PRECIPITATION

Precipitation

 All liquid and solid water particles that fall from clouds and reach the ground.
 One of the three main steps of the global water cycle.
 Has to be considered the main component of water cycle.

Formation of Precipitation

All forms of precipitation are the result of the WATER CYCLE, or the movement of water between
the earth and the atmosphere. On Earth, the heat from the sun causes surface water to evaporate, or
change from a liquid to a gas. The water vapor is stored in clouds until the air becomes saturated. At this
point, the water vapor condenses with small particles of dust and forms water droplets that return to
Earth as precipitation. The temperature and conditions in the clouds and on Earth cause different types
of precipitation to form.

If a cloud is colder, like it would be at higher

altitudes, the water droplets may freeze to form ice.
These ice crystals then fall to the Earth as snow, hail, or
rain, depending on the temperature within the cloud
and at the Earth’s surface. Most rain actually begins as
snow high in the clouds. As the snowflakes fall through
warmer air, they become raindrops.

 DRIZZLE – (taligsik, ambon) is a very light, usually uniform, precipitation consisting of numerous
minute droplets with diameters in excess of 0.1 mm but smaller than 0.5 mm.
 RAIN – is precipitation consisting of water drops larger than 0.5 mm.
o Light rain – intensity is smaller than 2.5 mm/h
o Moderate rain – intensity is between 2.5 mm/h and 7.5
mm/h
o Heavy rain – intensity exceeds 7.5 mm/h
 SNOW – is precipitation in the form mainly of branched hexagonal
or star-like ice crystals, resulting from direct reverse sublimation of Indentions on raindrops are
the atmospheric water vapor; snow particles can reach the ground caused by AIR RESISTANCE.
as single crystals, but more often than not, they do so after
agglomerating as snowflakes. These flakes tend to be larger at temperatures close to freezing.
The specific gravity of snow can vary over a wide range, but as a rule of thumb for fresh snow it is
often taken around 0.1.
  SLEET – (North American usage) is precipitation consisting of fairly transparent pellets or grains
of ice, formed as a result of the passage of raindrops through a layer of colder air near the ground.
In (British usage) the word sleet refers to precipitation consisting of melting snow or a mixture of
snow and rain.
 HAIL – consists of balls or irregular chunks of ice with diameters between 5 and 50 mm, or even
larger. These lumps of ice can be transparent, or they can consist of concentric layers of clear and
opaque ice; such layered structure is the result of the alternating rising and falling movements
during the hail formation. Hail usually falls during violent and prolonged convective storms under
above-freezing temperature conditions near the ground; it can cause severe damage.

Mechanisms for Production of Rainfall

The following four conditions are necessary for the production of rainfall.

1. Mechanism to produce cooling of the air – The pressure reduction due to ascending air from
surface to upper levels in the atmosphere is the only known mechanism capable of producing
large drops in the temperature.
2. Mechanism to produce condensation – Condensation in the atmosphere takes place on
“hygroscopic nuclei” small particles of substances that have an affinity for water.
3. Mechanism for droplet growth – A tendency for the droplets to remain small and therefore to
resist falling is called “colloidal stability”. The most effective processes for droplet enlargement
are
 the difference in speeds between large and small droplets, and
 The co-existence of ice crystals and water droplets.
4. Mechanism to produce accumulation of moisture of sufficient intensity to account for the
observed rates of rainfall – Regardless of whether or not the other conditions for precipitation
are fulfilled, continuity considerations demand that there must be a good amount of moisture
present in the atmosphere so that evaporation losses between ground and cloud be
compensated, if there is to be appreciable rain.
Different Types of Precipitation

1. Cyclonic Precipitation – It is caused by lifting associated with the horizontal convergence of

inflowing atmosphere into an area of low pressure.
a. Non-frontal precipitation involves only this convergence and lifting.
b. Frontal precipitation results when one air mass is lifted over another. A front is defined
as the boundary between two air masses of different temperatures and densities.

i. A warm front is the result of a warm air mass overriding a cold air mass, causing
extensive areas of cloudiness and precipitation. As the warm front approaches a
given area, the precipitation becomes more continuous and intense. Warm fronts
move at a speed of 15-50 km/h (10-30 mph).

ii. A cold front results from a strong push of a cold air mass
against and beneath a warm air mass. At the front towering
clouds develop together with intense short duration
precipitation. Cold fronts move at a speed of 30-80 km/h
(20-50 mph).

iii. An occluded front occurs when a cold front overtakes a warm front. The
precipitation pattern is a combination of both warm and cold frontal distribution.
Occluded fronts move at a speed of from 8-50 km/h (5-30 mph).

