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How English Works - A Grammar Practice Book

This document is the introduction to the book "How English Works: A Grammar Practice Book" by Michael Swan and Catherine Walter. It provides 3 key points: 1) The purpose of the book is to help learners of English speak and write more correctly through short explanations of grammar rules, examples of correct usage, and exercises. 2) The introduction suggests how to use the book effectively, either with a teacher or independently, focusing on areas of weakness based on diagnostic tests and using the contents list and index to find relevant sections. 3) It teaches the grammar of everyday modern British English based on analysis of a large corpus of spoken and written English. Explanations aim to be clear and simple with

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How English Works - A Grammar Practice Book

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· Michael Swan

Catherine Walter

A GRAMMAR PRACTICE BOOK

WITH ANSWERS
How English'Works
A grammar practice book
How English Works
A qmmmor practice book

Michael Swan & Catherine Walter

V\lith answer»

Oxford University Press

Oxford University Press
Creat Clarendon Street. Oxford OX2 6DP

Oxford New York

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and associated companies in
Berlin Ibadan
OXFORD and OXFORD L"iGI.lSH
are trademarks of Oxford University Press
ISBN 0 194314')6 I (WIth answers)
ISBN 01943 J 457 x (without answers)
'i· Michael Swan and Catherine Waltcr 1997
First published 1997
Sixth impression 2000
No unauthorised photocopying
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced. stored in a
retrieval system. or transmitted. in any form or by any means. electronic.
mechanical. photocopying. recording or otherwise. without the prior written
permission of Oxford University Press.
This book is sold subject to the condition that It shall not. by way of trade or
otherwise. be lent. resold. hired out. or otherwise Circulated without the
publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in
which it is published and wrthout a similar condition including this condition
being imposed on the subsequent purchaser
Designed loy Richard Morris. Stonesfield Design. Oxfordshire
Paintings by David Downton
Drawings on page 129 by pupils in Year I of Stonesfield School. Oxfordshire
Map on page 145 by Neil Gower. Allez Studios. Brighton
Typeset in Monotype Phouna and Franklin Gothic by
Tradcspools Ltd. Frome. Somerset
Printed in China

In writing this book the authors obtained information from the British
National Corpus. The British National Corpus is a collaborau ve initiauve
carried out by Oxford University Press as a Lead Partner. Longman.
Chambers Harrap. Oxford University Computing Services. Lancaster
University's Unit for Computer Research in the English Language. and the
British Library.
Contents
Introduction I
Test yourself 3
Test yourself: answers II
Explana tions and exercises: list of sections 12
Phonetic alphabet 15
Explanations and exercises 17
Answers to exercises 303
Index 3 51

Authors' acknowledgements
we co uld not ha ve produ ced this book withou t several kinds of help. In
particular. we would like to express our gratit ude to:

• Keith Brown. Brian Craver and Diann Gruber. fo r their care in reading th e
origina l typescript: th eir comments and suggestions have resulted in ma ny
import a nt impro vements

• loge Bullock a nd Barbara Hately-Bro ad. for orga nising our personal and
profession a l lives wh ile we were doin g the writing
• o ur childre n Ma rk and Helen. for pu tting u p with us w hile it was going on
• Stewart Melluts h of Oxford University Press-and Richard Morris . o ur ed itor
a nd designer. for the expertise, crea tivity. patience and good humou r with
which they handled us and th e typescript.
Publisher's acknowledgements
The Publisher tha n ks the following for t hei r kind permission to reproduce ca rtoons:
And re Deutsch Ltd: p. 2.H . from M(I(1cf/l Times by Mel Calrnan (:t; ~lel Calma n 19 f: ~ ):
S Clod C Cann a n: pp. 30 . 1 37 l© S and C Calman j: Encyclopaedia Britannica
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by Sidney Harris); Mirror Syn dicat ion Imcrnatt onal: pp- 5 5. 14 1. 2 10 . 252 ('ll Mirror
Group Newspa pers ]: The New Yorker Megaan e Inc ; pp. 1 4 (Da na Fradonl.
is
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Newm a n I. 17 5 nucheet Hea th). 18 7 [Michael Heath). 244 (Ken Pyne): Punch
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1 74 . 17 5. 17 7. 193. 20 3.21 h. 21 8 . 223 .232. 234. 235. 245.153 . 254 .155.1 56.
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~, Bruce Beeby 19 7 7): Peters Fraser & Dun lop; pp. 14 1. ext rac ts from TIll' ('",nnal by
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un a ble to con tact .
1

Introduction
The purpose of the book
How Eng/ish Works is for learners of English wh o want to spea k a nd write
more correctly. It cont ains:
• short clear explanations of the ru les of Eng lish grammar
• examples of correct use
• exe rcises.

How to use the book

lf you are stu dying with a teach er. he or she will help you to usc the book
effecti vely. If you are studyi ng at h om e. th e Iollowin g suggestio ns may be
useful:
• Don 't go throu gh the whole book from begin ning to end. How English
~rQrks cont ains expla nations or bastc rules (e.g. how to make questions).
intermediate points Ie.g. th e usc oi passrves j and mo re advanced problems
[e.g. difficult structures wit h who , whom a n d which ), Different lea rn ers will
need to study different pa rts of the book.
• Start by trying the tests on pages 4-9 . Th ese ,..·mhelp you to dec ide what
you need 10 lea rn - wh at are the most important problems in En glish
grammar for YO/I .
• Use tbe list ot sccnons (at th e beginning) a nd th e Index (at the end) to hel p
you find the sec tions that you want. Read the explanations and do the
exerctses. Hyou still h ave problems with a poin t . work thro u gh the
section again.
• You will sometimes n eed 10 know some of the words th at we usc wh en we
talk a bou t gramma r in English (e.g . verb, preposition. tense. plural,
countable). Th ese words a rc explained on pages 298- 302.

The explanations
We h a ve tried 10 make th ese as d ear a nd simple a s possible. You ca n find
more complete explanatio ns of some points in Michael Swan 's book Praftical
Eng/h /l Usage {Oxford University Press ).

Sometimes we ask you to try to work out a rule for you rself. when you h ave
tried theseDo It Yourself activities , you ca n look at the blue pa ges
1303- 30 5) at the back o f th e book to see if you were r ight.
2

The exercises
Most of the exercises arc sin: pic i 11 sl ruct u rc. More difficult exercises are
marked with the sign .A
A few exercises are designed for group work in class.

What kind of English does the book teach?

VVe teach the grammar of everyday spoken and written British English. We
have used the British National Corpus - a collection of 100 million words of
modern spoken and written English - to help us make sure that om rules and
examples give a true picture of the present-day language,
For information about differences between British and American English. see
Practical English Usage.

How important is grammar?

Grammar is not the most important thing in the world, but if you make a lot
of mistakes you may be more difficult to understand. and some kinds of
people may look down on you or not take you seriously. Hardly anybody
speaks or writes a foreign language perfectly. but you will communicate more
successfully if you can make your English reasonably correct. We hope this
book will help.
3

Test yourself

These tests will help you to decide what you need to learn. First of all. try th e
'basic points' test en pages 4 -5 and check your a nswers on page 11 . If you
have problems with any orthe points. go to the sections wh ere these a re
explained and do the exercises: then try the lest agai n . The tests on pages
b-9 are suitable for intermediate and advanced studen ts. and can be done in
the sam e way.
Test yourself: basic points
Here are some of the basic grammar points from How English \Vorks. Do you
know them all? Check your answers on page 11.

Choose the correct answeris), One or more answers may be correct.

1 She's ... university teacher.

A a B an C the Done
2 I like ... small animals.
A the B - (= nothing) C every D aJt
3 Is this coat ... ?
A you~ B your C the yours
4 Is Diana ... ?
A a friend of yours B a your friend C your friend
5 Who are '" people over there?
A that B the C these D those
6 ... is your phone number?
A Which B What CHow
7 Could I have ... drink?
A other B an other C another
8 There aren't ... for everybod y.
A chairs enough B enough chairs C enough of chairs
9 They're ... young to get married.
A too much B too C very too
10 Most ... like tra veiling.
A of people B of the people C people
11 Ann and Peter phone ... every day.
A them R themself C themselves D each other
12 It's ... weather.
A terrible B a terrible C the terrible
1) The plural of car is cars. Which of these are correct plurals?
A journeys B ladys C minuts D sandwichs E babies
14 Which of these is]are correct?
A happier B more happier C unhappier D beautifuller
15 This is ... winter for 20 years.
A the more bad B worse C the worse D worst
E the worst
1"ES,T YOURSELF 5

16 She's much taller ... me.

A than B as C that
17 He lives in the same street ... me.
A that B like C as D than
18 Her eyes ... a very light blue.
A are B have C has
19 ... help me?
A Can you to B Do you can C Can you
20 You ... worry about it.
A notmust B don't must C mustnot D mustn't
2 I It ... again. It ... all the time here in the winter.
A's raining. 's raining B rains. rains
C rains, 's raining D 's raining. rains
22 I ... she ... you.
A think. likes B am thinking. is liking
C think, is liking D am thinking, likes
23 Who ... the window?
A open B opened C did opened
24 Why ... ?
A those men are laughing
B are laughing those men
C are those men laughing
25 What ... ?
A does she want B does she wants C shewants
26 I didn't ... he was at home.
A tothink B think C thinking D thought
27 ... a hole in my sock.
A There's B Thereis Cit's D Itis E Is
28 I'll see you ... Tuesday afternoon.
A at B on C in
29 What time did you arrive ... the station?
Aat Bto C-
30 We're going ... the opera tomorrow night.
A at B- C in D to
• TES T '"OURSElf

Test yourself: intermediate points

Here are some of th e intermed iate grammar poin t" from l low English Works.
Do you know th em all? Check your a nswers o n page 11 .

Choose tile correct onswert 5). Oneor more answers may be correct.

3 1 I we nt out without ... money.

