q and r such that x = qy + r, where
0 ≤ r < y.
Proof:
By Theorem 1.2.2, there exist unique integers q and r such that x = qy + r, where 0 ≤ r < |y|. Since
y > 0, |y| = y. Hence, x = qy + r, where 0 ≤ r < y. 

Definition 1.2.4
Let x, y ∈ Z, with x , 0. Then x is said to divide y or x is a divisor (or factor) of y, written x|y, provided
there exists q ∈ Z such that y = qx. When x does not divide y, we sometimes write x 6 | y.

Definition 1.2.5
Let x, y ∈ Z. A nonzero integer c is called a common divisor of x and y if c|x and c|y.

Definition 1.2.6
A nonzero integer d is called a greatest common divisor (gcd) of the integers x and y if
(i) d|x and d|y
(ii) for all c ∈ Z if c|x and c|y, then c|d.

Theorem 1.2.7
Let x, y ∈ Z, with either x , 0 or y , 0. Then x and y have a positive greatest common divisor d.
Moreover, there exist elements s, t ∈ Z such that d = sx + ty.

Let x and y be nonzero integers. By Theorem 1.2.7, gcd(x, y) exists and if d = gcd(x, y), then there exists
integers s and t such that d = sx + ty. The integers s and t in the representation d = sx + ty are not unique.
For example, let x = 45 and y = 126. Then gcd(45, 126) = 9, and

9 = 3 · 45 + (−1) · 126 = 129 · 45 + (−46) · 126.

Let x, y ∈ Z with y , 0. By the Division Algorithm, there exist q1 , r1 ∈ Z such that

x = q1 y + r1 , 0 ≤ r1 < |y|.

If r1 , 0, then by the division algorithm, there exist q2 , r2 ∈ Z such that

y = q2 r1 + r2 , 0 ≤ r2 < r1 .

If r2 , 0, then again by the division algorithm, there exist q3 , r3 ∈ Z such that

r1 = q3 r2 + r3 , 0 ≤ r3 < r2 .

We continue this process until we reach rn = sx + ty for some integers s and t.

Example:
Consider the integers 45 and 126. Now

126 = 2 · 45 + 36
45 = 1 · 36 + 9
36 = 4 · 9 + 0.

Thus, 9 = gcd(45, 126). Also,

9 = 45 − 1 · 36
= 45 − 1 · [126 − 2 · 45]
= 3 · 45 + (−1) · 126.

Here, s = 3 and t = −1.

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Definition 1.2.8
(i) An integer p > 1 is called prime if the only divisors of p are ±1 and ±p.
(ii) Two integers x and y are called relatively prime if gcd(x, y) = 1.

Theorem 1.2.9
Let x and y be two nonzero integers. Then x and y are relatively prime if and only if there exist s, t ∈ Z
such that 1 = sx + ty.
Proof:
Let x and y be relatively prime. Then gcd(x, y) = 1. By Theorem 1.2.7, there exist integers s, t ∈ Z such
that 1 = sx + ty.
Conversely, suppose 1 = sx + ty for some pair of integers s, t. Let d = gcd(x, y). Then d|x and d|y and so
d|(sx + ty) or d|1. Since d is a positive integer and d|1, d = 1. Thus, gcd(x, y) = 1 and so x and y are relatively
prime. 

Theorem 1.2.10
Let x, y, z ∈ Z with x , 0. If x|yz and x, y are relatively prime, then x|z.
Proof:
Since x and y are relatively prime, there exist s, t ∈ Z such that 1 = sx + ty by Theorem 1.2.9. Thus,
z = sxz + tyz. Now, x|x and by hypothesis, x|yz. Thus, x|(sxz + tyz) and so x|z. 

Corollary 1.2.11
Let x, y, p ∈ Z with p a prime. If p|xy, then either p|x or p|y.
Proof:
If p|x, then we have the desired result. Suppose that p does not divide x. Since the only positive divisors
of p are 1 and p, we must have that p and x are relatively prime. Thus, p|y by Theorem 1.2.10. 

Corollary 1.2.12
Let x1 , x2 , · · · , p ∈ Z with p a prime. If p|x1 x2 · · · xn , then p|xi for some i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

Theorem 1.2.13 (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic)

Any integer n > 1 has a unique factorization (up to order)
n = pe11 pe22 · · · pess ,
where p1 , p2 , · · · , ps are distinct primes and e1 , e2 , · · · , es are positive integers.

Corollary 1.2.14
Any integer n < −1 has a unique factorization (up to order)
n = (−1)pe11 pe22 · · · pess ,
where p1 , p2 , · · · , ps are distinct primes and e1 , e2 , · · · , es are positive integers.

