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 Contents
Introduction 01
What is Smarter Science? 01
Why Smarter Science? 01
Thinking Like a Scientist 01
The Smarter Science Framework 03
Smarter Science Goes Beyond Science 05
About This Guide 06

Initiate & Plan 08 Analyze & Interpret 30

Observing 09 Comparing 31
Questioning 10 Contrasting 32
Searching 11 Classifying 33
Interviewing 12 Outlining 34
Inferring 13 Graphing 35
Predicting 14 Analyzing 36
Hypothesizing 15 Evaluating 37
Modeling 16 Reviewing 38
Investigating 17

Perform & Record 18 Communicate 40

Using Instruments 19 Discussing 41
Calibrating 20 Explaining 42
Measuring 21 Reporting 43
Recording 22 Writing 44
Planning 23 Reflecting 45
Designing 24 Teaching 46
Gathering Data 25
Demonstrating 26
Constructing 27
Inventing 28
Experimenting 29

Glossary 47

Credits 49

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 Introduction
What is Smarter Science?
Smarter Science is a framework for teaching and learning science in grades 1–12 and for
developing the skills of inquiry, creativity, and innovation in a meaningful and engaging
manner. Students engaged in Smarter Science–based activities are actively investigating
and problem solving, enabled by a teacher who helps them address challenges relevant
to their world. As they learn to think and act like scientists, students become increasingly
independent and self-confident learners.
Originally developed in the Thames Valley District School Board, Smarter Science was
As they learn to piloted in 50 schools in Ontario between 2006 and 2010. School boards across the
think and act like province soon began to recognize the value of the framework, as did Youth Science
scientists, students Canada. Smarter Science is now part of Youth Science Canada’s program for engaging
become increasingly youth in science and providing a curricular connection to project-based science and
independent and self- science fairs. Youth Science Canada is collaborating with members of the education
confident learners. community, including school boards, teachers, parents, and ministries of education, to
train teachers to teach the processes of inquiry and technological problem solving.
A key feature of Smarter Science is its open-source nature. All resources developed by
cooperating school boards and contributing teachers can be accessed online, at no cost,
through www.smarterscience.ca and www.educasciences.ca, and resources may be freely
reproduced and distributed.

Why Smarter Science?

Smarter Science evolved from a need to make the Ontario elementary science and
technology curriculum and the secondary science curriculum come alive for students, with
classroom activities that reflect the investigative, creative, and social nature of science.
Teachers—particularly elementary teachers, who are often less comfortable with their
own knowledge of science—need an effective framework for teaching science that
actively engages students, incorporates literacy and numeracy learning, and develops
thinking skills, problem-solving skills, and independent learners.
Smarter Science is a framework, not a program; it is a means for teaching students how
to do science, but does not tell you what to teach. Smarter Science, when introduced
appropriately, results in learners that are engaged in the process of science and more than
willing to create, innovate, and explore the science curriculum.

Thinking Like a Scientist

What do scientists do?
◆◆ They ask questions about, and make systematic observations, of natural phenomena.
◆◆ They record observations and conduct experiments where possible.
◆◆ They use the data they collect to develop models that explain the phenomena.
◆◆ They test their models repeatedly, and discard, refine, or confirm them.

Smarter Science aims to teach students the process scientists use to learn about the world.

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 smarter éduca
science sciences
INITIATE PERFORM ANALYZE
& PLAN & RECORD & INTERPRET COMMUNICATE
• Identifying a problem or need through • Developing and safely carrying out • Reviewing results carefully by examining • Explaining procedures and results
curious observation an investigation data and identifying patterns through writing, speaking, visual or
• Defining testable questions, researching and • Observing, collecting, and recording • Deciding what the results mean electronic means
considering possible answers and solutions results • Reflecting on the process and checking
• Evaluating and refining solutions
• Revisiting observations and predictions to with peers
improve testable question

BEGINNING
Observing Using Instruments Comparing Discussing
Using the 5 senses to find out about objects Knowing the instrument’s parts, how it works, Looking for similarities. Engaging in oral, written, or any other
and events: their characteristics, properties, how to adjust it, its proper use for a given task, appropriate form of communication
differences, similarities, and changes. its limitations; knowing how to store it and with others.
Observation can be made directly with transport it safely.
the senses or indirectly through the use
of simple or complex instruments.

Calibrating
Questioning
Checking, adjusting, or determining by
comparison with a standard (e.g., calibrating a
Contrasting
thermometer, balance, timer or other instrument). Looking for differences.
A strategy to make meaning or
wonder about uncertainties.
Explaining

EXPLORING
Measuring Clearly describing, clarifying main points and
focusing on the “why” and/or “how” of the
issue, concept or idea.
Searching
Assigning numbers to observations, e.g., metric
units, time, student-generated units, using

Classifying
appropriate measuring devices and techniques.
Locating and using several sources,
developing self-reliance in acquiring
library and Internet skills. Putting things into groups and subgroups,
identifying categories, deciding between

Recording alternatives.

Noting, documenting, tabulating, charting;

Interviewing
working systematically, working regularly.

Asking, interviewing, and corresponding

to gain primary information.
Reporting
Planning Organizing and presenting information in
Working systematically, regularly organizing Outlining a written or oral format.

EMERGING
for future, seeing possible results. Employing major headings and subheadings;
Inferring using sequential, logical organization.

Using logic to draw conclusions from the

Designing
results of investigating/problem-solving.

The overall plan or strategy by which

hypotheses / research questions and technological
problems are answered (with or without innovation).

Predicting Graphing
Predictions are not random guesses
but speculations of what may occur in Visually representing data. Writing
the future based on prior knowledge,
observations, and reasoning.
Gathering Data Conveying information (e.g., questions,
observations, experimental report) by
Collecting evidence through measurements, graphical means.
facts, figures, pieces of information, statistics
(either historical or derived by calculation),
experimentation, surveys, etc.

COMPETENT
Hypothesizing
Making educated guesses or predictions
based on evidence that must be tested Demonstrating Analyzing
Seeing implications and relationships,
through experimentation to establish discerning causes and effects, locating
Setting up apparatus, making it work,
credibility. Hypotheses guide investigations new problems.
describing parts and functions, illustrating
from which further predictions can be
scientific principles.
made. Hypotheses generally follow an
“If..., then....” statement format.
Reflecting
The activity of either an individual or

Constructing group that involves analyzing, judging the

importance of, and making connections to

Modeling
Putting together component parts; to the learning experience.

Evaluating
build or erect.
Constructing physical/concrete or abstract
representations of ideas, objects or events Recognizing good and poor features;
to clarify explanations or demonstrate
Inventing
judging and assessing.
PROFICIENT

relationships. Models are used to reinforce

concepts, demonstrate learning, and /or
illustrate phenomena which cannot be Designing something useful, for the first time,
directly observed. through the use of the imagination, ingenious
thinking and / or experimentation.

Investigating Experimenting Reviewing Teaching

Making meaning of concepts or processes by
Gathering background information, formulating Carrying out a designed investigation Picking out important items, organizing them into key facts and ideas and
problems / hypotheses. to test a hypothesis or answer a question. memorizing, associating. clearly conveying them to others.

ENGAGE EXPLORE EXPLAIN EXTEND

A S S E S S & E V A L U A T E
Adapted from research by Trowbridge, Bybee and Powell 2000 Except where otherwise noted, this work is licensed under
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/
© Youth Science Canada 2009, Some Rights Reserved

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 The Smarter Science Framework
The poster at left summarizes the Smarter Science framework. The process skills of
science are divided into four columns, each corresponding to a stage in the problem-
solving process. The learning continuum identifies how students will progress as they learn
each process skill. The skills are also correlated to the 5Es Instructional Model (see p. 5).

Process Skills
At the heart of Smarter Science are 34 process skills—the skills necessary to do science
(Bybee, Powell, and Trowbridge, 2008). These include everything from observing and
interviewing to calibrating, constructing, and reporting. The definition of each skill has
been synthesized from definitions in multiple sources, both in print and online.
Within each column, the most basic process skills are near the top and more advanced
skills are near the bottom. But do not confuse “advanced” skills with “important” skills.
For example, Observing and Questioning, though basic, are the most important skills for
students to learn.
Each skill must be taught explicitly so that students have a common understanding.
Students must also have an opportunity to practise and apply each skill. This guide
examines the process skills in detail.

Four Stages of Problem Solving

Each column of skills corresponds to a stage in the process of solving a problem:
◆◆ Become aware of a problem and formulate a testable question that can be investigated
◆◆ Conduct the investigation and collect information
◆◆ Analyze the information and interpret the results
◆◆ Communicate the results to others

In any scientific inquiry, students will move through each stage of the problem-solving
process, using whichever skills are applicable.

Initiate & Plan

◆◆ Identifying a problem The process skills in this stage of the problem-solving process enable students to develop
or need through
a testable question that they can investigate.
curious observation
◆◆ Defining testable The most important of all scientific skills—perhaps the most important skill across all
questions, researching disciplines—is the ability to observe, and observe well. The scientist must be able to
and considering possible
answers and solutions observe and record everything, and every student must learn to differentiate between an
◆◆ Revisiting observations
observation and an assumption. Quite often, students observe and derive an assumption
and predictions to improve from the observation. For example, some observations of a ping-pong ball may be that
testable question it is spherical, white, and a hard substance. When students say that it is made of plastic
they are not observing; they are incorporating prior knowledge into what they think is an
observation. Typically, using only the five senses, students are limited to the observation
that the ping-pong ball is made of “a hard substance.”

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 Students should complete their planning for an investigation before they move to the next
stage, Perform & Record. You may also want to assess your students’ plans before they
proceed, especially when students are new to the Smarter Science framework. Check
whether students have taken safety precautions, whether the equipment and resources
requested are available, and whether the plan is “doable.”