A some H a ny

32 He's got ... mo ney.

A much H many C a lot of U lots of
_~_~ 'who's there)' .
A It's me H H is! C Me D I
.14 Althoug h he felt very ..., h e sm iled
A a ngrily. friendly B angry. friendly C angry. in a friendly way
35 I ... to Amence.
A have often been B ofte n ha ve bee n C ha ve been often
36 My mother _.. my birthday.
A always forgets B always is forgetting C forgets always

37 You look ... a teacher.

A like B as C the same like
38 How many brot hers and sisters ... "1
A ha ve you got B do you h a ve C are yo u havin g
39 Good l l ... work tomorrow.
A mustn 't B don't h a ve t o C haven't go t to
40 I .., sm oke,
A - (= not/ lin g) B use to C used to
4 1 And rew, .. to see us th is eve ning.
A will come B co mes C is coming

42 Alice .., have a baby .

A will B shall C is going to
43 J kn ew that he ,.. waiting for somebody.
A is B wa s C wou ld
44 ... Gloria last week?
A Have you seen B Did you see C Were you seeing
45 She's a n old frien d - l ... her ... years.
A ' ve known. for B know. for C 've kn own. since
D kn ow , since
TEST YOURSELF 7

46 Wernet when we ... in France.

A studied B were studying C had studied

47 As soon as she came in I knew I ... her before.

A have seen B saw C had seen
48 This picture ... by a friend of my mother's.
A is painting B is painted C was painting D was painted
49 Can you ... ?
A make me some tea B make some tea for me
C make for me some tea
50 Try ... be late.
A notto B to not
51 I went to London ... clothes.
A for buy B for to buy C for buying D to buy
52 You can't live very long without ....
A to eat Beat C eating D you eat
53 [enjoy ... , but I wouldn't like ... it all my life,
A to teach, to do B teaching, doing C to teach, doing
D teaching. to do
54 Her parents don't want ... married.
A her to get B her get C that she get D that she gets
55 I'm not sure what ...
A do they want? B do they want. C they want.
56 The policeman ... me not to park there.
A asked B said C told D advised
57 I ... you if you ... that again.
A hit. say B 'II hit. 'II say C hit. 'II say D 'U hit, say
58 It would be nice if we .., a bit more room.
A would have B had C have
59 Uyou ... me, I ... in real trouble last year.
A didn't help, would have been
B hadn't helped, would have been
C hadn't helped, would be
D didn't help, would be
60 There's the man ... took your coat.
A which B who C that D-
Test yourself: advanced points
Here are some of the more advanced grammar points from How English Works.
Do you know them aU? Check your answers on page 11.

Choose the correct answer(s). Olle or more answersmay be correct.

61 My family .•. thinking of moving to Binningham.

Ais Bare
62 We watched a ... on TV last night
A warfilm B war' sfilm C film of war
63 He was wearing ... riding boots.
A red old Spanish leather B old leather red Spanish
C old red Spanish leather D Spanish red old leather
64 ... he gets ••.. .
A The richer. the more friends he has
B Richer. more he has friends
C Richer. more friends he has
D The richer. the more he has friends
65 It's ... if you take the train.
A quicker B the qui cker C quickest D the quickest
66 He ... very annoying.
A 's B 's being
67 That ,.. be Roger at the door - it's too early.
A can't B mustn't C couldn't
68 At last, after three days, they ... get to the top of the mountain.
A could B managed to C succeeded to 0 were able to
69 It was crazy todrtve like that. You..• kiUed somebody.
A may have B might have C could have D can have
70 I wonder IfJohn ... this evening.
A will phone B phones
71 Who ... you that ring? -.
A 's given B gave
72 He ... quite different stnce he ... married.
A is. has got B has been. has got C Is, got D has been. got .
73 This is the first time I ... a sports car.
A 'vedriven B 'mdriving C drive
74 On her birthday ... .
A she was given a new car B a new car was given to her
75 We can't use the sports hall yet because it ... .
A is 81mbuilt B is still building C is still being built
IES' YOU.SELF •

76 I look forward ... you soon.

A seeing B to seeing C to see
77 If you have trouble going to sleep. try ... a glass of milk before bedtime.
A drinking B to drink C drink
78 This is my rrtend Joe. I ... met. have you ?
A don'tthinkyou've B thtnk you haven't
79 How ... I
A he works hard B bard he worts
80 Which ofthe.,e;e sentences art correct in spolren P.1l9l1shJ
A Car's running badly. B Seen Peter?
C Can'rcometnbere.sorry. D CarefuJwhatyousay.
E Iosrmy glasses. F Have heard of her.
81 Nobody phoned. did ... ?
A he B she C they D it E he or she P anybody
82 Hyou were ever in trouble. I would give you all the help you ... .
A will need B would need C need D needed
83 My wife wiD be upset ... .
A if I don't get back tomorrow B unless I get back tomorrow
84 TeUme at once ... Margaret arrives.
A if B when C in case
85 It's time you ... home. but I'd rather you ... here.
A go. stay B went, stayed '-C go. stayed D went. stay
86 I wish I ... more time .
A had B have C would have D will have
87 John Hastings. ...• h as just COOle to live in our street.
A that I was at scbool with B I was at school with
C with who I W&" at school D with whom I was at school
88 She keeps tapping her fingers, ... gets on my nerves.
A which B what C that whi ch
89 Can you finish the job ... Friday?
A till B until C by D for
90 There's a supermarket ... our house.
A in front of B opposite C facing
Test yourself: answers
• h:.cE b: w ..... tepa'" ".ICed polnla

1 A -"""18 31 R - """
32 61 A.B
see ""II'
60
2 B.D 22 32 c, n 40 62 A 63
3 A 28 33 A. C 4if 63 C 73
4 A.C 28 M C 68 . 70 64A 84
5 B.D 30 -35 A 74 6 5 A. C 86
6 B 31 36 A 74 66 A.B 94
7 C 43 37 A 90 67 A. C 108
8 B 44 38 A.B 102 68 B. 0 114
9 B 44 39 B.C 113 69 B.C 12 2
lO C 47 4O_A~C 128 70 A 137
II 0 51 41 A.C 130.134 - 71 B 153
12 · A 56 42 C 1 32~ 3 72 C.O 162
13 A.B 58 43 R 141 73 A 170
14 A.C 79 44 B 154 74 A 180
IS B 80 45 A 156 75 C 181
16 A 87 46 B 164 76 B 19 8
17 C 88 47 C 166 77 A 205
18 A 95 48 D 176 78 A 217
19 C 106 49 A.B 183 79 B 22 1
20 c.n 106 SO A 188 80 A.B.C.
21 0 14 2 51 0 19 2 D. E 224
22 A 148 52 C 196 81 C 22 7
23 B 210 53 0 199.204 82 0 245
24 C 210 54 A 202 83 A 2 64
25 A 210 55 C 25 1 84 A.B 265
26 B 213 56 A, C.O 252 85 B 26 7
27 A.B 222 57 D -156 86 A 269
28 B 284 58 B 2 58 87 D 276
29 A 284 59 R 262 88 A 277
30 D 285 60 R.C 2 70 89 e.O 2 86
•
90 R. C 287
Explanations and exercises:
list of sections
(Note: for explanations of the words that we use for talking about
grammar. see pages 298-302.)

detennlnen: articles., posMUlvH and 57 uncountable nouns: special cases

demonstrativu 58 plurals of nouns: spelling
59 plurals of nouns: special cases
17 a and an
60 mixed singular and plural
17 a/an and one
62 possessive's
18 alan: main uses
63 noun + noun
20 alan in descriptions
64 noun + noun or preposition
21 the = 'you know which one(s)'
structure
22 generalisations without the
65 noun + noun and possessive's
24 the and no article: special cases
66 possessive's or the of structure
26 articles: revision
28 possessives (my and mine etc)
30 this and that
adjecth'u . . . adverbs .."
68 adjectives and adverbs
other determiners 70 confusing adjectives and adverbs
71 and with adjectives
31 which? and what?
72 adjectives without nouns
32 some and any
73 adjectives: order before nouns
34 some/any and no article
74 word order: adverbs with the verb
35 no = 'not a/any'
76 focusing adverbs: even and only
36 any = 'it doesn't matter which'
77 adverbs at the end of a sentence
37 some, any and no: revision
78 still. yet and already
38 all. everybody and everything
39 whole and all
40 much, many, a lot (00. little,
comparison, degree
few
42 less and least. fewer and fewest 79 comparatives and superlatives
43 otherts) and another 80 irregular comparison
44 enough, too and too much 81 comparative and superlative
46 of with determiners adverbs
82 much etc with comparatives
83 comparative or superlative?
pronouns and nouns 84 comparatives: other points
86 superlatives: other points
48 personal pronouns: I and me etc
87 than, as and that
50 reflexive pronouns (myself etc)
88 as ... as
52 you. one and they
90 Iike and as
54 onets)
91 so and such
55 pronouns and possessives: revision
92 very and too
56 countable and uncountable nouns
93 very (much) with past participles
~do"have 148 non-progressive verbs
149 he's always borrowing money etc
94 be: progressive forms; do be
150 revision of present tenses
95 be: age. colour etc
96 do: emphatic auxiliary
98 do and make tenses: perfect and past
100 have: actions
151 simple present perfect: introduction
1 02 have (got): possession etc
1 52 present perfect and past: news
104 have: habitual and repeated actions
1 54 present perfect and past: time words
105 have + object + verb form
156 present perfect: situations 'up to now'
158 present perfect progressive
.... .oolt.y".... 160 present perfect progressive or
simple?
10 6 modal auxiliary verbs: basic rules
161 since and for
108 must, can, may, might: howcertain?
162 tenses with since and for
110 must, should etc: obligation
163 present perfect and past: revision
112 must and have (got) to: obligation
164 past progressive
113 must not. do not have to etc
166 past perfect
114 can (ability): special problems
168 past perfect progressive
116 can. could. may: permission etc
1 70 perfect tenses with this is the first etc
118 will: willingness etc
171 past and progressive in requests etc
120 will and would: typical behaviour
172 revision of past and perfect tenses
121 shall in questions
122 should have, could have etc
124 revision of modal verbs passlyes
126 need
176 passive structures
127 bad better
178 reasons for using passives
128 used to ...
180 passives: verbs with two objects
129 supposed to
181 passives: progressive, perfect etc
182 passives: complex structures
tenses: fIdure
130 future: will (and shall) structures after verbs, adjectives and
1 32 future: going to nouns
134 future: present progressive
135 future: comparison of structures 183 verbs with two objects
136 future: simple present 184 verbs with prepositions and particles
137 future: tenses after if and when 186 structures with get
138 future progressive 188 infinitives
139 future perfect 189 perfect infinitives (to have gone etc)
140 future: I am to ... 190 infinitive with and without to
141 future in the past 191 I don't want to etc
192 infinitive of purpose
193 interested and interesting etc
194 -Ing forms as subjects. objects etc
142 the two present tenses 196 preposition + -lng
144 present tense stories etc 197 preposition + -Ing: special cases
146 present progressive for changes
198 to ...lng
147 simple present: spelling 199 verb + infinitive or -Ing form
200 go ..Jog
.4 LIST OF SECTIONS