Theorem 1.2.15 (Euclid)

There are an infinite number of primes.

Definition 1.2.16
Let n be a positive integer. Let φ(n) denote the number of positive integers m such that m ≤ n and
gcd(m, n) = 1, i.e.,
φ(n) = |{m ∈ N | m ≤ n and gcd(m, n) = 1}|.
φ(n) is called the Euler φ - function.

Example:
φ(2) = 1
φ(3) = 2
φ(4) = 2.
Since 1,5,7,11 are the only positive integers less than 12 and relatively prime to 12, φ(12) = 4.

Exercises:

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 1. Let a and b be integers such that gcd(a, 4) = 2 and gcd(b, 4) = 2. Prove that gcd(a + b, 4) = 4.
2. Find integers x and y such that 512x + 320y = 64.
3. Determine gcd(90, 252). Find integers s and t such that

gcd(90, 252) = s · 90 + t · 252.

4. Find integers s and t such that 657s + 963t = 9.

5. Use the principle of mathematical induction to prove the following.
n(n+1)(2n+1)
(i) 12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 = 6 , n = 1, 2, · · · .
(ii) n < 2 for all n ∈ Z .
n #

(iii) 7n − 1 is divisible by 6 for all n ∈ Z# .

6. Let a, b and c be three integers such that a , 0. Prove the following.
(i) If a|b, then a|bc for all c ∈ Z.
(ii) If b , 0, a|b and b|c, then a|c.

1.3 RELATIONS

Some describe or define mathematics as the study of relations. Since a relation is a set of ordered pairs,
we get our first glimpse of the fundamental importance of the concept of an ordered pair.

Definition 1.3.1
A binary relation or simply a relation R from a set A into a set B is a subset of A × B.

Let R be a relation from a set A into a set B. If (x, y) ∈ R, we write xRy or R(x) = y. If xRy, then sometimes
we say that x is related to y (or y is in relation with x) with respect to R or simply x is related to y.

Example 1.
Let A be the name of states in the USA.
Let B be the number of people in that state in the year 1996.
R = {(a, n)k a ∈ A and n ∈ B} is a subset of A × Z, B = Z.

Thus, R defines a relation from A to Z.

Example 2.
Consider the set of integers Z. Let R be the set of all ordered pairs (m, n) of integers such that m < n, i.e.,

R = {(m, n) ∈ Z × Z | m < n}.

Then R is a binary relation on Z.

Let R be a relation from a set A into a set B. The elements of A that are related to elements of B form
a subset of A called the domain of R, and the elements of B that are in relation with elements of A form a
subset of B, called the range of R.

Definition 1.3.2
Let R be a relation from a set A into a set B. Then the domain of R, denoted by D(R), is defined to be the
set
{x | x ∈ A and there exists y ∈ B such that (x, y) ∈ R}.
The range or image of R, denoted by I(R), is defined to be the set

{y | y ∈ B and there exists x ∈ A such that (x, y) ∈ R}.

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Example 1.
Let A = {4, 5, 7, 8, 9} and B = {16, 18, 20, 22}. Define R ⊆ A × B by

R = {(4, 16), (4, 20), (5, 20), (8, 16), (9, 18)}.

Then R is a relation from A into B. Here, (a, b) ∈ R if and only if a|b, where a ∈ A and b ∈ B. Also,
D(R) = {4, 5, 8, 9} and I(R) = {16, 18, 20}.

Example 2.
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. Define R ⊆ A × B by

R1 = {(1, 3), (1, 6), (3, 3), (4, 7)}.

Then R1 is a relation from A into B. Here, D(R1 ) = {1, 3, 4} and I(R1 ) = {3, 6, 7}.
Other relations from A into B are

R2 = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6)}

R3 = {(1, 3), (2, 6), (3, 3), (4, 7)}.

Definition 1.3.3
Let R be a relation from a set A into a set B and S be a relation from B into a set C. The composition of R
and S, denoted by S ◦ R, is the relation from A into C defined by

x(S ◦ R)y if there exists z ∈ B such that xRz and zSy

for all x ∈ A, y ∈ C.

Definition 1.3.4
Let R be a relation from a set A into a set B. The inverse of R, denoted by R−1 , is the relation from B into
A defined by
xR−1 y if yRx for all x ∈ B, y ∈ A.

Example 1.
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. Define R ⊂ A × B by R1 = {(1, 3), (1, 6), (3, 3), (4, 7)}. Then R1 is a
relation from A into B.