PERFORM & RECORD

◆◆ Developing and This is the hands-on stage of problem solving, where students put their question to
safely carrying out
the test.
an investigation
◆◆ Observing, collecting, Students must think about and develop ways to record the data that results from their
and recording results investigation (e.g., tables, T-charts, checklists). Students working in groups must also
assign roles to each other (e.g., you pour and I’ll measure).
Scientific problem solving is answering questions about what we know about the world
(e.g., What factors affect plant growth?). Technological problem solving is solving a
practical problem (e.g., What’s the most efficient way for farmers to apply fertilizer to
their fields?). Most of the skills in this column apply to both scientific problem solving and
technological problem solving. The exceptions are Constructing and Inventing, which lend
themselves more to technological problem solving, and Experimenting, which applies more
to scientific problem solving.

ANALYZE & INTERPRET

◆◆ Reviewing results carefully Once they have carried out their investigation, students must analyze and evaluate their
by examining data and
data and determine what the results mean.
identifying patterns
◆◆ Deciding what the The process skills in this stage of the problem-solving process are most directly related to
results mean numeracy. For example, in order to analyze and evaluate the data, students may have to
◆◆ Evaluating and graph or otherwise illustrate relationships that become apparent.
refining solutions
COMMUNICATE
◆◆ Explaining procedures It is very important for students to communicate their results and their analyses to others.
and results through
The continuum of process skills in this final stage of the problem-solving process suggests
writing, speaking, visual or
electronic means a gradual expansion of the sphere of communication. Students begin by Discussing and
◆◆ Reflecting on the process Explaining the investigation to peers but can then create a product, such as an oral report,
and checking with peers essay, or video, to present their investigation and its results to a variety of audiences
(Reporting).
Reflecting is a key process skill that must be part of all Smarter Science investigations.
Students must be able to examine what they have done, suggest changes or
improvements, and establish priorities for future investigations. Formal reflection occurs
in the Communicate stage, but students should be encouraged to reflect on their actions
throughout the inquiry process.

Learning Continuum
The learning continuum shows the levels of proficiency that students should move
through as they learn and practise each skill: everyone starts as a beginner, gains skill and

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 experience (explore, emerge), becomes competent, and eventually becomes an expert.
The milestones “beginning” through “proficient” are not specific to grade or age. For
example, a student in grade 3 may be proficient at Teaching (e.g., explaining to others
how plants grow) and a student in grade 12 may be a beginner at Using Instruments
(e.g., gel electrophoresis). It is up to you, the teacher, to determine the ability level of your
students, consolidate their prior knowledge and skills, and help them to progress along the
learning continuum.

The 5E Instructional Model

Smarter Science process skills are correlated to the 5E Instructional Model of inquiry-
based science created and popularized by Roger Bybee of Biological Sciences Curriculum
Students must be Study (BSCS) in Colorado. The key ingredient in the 5E model is that students must be
engaged and allowed engaged and allowed to explore before the teacher conveys the content. In both Smarter
to explore before Science and the 5E model, teachers assess student progress and provide feedback
the teacher conveys continuously, throughout the inquiry process. Once your students are familiar with process
the content. skills and the stages of problem solving, you can evaluate at the end of an investigation
or inquiry.

Smarter Science Goes Beyond Science

Process Skills Are Transferable
If you examine all of the process skills, you will see that none are specific only to science.
Once you understand the Smarter Science framework, you will find it easy to apply to
other subjects.

Smarter Science Develops Literacy and Numeracy

The Smarter Science framework also incorporates numeracy and literacy skills. In order
to design an investigation, students must record their observations and questions. As
students’ design abilities become more sophisticated, they will be reading additional
background information in order to plan their investigations. Recording data throughout
an investigation requires skills in technical writing. Numeracy skills like data gathering,
graphing, and data analysis are required to make sense of the results of the investigation.
Literacy skills figure prominently when students communicate the results of their
investigation, whether orally or in writing.

Smarter Science Incorporates Bloom’s Taxonomy

Bloom’s taxonomy, which categorizes thinking skills, is built into the arrangement of
process skills. If you imagine a diagonal line from the top left of the poster to the bottom
right, you can see the progression from lower- to higher-order thinking skills.

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 About This Guide
On the following pages, you will learn more about each process skill, including what
students and teachers engaged in the skill should and should not be doing. A brief
glossary defines some of the teaching techniques and strategies mentioned throughout.
For resources (e.g., graphic organizers) to help implement Smarter Science in your
classroom, visit www.smarterscience.ca.

problem-solving stage
process skill INITIATE & PLAN

introduction
Observing
definition Definition: Observation is a fundamental science process skill that is often overlooked.
Using the 5 senses However, like all skills, it can be developed with practice and feedback. It is student
to find out about observations that lead to questioning and the process of inquiry. Observing is the
objects and events: key to understanding objects and phenomena in the world and interactions between
their characteristics, objects or phenomena. It can also be a “hook” for further inquiry—looking closely can
properties, differences, generate new questions, which lead to further investigations.
similarities and
guidlines for students changes. Observation STUDENTS
can be made directly Observing is...
with the senses or ✔ using all five senses, as appropriate, to thoroughly understand an object’s natural state
indirectly through
✔ detecting details in natural phenomena that go beyond that of the casual observer
the use of simple or
complex instruments. ✔ building understanding by connecting to past experiences
✘ not limited to sight or touch
✘ not using simple, overused words with little descriptive value (e.g. pretty, little, nice)
✘ not attributing cause to the observations
✘ not the same for every student—different students will make different observations

guidlines for teachers TEACHERS

Observing is...
✔ prompting students to use all five senses
✔ encouraging students to use expansive, descriptive vocabulary, including scientific terms
✔ encouraging students to make connections to past experiences (e.g., what does this
remind you of?)
✔ providing multiple opportunities to practise
✔ giving students problems that require them to decide what evidence (observations) are
relevant, and to interpret the evidence
✘ not telling students to notice specific aspects of an object or phenomenon, or explaining
observations (e.g., don’t tell students who see perfect spheres when examining slides
under a microscope that these are trapped air bubbles)
✘ not expecting every student to notice the same set of details

objectives WHAT THIS SKILL SHOULD LEAD TO

Systematic observation develops an enhanced descriptive vocabulary that becomes
important as students practise other science skills, such as writing and reviewing. As
students become better observers, they will become better able to detect patterns,
classify information, predict events, and make inferences. Math skills will also improve,
and students will have opportunities to integrate skills from the arts, including visual
art, drama, and dance. Finally, observing leads to discussions of the role of bias when
observations are interpreted by different observers.

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 Initiate & Plan
What it is
INITIATE ◆◆ Identifying a problem or need through curious observation
& PLAN ◆◆ Defining testable questions, researching and considering possible answers
and solutions
◆◆ Revisiting observations and predictions to improve testable question

process skills
Observing
Observing
Using the 5 senses to find out about objects and events: their characteristics, properties,
differences, similarities, and changes. Observation can be made directly with the senses
or indirectly through the use of simple or complex instruments.
Questioning
Questioning
A strategy to make meaning or wonder about uncertainties.

Searching Searching
Locating and using several sources, developing self-reliance in acquiring library and
Internet skills.

Interviewing
Interviewing
Asking, interviewing, and corresponding to gain primary information.

Inferring
Using logic to draw conclusions from the results of investigating/problem-solving.
Inferring
Predicting
Predictions are not random guesses but speculations of what may occur in the future
based on prior knowledge, observations, and reasoning.
Predicting Hypothesizing
Making educated guesses or predictions based on evidence that must be tested through
experimentation to establish credibility. Hypotheses guide investigations from which
further predictions can be made. Hypotheses generally follow an “If..., then....” statement
Hypothesizing format.

Modeling
Constructing physical/concrete or abstract representations of ideas, objects or events to
Modeling clarify explanations or demonstrate relationships. Models are used to reinforce concepts,
demonstrate learning, and /or illustrate phenomena which cannot be directly observed.

Investigating
Gathering background information, formulating problems / hypotheses.
Investigating

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 Initiate & Plan
Observing
Definition: Observation is a fundamental science process skill that is often overlooked.
Using the 5 senses However, like all skills, it can be developed with practice and feedback. It is student
to find out about observations that lead to questioning and the process of inquiry. Observing is the
objects and events: key to understanding objects and phenomena in the world and interactions between
their characteristics, objects or phenomena. It can also be a “hook” for further inquiry—looking closely can
properties, differences, generate new questions, which lead to further investigations.
similarities and
changes. Observation Students
can be made directly Observing is...
with the senses or ✔✔using all five senses, as appropriate, to thoroughly understand an object’s natural state
indirectly through
✔✔detecting details in natural phenomena that go beyond that of the casual observer
the use of simple or
complex instruments. ✔✔building understanding by connecting to past experiences
✘✘ not limited to sight or touch
✘✘ not using simple, overused words with little descriptive value (e.g. pretty, little, nice)
✘✘ not attributing cause to the observations
✘✘ not the same for every student—different students will make different observations

Teachers
Observing is...
✔✔prompting students to use all five senses
✔✔encouraging students to use expansive, descriptive vocabulary, including scientific terms
✔✔encouraging students to make connections to past experiences (e.g., what does this
remind you of?)
✔✔providing multiple opportunities to practise
✔✔giving students problems that require them to decide what evidence (observations) are
relevant, and to interpret the evidence
✘✘ not telling students to notice specific aspects of an object or phenomenon, or explaining
observations (e.g., don’t tell students who see perfect spheres when examining slides
under a microscope that these are trapped air bubbles)
✘✘ not expecting every student to notice the same set of details

What this skill should lead to

Systematic observation develops an enhanced descriptive vocabulary that becomes
important as students practise other science skills, such as writing and reviewing. As
students become better observers, they will become better able to detect patterns,
classify information, predict events, and make inferences. Math skills will also improve,
and students will have opportunities to integrate skills from the arts, including visual
art, drama, and dance. Finally, observing leads to discussions of the role of bias when
observations are interpreted by different observers.