201 need ...ing 252 Indlttct speech: infinitives

20 2 verb + olJied + infinitive 253 fell a nd say
20 4 -mg fonn and infinitive both posable 2 54 Indirect spee(:h: special cases
206 adjective + Infinitive or -ing form 25 5 revision of indirect "]JeeCh
207 noun + infinitive or -Ing form
208 ror ... to ••. after adjective/nouD
muctu.... wtth If, ."".... In case etc
256 If: ordinary tense-use
basic tWHttence-structu....
2 58 If: special tense-use
2 10 questions 260 ifl go and ifl went: the difference
2 12 what ... like. what time. 261 iflwere
what sort etc 262 if: unreal past situations
213 negative structures 264 unless
214 negative questions 26 5 tn case
216 not and no 266 it's ume, would rather: structures
217 negatives: I don't think etc 268 wlsh.lfonJy: structures
21 8 imperatives
2 20 let's
221 exclamations
222 ahere ts 2 70 relative who, which and that
224 dropping sentence-begtnmngs 272 leaving out relative pronouns
2 2 5 dropping words after auxiliaries 274 what = 'the thing that" etc
226 question tags: basic rules 275 relative whose
22 7 question tags: advanced points 276 non-identifying relative clause.;
22 8 sh ort answers and a tte n tion 2 78 reduced relanve ctauses
signal!lii 229 relatives: revision
229 I (don't) think so etc 280 reading relative clauses
230 soamletc 282 whoeveenomaeter who etc
2 32 it: preparatory subject and object
2 34 emphasis with it. what etc
prepositions
284 preporritions with verbs. DOUILs etc
conjunetlon_
28 5 atlin and to
23 6 conjunctions 286 by and until
2 37 conjunctions and clauses: position 28 7 fOl' and dUring
238 using conjunctions 287 opposite a nd in frootof
240 conjunctions wi th -tng fOnD S 288 between and among
241 -lng clauses without conjunctions 289 prepositions at the end of questions
24 2 both ... and; neither ... nor 290 prepositions in relative clauses
24 3 leaving out that 292 prepositions in pas.,",vcclauliCS
244 tenses after conjunctions 293 prep<HoitiOll after adjective +
infinitive
indirect ap88Ch
mlKeI. .MtOUS
246 tndleect speech: why things ch ange
24 7 indirectspe«h: 'here' a nd 'now' 294 numbers
248 indirect speech: tenses 296 contractions
250 indirect ~''Peech: present situa tions 298 grammar: useful words
2 51 indirect speech: questions
.
Phonetic alphabet
It is necessary to use a special a lphabet to show the pron u nciation of English
words. beca use the ordina ry English alphabet does not have enough letters to
represen t a ll the sounds of the langu age. T he following list contains ell the
letters of the phonetic alphabet used in this book. w ith examples otthc words
in which the sounds that they refer to are found.

VOWels .... dIpIIU...... (double YO. . . .)

i: seat /si:t/. feel /fi:I/ er take /ted:/. wait /welt!

I si t fsnj. in tmI 31 mine / mam./, Ught / Iad/
e set /set/. a ny /,e rU1/ 31 oil /:>II/. boy / b:>1/
ee sat I~t/. match /ma:tfl <NJ no /n<NJ/. open /~n/
0: march Ima:.tJ/. after /,Q :f~r)1 au house / haus!. now /nau/
D pot /pot!. go ne /gvn/ I;) hear / h la(r)/, dee- /d la(r )/
.x port /p:l:t/.law I b:/ ea air /ea<r)/. where !wea(r)/
u good 19ud/. could lkud/ ua tour / t ua(r)/, endure /m 'dj ua{r)/
u: food lfu.:.d/. gr oup Igru:p!
1\ much /rnAtf/. fron t /frMlt/
3: tum /t3:n/. word /w3:d/
~ a way /;}'wet!. co llect / ka1ektj.
u ntil /an'tl!/

Can. . . . .
P pull/PUI/. cup Ikllpl If cheap l!P'p/. ca tch Ikirtfl
b bull /OOV. rob lrobl d3 lail /d ~I I/, brid ge Ibnd31
f ferry J'fen :J. life / I<ufj k case Ikels/. take Ited,;
v very l 'veri:!, live fllvl 9 go /cpu/. rug /rAg!
• lhink ",",k/. bat h 100"'1 m m y Imal/, come 1k.\ITI/
(} then 1l"Jen/. wi th /wIO/ o no /n<NJ/. on 1001
t t ake /tCIk/. set lset/ f) sin g /slI)l. finger / 'fI1Jgol(r)j
d day Idel/. red Ired! I Jove / lAv/, hole / h;}U1J
s sing ISlrJJ. rice frats! r roun d Irauodj, ca rry l'ki.eri:/
:KIO fzu:/. days IdelZ/
Z
f sbow Ifau/. wi'"
3 pleasure I pl"3<'(' )I.
/vnfl
w weU /wE"l/
j young IjAIjI
h b ouse / hauS;
occasion /:l kcl3J1/

The sign (') shows stress.

a and an
We use. before a consonant and mI before a vowel
But it depends on the pronundation of the following word. not the spelling.
adog a hat a one-pound eo;" (fa WAn •• J) a union (to) 'jU:nJ:ilnj)
anorQJ19t' aRunelt' an hour(/~n ao~ lin MP (Ian em 'pi:/)

I A or an?
I __ elephant 7 _"_ half-hour lesson 13 __ hand
2 __ university 8 __ one-hour lesson 14 __ underpass
3 __ umbrella 9 __ useful book 15 ~_ lUl il
4 __ ticket 10 _ _ SOS 16 -CO
5 _VIP 11 _ _ X-ray 17 __ exam
6 __ honestman 12 _ _ European 18 __ school

alan and one

we use OM. not atan: .•- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
• in contrast with ..nod.er or olher(s)
• in the expression one day
• with hundred and thousand when we want to sound precbe
tsee page 294)
• in expressionslikconlyone andjuBto
~...
_" ...__
OM Blrl \t'untffl to go oul. bllllhe othe'r-s wanted to Slay at home .
Om daUI'U (ake you to meet myfamily.
'How many art'there? About a hundred?' 'Exactlyom' hundred and three.'
"re',oe got plenty ofSQllStJy('S. but only one egg.

I A or one}
_I_day last year- it was _ 2_ very hot afternoon in June - I was hurrying
to get home. I was aboutc.L. hour late - well. to be precise. exactlyc.x..
hour and ten minutes: I had taken the train that a rri ved a t the station at
6. I S. Anyway. there was ~5_ woman standing under the tr ees, and there
were several children with her. I sa w _ 6_ child dearly - she was _ 7_
lovely dark-hetredglrl -. but I only heard the others. Suddenly _ '_su-ange
thing happened. The girl took some stones and leaves out or her pocket.
and threw _ ,_ stone after another into the air.
DETERMINERS: ARTICLES, POSSESSIVES AND DEMONSfRA liVES

a/ail: main uses

We use II/lin to say what kind orthiDa somebody Dr something is. what
Job a person does. or what something is used as. Alan has no plural.
S1Ie's a / armer. They're/ armers.
He worked as a tad..driller. TIley workedas tad-drivers.
Don't use the plate as lin IIshtNlY. Do,,'t use the plates QS a sh t ray s.

1 Say what these people's jobs are, using the words In the box .
Example:

builder butcher conductor cook doctor electrician

garde ner hairdresser lorry driver mechanic musician
painter photographer scientist secre tary teacher

.'
,
,. 3

I 2

5
6~ 8

J
15 16
DEt ERM I NERS: ARTICLES, POSSESSIYES AND OEMOHSJRATIVES u

Alan can mean 'any example or something'.

In the plural. we use no artlde 0':some (see Pi'ge 34 for the difTerence).
A spider has eigllt lells.
A. CD costs more dian a Mssetk.
rd like a ("Up 0/coffee.

.2 Say what these people and things are. Then make some similar sentences of
your own. Examples:
. \ '!lIl'fM i:'i 'I p"r~lItI \\"1(,11.'1,,_~ I"'"(>fllt' who (In' ill .
\ 1"'"/1 i\ II I"jllq u\t~l/t.~r U"nli"q.

curtain person that water comes out of

dictionary thing who helps people to learn things
dentist who services and repairs cars
lawyer used for finding the meanings of words
mechanic who helps people to keep their teeth healthy
tap that you put across a window
teacher who helps people with legal problems
telephone used for talking to people who arc far away

,
!.t/an can mean '8 pardcular one', if you don't say exactly who or which.
In the ~. we use _trw or no article.
A man called whUe you were out.
lames mnrrled a donor.

3 Complete these sentences in any way you like.

I 'There's a/an _ _ iQ my pocket/handbag.
2 In my town, there's a big _
3 Hyou see a/an __ you'll have good/bad luck.
4 I recently bought a/an _
5 I've got a beautiful _

We don't use 1I1an with uncountable nouns. (NOT~)

We doo't use n/lln with possessives, (NOT iii /flyfFieRi)
After kind olor sort. 0/. a/an is usually dropped. a kind 0/ tree (NOT s klnJ tt}R !"ee)
In excl_mations with what. a/an is not droPPed. What a pltyl (NOT What pl~')
Alan usually comes after qula. rstIur and sueh, quite/rather/such a nice day
20 DETERMINERS: ARJlCLES. POSSESSIVES AND DEMO N$ , . " .. YE.

alan in descriptions
Descriptions: He'sgot Q longnose. (NOT ... fire JeHtl R68e.)
She'sgotan interesting faa. (NOT ... 1Ite j"f,elFestiRR Jf.atoe.)

1 Make sentences like those above to describe the people in the

pictures. using some or the words from the box.

long/small nose long neck round /square/oval face

big/small mouth big/small moustache long/short beard
nice smile/ laugh quiet/loud voice bad temper
good sense of humour

Ail
~tJ;.' J. ~r-,

2 3
~~
.... 4

".
J ~f' • ,
&. -
• J' ;,'I1WI1

5 6 8

I'!:.e..

9 10
~
~
11
~ ~f·
~.
I.:.:
'7

~
Z Des4:ribe people you know, using alan + singular as much as
possible. II you can work with a partner. describe another person
without giving their name. Your partner must try to guess who it is.