The inverse of R1 is R1 −1 = {(3, 1), (6, 1), (3, 3), (7, 4)}.

Example 2.
Let R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 5), (3, 4)} and S = {(1, 6), (2, 1), (4, 0)}. Find S ◦ R.

Solution:

R relates 1 to 1 and S relates 1 to 6, thus S ◦ R relates 1 to 6.

R relates 1 to 2 and S relates 2 to 1, thus S ◦ R relates 1 to 1.
R relates 2 to 5 but 5 is not related to any by S and so S ◦ R is not possible.
R relates 3 to 4 and S relates 4 to 0, thus S ◦ R relates 3 to 0.
Hence, S ◦ R = {(1, 6), (1, 1), (3, 0)}.

Exercises 1.
1. Let R be a relation on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} defined by R = {(a, b) ∈ A × A | 4 divides a − b}.
a. List the elements of R
b. Find the domain of R
c. Find the range of R
d. List the elements of R−1

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 e. Find the domain of R−1
f. Find the range of R−1

2. Let R be a relation on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} defined by R = {(a, b) ∈ A × A | a + b ≤ 9}.

a. List the elements of R
b. Is ∆ ⊆ R, where ∆ = {(x, x) | x ∈ A}?
c. Is R = R−1 ?
d. Is R ◦ R ⊆ R?

3. R = {(1, u), (1, v), (2, w), (3, w)} and S = {(u, 1), (v, 2), (v, 3), (w, 3), (x, 4), (y, 1), (y, 4)}.
a. Find the domain and range of R
b. Find the domain and range of S
c. Find S ◦ R
d. Find R ◦ S

Definition 1.3.5
Let R be a binary relation on a set A. Then R is called
(i) reflexive if for all x ∈ A, xRx,
(ii) symmetric if for all x, y ∈ A, xRy implies yRx,
(iii) transitive if for all x, y, z ∈ A, xRy and yRz imply xRz.

Definition 1.3.6
A binary relation E on a set A is called an equivalence relation on A if E is reflexive, symmetric, and
transitive.

Example 1.
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and E = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6), (2, 3), (3, 2)}.
Then E is an equivalence relation on A.

Example 2.
Let A be any set. For all a, b ∈ S define aRb iff a = b. Then R defines an equivalence relation.

Proof:
(i) Let a ∈ A. Then a = a. Thus, aRa.
(ii) Let a, b ∈ A such that aRb. Then a = b. Thus, b = a. Hence, bRa.
(iii) Let a, b, c ∈ A such that aRb and bRc. Then a = b and b = c. Thus, a = c. Hence, aRc.
Therefore, R defines an equivalence relation on A.

Example 3.
Let A = Z. Given a, b ∈ Z define aRb if a − b is an even integer. Show that this relation is an equivalence
relation. [aRB iff a − b is an even integer]
Proof:
(i) Let a ∈ A. Then a − a = 0. Thus, a − a is an even integer since 0 is an even integer. Hence, aRa.
(ii) Let a, b ∈ A such that aRb. Then a − b is an even integer. This implies that −(a − b) = b − a is also an
even integer. Thus, b − a is an even integer. Hence, bRa.
(iii) Let a, b, c ∈ A such that aRb and bRc. Then a − b and b − c are even integers. Thus, (a − b) + (b − c) is
an even integer. But (a − b) + (b − c) = a − c. This implies that a − c is an even integer. Hence, aRc.
Therefore, R defines an equivalence relation on A.

Example 4.
Let n be a fixed positive integer in Z. Define the relation ≡n on Z by for all x, y ∈ Z, x ≡n y if and only if
n|(x − y), i.e., x − y = nk for some k ∈ Z. We now show that ≡n is an equivalence relation on Z.

Proof:
(i) For all x ∈ Z, x − x = 0 = 0n. Hence, for all x ∈ Z, x ≡n x. Thus, ≡n is reflexive.

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 (ii) Let x, y ∈ Z. Suppose x ≡n y. Then there exists q ∈ Z such that qn = x − y. Thus, (−q)n = y − x and so
n|(y − x), i.e., y ≡n x. Hence, ≡n is symmetric.
(iii) Let x, y, z ∈ Z. Suppose x ≡n y and y ≡n z. Then there exist q, r ∈ Z such that qn = x − y and rn = y − z.
Thus, (q + r)n = x − z and q + r ∈ Z. This implies that x ≡n z. Hence, ≡n is transitive.
Consequently, ≡n is an equivalence relation on Z.