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 Initiate & Plan
Questioning
Definition: Questioning—asking who, what, when, where, why, and how—leads to student inquiry
A strategy to make and investigation. It is the underlying basis for Smarter Science and is a fundamental
meaning or wonder part of the inquiry process. Questioning arouses curiosity, promotes idea development,
about uncertainties. stimulates discussion, clarifies concepts, emphasizes key ideas, motivates students,
encourages higher-order thinking, and activates prior knowledge. Teaching effective
questioning skills leads to increased student engagement and ownership.

Students
Questioning is...
✔✔students leading the discussion and subsequent inquiry
✔✔an interactive activity during which students record their curiosity
✔✔activities where students develop higher-order thinking and engage in high level discussion
✔✔asking who, what, when, where, why, and how—questions that lead to true discussion
and inquiry
✔✔a dynamic process whereby questions lead to new questions and new ideas for investigations

✘✘ not teachers leading the discussion

✘✘ not asking just ‘what’ questions (which lead to one-word answers)

Teachers
Questioning is...
✔✔encouraging various types of questions (e.g., scaffolding questions using Bloom’s
taxonomy: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and
creating)
✔✔using teaching supports to develop higher-order thinking (e.g., Q-chart activity)
✔✔prompting students to extend, clarify, and justify their questions, to extend learning and
engage more students
✔✔prompting students to reformulate their questions so that they are “testable”
✔✔establishing a classroom of inquiry where everyone’s ideas are honoured
✔✔allowing wait time for students to think

✘✘ not asking the first student with their hand up

✘✘ not investigating only teacher-generated questions
✘✘ not led by the teacher
✘✘ not Yes or No questions
✘✘ not using rhetorical questions (these mislead and confuse students)

What this skill should lead to

Questioning leads to a deeper understanding of the scientific concept being investigated.
Rich questions lead to rich inquiries, which in turn generate more questions. Questioning
also leads to participation and engagement in literacy activities—reading, researching,
writing, speaking, and presenting.
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 Initiate & Plan
Searching
Definition: In a world of information overload, the ability to locate information and assess its
Locating and quality is an important step in developing critical literacy in science. Students should
using several actively mine information rather than passively accepting it. Searching for information
sources, developing about a question is an important part of the inquiry process. Some questions can be
self-reliance in answered through hands-on investigations, while other questions are best answered
acquiring library and through searching for information.
Internet skills.
Students
Searching is...
✔✔locating their own sources of information based on their own questions
✔✔re-framing their current understanding in light of new evidence
✔✔evaluating the reliability of sources of information
✔✔identifying potential sources of error and/or bias
✔✔developing and using criteria to establish relevance, accuracy, and reliability of information
✔✔discussing research with peers and teachers to gain additional perspective and construct
new meaning
✔✔developing and using strategies to collect, organize, and communicate relevant research
✔✔developing and using strategies to interpret scientific vocabulary

✘✘ not expecting immediate answers to questions

✘✘ not copying and pasting information directly from resources
✘✘ not using a single source for information

Teachers
Searching is...
✔✔giving students sufficient time and resources for research
✔✔giving students guidance and activities to develop research skills
✔✔developing criteria for reliability
✔✔giving students opportunities to discuss and question their research
✔✔guiding the development of strategies to interpret scientific text

✘✘ not providing the “correct answers”

✘✘ not providing a limited, teacher-supplied list of approved resources

What this skill should lead to

➜➜critical literacy skills that enable assessment of information for accuracy, reliability,
and relevance
➜➜strategies for interpreting and understanding scientific text
➜➜cooperative learning (through discussion of research with peers)

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 Initiate & Plan
Interviewing
Definition: Interviewing develops critical thinking skills as students generate appropriate and
Asking, interviewing, pertinent questions. This research technique is often a source of primary information.
and corresponding Students learn to recognize and discover bias or irrelevant information so that these do
to gain primary not influence their decisions or concluding thoughts.
information.
Students
Interviewing is...
✔✔a structured conversation
✔✔using a series of predetermined questions based on the topic and fitting the area of
expertise of the interviewee
✔✔providing the interviewee with a copy of the questions ahead of time
✔✔in multiple interviews, using the same interview format and questions to allow for valid
interpretation
✔✔taking notes or recording the exchange for future reference
✔✔being courteous, polite, and respectful

✘✘ not asking personal questions or questions that are irrelevant to the topic
✘✘ not surprising the interviewee with unexpected questions that require details and/or
statistics the interviewee may not have on hand
✘✘ not asking questions abruptly or impolitely

Teachers
Interviewing is...
✔✔guiding students to ask questions at various levels (see Bloom’s taxonomy)
✔✔giving students time to practise interviewing skills
✔✔reviewing students’ questions to ensure that they are concise and related to the topic
✔✔ensuring that the interviewee has the potential to add value to the research
✔✔encouraging students to identify possible bias on both sides of the interview

✘✘ not giving students a list of questions

✘✘ not supporting random, repetitive, or disconnected interviews

What this skill should lead to

➜➜the development of probing, higher-level questions
➜➜the knowledge that primary data is an important source of information and adds to the
inquiry process
➜➜opportunities to interpret responses and evaluate for bias

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 Initiate & Plan
Inferring
Definition: Inferring is using logic and reason to develop explanations from evidence. It is thinking
Using logic to draw beyond the information available and making links with unstated ideas or information.
conclusions from the Inferring requires students to “read between the lines.” Students may often use prior
results of investigating/ knowledge to infer purpose, intent, or cause and effect.
problem-solving.
Students
Inferring is...
✔✔deducing information from incomplete evidence using reasoning or logic. The information
does not need to be factual or correct. (For example, “The grass is wet in the morning, so I
infer that it rained overnight.” This is a valid inference, but not necessarily a correct one—
the wet grass could be from morning dew or a sprinkler system.)
✔✔clarifying observations as evidence
✔✔making a connection between what is known and what is unknown
✔✔creating a tentative understanding of the situation without knowing or being given
the “answer”

✘✘ not predicting
✘✘ not guessing
✘✘ not based on another’s perspective
✘✘ not waiting to be told the answer
✘✘ not easy!

Teachers
Inferring is...
✔✔guiding students to make logical connections from available evidence
✔✔encouraging students to consider alternative inferences
✔✔scaffolded and deliberate
✔✔using a modified K-W-L chart to show the process of making an inference: replace “What I
know,” What I want to learn,” and “What I learned” with “What I know,” “What I observed,”
and “What I infer”

✘✘ not quick and easy

✘✘ not a worksheet and answer key
✘✘ not every student making the same inference
✘✘ not teacher-directed

What this skill should lead to

➜➜improved observation and deduction skills
➜➜the ability to identify and analyze available evidence
➜➜improved literacy skills as inferencing skills are applied to make meaning of written texts

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 Initiate & Plan
Predicting
Definition: Predicting is one of the foundational skills in the inquiry process. A prediction or
Predictions are not forecast is a statement about the way things will happen in the future. A testable
random guesses prediction is based on prior experience, physical evidence, and understanding.
but speculations of Students often lack the experience necessary to make predictions. Teachers may
what may occur in need to provide prior experiential opportunities on which students can base their
the future based on predictions. Asking students to predict without prior experience results in guesswork.
prior knowledge, For the purposes of inquiry, predictions must be testable, though in some fields this
observations, is not always possible (e.g., paleontology, astronomy, taxonomy or classification).
and reasoning.
Students
Predicting is...
✔✔a clear statement or diagram(s) that explains what will happen in a future event, such as
a demonstration, activity, or exploration. Predictions can take the form of “If…, then…”
statements.

✘✘ not making guesses without prior experience, physical evidence, and understanding
✘✘ not predictions made on unrelated topic(s)
✘✘ not an “If..., then… because…” statement, since predictions do not include a rationale

Teachers
Predicting is...
✔✔allowing for brainstorming about a given observation/statement
✔✔guiding students to speculate on what might happen
✔✔providing prompts to encourage students to predict (e.g., I predict that… or I think that…)

✘✘ never a standalone component of inquiry. A prediction accompanied by a tentative

explanation or rationale becomes a hypothesis. (See ‘Hypothesizing.’)

What this skill should lead to

Predictions are the foundation for formulating testable questions, and are required for any
controlled experiment.

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 Initiate & Plan
Hypothesizing
Definition: Hypotheses are suggested explanations of phenomena based on evidence at hand.
Making educated Hypothesizing requires students to provide a rationale or reasons for their prediction.
guesses or predictions This is an opportunity for students to combine background research and prior
based on evidence that knowledge to support their thinking.
must be tested through Hypotheses arise from previous observations, models, or theories. They express
experimentation to a cause and effect relationship (identify independent and dependent variables). A
establish credibility. hypothesis can be used as a starting point for further investigation.
Hypotheses guide
investigations Students
from which further Hypothesizing is...
predictions can be ✔✔detailing the support for a prediction
made. Hypotheses
✔✔using the word “because” (e.g., The penny will float because….)
generally follow
an “If..., then....” ✔✔usually done prior to conducting investigations
statement format.
✘✘ not a judgment or personal opinion
✘✘ not a random guess of what is going to happen
✘✘ not a vague statement or prediction (e.g., The penny will float in the liquid.)

Teachers
Hypothesizing is...
✔✔emphasizing the link between research, models, and theories to make reasoned
predictions
✔✔a creative process where students develop an understanding of how the world works
✔✔guiding students to independently develop their own logic and reasoning

✘✘ not written after students have finished their inquiries to ensure their hypothesis is correct
✘✘ not proven in a scientific inquiry—it is either supported or not supported. An inquiry that
supports a hypothesis increases confidence in the hypothesis and the underlying theory
that generated it. A hypothesis that is not supported by the data needs to be revised,
modified, or discarded.
✘✘ never “right” or “wrong.” A scientific inquiry can be very successful even if the hypothesis
is not confirmed.