Notethat hair Is tlnglltar. ar:d has DO 1lI'tk:Ie.

She's (lOt dark hair. (NOT ... iii Jark Hilir OR ••• lIark 11.11"5,)
DnERMINER$ ~ ARTICLES. "OS5E • • I~ES AND OEMONSTRAtiVES

the = 'you know which one(s)'

'l1w means 'you know wbk:h (one/ones) I mean'.
I bought a rmio and II CDpIa~r, bllt (heeD pJayn didn't work .
( = the CD pla}'tt I just told you about - you know whkh one.I
~ wornnr 0I.'rr lMrt "wi- with my sIsttT.
( = the women I'm pointing out to you - you know whkh ones.)
I ~ clost tht> door. (Yoo can see which one.I
fft- 's bfton fotM Nonh Pole . (lfs obv\ous which <there's only one.)
We orten use f1w with only and with su~rlatJves.
She's .heonly woman/or me. lCs the bes( n swuranf in town .

1 Put in .he if the !llJ eak er and hearer 2 Put In the. a/an or - ( :: no article).
probably know e xactly which
' Do you see ~I_ man standing near
(one /ones), Put in alan 01'- ( = no
_ '_ door? He works as _ 3_ assista nt
article) if not.
in _ !_ sa me sh op as I do. Well, I sa w
1 Who opened _ _ window ? hi m the other day and he was drivin g
2 She lives in __ cectre ol Gtasgow. ~L big red Porsche. And do you see
3 I'd like _ _ g1ass ofwatcr. _ 6_ expensive clothes he's wearing?
4 My stste- is married to .. _ farmer. Where docs he get --.:L... money lo pay
5 __ man in _ _ next Ilat Is French. for it aU? _ 8_ month ago he hadn't got
£> He's __ ol ~ chUd i n __ school. _ 9_ penny. I told you about ....!Q...
7 Who"s ~_ girl by __ plano.
. ) burgla ry th a t we had at -.!L shop.
8 They've got _ _ boy and _ _ girl. didn 't 11 Do you think I should go to
__ boy's two years older tban ~_ _ IL polKe?'
girl.
9 Today is _ _ only day th at I'm free.
10 'Which coat is yours?' •__ red one:

... ) Work with anotber sr ud esu if you can. Ifyou say the following
espresstens. will h e/she know which one(s) you probably mean?
If n ot. a dd some words so that helshe will know which one(s).
EIa m plrs:
the teacher 01\ I

the teacher the wtndow tbe light the ligh ts

the ceiling the door the light switch the school
the lesson the dictionary the place the car th e bus
the bouse tbe post office the station the President
the government the restaurant
22 DETERMINERS: ARTICLES, POSSESSIVES AND DEMONSTRAtiVES

generalisations without the

The does not mean 'all'.
We do not use tJre in generalisations with plural and uncountable
nouns. Compare:
I like musIc. (NOT ... ;'h~,:,,:.:,:je:.;)-con you turn offthe musit:?---~
SIle's very in terested in nature. What is the nature of his illness?
People have to live in sodetll. l' W' joIned the Poetry Soddy.
Boob areexpensive. l>rlt the books on the Wbk.

1 Put the or-( = no article) in each blank.

There must be something wrong witlt me. _ ,_ people usually think that
_ '_ babies are sweet an d _ 3_ teenagers are annoyi ng. Not me. I think
_4_ babies are boring. For me. _ 5_ children are only interesting from
about _ '_ age of two. when you can und erstand _ 7_ things that they
say. But _ '_ time between ages thirteen and twenty arc _'_ years that'
like best. Ob . it' s difficult a t Urnes. but I still prefer talking about ..JQ....
money with a teenager to cleaning a baby's bottom.

We do not normally use tJrtt In generalisations with plural and

uncountable nouns. even lrthere is an adjective ~fore the noun.
She's studHil19 Chinese hJstory.
,
He coUects antJque dodr.s.
,
But we use the when a description with offoUows the noun.
She's studying the history a/China.

Z Use some adjectives from the box. or other adjectives. to write

true (or false!) sentences about yourself. Don't use the. Jfyou are
in a group. pass the sentences round; sec if everyone can guess
who wrote what.

cas ual classical detective foggy formal historical

Italian really hot pop romantic spicy stormy

1 I like eating _ _ food.

2 I can't sta nd Iisteolng to __ music.
3 I (don't) like reading novels.
4 l hate __ weather.
5 I1ove _ _ weather.
6 I like wearing __ clothes.
We can use the in generalisations with slnplar countable nouns. to talk about a whole
class otthmgs. This is common in scientific and technical language, _
WIlD Im'f.'Jlled t~ uJ~sro~? Tm flgrr is in danger of dyJ"9 out.
1co,,'tpMy the plano, I hatt the ulephone.
Note also:
110\'f.' tire twa. Do you like Ih·jng in the wuntry?
I net'f.'rgo to t1I~ cinema or dw tlrmt".

3 Complete the sentences with some of the expressions from the box.

the aeroplane the ballpoint pen the Bible the camera the com pu ter
the dog the fax machine the novel the personal stereo the typewriter
the violin the whale the wheel the X-ray machine

I Before people invented they couldn't transport heavy loads easily.

-------0

2 In its early years. _ _ wasn't thought to be good reading for young ladies.
3 Scie ntific calculations were much slower before the invention of __.
4 __ is one of the hardest instruments to play.
S What did people write with before _ _ '
6 __ is a much faster way of sending letters than the post.
7 Wh at ca n we do to save _ _ from dying out?
8 __ is"tl valuable tool for doctors, but it has its dangers as well.

Nevel' lend books, for I don't know anything This, books can do-
no one ever mum. about music -in my tine nor this alone: they give
them; the only books' you don't have to. New views to Ufe. and
haYS In my library are J::/vis Pu sky teach us how to live.
the books that other c_r~Crobbe
peoDtIIe have lent me.
Classical music Is the
Anatok f llVl«
kind we keep thinking I quite admit that
will tum into a tune. modem novels have
Without mUBic. Iffe Kill Hubbard many good point.. All
would be a milJblke. that t Insld on Is that,
f','let='lw as a eta... they.e
Give me books, fnlit,
quite urweadable.
French wine and fine
0sr4lr Wilde
I woukl give anything to

som_
weather and • little
hear iWMI to Jove musk., music out of doors,
but do the best I can, " played by Nature is u suall y wrong.
is just noise and I do not know. The pallller lames Mc Neill W hisller
nothing more. 101m Keats
Cathnint lilt Grr.at of Russia

For expressions like the blind. the old, sec page 72.
2' DETIRMIHER5: ARTICLES, POSSESSIVES AND DEMOH S T R A l'I V E S

the and no article: special cases

Some common expressions with no iIrttde after a preposJdon:
wiatt/rom S('hool, university. college, church. work atlfrom home
to I in(to) I Old ojhospltal. prison. bed
to/ln(wJl!rom town on holiday
by car/bus/plane etc (BUT on foot) to{atlaftR.r brtak/osl. lunch d e
at night (BUT in the morning!a{temoon/evenl1lfJ) on MondayeU:
In spring. summer etc (OR in the spring ftc) at FAster, Christmasetc
Compare:
She's in prison. ( = She's a prisoner.) She works as a cook in ,he prison.
You slwuld be in hd'. ( = resting) I foundchewing gum in the IHd agaill.

] Ch oose a word or expression for each blank. and add a preposition.

bed bus car Christmas Easter the evening fool home

hos pital night school summer town university wo rk

1 'How do you usually get __ to do your shopping?' 'Oh. I usually go there __.
but sometimes if I have a lot to carry I go _ _ .'
2 After a hard day __ my mother used to come home and go _ _ to rest for hal f a n hour
before ma king supper.
3 Children go __ to learn 10 re ad a nd write.
4
5
Docs your family usually go aw ay __ or do you stay -------.1
Don 't drink coffee _ _ if you have trouble sleeping _ _ . -
6 When Juliet was studying _ _ •she bro ke her leg and had to stay __ for two weeks.

2 Which ven.iOD ofthe cartoon cap tion do you think h. coereetz

'He's from Texas I the Texas.'

D"' wl n~ by {);ona f'n,OOn; ~ 19'H
Th<NewYOfbr M ~. Ir><.
Place nama with no article:
continents. most countries Itfrka. Gennany. Peru (Bm The Netherlands)
states. co unties etc Texas. Oxfordshire. Nonnandy
towns Ottawa. Prague. Sydney (BUT The Hagut)
most streets Fifth Avenue. Oxford Street
lakes. most mountalns wire Superior. Everest. Mont Blanc
town + buildings Oxford Vniwrsity. York Airport. ReadIng Stiltlon
Place names with the:
name includes common noun the Czecn RtpubUc. the United States
seas. riven. deserts the AdllnUc. theThames. the Salwra Desert
mountaIn and island groups the Alps. the Himalayas. the West Indies
most geographical regions the Far .East drt Ruhr. the Midwest
htllds. ctuuuas. tbcetres rhe lUtz. t1:r! Playhouse

A 1 Make sentences using words a n d expressions from the box.

Example:
A 1/10/ 16: AmlR ~/l.I('S to \\'(Irl; (!If !Cl(lr. OR Amlll O(tCII !JOt's to 1I'0rk OII.!CIOL it
dlr \\'fill"~r's jiJ1i'. OR t~l't'rY'liJ(f!l ill IIh' {iflire excrpt Amm COIIII'S to work
oflfiJ(l'.
8 3/9/25/31 C 2/ 11/ 14 D 1/ 7/ 29/18 E 5/30/33
f 6/25/34/16 G 1/ 24/ 28/33 H 5/25/32/16 1 1/ 26/ 23
J 4/2/9/26 K 3/11/29 L 13/ 21 / 22 M 5/ 20
N 4/ N/l 0/17 06/28/30/13 P 3/8/27

I Anna 7 to college 13 by train 19 the Pacific 25 Oxford 31 Prison

2 Paul 8 in prison 14 by car 20 Everest 2b StirlIng 32 Town
3 the Kin g 9 at dinner 15 by plane 2] the Alps 27 Cardiff HaIl
4 1 10 to work 16 on fool 22 the Nort h Sea 28 Onawa 33 Airpo rt
5 all ol us II home 17 by bike 23 Lake Huron 29 Sydney 34 Station
6 it's easy 12 at work 18 by bus 24 the Hague 30 Boston

If you are in a groop. write so m e 'n umber sentences' for other

students.