Remark: The equivalence relation ≡n is called congruence modulo n. (Another commonly used notation
for x ≡n y is x ≡ y(modn).)
(partitioning the set of integers into n groups)

Exercises 2.
1. Let A = Z. Define aRb if ab ≥ 0 for all a, b ∈ Z. Is R an equivalence relation on A?
2. Let n > 1 be a fixed integer. Define a, b ∈ Z, aRb if and only if a − b is a multiple of n. Show that R defines
an equivalence relation on Z.
3. Let R = {(a, b) | a, b ∈ Q, a − b ∈ Z}. Prove that R is an equivalence relation on Q.
4. Let A = Z. Define aRb if a − b is an odd integer for all a, b ∈ A. Determine whether or not R is an
equivalence relation on A.
5. Let A = R. Define aRb if a = ±b. Is R an equivalence relation on A?
6. Let A = Z. Define aRb if a < b and a > b for all a, b ∈ A. Determine whether or not R is an equivalence
relation on A.

Definition 1.3.7
Let E be an equivalence relation on a set A. For all x ∈ A, let [x] denote the set

[x] = {y ∈ A | yEx}.

The set [x] is called the equivalence class (with respect to E) determined by x.

In the following theorem are some basic properties of equivalence classes.

Theorem 1.3.8
Let E be an equivalence relation on a set A. Then

i. for all x ∈ A, [x] , ∅,

ii. if y ∈ [x], then [x] = [y], where x, y ∈ A,

iii. for all x, y ∈ A, either [x] = [y] or [x] ∩ [y] = ∅,
iv. A = x∈A [x], i.e., A is the union of all equivalence classes with respect to E.
S

Definition 1.3.9
Let A be a set and P be a collection of nonempty subsets of A. Then P is called a partition of A if the
following properties are satisfied:
i. for all B, C ∈ P, either B = C or B ∩ C = ∅.

ii. A = B∈P B.
S

Remark: If P is a partition of A, then

i. B ⊆ A for all B ∈ P (every element of P is a subset of A)

ii. distinct elements of P are either equal or disjoint

iii. the union of the members of P is A

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Example 1.
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Let A1 = {1}, A2 = {2, 4, 6}, and A3 = {3, 5}.
Now, A = A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 , A1 ∩ A2 = ∅, A1 ∩ A3 = ∅, and A2 ∩ A3 = ∅.
Hence, P = {A1 , A2 , A3 } is a partition of A.

Example 2.
Consider Z. Let A be the set of all even integers and B be the set of all odd integers. Then A ∩ B = ∅ and
A ∪ B = Z. Thus, {A, B} is a partition of Z.

Theorem 1.3.10
Let E be an equivalence relation on the set A. Then

P = {[x] | x ∈ A}

is a partition of A.

Theorem 1.3.11
Let P be a partition of the set A. Define a relation E on A by for all x, y ∈ A, xEy if there exists B ∈ P such
that x, y ∈ B. Then E is an equivalence relation on A and the equivalence classes are precisely the elements
of P.

Remark: The relation E in Theorem 1.3.11 is called the equivalence relation on A induced by the partition
P.

Example 1.
Let A be any set. For all a, b ∈ A, define aRb iff a = b. Then R defines an equivalence relation on A. Find
the equivalence classes.
Solution:
The equivalence class of A is

[a] = {x ∈ A | xRb}
= {x ∈ A | x = a}
= {a}.

Hence, there is only one equivalence class namely, [a] = {a}.

Example 2.
Let A = Z. Given a, b ∈ A, define aRb iff a − b is an even integer. Then R is an equivalence relation on Z.
Find the equivalence classes.
Solution:
The equivalence class of a ∈ Z is

[a] = {x ∈ Z | xRa}
= {x ∈ Z | x − a is an even integer}
= {x ∈ Z | x − a = 2k, where k ∈ Z}
= {x ∈ Z | x = a + 2k, where k ∈ Z}.

If a = 0, then [0] = {x ∈ Z | x = 2k, where k ∈ Z}

If a = 1, then [1] = {x ∈ Z | x = 1 + 2k, where k ∈ Z}
If a = 2, then [2] = {x ∈ Z | x = 2 + 2k, where k ∈ Z} = [0]
If a = 3, then [3] = {x ∈ Z | x = 3 + 2k, where k ∈ Z} = [1]
If a = 4, then [4] = {x ∈ Z | x = 4 + 2k, where k ∈ Z} = [0]

Thus, if a is even, we have [0] = {x ∈ Z | x = 2n, where n ∈ Z} and if odd, we have [1] = {x ∈ Z | x =
1 + 2n, where n ∈ Z}.

Hence, there are two distinct equivalence classes, namely [0] and [1].