2. Convective Precipitation (Thermal Convection) – It results when air

that is warmer than its surrounding rises and cools. The
precipitation is of a shower type, varying from light showers to
cloudbursts. The typical thunderstorms resulting from heating of
the atmosphere in the afternoon hours is the best example of
convective rainfall.

3. Orographic Precipitation – It is caused when air masses are lifted

as they move over mountain barriers. Such orographic barriers tend
to increase both cyclonic and orographic precipitation due to the
increased lifting involved. Precipitation is generally heavier on the
windward slope than on the leeward slope.
Rainfall Characteristics

1. AMOUNT – important to the overall hydrologic cycle and replenishment of the soil water, and the
amount is an accumulation or product of the intensity times the duration. For example, the
amount may be the same for a high intensity short duration rainfall as it is for a low intensity long
duration rainfall. However, the intensity and duration can have a large influence on whether the
rainfall infiltrates or becomes surface runoff.
2. INTENSITY – the ratio of the total amount of rain (rainfall depth) falling during a given period to
the duration of the period. It is expressed in depth units per unit time, usually as mm per hour
(mm/h). Higher rainfall intensity produces larger size raindrops which have more impact energy,
and thus higher intensity storms can damage delicate vegetation and bare soil. High intensity
storms can literally displace soil particles, causing soil crusting or starting the soil erosion process.
High intensity storms may also overwhelm the soil’s ability to infiltrate the rainfall at the same
rate, causing infiltration-excess runoff.
3. DURATION – the length of time rainfall occurs. A high intensity rainfall for a short duration may
affect tender seedlings, but it will not likely have much effect on soil erosion and runoff. Rainfall
of longer duration can significantly affect infiltration, runoff, and soil erosion processes.
4. FREQUENCY or RETURN PERIOD – refers to how often rainfall occurs at a particular amount or
intensity and duration. For example, rainfall return periods are referred to as 100 year-1 hour
rainfall or 100 year-24 hour rainfall to define the probability that a given amount will fall within a
given time period.
5. SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION – refers to the time of year when various rainfall amounts occur. The
seasonal distribution determines when surface runoff or deep percolation are most likely to occur
or if irrigation is needed.

Hyetograph – a graphical representation of the distribution of rainfall intensity over time.

Point Rainfall – The rainfall during a given time interval (or often one storm) measured in a rain gage, or
an estimate of the amount which might have been measured at a given point.

Rainfall may be measured by a network of rain gauges which may either be of non-recording or
recording type.
Different Types of Rain Gauge

Rain Gauge – an instrument that is designed to measure the amount of rain that reaches the ground
surface during a storm. These are considered the most traditional method for measuring rainfall. They
have been used historically to provide rainfall quantities and rates at a single point in space. The basic
idea of most rain gauges is to collect rainwater into a cylindrical vessel of a fixed diameter. Rainfall
measurements are usually provided in units of water depth (inches or millimeters). The volume of
collected water is divided by the area of the cylinder opening and converted into a depth of rain.

There are different types of rain gauges that can be classified into two main categories: non-
recording gauges and recording gauges.

1. Standard Rain Gauge (Non-recording)

The recording of rainfall using the standard or funnel rain gauge is generally done
manually. These gauges work by catching the falling rain in a funnel-shaped
collector that is attached to a measuring tube. The area of the collector is 10 times
that of the tube; thus, the rain gauge works by magnifying the liquid by a factor of
10.

2. Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge (Recording)

The receiving funnel leads to one of two small buckets. Filling of one bucket occurs
at one-hundredth of an inch. The result is a “tipping” of the liquid into the outer
shell of the gauge, triggering the second bucket to take its place. The process then
repeats itself, allowing for precise measurement of rainfall intensity and amount.
This gauge has become standard for wireless weather stations.

3. Weighing Rain Gauge (Recording)

A weighing gauge collects the amount of falling rain into a vessel that sits on a scale
and measures the weight of accumulated water. The measurements are traced out
on a chart which can be used to determine rainfall depth and intensity.
 ESTIMATION OF MISSING RAINFALL DATA

The point observation from a precipitation gage may have a short break in the record because of
instrument failure or absence of the observer. Thus, it is often necessary to estimate the missing record
using data from the neighboring station. The following methods are most commonly used for estimating
the missing records.

For m stations, 1, 2, 3, …, m, the annual precipitation values

are P1, P2, P3, …, Pm, respectively. At station x (not
included in the above m stations), the missing annual
precipitation (Px) should be found out. The normal annual
precipitation N1, N2, N3, …, Ni at each of the above (m+1)
stations including the station x is known.

m=4

Simple Arithmetic Method

The missing precipitation Px can be determined using simple arithmetic average, if the normal
annual precipitation at various stations are within 10% of the normal precipitation at station, x, as follows:
[𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝑚]
𝑃𝑥 =
𝑚
Restriction: (NE x -10%) < NA, NB, NC, ND < (NE x 10%)

Normal Ratio Method

If the normal precipitations vary considerably, then Px is estimated by weighting the precipitation
at various stations by the ratios of normal annual precipitation. The normal ration method gives Px as:
𝑁𝑥 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃𝑚
𝑃𝑥 = [ + + ⋯+ ]
𝑚 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁𝑚
This method is based selecting m (m is usually 3) stations that are near and approximately evenly
spaced around the station with the missing record.
SAMPLE PROBLEM

Find out the missing storm precipitation of station 'C' given in the following table:

*Get the ±10% of NC*

NC x 10% = 93.5 x 0.10 = 9.35
93.5 + 9.35 = 102.85
93.5 – 9.35 = 84.15

*Check if N if others are within the ±10% of NC*

NA = 100.3 /
NB = 109.5 X
ND = 125.7 X
NE = 117.5 X

Since not, use Normal Ratio Method.

93.5 9.7 8.3 11.7 8.0
𝑃𝐶 = [ + + + ]
4 100.3 109.5 125.7 117.5
𝑃𝐶 = 7.7996 𝑐𝑚 ≈ 7.8 𝑐𝑚
Modified Normal Ratio Method

Normal ratio method is modified to incorporate the effect of distance in the estimation of missing
rainfall.
1⁄ 𝑁
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐷𝑖 𝑏
( 𝑁𝑥 ) 𝑃𝑖
𝑖
𝑟𝑥 = 1⁄
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐷𝑖 𝑏

ri = normal rainfall
Di = distance between the index station, i, and the gauge station with missing data or ungauged station
n = number of index stations
b = constant by which the distance is weighted (normally 1.5-2.0) commonly used D0.5. (if not given, b=2)
1⁄ 𝑁𝐸 1⁄ 𝑁𝐸 1⁄ 𝑁𝐸 1⁄ 𝑁𝐸
𝑏
𝐷𝐴 ( ) 𝑃𝐴 + 𝐷𝐵 𝑏 ( ) 𝑃𝐵 + 𝐷𝐶 𝑏 ( ) 𝑃𝐶 + 𝐷𝐷 𝑏 ( ) 𝑃𝐷
𝑃𝑥 = 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐵 𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝐷
1⁄ 1⁄ 1⁄ 1⁄
𝑏
𝐷𝐴 + 𝐷𝐵 𝑏 + 𝐷𝐶 𝑏
+ 𝐷𝐷 𝑏

Inverse Distance Method

The inverse distance method has been advocated to be the most accurate method as compare to
other two methods discussed.