4 Write the English names often places you have been to, and ten
places you woultHl.ke to go to.

2 Put in the right possessives.

1 'Is this Alice's book or (yourh,ollrs) , do you know ?' 'It's (her/ llers):
2 '(Who/Whose ) caris that in the drive?' 'I don't know - not
(o l/rlou rs) .'
3 Take (yollr/ yours) feet off the table. (Il llLs) legs aren't very strong.
4 John's bringing __ guita r and Catherine 's bringing __ drums.
5 Chris and Pal never cut the grass in __ garden.
6 The Whartons are spe nding August in (our/ours) Ra t. and we're
borrowing (t heir/t heirs) .
7 Thill's (m.lllmine) coot. and the scarfts _ _ 100.

You can't put possessivesimmediately..after articles or after this/that etc.

She's a / rl.end o/mlne. (NOT She's. '"Hfp_fl.)
How's that brodter 01 yours? (NOT Hew's ,h., !filliP Bl'6tJter:.')

J toln up the Ideas to make expressions.

1 that + your smeUy dog 7 some + his dista nt relations
that smelly dog of yotlrs 8 a + her beautiful cousin
2 th at + h er unemployed broth er 9 thi s + your wonderful news
3 an other + my good friend 10 that + our lazy son
4 a + my brilliant idea 11 those + their impossible children
5 these + his stupid plans 12 these + our silly cats
6 those + your old books
We normally use po tssiwes with ..... oftbe body and clothes.
Anne brokt'Wrllrm skiing. (NOT ..• BF6He' the liIYIN ...)
He stood thtort'. his t.lJeS closnlllnd his hands In his pockets.

4 Put In one of the words Irom the box with a sulteble possesstse.

Icoats foot jacket mouth taU raincoat

1 Martin stood up and put __ on .

2 Helen burt __ very badly yesterday.
3 That dog's burt _~
4 1hey took off_ _ and sa t down.
5 Look at the weather - and I've (orgotten _ _ again.
ir
6 I'D teU you everything you promise to keep _ _ shu t.

5 Complete the cartoon caption with a suitable possessive.

'No, lie's Dot-------1 We thought you 'd brought him:

We often use dIi insteaa of a possessive in expressions with prepositions.

especially when Nil talk about common kinds or pain. Illness and physical
OiD'·+l. and w the possessor bas already been mentioned.
~ dledtest. Ann's got a cold In;tJir Iiiad
llooktd him In die eyr.
We use pGSSlS!illies with own.
~GWII ~ (l room of"'1lown (NOT . . . . .11 F691N)
30 DETERMINERS: ARTICLES, POSSESSIVES AND DEMONSTRATIVES

this and that

TH"T

--
•
••• -- ,
,
,

.' ,•

• •
1 Study the examples. and think about the difference between
thb/theu and that/those.
Come and look at this picture. What's that on the roof?
-
Tlds isn't a very good part.lI. He's ill. That's why he's away.
Do HOU like th is music? Slop that noise'
li sten - this will ma ke you laugh. Thanks - tllat was a great meal.
(on the phone) This is Ann. (on the phone) W ho's that?
This is m.llfriendPaWa. l didn 't Jike those stories he lold.
The~ shoes are hurting m.II/eel. Do you remember thosepeople
These grt1p(S are really sweet. we met in &linburgh?

2 Look at the examples again. Which words a nd expressions in the

box go with thb/thne. and which go with tho.tlfhou? Check your
answers in the key.

finished ha ppening now said before just abou t to start

here near over there distant unwanted

3 Put In thislthatldwselfhose. 4 TlUs or t.hat?

1 Why am [livin g in _ _ country?
2 Get me _ _ box from the ta ble.
3 Ugh - _ _ potatoes taste burnt!
4 what w as _ _ noise?
5 who are __ people-ever there?
6 Come _ _ way, please.
7 Isn't __ weather great}
8 Did you hear _ _ rain in the night?
9 Tell her to stop __ shouting.
10 __ was a nice meal - th anks.
11 Who said -------.1
12 Why did she ma rry __ idiot?
13 Do it __ way,notlike _ _ . 'My wife told me to carry this/that .'
O'"ER DETERMINERS 31

which? and what?

We ask whkh1 when there is We ask wIuat1 when there
• "'Med choice. is. wkIc dMk:e.

Whidr sae do HOu want- WhAt is your shoe size?

small. mediumor lDrge?

Sometimes both are possible.

Whi..h/What day IIt'),'"( wt>ek can youcome lmdsee II.:"?
Before of and one. we can use which but not what.
Whi.... oJIht- countries in Europe have you visiwf? (NaJ' W,..d ~r ?)
Look at all (hose stars. Which ~ Is the IIt't117S(J (Ncrr WIt.16R" ?)

1 Whkh or what?
1. We've got red wine and white - _ _ will you have?
2 __ books did you read for last year's English class?
3 __ of the books on the list have you already read?
4 _ _ French queen said, 'Let them eat cake?
5 _ _ 's your name?
6 _ _ hand do you write with?
7 __ kind of car have you got?
8 _ _ one is yours?
9 __ party do you think will win the election?
10 __ subject do you prefer. chemistry or physics?
11 __ was your favourite subject at primary school ?

When there is no DOUn. we use who for ~e. not which. Com
Whkh boxu U'(In? Who won? (NOT WIlle" I')6R') )
01l41:R onERMINERS

some and any

Some means fa urtain (oot Jarxc) nlllllbn' 01' amount 01".
././././././
Some is used mostly in am.r.-tive sentences,
.I SOME .I
We also use some in questions when we expect people to say 'Yes'
([0' example. m_andolf...)~. ././././././..

SIIe's got some illteresting ideas. There's SOfJH' mud on tIle carpet.
'Could I have SD~ coffee?' 'Sore. And would you liJre some bislTlits?'

We use IIJIfIlnstead or some in nepdve sentences, in most questions, JC JC JC ~ JC ~

with 1/, and with words like never. hnrdly, ''''thout, refuse. doubt (which ~ AN\' ?
bavean........ kindor ~):;,
. ...._ _ 1 I? I? 1
Do you know anylJOOdJokes? He flam', got any mDlIeH.
I.f youfind any mistakes. please tell me. She rK"ft'r has lIJIyfun.
We got thert without any difficulty . 1 re/uu to giw him any ',elp.
The difference between somebody/anybody, someorre/anyo1le, sometllitlg/anytllit'l1 etc is the
same as the differencebetween some and allH.
nlere's somebody outside. Would you like something to drink?
Does anybody undersrandthis? She didn't say anything.

1 Here are some sentences with any, Which word in each sentence
gives the fnegative kind of meamns'? Examples:
He fN"W"r' listens to (11I.'JO/l('. \\'e'l'l' hardly {Jot any cat food.
1 The baby refuses to eat anything.
2 I doubt that you 'll find any bread now.
3 Tbere was hardly anybody in town .
4 You never get any sense out or her.
S You seldom hear any birds bere.
6 I left the house without any money,

2 Affinnative/negative: choose the right word.

) 1 can't find (some/an.lJ) butter, but we've got (some/any) margarine.
2 Emma has got (some/any) old pictures or the house to show us.
3 1haven't got (something/anyth ing) to wear to the party,
4 There aren't (some/anH) buses on Sunday.
S Helen brought me (some/an.lJ) beautiful roses from her garden.
6 There's (somebody/anHbod.IJ) waiting lor you at reception.
otHER DElERMINERS 33

3 Questions: Choose somelany/SlJllVhody/onyhodyl5OmdhJnglanything"

I Did you meet __ tnrerestlng a t the party? 5 Is there __ I can do?
2 CanlolTer you __ wine? 6 Wouldyoulike __ tohelpyou?
3 Shell we listen to __ music? 7 Do you know _ _ Genna n?
4 Have you got __ children?

4 Choose the right word.

1 Have you got ( some/any) time free on Wednesday afternoon?
2 There's (something/an.'1thing) strange about the way Pete's acting today.
3 Nobody can find out (somel1ung/anylmng) about when the exams wUl be.
4 Is there (something/anything) we should bring to the meeting?
5 (Some/Any) ot taura's friends were at the party last night.
6 Shall I bring you (something/anything) to read while you wai ll
7 I had three sets of house keys, a nd I can't find (some/any) ofthem now.
8 Hardly (some/any) of the smaller cars have enough leg room for Jill.
9 00 you know if(some/any) otthe Morrises are coming on Sunday?
10 Ca n I get you (some/ any) colTee? I've just made (some/any).
11 She refuses to have (somethlng/an.'1lhing) to do with her family now.
12 I hav en't done (some/any) revision fOl' the exam - I know I'll fail.
13 Hthere's (some/any) soup left. could you put it in the fridge, please?
14 I doubt that there's (sornething/anything) we can do now.
15 Never trust (somt'One/anyone) who has a pcrl'ectly tidy desk.
16 Helen can ride a bike without (some/any) help now.
17 Has Eve got (some/ony) brothers or sisters, do you know?
18 Harner has got (some/fJny) beautiful jeweUery, but she never wears it.

5 Complete the cartoon caption.

'Oh . he's right here beside memaklng h ls "I don't want

10 go _ _where with _ _body at_._ time" Ieee,'

FOI' any meaning 'it doesn 't matter which'. see page 36 .
.. OTHER DETERMtNERS
/

some/any and no article

We use "'PM/IIIIII to talk about Indefinite. not.«1 larae numbers or
IlIIIOlU1t8 - when we don't know. care or say exactly bow much/many.
We use 110 ardcIe when we are thinking about unlimited Dumbers or
IUDOUOU. or not thlnldnl about IWIDbers/a-.ou.nts at all. Com~:
I'veplanted some roses, (A limited number-It isn't dear how many.'
llike roses. (No idea of number.)
We got talkinglo some students. (A limited number.l
O"r new neigl,bollrsare students. (The idea is classification. not
number.)
Is there any WAfer in the/ridge? (The speaker wants a limited amount.I
Is there waur on the moon? (No idea of amount.)

1 Put some, any. orno article. 2 Choose the correct version ofthe
cartoon caption.
1 This car hardly uses __ petrol.
2 This car doesn't use __ petrol:
it's battery-powered.
3 Would you like __ beer?
4 In Belgium they make a stew with
_ _ beef a nd __ beer.
5 Do you ever read _ _ novels?
6 I read __ wonderful novels by
O'Brian when I was on holiday.
7 Are your sisters __ doctors too?
8 We met __ doctors at the party.
9 Could you lend me __ moneyz
10 Is __ money something you
worry about?
11 Do you like _ _ mushrooms?
12 Are there __ mushrooms left?
13 We need __ more milk. 'Did we have children I some d dldren
14 Cheese is mad e from __ milk, I.bal grew up .:IIld went a wa y?'