11
Example 3.
In Z10 , which of the equivalence classes are equal: [2], [−5], [5], [−8], [12], [15], [−3], [7], [22]?

Solution:

[2] = [2 + 10] = [12]

[−5] = [−5 − 10] = [5]
[5] = [5 + 10] = [15]
[−8] = [−8 + 10] = [2]
[12] = [12 + 10] = [22]
[15] = [15 − 10] = [5]
[−3] = [−3 + 10] = [7]
[7] = [7 − 10] = [−3]

Hence,

[2] = [12] = [−8] = [22]

[−5] = [5] = [15]
[−3] = [7].

Example 4.
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (1, 2), (2, 1), (4, 5), (5, 4)}.
Show that R is an equivalence relation.

Solution:
Let B = {1, 2}, C = {3}, and D = {4, 5}. Then P = {B, C, D} is a partition of A. Also, note that if x, y ∈ A, then
(x, y) ∈ R if and only if x, y ∈ X for some X ∈ P, i.e., the relation R is induced by the partition P. Hence, R is
an equivalence relation.

Exercises 3.

1. Find all equivalence relation on the set S = {a, b, c}.

2. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}. Define a relation R on A by aRb if and only if 3 divides a − b for all a, b ∈ A.
Show that R is an equivalence relation on A. Find the equivalence classes [1], [2], [3], and [4].

3. Consider the partition of Z6 .

a. Enumerate the elements of each of the equivalence classes in Z6 .
b. Which of the following equivalence classes are equal:
[−1], [2], [8], [5], [−2], [11], [23]?

4. Consider Z8 . Which of the following equivalence classes are equal: [−2], [5], [6], [9], [−7], [25], [1], [13]?

5. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. Then P = {{1, 3, 5}, {2, 6}, {4, 7}} is a partition of X. List the elements of the
corresponding equivalence relation R on X induced by P.

Definition 1.3.12
Let n > 0 be fixed integer. We define a ≡ b mod n if n|(a − b), that is, a−b
n ∈ Z. The relation is referred to
as congruence modulo n, n is called the modulos of the relation. We read a ≡ b mod n as ”a is congruent to b
mod n”.

Example 1.
25−1
a. 25 ≡ 1 mod 6 since 6 ∈Z

12
 36−3
b. 36 ≡ 3 mod 11 since 11 ∈Z
c. 73 ≡ 4 mod 23

Note: If x ≡ 0 mod n, then [0] is the set of all integers upon dividing by n, the remainder is 0.

[a] = {x | x ≡ a mod n} − − Equivalence class

Example 2.
a ≡ b mod 6 means there are 6 equivalent classes, i.e., {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5]}.

Properties:
1. a ≡ a mod n
2. If a ≡ b mod n, then b ≡ a mod n
3. If a ≡ b mod n and b ≡ c mod n, then a ≡ c mod n.
4. If a ≡ b mod n, then a + c ≡ b + c mod n.
5. If a ≡ b mod n, then ac ≡ bc mod n.

Note: Zn has n − 1 distinct equivalence classes: {[0], [1], [2], [3], · · · , [n − 1]}.

Example 3.
Construct the addition table for Z6 .
Solution:

[1] + [1] = [2]

[2] + [2] = [4]
[3] + [3] = [6] = [6 − 6] = [0]
[4] + [4] = [8] = [8 − 6] = [2]
[5] + [5] = [10] = [10 − 6] = [4]

Exercises 4.
1. Complete the addition table of Z6 and show the solution.
2. Construct the multiplication table for Z6 .

1.4 FUNCTIONS

Definition 1.4.1
Let A and B be nonempty sets. A relation from A into B is called a function (or mapping) from A into B
if
(i) D( f ) = A and
(ii) for all (x, y), (x0 , y0 ) ∈ f , x = x0 imply y = y0 .

When (ii) is satisfied by a relation f , we say that f is well-defined or single-valued.

13
Notation: f : A → B denote a function f from a set A into a set B. We usually write f (x) = y and say that y
is the image of x under f and x is the preimage of y under f .

Remark:
Suppose f : A → B. Then f is a subset of A × B such that for all x ∈ A, there exists a unique y ∈ B such
that (x, y) ∈ f . Hence, we like to think of a function as a rule which associates to each element x of A exactly
one element y of B.
In order to show that a relation f from A to B is a function,
i.) we first show that the domain of f is A and next,
ii.) we show that f is well-defined or single-valued, i.e., if x = y in A, then f (x) = f (y) in B for all x, y ∈ A.