What this skill should lead to

Hypotheses help set the methodology of a scientific inquiry by providing a proposed
relationship between the variables being tested. Hypotheses also need to be addressed
when reporting results and conclusions. Developing this skill will help students connect
their inquiries with past research and theories, and possibly lead to further inquiry.

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 Initiate & Plan
Modeling
Definition: Models are simplified depictions of the real world. Modeling increases understanding
Constructing physical/ through the development of physical, conceptual, or computer representations of
concrete or abstract natural phenomena. It also fosters higher-order thinking skills. Models can be used
representations of to convey abstract concepts in a tangible form (e.g., atomic models). Models can
ideas, objects or events also be used to perform an experiment that cannot be done in the real world (e.g.,
to clarify explanations wind tunnels, wave tanks, weather modeling programs). Models help their makers to
or demonstrate develop ideas and/or present understanding.
relationships. Models
are used to reinforce Students
concepts, demonstrate Modeling is...
learning, and /or ✔✔making physical/concrete representations of a concept, object, or event using different
illustrate phenomena formats (e.g., graphic/computer simulation, 3D model)
which cannot be
✔✔a way to visualize something that may not be directly observed
directly observed.
✔✔a way of predicting future events based on present circumstances (e.g., flood plain table)
✔✔a way to reinforce what is already known about a concept
✔✔developed through a planning process

✘✘ not memorizing labeled diagrams from the teacher or textbook

✘✘ not using a kit (e.g., Lego or K’nex) with predetermined instructions

Teachers
Modeling is...
✔✔a way to reach visual and kinesthetic learners

✘✘ not teacher-directed
✘✘ not published instructions or procedures from outside sources

What this skill should lead to

Modeling increases the ability to
➜➜understand an abstract idea or a phenomenon which may not be directly observed;
➜➜determine relationships between ideas, objects, or events; and
➜➜clarify explanations.
Modeling also leads to further inquiry about relationships between ideas, objects,
or events.

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 Initiate & Plan
Investigating
Definition: Investigating is doing background research. When conducting an inquiry, it is important
Gathering background to learn more about the topic of study. A clearly defined hypothesis must incorporate
information, formulating background information from various sources. Through investigation, students survey
problems / hypotheses. the experiences of others and learn about possible methods and/or solutions to pursue.

Students
Investigating is...
✔✔background research done to further the inquiry process
✔✔gathering information from a variety of sources (e.g., interviews, printed texts, online
sources)

✘✘ not using one website (e.g., Wikipedia) as a single source of information

✘✘ not using the Internet to find out what is supposed to happen in a lab and why

Teachers
Investigating is...
✔✔giving students opportunities to complete relevant research
✔✔ensuring that students have a clearly defined testable question or problem statement to
guide their information search
✔✔teaching students appropriate search strategies (see ‘Searching’)

✘✘ not taking students to a computer lab or library for unstructured research time

What this skill should lead to

Doing background research helps students put concepts in context. It also leads to richer
questions or problems that stimulate further inquiry, and more success in applying skills,
concepts, and techniques. Investigation skills can be used to conduct research in any
subject area.

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 Perform & Record
What it is
PERFORM ◆◆ Developing and safely carrying out an investigation
& RECORD ◆◆ Observing, collecting, and recording results

process skills
Using Instruments
Using Knowing the instrument’s parts, how it works, how to adjust it, its proper use for a given
Instruments task, its limitations; knowing how to store it and transport it safely.

Calibrating
Calibrating Checking, adjusting, or determining by comparison with a standard (e.g., calibrating a
thermometer, balance, timer or other instrument).

Measuring
Measuring
Assigning numbers to observations, e.g., metric units, time, student-generated units, using
appropriate measuring devices and techniques.

Recording Recording
Noting, documenting, tabulating, charting; working systematically, working regularly.

Planning
Planning Working systematically, regularly organizing for future, seeing possible results.

Designing
Designing The overall plan or strategy by which hypotheses / research questions and technological
problems are answered (with or without innovation).

Gathering Gathering Data

Data Collecting evidence through measurements, facts, figures, pieces of information, statistics
(either historical or derived by calculation), experimentation, surveys, etc.

Demonstrating Demonstrating
Setting up apparatus, making it work, describing parts and functions, illustrating scientific
principles.

Constructing Constructing
Putting together component parts; to build or erect.

Inventing
Inventing
Designing something useful, for the first time, through the use of the imagination,
ingenious thinking and / or experimentation.

Experimenting Experimenting
Carrying out a designed investigation to test a hypothesis or answer a question.

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 Perform & Record
Using Instruments
Definition: Students collecting primary data need to be aware of what kinds of data can be
Knowing the collected by various instruments. Modern science needs to be precise, and the
instrument’s parts, accuracy and reliability of data often depends on choosing and correctly using the
how it works, how to right instruments. Students should be given the chance to properly and safely operate
adjust it, its proper use several types of equipment to learn their uses and limitations. Using Instruments is
for a given task, its closely related to Calibrating, Recording, and Gathering Data.
limitations; knowing
how to store it and Students
transport it safely. Using instruments is...
✔✔safely, actively, and regularly using instruments and equipment in their inquiries
✔✔selecting, operating, and maintaining scientific instruments
✔✔communicating why they are using one piece of equipment over another
✔✔taking responsibility for safely using scientific instruments and equipment

✘✘ not using only “advanced” pieces of equipment. Basic instruments (e.g., thermometers,
graduated cylinders, and scales) can be used to do deep and meaningful science. In fact,
students can learn much from designing, building, and calibrating their own instruments
(e.g., make hydrometers from pencils and modeling clay).
✘✘ not reading about equipment and drawing and labeling parts
✘✘ not using instruments and equipment without a purpose

Teachers
Using instruments is...
✔✔allowing students to choose the instruments and equipment they need to use within a
given context
✔✔promoting the importance of using instruments through assessment and evaluation, and
making the criteria for assessment and evaluation available to students
✔✔creating a culture of safe practice and responsibility in their science classes

✘✘ not exposing students to instruments or lab equipment without giving students a chance
to regularly use them and to explore their benefits and limitations
✘✘ not doing things for students (e.g., setting up, using, and putting away instruments)
✘✘ not discussing and/or demonstrating the importance of instruments without letting
students actually use them
✘✘ not limiting the use of equipment to prescriptive situations. Students must be allowed to
select the most appropriate instruments and equipment for a given task.

What this skill should lead to

Students will become competent users of scientific instruments. They will understand
the important of collecting data using instruments safely and will be able to choose
appropriate instruments to use in novel situations.

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 Perform & Record
Calibrating
Definition: Calibrating is checking and adjusting instruments to ensure accuracy and validity in an
Checking, adjusting, or investigation. The process of calibrating an instrument is usually done by comparison
determining by with a standard (e.g., calibrating a thermometer, balance, timer or other instrument).
comparison with Calibrating permits students to compare their results with confidence since they are
a standard (e.g., sharing the same frame of reference.
calibrating a
thermometer, balance, Students
timer or other Calibrating is...
instrument). ✔✔developing standards for calibrating. Students can set these but they need to be justified
by logic
✔✔setting standards, units of measure, and quantities to ensure the experiment has accurate,
reproducible results
✔✔the ability to repeat an experiment and get similar results

✘✘ not calibrating without comparison to a known standard.

✘✘ not using an instrument before checking that it is working correctly

Teachers
Calibrating is...
✔✔encouraging students to choose and calibrate measurement tools. This may also include
creating measurement tools when necessary.
✔✔setting some standards for calibration but allowing students to decide what parts of the
experiment need precise measurements and standards for comparison
✔✔giving students the freedom to calibrate their instruments or set standards for the
experiment
✔✔demonstrating to students various ways to record their data with the instruments chosen

✘✘ not allowing experiments to proceed without instrument calibration

✘✘ not choosing experiments where there is no calibrating needed

What this skill should lead to

In acquiring good calibration skills, students develop math skills and sharp hand-eye
coordination. They also acquire the ability to analyze and interpret data and other
information in order to complete calibration procedures.

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 Perform & Record
Measuring
Definition: Measuring in experimentation gives quantitative observations. Scientists use a
Assigning numbers large variety of measuring tools, and a common system of measurement to allow
to observations, e.g., interpretation of scientific measurements/results in any language or culture. The
metric units, time, accuracy in measuring affects the validity of any experiment. Students must know
student-generated how to use measuring tools, choose appropriate units of measurement, and measure
units, using appropriate with accuracy.
measuring devices
and techniques. Students
Measuring is...
✔✔choosing the appropriate measuring device; for example:
◆◆ when measuring the temperature in a room, using a thermometer designed for
temperatures within a narrow range, 0–45°C
◆◆ when measuring 20 mL of liquid, using a graduated cylinder that goes up to 25 mL

✔✔choosing appropriate units of measurement (e.g., centimetres for the dimensions of a

book, millimetres for the dimensions of dice, metres for the dimensions of a room)
✔✔using instruments that have been calibrated (see ‘Calibrating’)
✔✔understanding and using standardized techniques (e.g., bending down to correctly read
the meniscus at eye level when measuring fluid levels)
✔✔using consistent measuring techniques and taking repeated readings

✘✘ not using other students’ data

✘✘ not altering data to conform to expected results
✘✘ not discarding data without documenting the reasons (e.g., a fly landed on my balance
during massing)
✘✘ not using a measuring tool that has inappropriately large or small increments of measure
for a given object (e.g., using a metre stick to measure the length of a mealworm, using a
100 mL beaker with 25 mL markings to measure 20 mL)

Teachers
Measuring is...
✔✔reminding students to calibrate measuring tools before use
✔✔allowing students to choose the appropriate unit of measurement and measuring tool for a
task (e.g., use a 10 mL graduated cylinder to measure 8 mL of liquid)
✔✔teaching students to make careful and accurate readings of measurements; modeling
standardized techniques

What this skill should lead to

Careful and accurate measurement using appropriate instruments produces good
quantitative data that supports students’ qualitative observations and allows for
meaningful learning in context. Making measurements also allows students to appreciate
calibration and become more familiar with the various scientific measuring tools.