We do not use SDmeltmfJ when it Is clear nactly how mucbJmany.

Co
You 'w Rot some great books.
You 've got pretty «<s. (You"w {JOt SonH' pretty rots would suggest that
the speaker is not making it d ear how many - perhaps six or seven.)
OTMER DElI.MINE". ..
no 'not a/any'
No is a more empbat1c way of saying 'not a' 01' 'not any'.
At the ~b.lI.J.1l1gof a sentence, no Is almost always used.
Sorry, Tve Rot no time.
There were fI{J teuersfor .'IOU this morning.
No cigareue is completely harmless. (~OT Ns' ....N effJ6Felfe ... )
No taurtsts evercomt' to our village.

Nobody, nothinn etc are used in the same way.

Nobodlllol't'S me. l'l'e got absolutely nothing to say.
Before 0/, we use none, not no (often with a singular verb).
Non~ 0/ his/rwnJs likeshis lvi/e.

1 Put In nolnon~/noboclH,
I 'Wby can't I have toast for breakfast? ' Beca use there's _ _ bread.'
2 'My students expect me to know everything.' '_ _ knows everything.'
3 __ newspaper teUs the whole truth,
4 'What were your photos like?' 'I'm afraid __ of them came out.'
5 'Do you think he's honest?' '__ politician is completely honest.'
6 __ crtbe people there remembered seeing anything unusual.
7 I've got patience with people hke her.
8 There's 1can talk to in thls place.
9 _ _ of you care what I think.
10 He had _ _ money. __ job and __ place to live.

. 2 Write answers. Use no, none. nothJng. and nobody,

1 'Why can't you take me to scbool in the car today?'
&mIL'i(' f w tltll n(l time.

,
2 'Can you ask someone in your family to help you with your French?'
'Jeremy says his father spea ks seventy-six languages:
4 'Do we have to go out tonight? Can't we eat at home?'
5 '00 you think I could ask you for a cup of coffee?'
6 'Why don't you phone home to find out if your letter's arrived?'
7 'If you're bored. why don't you go to the cinema?'
8 'Why didn't you buy any flowers?'
9 'Why didn't you join in the conversation last night?'
10 'How many of your brothers are married?'
. I
OTHER PEnRMINIERS

any ='it doesn't matter which'

!An" can mean 'It doesu.·t matterwbidl·.
With this meaning. any 15 common In affirmatlve sentences.
In negative sentences. we can use hut."lI to make this meaning dear.
Any doctor will tell you that smokingis bad/or you.
He getsangry with any mall wllO looks at his wife.
Come lUly Umt you like.
I don't do just any work: I choose jobs that tnurest me.
Anybody. an~Jlhlng etc can be used in the same way.
Anybody can sing if they reaJl.ll WQnt to.
'Can I have something to eat?' 'Of course, wire .oythinfJ YOllllke.·

Any Is not neptlve - it is the opposite of noor not an". Compare;

That's easy:anybody cando it.
That's too hard: nobody can do it.
I'm really hungry - I'll eatanything.
I'm not hungry - 1don't want anythillfl.

1 Choose the best word or expression for each sentence.

1 (Any/No) doctor ca n tell you Hyou've got flu.
2 (Any/No) doctor ca n tell you exactly how long you're going to live.
3 Just say (anything/not1ling), so we can see if the microphone works .
4 IfLhe police arrest you. say (anyth ing/nothing) until your lawyer
gets there.
5 What do you mean, music? I (can't hear / can hear) any music.
6 You can hear (uny/no) kind of music you like at the Reading Festival.
7 Anna's very secretive; she talks to (anybody/nobody) about her problems.
8 fim teUs his problems to (anybody/nobody) who wIU listen.

.A. 2 Answer the quesuons uslnguny,

1 Where can you get: a plane ticket? {lily ' ra w" o!/t'II! 's
lead-free petrol? dog food? stamps? running shoes? a dictionary?
2 Who can give you advice on: English pronunciation? getting a divorce?
paying your taxes? problems with your camera? milking cows?
3 Write advertisements for toothpaste , shampoo, a computer, an airline
etc. using 'Don 't buy/use/etc just any .... buy/etc ..:
Example: Vo n 't hUH just IIII}J cor, blly 1I j lly{/tl L
some, any and no: revision
1 flU in the blanks and put together the (our sentences. Whicb goes
with which cartoon?

Cook _~you want forsupper he's not seeing Lee. today

I suppose you've brought me here I'm sony
in the church There's __ place for women
to tell me you haven't got __ money It's your birthday?

I
38 OTHER D ET ERMIMERS
/

all. everybody and everything

An (of) can be used with a IlOUD or pronoun.
An is not used without a noun or pronoun to mean 'everybody'.
Compere
All the people were tired.
Everybody was tired. (NOT AU ,\16Ft' lifed.)

AU can be used to mean 'everyt:hlus' or 'the only thing', but only With a
relathledause (all that ",). Compare:;.., .....

Sire yaw me aillewrything (that) she had.

All (that) I want is a place ofmy Own.
The thieves tJxJk nrrything. (NOT ;M.l~ U.)

] Put in 011 ifpossible; if not. put iueurythlng.

I __ I need to make a comedy is a park. a policeman and a pretty girl.
CharlieChaplin
2 I hu rry to laugh at __, for fear of having to cry. Beaumarchais
3 I can resist __ except temptation. Oscar Wilde
4 You can only have power over people so long us you don't takc __
away from them. Solzllenilsyn
5 'Bea uty is truth. truth beauty: - that is __
Ye know on earth. and all ye need to know. /oh" Keats
6 Th ey sa y __ in the world is Rood for something. lohn Dryden
7 [A cynic] kn ow s the pnce ot __ and the value of nothing. Oscar Wilde
8 Life is like n othing, because it is __. William CJOlding
9 [We don't know) whether Laws be right.
Or whether Laws be wrong:
_ _ that we kn ow who lie in ga ol
Is that the wall is strong, Oscar Wilde

2 Put in all 01' everybody.

I _ _ women become like their mothers. That is their tragedy. No man
docs. That's his. Oscar Wilde
2 In the future. __ will be famous for fifteen minutes. Andy Warlwl
3 _ _ human beings are born tree and equal in dignity and righ ts.
Universal Declaration of Jluman Rights
4 I a m free of __ prejudices - I hate _ _ equ ally. w e Fields
5 He who praises __ praises nobody. &muelJohnsOfl
6 Ju stice is o pen to _ _ people in the sa me way as the Rita Hotel.
Judge Sturgess
O'MER PEfER"' "EfI. so

whole and all

We use wIIole most orten with . .utar cuuntable nouns.
We use "II most often with UDCOUDtabie and plural nouns.
Compare
a whole plate -ollthefood the whole swe(lter - aU the wool
a ",hol~ concert - a ll the music the whok orcllt!Stra -all the
musicians
Note the word order with toc the whole ••• 1all tire ...
Before place names. we most orten use the wholt of
tlw whole of Europe

I Write an expression with whole or all fer each Item. Examples:

a football team - II WllOIt' football kllltl
the flowers - III/the flowers

a family the islands the road system South Africa

the children the country the traffic Asia a week
the vegetables the political party the students
the luggage the meat MPs a class

Note: In some common tlme expressions. both whole and all are fI:OS ",,~
~b~l~e ...
the uollOle affffnoofl/night/week - aU (the ) aftmlOOll/night/week
the "oIlOkJay-alldny: the wllOle time -all the time; my whole life-all my life

I
. OTHER DETE R IIII NE RS

much. many. a lot (of). little. few

We use rtIIfdI with _8ular (uncountable) nouns and man" with= p!;;;uroIs
= ;;;, ....
How much time ',ave we got? Ho"! many tidulS do we u«tf;

Much and mer. are most common in quntlons and ncp;tives. and after .......
too and wry.
In other InfonnaJ afIIrmative sentences, we generally prefer. ' - (0/). IoU (of)
or , ....'11 (oJ), All three or these can beosed wtth both uncounlablcs :md plurals.
'00 you 'mw much trouble widl f;nglish?' " do,,'t haw mllt'h troublt' Spm1d119. but I htn't
iI,.
lots oJ difficulty writiIlg. ' (NOT ••. ..... Jiffi e~~ ...)
'Are there many opera houses in London?' 'Not many. but a lot of tneaues andpJrntH oj
dflt'mas.· (NOT· ... .... ..8 du'atH's HRJ 11I11"8 ei'H"Jta&')
tlove you so mmh. Take CIS much as you like.
Thereare too muny people here.

) Write at least eight sentences about yourself. Have you got not
much. not many. A lot 1lots oJ. or plenty of•••? Enmples:
I lwl'('II '( qot //l Ull! ml/Mliol!. l'I't' got lots of l'Of/sills.

ambition cousins problems nice doilies energy

books confidence work to do old friends free lime

2 Write much/many with so, as. too or ~uy for each blank.
I Thank you __ for your help. 5 Bobfeels __ better today.
2 Are there __ chairs as people? 6 I don't know __ poems as you.
3 You can never have __ love. 7 She's got _ _ relanvest
4 I like your hair __, 8 Get __ tickets as you can.

In a formal style. manyand muchare more common i.n affirmalh'e

sentences.
The resoorches ofmany commenwwrs htn't'already t"rOM'n mU('h
darkness on this subject. andit Is probable that i!thls condllllt's we sllalJ SOOI1
know nothing at allabout it. Mark Twain

~! i ,j(.:.fi3 i ,: I h ·' ,;e M: 1'1 (I{tjFir . .f" I ' Miii:. l! 'V'A

(A) Uak is used with sloplar ,uncountable) nouns and (.)/ew with plurals.
!lJttk aod/e. are rather nepdwe: they mean 'not mucb/many'.
!A JlttJr and a/#W are more positive: their meanlnR is more ;;
bke;;;.·;;
_;;:::;;.;
·. ....
Cectuses JK'f'd littl~ wafa'.
Gh'i' the rosf'S a littl~ wafa' f'Vf'ry day.
llis idf'as ore l't'ry difficult. andJew people ullderstand them.
llis ilkas are Vf'ry tUf.firnlt. bllt aJew pmpJe ulldf'rstand them.
lJult andjew (without a) ace rather formal; In a conversational style we more often say
only a liUIe/few or not much/many.
Cm:1llSf'S only flfflf a Huh water. Not many people understalld his ideas.