Amount of rainfall to be estimated at a location is a function of:

 rainfall measured at the surrounding index stations

 distance to each index station from the ungauged location

Rainfall rx at station x is given by:

𝑃𝑖
∑𝑛𝑖=1 ( )
𝐷𝑖𝑏
𝑟𝑥 =
1
∑𝑛𝑖=1 ( )
𝐷𝑖𝑏

In inverse distance method, the weighting is strictly based on distance. Hence, this method is not
satisfactory for hilly regions.
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐵 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐷
+ + +
𝐷𝐴𝑏 𝐷𝐵𝑏 𝐷𝐶𝑏 𝐷𝐷𝑏
𝑃𝑋 =
1 1 1 1
+ + 𝑏+ 𝑏
𝐷𝐴𝑏 𝐷𝐵𝑏 𝐷𝐶 𝐷𝐷
SAMPLE PROBLEM

Assume that rainfall is not known at the station D. The normal precipitations of the three
neighboring gauging stations are as follows:

Compute the rainfall at this point using: (a) Simple Arithmetic Method (b) Normal Ratio Method
(c) Modified Normal Ratio Method (d) Inverse Distance Method

m=3

Using SAM: Using MNRM:

[𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝑚] *Get the distances*
𝑃𝐷 =
𝑚
[25 + 10 + 25]
𝑃𝐷 = By Pythagorean
3
Theorem:
𝑃𝐷 = 20 𝑐𝑚
AD = 2.06
BD = 2.24
Using NRM:
CD = 2
𝑁𝑥 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃𝑚
𝑃𝐷 = [ + + ⋯+ ] 1⁄ 𝑟
𝑚 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁𝑚 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐷𝑖 𝑏
( 𝑥 ) 𝑃𝑖
𝑟𝑖
𝑟𝑥 =
25 25 10 25 1⁄
𝑃𝐷 = [ + + ] ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐷𝑖 𝑏
3 28 15 30
𝑃𝐷 = 19.94 𝑐𝑚 𝑃𝐷
1⁄ 𝑁𝐸 1⁄ 𝑁𝐸 1⁄ 𝑁𝐸
𝑏
𝐷𝐴 (𝑁𝐴) 𝑃𝐴 + 𝐷𝐵 𝑏 (𝑁𝐵) 𝑃𝐵 + 𝐷𝐶 𝑏 (𝑁𝐶 ) 𝑃𝐶
= 1⁄ 1⁄ 1⁄
𝑏
𝐷𝐴 + 𝐷𝐵 𝑏 + 𝐷𝐶 𝑏

Since not given, b= 2

𝑃𝐷
1⁄ 25 1⁄ 25 1⁄ 25
2
2.06 (28) (25) + 2.24 2 ( ) (10) + 2 2 (30) (25)
= 15
1⁄ 1⁄ 1⁄
2 2 2
2.06 + 2.24 + 2

𝑃𝐷 = 19.89 𝑐𝑚
Using IDM:

𝑟𝑖
∑𝑛𝑖=1 ( )
𝐷𝑖𝑏
𝑟𝑥 =
1
∑𝑛𝑖=1 ( )
𝐷𝑖𝑏
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐵 𝑃𝐶
+ +
𝐷𝐴𝑏 𝐷𝐵𝑏 𝐷𝐶𝑏
𝑃𝐷 =
1 1 1
+ +
𝐷𝐴𝑏 𝐷𝐵𝑏 𝐷𝐶𝑏
25 10 25
+ + 2
2.062 2.242 2
𝑃𝐷 =
1 1 1
+ + 2
2.062 2.242 2

𝑃𝐷 = 20.62 𝑐𝑚
 CONVERSION OF POINT RAINFALL TO AREA RAINFALL

A single point precipitation measurement is quite often not representative of the volume of
precipitation falling over a given catchment area. The representative precipitation over a defined area is
required in many engineering applications, whereas the gaged observation pertains to the point
precipitation.