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 Perform & Record
Recording
Definition: Recording is collecting and organizing the data from an experiment. The record of
Noting, documenting, an experiment can include video, measurements, descriptions, drawings, tables,
tabulating, charting; charts, graphic organizers, anecdotes, and more. A permanent record of an event
working systematically, or experience captures it in time and makes possible further detailed examination
working regularly. and analysis.

Students
Recording is...
✔✔carefully collecting and organizing data so that it is easy to understand
✔✔capturing as much pertinent information as possible—observations and results—using a
variety of methods
✔✔using graphic organizers. These should be developed by students so that they understand
them and know how to use them.

✘✘ not jotting down random points, which can lead to confusion

✘✘ not recording sentence fragments, which are hard for others to understand. These may be
difficult for even the recorder to decipher if too much time passes after the experiment.

Teachers
Recording is...
✔✔allowing students to choose what to record and how, but promoting the use of certain
categories to collect and organize data when necessary.
✔✔monitoring students’ record-making and suggesting better ways to record results and
observations
✔✔modeling the use of various methods and organizers to collect, maintain, and protect (back
up) data
✔✔an opportunity to assess students’ understanding of the experimental design and required
measurements

✘✘ not the final stage of an experiment. More learning comes from analyzing the results and
drawing out conclusions.
✘✘ not one-size-fits-all data collection forms that everyone uses

What this skill should lead to

Recording procedures, results, interpretations, and conclusions allows experiments to be
replicated and validated by others. Recording raw results allows for later transformation
of these results into graphs (to look for patterns or trends) or statistical tests (e.g., mean,
median, mode) to look for statistically significant results. Recording information in various
forms can lead to more questions, deeper thinking and, ultimately, a better understanding
of science.

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 Perform & Record
Planning
Definition: Planning is the process of developing and implementing a step-by-step approach or
Working systematically, procedure. Plans should be detailed and replicable, but the planning process can often
regularly organizing for involve altering the plan as students work through the process.
future, seeing possible
results. Students
Planning is...
✔✔identifying the purpose of the inquiry or the nature of the problem
✔✔considering the time, facilities, and materials available and how best to use them; taking
previous experiences into account when doing so
✔✔reviewing and assessing options to look for areas of improvement
✔✔considering, and perhaps testing, alternative approaches

✘✘ not following a prescribed set of instructions

✘✘ not ‘winging it” or working haphazardly

Teachers
Planning is...
✔✔scaffolding the planning process so that students gradually assume responsibility for
designing, conducting, and interpreting their own investigations
✔✔responding to student-identified needs and questions as curriculum concepts are
uncovered
✔✔providing a selection of materials, instruments and/or equipment, and other resources in
anticipation of student needs
✔✔ensuring that students’ plans include appropriate safety measures

✘✘ not prescribing step-by-step instructions

What this skill should lead to

➜➜A more thoughtful, considered approach to solving problems
➜➜Effective time and resource management
➜➜Independent learners and problem solvers

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 Perform & Record
Designing
Definition: Designing is the overall plan or strategy for technological problem solving (with
The overall plan or or without innovation). Designing typically uses a process called the design loop,
strategy by which which makes problem solving more effective. The design loop involves framing the
hypotheses / research problem to be solved, doing research, generating a possible solution, and carrying out
questions and modeling/prototyping. An important part of the design loop is redesigning, which leads
technological problems to improving the model/prototype.
are answered (with or
without innovation). Students
Designing is...
✔✔identifying problems and opportunities through the analysis of real-world situations
✔✔clarifying the problem and establishing design parameters
✔✔gathering information through research
✔✔generating a variety of solutions and choosing one to investigate
✔✔developing a model/prototype and evaluating it
✔✔improving and redesigning when necessary

✘✘ not the student lacking clarity about their approach to the problem. Initially, many students
are prone to seeking hands-on solutions without forethought
✘✘ not scant organization or specificity in planning

Teachers
Designing is...
✔✔explicitly teaching the design loop and gradually releasing responsibility to the students to
direct their own problem solving
✔✔monitoring the planning to ensure that it is directly connected to students’ questions
and goals
✔✔encouraging concise designs that can be followed and reproduced by anyone else with the
same or similar results

✘✘ not allowing haphazard approaches without plans

✘✘ not directing where the process will take place, identifying the precise materials required,
or providing well-defined and numbered step-by-step instructions

What this skill should lead to

Students will master the procedural framework required to effectively solve technological
problems. They will develop the ability to create designs with the precision expected in
technological problem solving. At the primary level, designing may encompass just a few
materials and a few basic steps and progress through the years to proficiency.

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 Perform & Record
Gathering Data
Definition: Inquiry requires that students collect information (qualitative and quantitative) to
Collecting support their research, and gathering data is the process of getting that information.
evidence through Students learn how to select what data to collect and what instruments to use to
measurements, facts, gather the data. Ultimately, conclusions need to be well supported by accurate and
figures, pieces of well-documented data to provide any meaningful insights into students’ topics.
information, statistics
(either historical or Students
derived by calculation), Gathering data is...
experimentation, ✔✔working independently or in groups to collect and record data for inquiry
surveys, etc.
✔✔using a wide variety of data-gathering tools (e.g., scientific instruments/equipment,
surveys, observation checklists, statistics, online databases, interviews) to collect data
✔✔locating data through research and organizing it for their purposes
✔✔using appropriate strategies (e.g., tables, checklists) to organize and record data so it can
be easily retrieved and analyzed at a later time
✔✔ensuring the information collected is accurate; using proper data collection methodologies
✔✔taking steps to minimize bias in the data collected (e.g., randomly choosing samples)

✘✘ not watching someone collect data for them

✘✘ not exclusively using data provided by the teacher or in a textbook. In these cases, the
teacher or textbook provides data-gathering tools and ways to organize the data.
✘✘ not copying data to a worksheet or from an overhead that was not generated in class
✘✘ not always collecting the same data as the rest of their classmates

Teachers
Gathering data is...
✔✔making available scientific instruments/equipment and technology for students to select
and use in their inquiries
✔✔instructing students on the importance of accuracy (e.g., using a thermometer is superior
to using touch) and quantity (e.g., multiple replications increase the reliability of the data)
✔✔introducing data-gathering techniques. These can be modeled and explored before being
used independently in investigations.

✘✘ not demonstrating an activity and having students record the results on pre-made
worksheets
✘✘ not giving students primary or secondary data to analyze
✘✘ not telling students what data to collect, how to collect it, and how to best record it

What this skill should lead to

Students will be more engaged and will develop better data management skills.

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 Perform & Record
Demonstrating
Definition: Demonstrating requires students to use their thinking, planning, and investigation skills
Setting up apparatus, to show their comprehension of a specific concept(s). When students are responsible
making it work, for illustrating a concept, they assume ownership of the task and are more likely to be
describing parts and engaged in the outcome.
functions, illustrating
scientific principles. Students
Demonstrating is...
✔✔collaborating with peers and teachers to set up a presentation
✔✔understanding the uses, limitations, and safety concerns of equipment and materials
✔✔implementing appropriate safety procedures
✔✔modifying equipment and materials to suit a specific purpose
✔✔identifying key aspects of an event or situation for the audience

✘✘ not following specific instructions from a teacher or textbook

✘✘ not reading about an experiment or watching someone else perform it

Teachers
Demonstrating is...
✔✔providing sufficient time and resources for students to plan and set up demonstration
✔✔helping students acquire the necessary materials
✔✔developing appropriate safety procedures
✔✔giving students opportunities to investigate questions that arise
✔✔an excellent opportunity to assess student understanding

✘✘ not having students watch your demonstrations

✘✘ not always detailing a specific set of materials and step-by-step procedures

What this skill should lead to

➜➜Improved understanding about a concept
➜➜Improved communication skills
➜➜More competency at manipulating the materials and equipment used in the demonstration
for the purposes of future investigation

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 Perform & Record
Constructing
Definition: Constructing promotes spatial reasoning skills and the ability to follow plans and
Putting together diagrams. Through hands-on construction, students develop an understanding of the
component parts; to properties and appropriate usage of tools and materials. Students also learn how to
build or erect. develop responsibility for their own tools and materials.

Students
Constructing is...
✔✔hands-on!
✔✔following plans and directions to assemble component parts
✔✔using tools and materials safely
✔✔building something, including a model or prototype, to solve a problem (technological
problem solving)
✔✔done independently or in small groups

✘✘ not done by an adult while students observe

Teachers
Constructing is...
✔✔specifying building parameters
✔✔encouraging precision and accuracy
✔✔supervising activities closely
✔✔developing and enforcing safety rules and routines
✔✔having the necessary equipment
✔✔encouraging students to rehearse and practice

✘✘ not teacher-directed
✘✘ not quiet, quick, or clean

What this skill should lead to

An ability to construct allows students to convert ideas into physical models. Constructing
for an open-ended task develops creativity and problem-solving skills.