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {a, b, c}. Let f be the subset of A × B defined by f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c), (4, b). Is f
a function?
Solution:
i.) D( f ) = {1, 2, 3, 4} = A
ii.) There exist y ∈ B such that for all x ∈ A, (x, y) ∈ f
Hence, f is a function.

Example 2.
Let f be the subset of Z × Z defined by f = {(n, 2n + 3) | n ∈ Z}. Show that f is a function.

Proof:
i.) D( f ) = {n |n ∈ Z} = Z
ii.) Let n, m ∈ Z. Suppose n = m. Then 2n + 3 = 2m + 3, i.e., f (n) = f (m). Thus, f is well-defined.
Hence, f is a function.

Example 3. n p  o
Let f be the subset of Q × Z defined by f = q , p p, q ∈ Z, q , 0 . Show whether or not f is a function.

Solution:
np o
i.) D( f ) = q p, q ∈ Z, q , 0 = Q
       
ii.) Take 46 , 23 ∈ Q such that = 32 . Then 23 , 2 ∈ f and 64 , 4 ∈ f . Thus, f 32 = 2 and f 46 = 4. Hence, there
4
6    
exist 64 , 23 ∈ Q such that 46 = but f 32 , f 46 . Thus, f is not well-defined.
2
3
Therefore, f is not a function.

Exercises 1.
1. Let f be a subset of Z × Z defined by f = {(mn, m + n) | m, n ∈ Z}. Show whether or not f is a function.
2. Consider the relation f from Z to Z defined by f (n) = n2 , for all n ∈ Z. Show that f is a function.
3. Consider the relation f from Z to Z defined by f (n) = 2n, for all n ∈ Z. Show that f is a function.

Definition 1.4.2
Let f be a function from a set A into a set B. Then
(i) f is called one-one if for all x, x0 ∈ A, f (x) = f (x0 ) implies x = x0 .
(ii) f is called onto B (or maps A onto B) if I( f ) = B.

Remark:
1. If f : A → B, then I(B) = B if and only if for all y ∈ B, there exists x ∈ A such that f (x) = y.
2. I( f ) = B if and only if every element of B has a preimage.
3. f is one-one (injective) if and only if every element of B has at most one preimage.
4. Let A be a nonempty set. The function iA : A → A defined by iA (x) = x for all x ∈ A is a one-one function
of A onto A. iA is called the identity map on A.

Example 1.
Let A = Z and B = Z. Define f : A → B by f (n) = 2n. Then f is one-one.

14
 Proof:
Let n1 , n2 ∈ A such that f (n1 ) = f (n2 ). Then 2n1 = 2n2 , that is, n1 = n2 . Thus, f is one-one.

Example 2.
Let f : R → R defined by f (x) = 3x + 4. Then f is one-one.

Proof:
Let x1 , x2 ∈ R such that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). Then 3x1 + 4 = 3x2 + 4. Thus, 3x1 = 3x2 implying that x1 = x2 .
Hence, f is one-one.

Remark: f is not one-one iff there exist x1 , x2 ∈ A such that x1 , x2 but f (x1 ) = f (x2 ).

Example 3.
Let A = Z and B = Z. Define f : A → B by f (n) = n2 . Then f is not one-one.

Proof:
Consider 1, −1 ∈ Z. Then f (1) = 12 = 1 and f (−1) = (−1)2 = 1. Thus, there exist 1, −1 ∈ Z such that
1 , −1 but f (1) = f (−1). Hence, f is not one-one.

Example 4.
Let S = {(m, n) ∈ Z × Z | n , 0} and T = Q. Define f : S → T by f (m, n) = m
n for all (m, n) ∈ S. Then f is
not one-one.

Proof:
Consider (2, 1), (4, 2) ∈ S. Then f ((2, 1)) = 21 = 2 and f ((4, 2)) = 24 = 2. Hence, there exist (2, 1), (4, 2) ∈ S
such that (2, 1) , (4, 2) but f ((2, 1)) = f ((4, 2)). Therefore, f is not one-one.

Exercises 2.

1. Let S = Z × Z. Define f : S → Z by f (m, n) = m + n for all (m, n) ∈ S. Then f is not one-one.

2. Let S = Q+ and T = Z × Z. Given a rational S, we can write it as S = mn , where m, n have no common
factor. Define µn : So → T by µ(s)
n o = (m, n) for all s ∈ S. Then µ is one-one.
3. Let A = R \ 2 , B = R \ 12 . Define f : A → B by f (x) = 2x+1
−1 x−3
. Show that f is one-one.
4. Determine if the following is one-one or not.
a. Let f : R → R defined by f (x) = |x|.
b. Let f : R → R defined by f (x) = x + 1.
c. Let f : R → R defined by f (x) = 2x.
√
d. Let f : [−5, +∞) → R by f (x) = x + 5 for every x ∈ [−5, +∞).
e. Consider the function f = {(x, x2 ) | x ∈ S} of S = {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3} into Z.