A dense network of point measurements and/or radar estimates can provide a better
representation of the true volume over a given area. A network of precipitation measurement points can
be converted to areal estimates using any of the following techniques:

 Arithmetic or Station Average Method

 Thiessen Polygon Method
 Isohyetal Method

Isohyetal Analysis Method

 This is a graphical technique which involves drawing estimated lines of equal rainfall over an area
based on point measurements

Isohyet

 A line joining points of equal rainfall magnitude.

𝑃 +𝑃 𝑃 +𝑃 𝑃 +𝑃
𝑎1 ( 1 2 2 ) + 𝑎2 ( 2 2 3 ) + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 ( 𝑛−12 𝑛 )
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑃) =
𝐴
CASE 1: The isohyets due to storm in a catchment together with the area of the catchment bounded by
the isohyets are given below. Estimate the mean precipitation due to the storm using Isohyetal Method.

ISOHYETS AREA
16-15 cm 90 km2
15-14 cm 100 km2
14-13 cm 110 km2
13-12 cm 30 km2

𝑃1 + 𝑃2 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 × 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑇

𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2
𝐴𝑥
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑇 =
𝐴𝑇

*by manual connection of isohyets*

ISOHYETS AREA Pave Fraction of AT Weighted P

16-15 cm 90 km2 15.5 0.2727 4.227 cm
15-14 cm 100 km2 14.5 0.3030 4.394 cm
14-13 cm 110 km2 13.5 0.3333 4.5 cm
13-12 cm 30 km2 12.5 0.0909 1.136 cm
TOTAL 330 km2 1 14.257 cm
CASE 2: The isohyets due to a storm in a catchment together with the area of the catchment bounded by
the isohyets are given below. Estimate the mean precipitation due to the storm using Isohyetal Method.

ISOHYETS AREA
> 10 cm 20 km2
10-9 cm 75 km2
9-8 cm 100 km2
8-7 cm 50 km2
7-6 cm 40 km2
< 6 cm 10 km2

ISOHYETS AREA Pave Fraction of AT Weighted P

> 10 cm 20 km2 10 0.0678 0.678 cm
10-9 cm 75 km2 9.5 0.2542 2.415 cm
9-8 cm 100 km2 8.5 0.339 2.882 cm
8-7 cm 50 km2 7.5 0.1695 1.271 cm
7-6 cm 40 km2 6.5 0.1356 0.881 cm
< 6 cm 10 km2 6 0.0339 0.203 cm
TOTAL 295 km2 1 8.33 cm
CASE 3: Given a 300 km2 watershed with 10 rain gauge stations below, compute the mean precipitation
using Isohyetal Method.

By Method of Squares:

*Count the number of squares.*

ISOHYETS # OF SQUARES Fraction of AT

19-18 cm 15.45 0.203
18-17 cm 28.95 0.38
17-16 cm 16 0.21
16-15 cm 15.7 0.206
TOTAL 76.1 1

ISOHYETS AREA Pave Fraction of AT Weighted P

19-18 cm 60.9 km2 18.5 0.203 3.756 cm
18-17 cm 114 km2 17.5 0.38 6.65 cm
17-16 cm 63 km2 16.5 0.21 3.465 cm
16-15 cm 61.8 km2 15.5 0.206 3.193 cm
TOTAL 300 km2 1 17.064 cm
SAMPLE PROBLEM

Pave(I) = (5.6+5.2)/2

Pave(V) = (12+13.8)/2

Pave(VI) = (7.4+7.6)/2

ZONE ISOHYET MEAN ISOHYETAL AREA BET. PRODUCT OF Pave

VALUE ISOHYETS & Area
I < 6 cm 5.4 410 2214
II 6 – 8 cm 7 900 6300
III 8 – 10 cm 9 2850 25,650
IV 10 – 12 cm 11 1750 19,250
V > 12 cm 12.9 720 9.288
VI < 8 cm 7.5 550 4,125
TOTAL 7180 66,827

66,827 𝑘𝑚2 ∙ 𝑐𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
7180 𝑘𝑚2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 9.31 𝑐𝑚
Thiessen Polygon Method

 The same process with the Isohyetal Method but only differs on getting the area since this uses
polygons.
 This method attempts to allow for non-uniform distribution of gauges by providing a weighting
factor for each gauge. The stations are plotted on a base map and are connected by straight lines.
Perpendicular bisectors are drawn to the straight lines, joining adjacent stations to form polygons,
known as Thiessen Polygons.
 In TPM, we connect rain gauge stations but in IM, we connect gauge with the same precipitation.