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 Perform & Record
Inventing
Definition: To invent is to contrive something new in response to a need or a problem through a
Designing something combination of imagination, creativity, and experimentation. It encourages divergent
useful, for the thinking and develops higher-order thinking skills.
first time, through
the use of the Students
imagination, ingenious Inventing is...
thinking, and / or ✔✔recognizing a need and creating something to address that need
experimentation.
✔✔using trial and error, making observations and predictions, planning and experimenting
✔✔recording changes made and explaining why they were made
✔✔thinking outside the box
✔✔taking existing designs or objects and improving upon them in a significant way

✘✘ not creating something that already exists

✘✘ not following a set of instructions
✘✘ not building from a book, magazine, or website
✘✘ not assembling something that has been created by someone else

Teachers
Inventing is...
✔✔presenting students with novel challenges
✔✔allowing students to be purposefully loud and messy
✔✔developing and enforcing safe practices
✔✔being vigilant, so that students don’t knowingly or unknowingly do anything unsafe

✘✘ not quick, quiet, or clean

✘✘ not teacher-directed
✘✘ not asking students to follow instructions from a book or video, though they may use
such material

What this skill should lead to

Inventing develops the capacity to solve problems that don’t yet exist and to seek
opportunities in a future we cannot anticipate.

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 Perform & Record
Experimenting
Definition: Experimenting is the heart of scientific inquiry. It is the act of conducting a controlled
Carrying out a test or investigation. Students manipulate equipment and materials to explore
designed investigation scientific theories and models. A properly designed experiment considers relevant
to test a hypothesis or variables. Students are more likely to experience success if they are practiced
answer a question. and familiar with the equipment and techniques required for the experiment.
Insight into the science behind the experiment is gained through the evaluation of
experimental results.

Students
Experimenting is...
✔✔deliberately manipulating one characteristic of a situation or object to discover how it
affects another characteristic
✔✔designing and performing all of the steps involved in an inquiry-based investigation,
including the question, associated variables, procedure, type of data to be collected,
format for organizing and interpreting data, and the format in which results will be shared

✘✘ not following a recipe-type of experiment to recreate a known and predictable outcome

✘✘ not using a piece of equipment for the first time
✘✘ not letting another student/group do the experiment for you

Teachers
Experimenting is...
✔✔providing rich experiences to help generate relevant, curriculum-based questions that
students can explore
✔✔giving students opportunities to solve a problem or answer a question by designing and
performing their own experiment
✔✔supporting students through the gradual release of responsibility by scaffolding the
process of experimentation (e.g., Smarter Science Steps to Inquiry. PEOE, Problem
Based Learning)

✘✘ not doing a demonstration for students

✘✘ not telling students what types of observations they should expect
✘✘ not distributing preprinted data collection tables

What this skill should lead to

➜➜More engaged students
➜➜Greater appreciation for precision, accuracy, and repeated trials in experimentation
➜➜Increased ability to think critically about scientific and pseudo-scientific claims and the
processes that support them

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 Analyze & Interpret
What it is
ANALYZE ◆◆ Reviewing results carefully by examining data and identifying patterns
& INTERPRET ◆◆ Deciding what the results mean
◆◆ Evaluating and refining solutions

process skills
Comparing Comparing
Looking for similarities.

Contrasting
Looking for differences.
Contrasting Classifying
Putting things into groups and subgroups, identifying categories, deciding between
alternatives.

Outlining
Classifying Employing major headings and subheadings; using sequential, logical organization.

Graphing
Visually representing data.

Outlining Analyzing
Seeing implications and relationships, discerning causes and effects, locating new
problems.

Evaluating
Graphing Recognizing good and poor features; judging and assessing.

Reviewing
Picking out important items, memorizing, associating.

Analyzing

Evaluating

Reviewing

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 Analyze & Interpret
Comparing
Definition: Comparing encourages students to notice subtle similarities in objects, events,
Looking for similarities. behaviours, and data. Identifying similarities and differences (see ‘Contrasting’)
between objects or events is a highly effective learning strategy that improves student
achievement. In science, there are many opportunities for students to independently
and effectively use this strategy.

Students
Comparing is...
✔✔carefully examining two or more samples (objects, events, behaviours, or data)
✔✔utilizing all five senses, as appropriate, to find similarities
✔✔paying attention to finer details
✔✔may involve graphic organizers to sort ideas
✔✔may be influenced by prior knowledge, schema, or cultural perspective

✘✘ not only identifying simple and obvious similarities

✘✘ not always the same for every student—individuals may see and interpret
things differently
✘✘ not looking for the ‘right answer’
✘✘ not contrasting, which is looking for differences. However, comparing can often be done at
the same time as contrasting.

Teachers
Comparing is...
✔✔done by students, though you may need to provide prompts depending on their ages and
abilities
✔✔personal and individual to each student (consider previous experiences and
cultural perspectives)
✔✔differentiated for each student

✘✘ not expecting the same answer from everyone

✘✘ not limited to the obvious or simplistic

What this skill should lead to

Students will become better able to find patterns and commonalities, and thus become
better and more keen observers of the natural world.

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 Analyze & Interpret
Contrasting
Definition: Contrasting encourages students to notice subtle differences in objects, events,
Looking for differences. behaviours, and data. Identifying similarities (see ‘Comparing’) and differences
between objects or events is a highly effective learning strategy that improves student
achievement. In science, there are many opportunities for students to independently
and effectively use this strategy.

Students
Contrasting is...
✔✔carefully examining and determining differences between two or more samples (objects,
events, behaviours, or data)
✔✔sorting samples in multiple ways
✔✔using graphic organizers (e.g., T-chart, Venn diagram, fishbone diagram) with headings to
help sort or using the Frayer Model (focusing on differences) to help organize thinking and
improve understanding of scientific content and concepts
✔✔using differences in data to analyze and interpret results

✘✘ not only stating obvious differences

✘✘ not reporting things as being different without being able to communicate why
✘✘ not comparing, which is looking for similarities. However, contrasting can often be done at
the same time as comparing.

Teachers
Contrasting is...
✔✔giving students many opportunities to distinguish samples based on their differences
✔✔using instructional strategies (e.g., gallery walk) so students can share their contrasting
with other students
✔✔allowing students to select samples and data that they can contrast. It is best if these
come from student-directed inquiries
✔✔differentiated for every student

✘✘ not supplying samples and data that have only obvious differences
✘✘ not expecting a single “right answer.” Usually several correct responses will be possible.
✘✘ not always teacher-directed

What this skill should lead to

Students will become better able to find subtle differences in samples and thus become
better at making quality observations. They will also generate better conclusions based
on differences found in their inquiries. Through contrasting, students will learn useful
descriptive vocabulary as well as develop higher-order thinking skills, such as the use of
similes and metaphors, to communicate their understanding.

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 Analyze & Interpret
Classifying
Definition: Classifying helps students organize information to make sense of their world.
Putting things into Information that is sorted into carefully selected subgroups, based on group
groups and subgroups, similarities, is easier to store, locate, and retrieve. Classification allows students to
identifying categories, compare and contrast information and ideas.
deciding between
alternatives. Students
Classifying is...
✔✔grouping any set of objects or concepts based on observable similarities (e.g., all living
things)
✔✔creating subgroups by identifying features that are different between subgroups (e.g.,
plants vs. animals)
✔✔developing, testing, and defending sorting rules, using examples from the group as well as
from the real world
✔✔adjusting sorting rules to fit exceptional circumstances (e.g., plants are producers vs.
animals are consumers)

✘✘ not sorting according to a published/teacher originated classification system

Teachers
Classifying is...
✔✔encouraging students to discuss how items are similar and/or different
✔✔students identifying key attributes and/or creating a rule, then needing to re-create or
adjust the rule to fit other circumstances
✔✔student-based (student-initiated activity with lots of discussion)
✔✔an opportunity to make anecdotal notes and conference with students
✔✔using or creating graphic organizers, including dichotomous keys or decision trees to
arrange objects/observations

✘✘ not giving students the rules to sort by

✘✘ not providing a structured framework or key. This allows students to sort but not classify.

What this skill should lead to

Classifying involves the use of other skills, such as comparing and contrasting.
Development of this skill leads to better observation and organization skills. Better
questioning strategies also develop as a result of students’ efforts to identify key
attributes.

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 Analyze & Interpret
Outlining
Definition: An outline is a concise representation of key concepts. Outlines summarize the main
Employing major and sub points of a presentation, lab report, argument, essay, poster, or any other
headings and presentation of information. Creating an outline is a useful first step in preparing to
subheadings; using present the results of an investigation because it enables students to organize their
sequential, logical thoughts before they prepare a first draft.
organization.
Students
Outlining is...
✔✔creating a representation of the main points of a subject using text and/or graphics (e.g.,
arrows, diagrams, tables). Outlines are often written in point form and organized to identify
main points and sub points.
✔✔summarizing and logically organizing main points
✔✔creating a skeleton that can be used to plan a more detailed presentation of information.
An outline can be a list of the headings and subheadings for the final product.

✘✘ not a complete draft of an essay, lab report, or other presentation

✘✘ not written using complete sentences
✘✘ not haphazardly organized and difficult to follow
✘✘ not detailed

Teachers
Outlining is...
✔✔an organized representation of ideas that allows the reader to see the entire presentation
plan. Main and subpoints should be clearly identified.
✔✔an opportunity to give students feedback early in the writing process, before they write a
first draft

What this skill should lead to

The ability to create a good outline should lead to the more logical organization and
presentation of information. Students who can convey the “big picture” or overview of
their investigation in essays, lab reports, speeches, posters, and other presentations tend
to be more successful at presenting and supporting their points succinctly. Good outlines
ultimately lead to a more successful delivery of information.