1 Write UuJ~ orJew.

1 There is _ _ friendship in the world. and least of all between equals. Francis Bacon
2 A __ Iearnlng is a dangerous thing. AJexnnder Pope
3 Men of _ _ words are the best men. William Shakespeare(llenr.IJ V)
4 Never in the field of human con llict was so much owed by so many to so __.
WinstoJl Churchill
:> Never before have we had so __ time in which to do so much. Franklin R(!Osevdt
6 A country having a __ inflation is like a woman being a ljttle pregnant
Leon HmderSlJn
7 We __• we happy __. we band ofbrothecs:
For he tod ay that sheds his blood with me
Shall be my brother. William Shakespeare (Henry V)
8 Death is oneofthe __ things that can be done as easily lying down. W oody Allen

4 Littl~orallftle?Fnwora/nN?

I It is _ _ U5e trying to cha nge her mind.

2 Could you possibly give me __ help?
3 __ teenagers in the village could read.
4 Slowly, _ _ children began com ing to school.
5 I only need __ mlnutes to get ready.
6 She only wanted __ love, __ kindness.
7 Nadia drank __ coffee and no alcohol.
8 Unfortunately. he had __ friends.

Now write sentences 1,3, 7 and 8 in a IlMJreconversational style.

re. people can be happy unless they hate

some other penM)II. nation or creed.
llml'"<md R~U
less and least, fewer and fewest
i'Ln"'''.'''ifud~fo~.'f.....
''''''----~'-are ~mparattve (~~g~ 79):they JIre-ih;::~~:r~";,,.
.,..,,=. .--""
Least andJnust are superlative (see page 79): they are the QP.PQSlte3L~~'p
huandkan are used wlth singuJartuncountable) nouns.-~-=- • "': "---. -~-
Fewer andfnrtst are used with plural nouns. -~ 1:00_ . . . ._'
I've got Ins ,"amy than I thought.
0/ all my f ritllds. lake does ti,e 'rast work.
TI'fre were/ewer problems than we expected.
Ann was till' person wlro made thefrwrst mistakes in the translation exam.
In modem Eng lish. many people use Jess with plurals (e.g. Therewere Jess problems than
we expeckd) . Some people feel this is incorre ct .

I Write less t the lfilsl I fewer I tllf!!ewn;t.

1 Of all British cars. this one uses __ petrol. It also needs __ repairs.
2 _ _ girls than boys do mathematics a t university. Th is may be because
girls gel __ encouragement to study rnaths a t scho ol.
3 As the years went by. they had _ _ things to say. and __ interest in
talking to each other.
4 Do you want more time and __ money. or more money and _ _ time t
5 Liz is very clever. but she has got __ self-confidence of anyone I know .
6 I've had __ days off work of anybody in the office.

o '"~", '" ~ ~~" c J;C "-''''"'!''I

, .......,....
Lr.:15 and hat. can also be used with adjectiv~a~dadverbs.-
Ann's less shy thall Pat.
It was ti le least sucussful party we'd givf'n.
He drives less carefully tllan I f' XPff mt.

2 I~t less I the ,,.ust In each Mank. wnh one of the words in the list
(or another word, if you prefer). llyou are in a group, cumpare
answers.

shy shy ly easily prosperous seffish fluently

pessimistic politely worried optimistlc confident
confidentl y qu ickly dangerous religions

I I feel __ abo ut the future than I did a year ago,

2 My mother is/ was _ _ person you ca n imagine.
3 I spoke English _ _ a year ago th an I do toda y.
4 I think this country is _ _ than it was a year ago.
5 People from the north of my c oun try speak __ than people from the
south,
b My home town is __ place I know,
other(s) and another
When odwr is used before a pIu.ral DOUD. it does not have -so
When odter is used without. nnun. It has -s tn rh~ pluml. Compare:
TeU the odt~r people. (NOT ••• IRt' eatePIJ 1'ft'I'H.)
TeU the othtrs.
Can you show me some other shoes?
Om you show me some othus?

I Writeothuorothers.
I I could see Karlma and Nedjma at their desks - but where were the __,
1 t ong after all the _ _ cars had left, Dawson 's BMW was still there.
3 I'D phone aU the __ Hyou'll phone Ted and Lucy, OK?
4 I can play the Sonata in C. but DOt any of the __"
:) Do you know any __ people who might ha ve a reason to do this?
6 This doesn't suit me. Have you got any __ colours?
7 Some metals ace magnetic and __ are n' t
8 The police arrested [ane. Fred and two __"
9 I wish that girl would play more with __ children.
10 Gerald Durrell wrote a book called 'My Family a nd _ _ Animals',

We can use cmlJlthn (one word) to mean 'one more'. But with
uncountab\es and plurd\s. we do not generally use other to mean 'more' .
Compare:
HaW' anDt1HT potato. (NOT ... iii"
8th•• ,stelle.)
Have some more mult. (NUf ... _Iller ,"f'AI.)
We needmore cups.

We can usellJlOther +JnI or cmothtT + a number wilh a ~uraI noun.

ILl'S walt anothn If'w minuus. ( = ... a few more minutes.)
The job will tlIkeanothtr 1m days. ( = ... ten more days.)

2 Write espeesstcos with another or with mono Examples:

English - 1/1(1(/' [ //!ll is/l book - fflwr/ll'r I/O(lk eggs - ilIOn' I'gg.\

clothes friends child three pages ho ur mile

sleep job possibilities few days hundred pounds money
lime freedom holidays problem twenty nul es
enough, too and too much

DO IT YOu.an
I Look at the examples and choose the eoerece (orlnS of the rules.
Check your answer in the key.
This isn't hotmolJgh. (NOT ... I'fISNBh hSI:)
Am I going/ a sl enough?
There is rever rnDUgh timf',

Rules
f:tJough normally comes (lHfortlaftn) an adjective or adverb.
Enough normally comes (lNfore/a/ilr) a noun.

2 Put In words from the ben: together with mough.

big champagne clever confidence good
bard mon ey time friends old

1 In art the best is 90Of/ (,IW/lflll. Goethe

2 I never had __ when I was young; now I never have __.
3 This town tsn' t _ _ for both ofus.
4 Susie hasn 't got __ to play with.
5 Bob's not __ to travel by himself.
6 There was _ _ to give every body a glass.
7 If you work __•you don't have to be very intelligent.
8 She was __ to do anything she wanted. but she didn't have _ _ to try .

We use too before an adjectiwe without a noun. Ofan adverb.

We use too mudthnlUl" before a DOUD (with or without an adjective).
He's tooo'd,lNaf ... 1M6 "'IHlII ski.) She'sdriviny tnolast.
My problem is: too much work alld too many lak nights.

3 Invent answers to the questions. using too, too much or too many.
1 Why did Jack leave his car at the pub and take a taxi horne? (beer)
Ill' 'r! dmilk tno IJI llCh tvcr.
2 Why did they drive to the cinem a in two cars? (prople)
3 Why didn 't Joanna stop for lunch yesterday? (busy)
4 Why don 't we go to the Caribbean for our holiday ? (expensive)
5 Why don't you let the children cycle to school? (lraffic)
6 What went wrong in your exam? (SIOl!/I.IJ)
7 Wh y did you have th e phone installed in the other room ? (noise)
8 Can you understand wh at he 's saying? (quickly)
otHER DEtERMINERS ..
4 Write descriptions COl" the pictures using not mough 01" too much/many.

~
2 3

5 6 7

Note the structures ••• moIIfJII Uor _.) to ..• and too ••• (/or ..•) to ...
She's old enough to vote. It's not warm enough/or meta swim .
The box was too huny toll/t. He spoke too/ast/or us t%llow.

5 Complete the sentences with too/enough and words from the list.
,----------,
I The food was lotI spk!l fo r till' (l,illlrm 10 eer. clean/people/swim
2 Sally's not __ thedcg for a walk. fast/police /catch
3 They were speaki ng __ what they were saying. muddy/them/see
4 Near some beaches the sea's not __ in. old/ lake
5 There's someone out there. but I can 't see __ ifit's Emma. spicy/childre n/ca l
6 The water was _ _ anything. quietly/me/hear
7 I'll work on this tomorrow - I'm __ it tonight. tired/ understand
8 I don't understand Ar-abic __ to Egyptian radio. weD/listen
~ \\eloUuve _ _ 'n\m. ..... e\\I ~6e

We can drop a noun after wough or Wu much/ml1ny if the m~antng is dear-.

'How many people live here?' Too many. '

We can use too mru:h as an adwerIJ: He talks too mudr.

We etoo't normally use too before ~dwe + noun.
She doesn't like men who au too tall. (N OT .•• le8 (all FfIt'Fl.)

Compare: We haven't got enough big nails. = We Ileed more of them.

We hl1ven't got bige-nough nails. = We need biggtTones.
.. OTHER PETERMIMER $

of with determiners
The following determiners have of before ardcIes (thela/an). possessives
(my/your etc). demonstralives (thl.laud etc) and pronotlIlS (f./us!youIdJan):
some, any. much. many. more. most. too much etc. fflOugh.litde. less. jetsr.
~w. all. both. racl!. evem cee. none. and numbers one. two etc. •
some, an y. of the. alan (ADIECTIVE +) some. any. of it, us.
mu ch. more, my. your, d e NOUN much. more. you. them
ere this. that, etc ere
some of the older people noneofiL
most ofmy friends every one of us
afewoftllosegrapes QUo/you
too ITUlny of his books enough of them

In other cases. we use these determiners withoutoL

1some. any. etc I (ADIECTIVE) I NOUN I

ro me strange ideas a little water must people few changes
EvenJ and no ace used instead of every one and none.
every two mimues no time

J Put in of or nothing (-).

Dear Phil.
Well. some _ 1_ ou r luggage ha s arrived. so things could be worse. rye
got the books and papers. but I've lost most _ '_ my clothes. I haven't
got any _ '_ socks a t all, and I'll have to buy some 0l0rc_ 4_ieans, but
a t least I've go t enough _ 5_ underwear for th e week. (They don't sell it
here. I don't think they wear it. ) I'm going to buy a few _ '_ lbooc
woollen shirts that you like. a nd one _ '_ the big coats that we looked
a t. Th ey've got no _ 8_ shoes in my size, unfortunately, and none _ ' _
the jackets suit me. An yway. I'm not alone. Every one ......!Q.... us has lost
something - in fact. three _ 1_ 1 _ people have got no _ '_ ' _ Iugga ge at all.
Well. as they say. into eac h _1_ ' _life a little ---.1L rain must fall.
See you on the 17th.
Andy
OTHER DETERMINERS 47

!'lote the difference between most ~ (talking about people in general)

and most o/llte@'!!f'1e(talkingaboutparticularpeople).
Most prople want to htn'f childrtn.
M05t vi dre people I kno"'liloe ill the country .