Definition 1.4.3
Let A and B be nonempty set. The function f : A → B is said to be onto if and only if f (A) = B. That is,
for all y ∈ B, there exists x ∈ A such that f (x) = y.

Remark:
1. f is onto (surjective) iff for all y ∈ B, there exists x ∈ A such that f (x) = y.
2. f is not onto iff there exists y ∈ B such that for all x ∈ A, f (x) , y.

Example 1.
Let A = R, B = R+ ∪ {0}. Define f : A → B by f (x) = x2 . Show that f is onto.

15
 Proof 1:

f (A) = {y ∈ B | y = f (x)}
= {y ∈ B | y = x2 }
√
= {y ∈ B | x = ± y}, x ∈ A = R
= {y ∈ B | y ≥ 0}
=B

Therefore, f is onto.

Proof 2:
√ √ √
Let y ∈ B such that y ≥ 0. Choose x = ± y. Thus, x ∈ A. Hence, f (x) = f (± y) = (± y)2 = y. Thus,
there exists x ∈ A such that y = f (x). Therefore, f is onto.

Example 2.
Let A = R, B = R. Define f : A → B by f (x) = x + 4. Is f is onto?

Proof 1:

f (A) = {y ∈ B | y = f (x)}
= {y ∈ B | y = x + 4}
= {y ∈ B | x = y − 4}, x ∈ A = R
= {y ∈ B | − ∞ ≤ y ≤ ∞}
=B

Therefore, f is onto.

Proof 2:
Let y ∈ B. Take x = y − 4. Then, x ∈ A since y − 4 ∈ A = R. Thus, f (x) = f (y − 4) = y − 4 + 4 = y. Hence,
there exists x ∈ A such that y = f (x). Therefore, f is onto.

Example 3.
Let A = Z, B = Z. Define f : A → B by f (n) = 2n for all n ∈ Z. Is f is onto?

Proof 1:

f (A) = {y ∈ B | y = f (n)}
= {y ∈ B | y = 2n}
y
= {y ∈ B | n = }, n ∈ Z
n
= {y ∈ B | y is an even integer}
,B

Therefore, f is not onto.

Proof 2:
Consider 1 ∈ B. Suppose f is onto. Then there is n ∈ A such that f (n) = 1. Thus, 2n = 1. Hence, n = 21 .
this is a contradiction since 12 < A. Therefore, f is not onto.

Exercises 3. √
n +∞)
1. Define f : [−5, o n o f (x) = x + 5 for every x ∈ [−5, +∞). Show that f is not onto.
→ R by
2. Let A = R \ −12 , B = R \ 2 . Define f : A → B by f (x) = 2x+1 . Show that f is onto.
1 x−3

16
3. Let S = Q+ and T = Z × Z. Given a rational S, we can write it as S = mn , where m, n have no common
factor. Define f : S → T by f (s) = (m, n) for all s ∈ S. Then f is not onto.
4. Show whether the following is onto or not.
a. Let f : R → R defined by f (x) = |x|.
b. Let f : R → R defined by f (x) = x + 1.
c. Let f : R → R defined by f (x) = 2x.
d. Consider the function f = {(x, x2 ) | x ∈ S} of S = {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3} into Z.

Definition 1.4.4
Let A, B, and C be nonempty sets and f : A → B and g : B → C. The composition ◦ of f and g, written
g ◦ f , is the relation from A into C defined as follows:

g ◦ f = {(x, z) | x ∈ A, z ∈ C, there exists y ∈ B such that f (x) = y and g(y) = z}.

Remark: Let f : A → B and g : B → C and (x, z) ∈ g ◦ f , i.e., (g ◦ f )(x) = z. Then by the definition of
composition of functions, there exists y ∈ B such that f (x) = y and g(y) = z. Now, z = g(y) = g( f (x)). Hence,

(g ◦ f )(x) = g( f (x)).

Theorem 1.4.5
Suppose that f : A → B and g : B → C. Then
(i) g ◦ f : A → C, i.e., g ◦ f is a function from A into C.
(ii) If f and g are one-one, then g ◦ f is one-one.
(iii) If f is onto B and g is onto C, then g ◦ f is onto C.