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 Analyze & Interpret
Graphing
Definition: Graphing is a visual representation of the data collected. It is presenting data in such a
Visually representing way that the reader better understands the relationships (including the identity of the
data. dependent and independent variables) that were studied in the investigation. Graphing
helps both the creator of the graph and the reader to recognize patterns and identify
trends within the data.
There are many different types of graphs, each best suited to different types of data:
◆◆ Bar graphs — discrete data; to show comparisons among data
◆◆ Histograms — data that is organized in equal intervals
◆◆ Line graphs and double line graphs — data on a continuous scale, such as time
or distance; to show change over time, which is the most common, but not the
only, independent variable that can be graphed
◆◆ Pictographs — data that are multiples of a number; most appropriate for very
young students
◆◆ Pie graphs — data that are percentages or fraction; to show parts of a whole
◆◆ Stem and leaf graph — data that involve place values

Students
Graphing is...
✔✔presenting data in a visual way
✔✔selecting the appropriate type of graph for the data

✘✘ not thinking that any type of graph will work for the given set of data

Teachers
Graphing is...
✔✔modeling the creation of a graph
✔✔teaching students about different types of graphs
✔✔reading and analyzing graphs with students
✔✔helping students to properly display independent and dependent variables on the
appropriate axis

✘✘ not assuming that students know how to represent data appropriately

What this skill should lead to

Graphing can lead to a better analysis of data. Graphs can also help students to make
conclusions about the results of their investigations. Students with advanced graphing
skills can include standard deviations and equations of lines with their graphs.

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 Analyze & Interpret
Analyzing
Definition: Scientific investigation generates many forms of data. Analyzing this data means
Seeing implications identifying trends and relationships between variables, generating new questions or
and relationships, problems to explore, and making connections to the real world. Analyzing the results of
discerning causes inquiries and investigations builds competency in scientific inquiry and allows students
and effects, locating to better understand key concepts and principles involved in the inquiry.
new problems.
Students
Analyzing is...
✔✔reviewing the investigation—what happened and why/how
✔✔working with the data to identify trends, do calculations if necessary, and draw
conclusions
✔✔interpreting the data in different ways
✔✔developing next steps based on questions that arise during the investigation
✔✔searching for patterns, concrete and abstract, that represent what actually occurred
✔✔getting unexpected results in an inquiry, and examining or assessing why those results occurred

✘✘ not merely number-crunching; science is more than numbers and sometimes the most
important data to be analyzed do not involve numbers at all

Teachers
Analyzing is...
✔✔expecting and accepting varying results. The results of similar investigations can be very
different depending on the many decisions students make in the course of conducting the
investigation.
✔✔prompting students to reflect on the investigation and giving them adequate time to do
so: Did they get the results they expected? Can the results be explained? Where could the
experimental method be improved? Are there any possible sources of error?
✔✔using differentiated instruction—offering students more than one way to analyze the data
✔✔giving students an opportunity to see other students’ work, using strategies such as
gallery walks, and to analyze the findings of the class
✔✔taking the opportunity to assess students’ learning, as reflected in their analysis
✔✔providing enrichment opportunities for students to explore on their own time, to make
stronger connections between what they have learned and new questions that have arisen

✘✘ not a quick step in scientific inquiry but rather the stage where students develop their
understanding of the investigation and the concepts involved. It is important to give
students adequate time for analyzing; not all students analyze data at the same rate.

What this skill should lead to

Analyzing data leads students to evaluate the validity of their findings and to check their
results against their cognitive schema (i.e., Do the results make sense to me, and can I
explain them?). Once the analysis is completed, students can communicate their findings
in various ways to others.
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 Analyze & Interpret
Evaluating
Definition: To become informed citizens, students must learn to evaluate the ever-increasing
Recognizing good and amount of scientific information being produced and disseminated. Evaluating
poor features; investigations means examining their methodologies, data collection, data analysis,
judging and assessing. and conclusions in order to identify strengths and weaknesses. Evaluation also helps
investigators decide what to investigate next.

Students
Evaluating is...
✔✔developing and using criteria to identify strengths and weaknesses in their own inquiries:
methodologies, instruments used, data collection procedures, data analysis, and conclusions
✔✔improving their inquiry design by reflecting on their evaluations (meta-cognition)
✔✔reflecting on their use of process skills and their performance in class; using evaluations
and judgments for personal growth
✔✔using criteria and evidence to identify strengths and weaknesses in the inquiries of others
✔✔explaining what they think and believe in their own words

✘✘ not making judgments based on personal preference or gut feeling

✘✘ not making global judgments about an inquiry without looking at the various components

Teachers
Evaluating is...
✔✔modeling how to construct criteria, then gradually releasing responsibility for criteria
construction to students
✔✔giving students opportunities to evaluate and discuss scientific designs; giving them
investigations to judge
✔✔giving students opportunities to explore engaging, authentic activities that are relevant and
meaningful to them. These can include case studies that explore multiple perspectives on
scientific concepts.
✔✔encouraging open-ended inquiry where students are expected to evaluate procedures
and results
✔✔valuing the skill of reflection by having students assess themselves and their peers

✘✘ not consistently providing hands-on experiences that have obvious conclusions, e.g.,
confirmation investigations
✘✘ not asking lower-order questions that require only retrieval of information, guessing, or
identifying a preference

What this skill should lead to

Evaluating helps students consolidate the learning from their own investigations and
will improve their future inquiries. Ultimately, students will become critical consumers of
scientific information.

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 Analyze & Interpret
Reviewing
Definition: Reviewing is looking back over what you have done over the course of an investigation
Picking out important to pick out key points, make connections, and find relationships between key
items, memorizing, components. By re-examining their methodologies and results, students can analyze
associating. the validity of their investigation. They also learn to identify further questions for
investigation in the future. It is at this time that students consolidate their “personal
bank” of information/skills.

Students
Reviewing is...
✔✔picking out key facts and information
✔✔perusing information carefully and thoroughly
✔✔making connections between key content and concepts
✔✔listing new questions that have arisen as a result of their investigation
✔✔identifying directions for future investigation

✘✘ not just reading your notes over once

✘✘ not highlighting every word on the page

Teachers
Reviewing is...
✔✔to be done independently, in pairs, and/or in small groups
✔✔encouraging students to justify their choices of key points
✔✔encouraging students to use multiple reviewing strategies e.g., mnemonic devices,
acronyms, music, concept maps
✔✔encouraging students to make personal jot notes identifying key points
✔✔encouraging students to make connections between key elements

✘✘ not reading information to the class and indicating which parts are important
✘✘ not teacher initiated
✘✘ not providing the ‘right answer’

What this skill should lead to

Students will become more able to recognize key concepts and ideas. They will hone their
ability to make connections—concept to concept, self to concept, concept to world—and
thus become more aware of their own understanding (metacognition). This in turn will
make them more independent learners.

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 Communicate
What it is
◆◆ Explaining procedures and results through writing, speaking, visual or
COMMUNICATE electronic means
◆◆ Reflecting on the process and checking with peers

process skills
Discussing Discussing
Engaging in oral, written, or any other appropriate form of communication with others.

Explaining
Clearly describing, clarifying main points, and focusing on the “why” and/or “how” of the
issue, concept or idea.

Reporting
Explaining
Organizing and presenting information in a written or oral format.

Writing
Conveying information (e.g., questions, observations, experimental report) by
graphical means.

Reflecting
Reporting The activity of either an individual or group that involves analyzing, judging the importance
of, and making connections to the learning experience.

Teaching
Making meaning of concepts or processes by organizing them into key facts and ideas and
clearly conveying them to others.
Writing

Reflecting

Teaching

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 Communicate
Discussing
Definition: Discussing is sharing and exchanging ideas with others. It is an opportunity to
Engaging in oral, use various communication and thinking skills, such as summarizing, analyzing,
written, or any other concluding, theorizing, reflecting, and connecting. Discussions can be oral, but they
appropriate form can also occur in writing. Discussions are often by oral and multimedia presentations
of communication (e.g., slides, video, a demonstration). What students know about an inquiry and how
with others. well they understand it will clearly reveal itself in a discussion.
Purposes of a discussion include persuading others to accept or reject a hypothesis
or idea, testing ideas, soliciting feedback, and exploring other points of view.

Students
Discussing is...
✔✔sharing and interpreting collected data to make sense of it; analyzing whether the data
supports or disproves their hypothesis
✔✔listening carefully to what others say
✔✔talking about problems that may have influenced the results and possible ways to correct
them in the future
✔✔making connections between their results, previous research, and existing theories
✔✔debating or exchanging views about a concept
✔✔evaluating the impact of the results and their applications in the real world
✔✔generating new questions that may lead to further investigation

✘✘ not one-way communication

✘✘ not making remarks or stating conclusions that are not supported by evidence uncovered
through investigation

Teachers
Discussing is...
✔✔giving students opportunities to share and exchange ideas about their investigations
✔✔prompting students to be clear and precise, and to use the appropriate scientific
vocabulary
✔✔prompting students to choose the best facts to support their ideas
✔✔ensuring that discussions in written form (e.g., comments on blogs or social networks
such as Ning) have structure and flow

✘✘ not allowing students to use language that is vague or inappropriate

What this skill should lead to

Discussion allows students to expand their knowledge about a topic and understand
different points of view. They learn to express themselves precisely and to explain
their reasoning (e.g., how they arrived at their conclusion). Debate is a healthy part of
the scientific enterprise, and discussions are an effective way to explore opposition
and skepticism.

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 Communicate
Explaining
Definition: Explaining is not retelling an investigation but focusing on why and/or how something
Clearly describing, happened. Explaining allows students to communicate their understanding of a
clarifying main points, scientific concept to peers and teachers. It links literacy and numeracy skills to
and focusing on the science, and develops key communication skills necessary in the real world.
“why” and/or “how”
of the issue, concept Students
or idea. Explaining is...
✔✔focusing on “why” and/or “how”
✔✔choosing how to express ideas
✔✔an opportunity to be creative and original
✔✔creating suitable rubrics for the assessment of their explanation

✘✘ not a brief description of the investigation and its setup that doesn’t demonstrate
understanding, explain the importance of the investigation, and make connections to the
real world

Teachers
Explaining is...
✔✔letting students choose the way in which they will explain their investigation, results, and
conclusions (e.g., choice board)
✔✔supporting students’ efforts to use precise vocabulary, and to express themselves
effectively and succinctly
✔✔an opportunity to assess student learning

✘✘ not a lab report or oral presentation

What this skill should lead to

Explanation leads to increased retention of the information explained, a deeper
understanding of the ideas presented, improved communication skills, and a better use of
scientific terminology.