Steps:

1. Draw straight lines connecting two stations.

2. Draw a perpendicular bisector between the two stations and extend until it
meets with another bisector within the area.

Pi AREA Fraction of AT Weighted P

2.0 1.5 0.063 0.126
1.8 7.2 0.304 0.547
1.2 5.2 0.219 0.263
1.0 9.8 0.414 0.414
TOTAL 23.7 1 1.35 in

Other Examples
 DOUBLE MASS ANALYSIS SURFACE

Consistency of Rainfall Record

Precipitation puts water in the watershed.

Precipitation measurements help determine water
availability for evaporation and streamflow, and the
risk of forest fires, landslides, and soil erosion.
Precipitation is liquid (rain) or frozen (sleet, hail,
graupel, snow) water or a combination of both falling
from the sky.

Precipitation is measured as depth of water

that would accumulate on a horizontal surface.
Typical recorded values for precipitation are the daily,
monthly, and annual totals (depth of water in
millimeters), as well as storm total, maximum
intensity (millimeters per minute or per hour), and duration (hours). Precipitation is measured at a point
using a manual or automatic recording gauge and over an area using meteorological radar (e.g., Doppler)
or satellite images.

Measurement of rainfall with a gauge is less prone to error than the measurement of solid
precipitation because it is less susceptible to the influence of wind on “catch” by gauges. Some gauges are
suitable only for measuring rainfall, and others are used only for solid precipitation.

Very few can measure both forms reliably. Precipitation is usually not uniform in spatial
distribution, intensity, or duration within a storm. Wind flow interacting with watershed topography also
affects the distribution of precipitation. The standard technique for measuring rainfall is a plastic or metal
cylinder with a sharp edge and funnel-like cover to minimize evaporation.

Many studies require long term rainfall data; therefore, a test must be conducted to check
homogeneity or self-consistency of the rainfall record. This is necessary because over a period of time, it
may happen that there be some obstructions (trees, buildings) may have emerged after the installation
of gage or its location might have changed, or observational procedure might have changed. The
inconsistency of rainfall record can be checked by graphical or statistical methods including double mass
curve, the von Neumann ratio test, cumulative deviation, run test.

Double mass curve method is one of the most common and widely accepted methods for checking
the consistency of rainfall record.
Double Mass Analysis

 This method is based on the assumption that the mean accumulated precipitation for a large
group of stations is not significantly affected by a change(s) in individual stations. If we plot the
mean accumulated precipitation for several stations against the accumulated precipitation of the
record for the station that needs to be adjusted, any change in slope will indicate a “break” in the
station record.
 This technique is based on the principle that when each recorded data comes from the same
parent population, they are consistent.

Applicability of Double Mass Analysis

 Base sections should be located relatively close to station being tested

 Method should not be used in mountainous areas where precipitation can deviate significantly
for nearby stations
 Method should only be used for long-term adjustment for precipitation data but not for adjusting
daily or storm precipitation.
𝑀𝑐
𝑃𝑐𝑥 = 𝑃𝑥
𝑀𝑎
Pcx = corrected precipitation at any time period t1 at station X
Px = original recorded precipitation at time period t1 at station X
Mc = corrected slope of the double-mass curve
Ma = original slope of the double mass curve

STEPS:

1. The data is sorted in descending order of the year, starting from the latest year. Cumulative values
of station BHIE rainfall and the ten station average rainfall values (ƩPave) are calculated.
2. Plot the given data then analyze the breakpoint.
3. Solve for Mc using the data from the breakpoint to the latest year.
4. Solve for Ma using the Data from preceding year of the breakpoint to the earliest year.
5. Apply the corrected precipitation formula from preceding year of the breakpoint to the earliest
year.