Example 1.
Consider the function f : Z → Z and g : Z → E where f (n) = n2 , g(n) = 2n for all n ∈ Z. Then
g ◦ f : Z → E and
(g ◦ f )(n) = g( f (n)) = g(n2 ) = 2n2 .

Example 2. √
Let f : A → B and g : B → C and let f (x) = x2 + 3 and g(x) = x − 2 for all x ∈ A. Find g ◦ f and f ◦ g and
its domain.

Solution:

(g ◦ f )(x) = g( f (x))
= g(x2 + 3)
√
= x2 + 3 − 2
√
= x2 + 1
 
D g( f (x)) = {x ∈ R}

( f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
√ 
= f x−2
√ 2
= x−2 +3
=x−2+3
=x+1

17
  
D f (g(x)) = {x ∈ R}

Example 3.
Let f (x) = 2x + 5 and g(x) = 6 − 7x for all x ∈ A. Find g ◦ f and f ◦ g and its domain.

Solution:

(g ◦ f )(x) = g( f (x))
= g(2x + 5)
= 6 − 7(2x + 5)
= 6 − 14x − 35
= −14x − 29
 
D g( f (x)) = {x ∈ R}

( f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
= f (6 − 7x)
= 2(6 − 7x) + 5
= 12 − 14x + 5
= −14x + 17
 
D f (g(x)) = {x ∈ R}
Exercises 4.
√
1. Let f : R+ → R+ and g : R+ → R+ be functions defined by f (x) = x and g(x) = 3x + 1 for all x ∈ R+ ,
where R+ is the set of all positive real numbers. Find g ◦ f and f ◦ g. Is g ◦ f = f ◦ g?
2. Let f : Q+ → R+ and g : R+ → R+ be defined by f (x) = 1 + 1x for all x ∈ Q+ and g(x) = x + 1 for all x ∈ R+ ,

where Q+ is the set of all positive rational numbers. Find g ◦ f and f ◦ g. Is g ◦ f = f ◦ g?

Definition 1.4.6
If σ : S → T and τ : T → U, then the composition of σ and τ is the mapping τ ◦ σ : S → U defined by
(τ ◦ σ)(s) = τ(σ(s)) for every s ∈ S.

Example 1.
Let S = {a, b, c}, let σ : S → S be defined by σ(a) = b, σ(b) = c, σ(c) = a and let τ : S → S be defined by
τ(a) = a, τ(b) = c, τ(c) = b. Then

(τ ◦ σ)(a) = τ(σ(a)) = τ(b) = c

(τ ◦ σ)(b) = τ(σ(b)) = τ(c) = b
(τ ◦ σ)(c) = τ(σ(c)) = τ(a) = a

and

(σ ◦ τ)(a) = σ(τ(a)) = σ(a) = b

(σ ◦ τ)(b) = σ(τ(b)) = σ(c) = a
(σ ◦ τ)(c) = σ(τ(c)) = σ(b) = c

Note that τ ◦ σ , σ ◦ τ.

Lemma 1.4.7
If σ : S → T and τ : T → U, and µ : U → V, then (µ ◦ τ) ◦ σ = µ ◦ (τ ◦ σ).

18
 Proof:
Let s ∈ S. Then
((µ ◦ τ) ◦ σ)(s) = (µ ◦ τ)(σ(s)) = µ(τ(σ(s)))
and
(µ ◦ (τ ◦ σ))(s) = µ((τ ◦ σ)(s)) = µ(τ(σ(s))).
Therefore, (µ ◦ τ) ◦ σ = µ ◦ (τ ◦ σ). 

Definition 1.4.8
Let S be a nonempty set. Then A(S), called the set of permutation of a set S, is the set of all one-one
mappings of S onto itself.
If S is finite, then we denote A(S) = Sn .

Remark: If S is a nonempty set, then A(S) is the set of all one-one mappings of S onto itself.

Note: |A(S)| = n! – number of permutations of elements of S

Theorem 1.4.9
Let A(S) be the set of all on-one mappings of S onto itself. Then
1. For all σ, τ ∈ A(S), τ ◦ σ ∈ A(S).
2. For all σ, τ, µ ∈ A(S), (µ ◦ τ) ◦ σ = µ ◦ (τ ◦ σ).
3. There exists ι ∈ A(S) such that σ ◦ ι = ι ◦ σ = σ, for all σ ∈ A(S).
4. For all σ ∈ A(S), there exists σ−1 ∈ A(S) such that σ ◦ σ−1 = σ−1 ◦ σ = ι.

Example: A = {1, 2, 3}, |A| = 3! = 6

By diagram

By definition

Exercises 5.
Let S = {a, b, c}. Find A(S) and construct a multiplication table.

19