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 Communicate
Reporting
Definition: Reporting is organizing and presenting the information students have gathered over
Organizing and the course of their inquiry, through direct observation, from interviews, from the
presenting information examination of reports and documents, and from databases and Internet sources.
in a written or Good reporters communicate clearly and concisely. Often, this skill is developed while
oral format. collaborating with other students.

Students
Reporting is...
✔✔sharing ideas, based on facts and evidence, with others
✔✔using creative and original presentation formats
✔✔using an extensive vocabulary, yet writing or speaking succinctly
✔✔giving others the opportunity to understand the world as the reporter does

✘✘ not copying out of a book or from the board

✘✘ not using a specific format or graphic organizer
✘✘ not limited to journal/diary entries

Teachers
Reporting is...
✔✔encouraging connections, inferences, and predictions
✔✔promoting the sharing of ideas and evidence in a logical and concise manner
✔✔encouraging creativity and the use of technology
✔✔differentiated. Permitting and encouraging different presentation formats allows all
students to successfully communicate their findings.
✔✔scaffolding the process for students. Students can start by using a structured report format
which evolves into a more sophisticated self-structured format.
✔✔a natural literacy link

✘✘ not asking for patterned answers

✘✘ not requiring the same answer(s) or presentation format from everyone

What this skill should lead to

Students acquire research, speaking, and presenting skills through reporting. It is this
step in an inquiry that establishes the factual and investigative background that informs
their investigation. They gain an improved sense of logical sequences and often improve
their ability to use vocabulary. A skilled reporter knows how to summarize background
information and present it in a manner that piques the audience’s interest.

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 Communicate
Writing
Definition: Writing is one form of communication that students use to present the process and
Conveying information results of their investigations, either in a written report, multimedia presentation, or
(e.g., questions, oral presentation. In writing about their inquiries, students mirror the process used in
observations, a “real life” scientific community. By clearly communicating their data, investigative
experimental report) by results, and the evidence supporting their conclusions, students reflect on the process
graphical means. of their inquiry. Other students also have the opportunity to question the results based
on their own understanding, which can lead to rich discussions.

Students
Writing is...
✔✔organizing data and presenting it in a logical format
✔✔justifying results using evidence from the investigation
✔✔asking new questions that arise from the investigation
✔✔reflecting on discrepant or unexpected events and possible sources of error
✔✔making recommendations for future investigations

✘✘ not answering specific questions written by the teacher

✘✘ not “fixing” data to agree with hypotheses

Teachers
Writing is...
✔✔an opportunity to clarify thinking and understanding of concepts
✔✔a natural literacy link

✘✘ not providing set questions for students to answer

✘✘ not a close-ended investigation

What this skill should lead to

Communicating their results to a wider audience helps students understand the difference
between the results of an investigation and the conclusions drawn from it. Students learn
to apply new knowledge to other situations, use evidence from research and investigation
to support their conclusions, and address new questions that arise from the investigation.
Understanding the process of writing to communicate investigations should help students
to be more critical of published research.

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 Communicate
Reflecting
Definition: The ability to reflect upon individual actions or ideas is an essential life skill. Such self-
The activity of either monitoring, or meta-cognition, has been identified as a key component of successful
an individual or group science learning. After performing a scientific inquiry, it is necessary to reflect upon
that involves analyzing, the process, make links to key concepts, identify ideas that are poorly understood or
judging the importance require clarification, and determine how new learning fits with previously held beliefs.
of, and making
connections to the Students
learning experience. Reflecting is...
✔✔examining the results of an investigation and developing questions that could be answered
in future investigations
✔✔recognizing connections between the investigation and course material
✔✔working independently or as a group to determine the applications of the investigation

✘✘ not a chance for students to express their likes and dislikes about the investigation

Teachers
Reflecting is...
✔✔having students brainstorm possible future investigations
✔✔looking back at completed inquiries to identify possible problems or areas for improvement
✔✔having students work independently or in groups to judge the validity of an investigation
and connections to the course material
✔✔providing a structured template to guide students through the reflective process

✘✘ not giving students ideas for future investigations

What this skill should lead to

Reflection should be an ongoing process. Ultimately, it should lead students to a better
understanding of themselves as learners. In the context of science, reflecting gives
students opportunities to integrate new concepts into existing schemas, ask new
questions, and develop a better understanding of the processes of science.

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 Communicate
Teaching
Definition: Teaching is a higher-order thinking skill that helps to develop a deeper understanding
Making meaning of of materials. Collaboration is often an essential requisite. The student develops self-
concepts or processes confidence, organizational skills and speaking/communication skills. When a student
by organizing them into teaches, the process invariably strengthens their recall and understanding.
key facts and ideas
and clearly conveying Students
them to others. Teaching is...
✔✔communicating ideas clearly and with understanding to peers
✔✔using own words to explain ideas
✔✔focusing on key ideas and concepts
✔✔accepting constructive (not destructive) criticism from peers
✔✔providing visual aids and using different formats and tools (e.g., art, poetry, music, drama,
technology) to illustrate ideas and concepts

✘✘ not reading from a book

✘✘ not a simple lecture
✘✘ not a paper-and-pencil activity
✘✘ not using videos from online sources created by others to teach a concept (though videos
are an appropriate way to support an idea being taught)

Teachers
Teaching is...
✔✔student-directed (though the teacher maintains responsibility for class management)
✔✔time consuming
✔✔encouraging students to use active learning and hands-on activities, and to explore
different presentation formats to find those are most effective in teaching a particular
concept
✔✔providing the criteria for an effective teaching outcome

✘✘ not a substitute for teacher support, guidance, or instruction

✘✘ not one student standing in front of the class reading a paper for 30 minutes
✘✘ not prescribing exactly what needs to be taught and how to best teach it

What this skill should lead to

To teach, students must think and act like guides, facilitators, and advisers. They will
develop better communication and organization skills as a result. They will also develop
the ability to recognize key concepts and ideas and share them with others. Students
should be challenged to develop teaching skills so that they can use the many forms of
communication available to them most effectively.

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 Glossary
Bloom’s taxonomy
The six levels of thinking categorized by Dr. Benjamin Bloom, starting at lower-level
thinking (knowledge and comprehension) and progressing into higher-level thinking
(application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation). The type of thinking required at each
level becomes more complex as you go from knowledge (e.g., memorize, label, define) to
evaluation (e.g., compare, appraise, justify).

Choice board
A board with a number of activities or tasks that students choose from to show their own
learning. Choice boards can be developed based on multiple intelligences or Bloom’s
taxonomy.

Frayer model
A visual organizer to aid the understanding of key words and concepts.
definition characteristics

word
examples non-examples

Gallery walk
An instructional or reflective strategy where students visit information or media stations
around the room to look, discuss, and respond to. This can be teacher-directed, where
the teacher sets up the stations, or it can be used to showcase students’ learning through
projects, activities, and experiments.

K-W-L chart
A strategy where students, at the beginning of a new unit or topic, record what they
know and what they wonder or want to know about a topic. As they progress through
the unit, students continue to record what they learn. K-W-L charts are valuable for pre-
assessments and help students reflect on their learning.

Know Want to Know Learned

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 Predict—Explain—Observe—Explain (PEOE)
A teaching strategy used with demonstrations and experiments that requires students
to make predictions about the outcome of an experiment; explain the reasons for,
and thinking behind, their predictions; observe; and then reflect on their predictions,
observations, and thinking. This strategy gives teachers and students information about
student knowledge and thinking and encourages self-monitoring and reflection.

Problem-based learning
A learner-centred approach to address relevant, real-world problems or issues where
the learner takes an active hands-on and minds-on approach and the teacher acts as a
facilitator in the learning.

Question chart
A graphic framework for creating questions based on Bloom’s Taxonomy. Questions are
created by choosing a question word on the left and a verb from the top of the chart. As
you move down and to the right, the questions become increasingly more complex and
require higher-level thinking.

Is Did Can Would Will Might

What
Where
When
Who
Why
How

Schema
The prior or background knowledge and experience that a learner brings to a topic.

Venn diagram
A graphic organizer named after logician and philosopher John Venn that shows how two
or more things are similar and different. Venn diagrams consist of two or more overlapping
circles, where the overlapping area shows the common characteristics.

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 Credits
References
Bybee, Rodger W., Janet Carlson Powell, and Leslie W. Trowbridge. 2008. Teaching
secondary school science: strategies for developing scientific literacy, 9th ed. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall.

Contributors
Tammy Adams, Thames Valley District School Board
Brad Digweed, District School Board of Niagara
Jennifer Dodds, Thames Valley District School Board
Colleen Fletcher, Thames Valley District School Board
Lise Goyette, Thames Valley District School Board
Bryan Honsinger, District School Board of Niagara
Stephanie Minor, District School Board of Niagara
Michael Newnham, Youth Science Canada

Reviewers
Michael Newnham, Youth Science Canada
Rick Pardo, Thames Valley District School Board
Brad Parolin, Toronto District School Board

Project Manager: Dimitra Chronopoulos

Editors: Dimitra Chronopoulos, Carol-Ann Freeman
Proofreader: Christa Bedwin
Design: Dave McKay

© Youth Science Canada 2011, Some Rights Reserved

Except where otherwise noted, this work is licensed under
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/

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 Teaching students
how to do science
and think like scientists
Smarter Science is a framework for teaching and learning
inquiry-based science in grades 1–12 and for developing the
skills of inquiry, creativity, and innovation in a meaningful
and engaging manner. At its heart are 34 process skills—
everything from observing and interviewing to calibrating,
constructing, and reporting. This guide introduces these
process skills in detail.

ISBN 978-0-921181-20-0

9 780921 181200
www.smarterscience.ca

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