2 Put in mvst prople or most o/thepmple.

1 __ en joy talking a bout themselves.
1 __ who wanted to see the m atch were disappoin ted.
3 I know __ in our street.
4 _ _ like music.
~ I think fishing C
Ol" sport is wron g. but _ _ wo uld disagree.
6 __ on the traln had no tickets.
7 He gels on with _
8 __ at the pa rty were friends ol lan's.

3 Ch oose the correct venions of

the cartoon captions. ," .
.. -
-, I"

---.-
'Straigh te n your tie. Stephen. The world is 'Girls, girls.l - (A /illle tess nohe I
already filled with (tnOll9h dison k r I A litt /f' k ss oftlOjse), please.'
tnOtlgh ofdisordtr ).'

Ana-.II and 1Jofh. we often drop o/ before determinus

;.;;;.. ~_ _

aU (oJ) my/riends
personal pronouns: I and me etc
I , you. h. she, It. M'. they are used 8Ssubjects before verbs.
Me. flOU. him. hR. it. liS . thmt are normally used in other cases.
SU BJECTS BEFORE VERBS: I like Mnry . We ('Gn't 90 on like this.
OBJECTS AfT ER VERBS ; Mary hates me. Tell us what to do.
AFTER P REPOSIT IONS : l.ookut Im-. Why is sl,ewit h hi".?
Everybody nap t me was late.
AFTER 81-;: 'Who's that2' 'U"s lire.' (NOT n ormally 'It i61.')

In short answers we can use me. him etc (informal) or I. he etc with a verb (more
Iormell.Tbe same thing happens after as and than.
INF O RMAL MORE FORM AL
'I'm thirsty.' 'M e too.' (NOT '1-f6&:' ) 'I'm thirsty.' or am too. ' / 'Sollm I.'
'Who's pay ing?' °U rF'.· 'Who's paying?' 'She Is.' (NOT ~ ')
I've {lOt the same number a s him. I've{JOt the samenumber as he has.
She gets paid morethan me. She gets paid more than I do.

I Put aD a ppropr ia te pl"ODOUn in each blank (the sentences are informal).

1 Nobody except __ knows where the 6 John 's two years younger th an Alice,
key is kept , a nd I'm not telling you . but _ _ 's nea rly as tall as _
2 'Who bought these (low ers ?' 'Jt was 7 'Who said that?' 'It was __ - tbe ma n
__. 1 th ough t you'd like them: in glasses,'
3 'I haven't mel Mark yel - is __ here?' 8 You' ve got almost the same colour eyes
'Tha t's _ _ over there.' as _
4 'I' ve had enough of th is party.' 9
You may be older than _ _ , but I don't
-__ too: have to do what you say.
5 Ire's faster than _ _ , but I'm stronger 10 'Which is John's wife?' 'Tha t m ust be
than _~ _ _ just getting out of the car.'

2 Ch an ge these to make them more formal or less formal . Example:

I live in the same street as him, - r live ill "II' sm1lt' S[r('t'll/S JI(' 11,1('$.
1 An ne's got the same ca r as me, 6 We are nor as old as they are.
2 They've been here longer tha n us. 7 He had a bigger meal than I did.
3 I'm much taller than him, 8 Lam not es qu jck as shets.
4 'He's going to Mexico.' 'Me too.' 9 'We are from York.tSo am I:
5 'Who sa id tha t?' 'Her: 10 'Who wants a drink?' 'I do.'

for .x~ of the WGf'ds thM: _ u.. t. talk ~ , _ •• ~ 2,

P.ONOUNS AND NOUNS
••
We geoeraUy use who as both subject and object, WllOm Is unusual,
especially in questions. except in a formal style. (For whom in relative
clauses. see page 2ilt)
Who do you want to set ? (More natural then Whom do you wont to seer)

We use it to rekr to notItl,.", nuyflUntJ, JJmltdhJIIfI and anyddng.

We also use It when ldentifJ1nl people.
Nothing is ever thl' way yOIl aptd it to bt.
'Who's the woman in rtd?' 'It's Chris Lewis. '(NOT 'She's ClfFi.s l.ewis:)
People generally use IN' and :;hf' for their cats, dogs , horses etc: some people
use shf' for theu- cars, motorbikes and boats. Countries are usually it.
Don't ride him on tht main road - M 'S Q bit nervous. [
'llow's the rnrl' 'She's running beautifully.'
Britain imports mort than It trporu.

) Put in a suitable pronoun.

I 'What's your ea t's name?' 'Annie. __ understands everything we say.'
2 Thailand is quite unusual: _ _ has never been ruled by another
country .
3 '00 you know who the managing director is?' '_ _Rose Bercauk. '
4 My bike's been giving trouble, so I'm taking __ into the garage.'
5 Nothing happened while I was away. did __ ?
6 _ _ did you have lunch with?
7 'Who's that on the phone?' '__'s yourfatber.'
8 Australia doesn't accept as many immigrants as __ used to.
9 I don't know __ she's going out with now.
10 Bcerytamg always happens when you don't want _ _ to.

" don't know anybody 'Me?"

who says -u is I ~:
reflexive pronouns (myself etc)
myself. yourself. himself. hersel f. itself. oneself
ourselves. yourselves. themselves

We use eeflesfves when the oIJtect is the same person/thing as the

subject.
1 cut myulfshaving this morning. (NOT ' Hlit Me •••)
H~ tried to kill hlmulf. (Different from He tried to kil1 h1m .)
The llshts switch themselves on at night.
Sometimes a reflexive pronoun refers to something that is not the subject.
Hi s letters areall about him:wlf. 1told her the truth about herself.

J.
I
Put in myulf, yourself etc or rrw, you d e.
Mary bought a book and ta ught __ to play the guitar.
2 john fell a nd hurt __ yesterday.
3 The computer will tum __ off if you don't use it.
4 We looked at __ in the mirror to check our makeup .
5 Don' t pay a ny attention to __ - he always com plains.
6 How much time do you give _ _ to drive to work ?
7 June can't a fford to buy _ _ a new car. so her dad's go ing to buy one
ro,_~

8 Who gave __ th ose lovely tlowersz

9 It hurt __ w hen I realised Kim wasn't going to phone me.

Reflexive pronouns can also be used to emphasise the subject or object -

to say 'that .JefSOO/thlng and nobody /nothing else'.
It's best If you do it fJOuruIJ.
I'll see the President himself i/ necessary.
The houseitulJis nice. but the garden's small.

2 Put in suitable reflexive pronouns.

1 No one is going to help us. so we' ll ha ve to do it _
2 Veronica always cuts her hair _ _ • and it always looks great.
3 Robert __ is quite friendly, but the rest of his family is very cold.
4 Did you know that the Morrises bu ilt their house __I
5 I don't trust anyone else to do my accounts; I always do them _
6 I got to see the gardens. but the palace __ wa s closed .
PRONOUNS AND NOUNS 11

Note the difference between .sdwa' and ,am othrr.

TIwYaTt' looking at thnnulws. Tiley art': looking at ram other.

V3 l-Ach oth« or -Mhn?

I Hilary and June write to _ _ every week.
2 Agnes a nd Pat have bought __ a Oat in Rome.
3 00 you and your wife teU __ everything?
4 You will all need photos of_ _ for your membership cards.
5 We've promised _ _ to telephone if one of us is go ing to be late home.
l> We've decided to give __ a really nice holiday this year.

4 Put in myself etc. f'Qch other or me. yOIl etc.

1 We decided to keep most of the fruit for _
2 Before leaving Eric's offICe the robbers tied __ up and pulled out all the
phone wires.
3 Christine and l always take _ _ to lunch on our birthdays.
4 Mum, please don't help me - I'd rather do it _
5 Did you as k Alice whether her brother had phoned __ yet ?
6 Don't just stand there sho u tin g at __ - do somet hing!
7 I've just got up -can I phone you back when I've made _ _ a cup of tea?
8 I've never met John, but we've been writing to __ for over a year now.
9 The necklace _ _ wouldn't normally be valuable, but it belonged to
Queen Elizabeth I. so it will certainly bring a very high price.
10 When babies first start to feed __, they usually make a big mess.
11 You can't be su re that she go t the message unless yo u told her _
12 Your teena ge children want to be indepen dcnt- but they expect _ _ to
he ready to help .. when ever th ey ask you 10.

Common npressions with reflexives: behave your-sl'lf, enjoy yoursdf,

hdp yourstU. makt' yourselfat 110mI', by oneself( = 'alone', 'without help').
Verns normally used without reflexives: wash, Shtll'f, dress, fed. hurry.
Orw.nodtt!r can be used instead of each ot~r.
0Inr replaces ~ssi\le reflexives: my own room (NOT ..."lWIrs F96'H).
you. one and they
One and you can mean "people in general' ttncludmg the speaker and hearer].
an. ;s"""" IOnnal than !i'1u.
.... _
OM/YOU can't learn French in a month.
Onedhl1s I You dia/999 in an emergency.
One's/YOU,. own problems always seem important.
To talk abou t people not including the spea ker/bearer. we use the!1 or a passive.
They spesk English in this shop. / English;s spoken in lIlis shop.
(NUT One 6f'HlfS Eltg!l6li JR EN.'S liR8,.)

~ (infonnal) can mean 'the ~c around' or 'the authorities', 'the govern ment ',
They don'( like strangers aroundhere. TIrey soy she's pregnant again.
TMy'rt' always digging up the roads. They dan't mIT nbout old people.

I Write some sentences with you and one. Examples:

a card / this phone: 011(' I/('('(Is ' Ynil/wi'll a m rn 10 I ISC' tlrh I'/Mit'.
see her / appointment: (JIIC . ) ',111 a m 'f Sf'(' Iter II'it/lOlIl (1// CII'/" lilllf//('I/I .
1 get into the US / a passport 5 gro w oranges / a warm clima te
2 a ticket / a tra in 6 get a driving licence J seventeen
3 Ily directl y I Gdansk I Prague? 7 eat soup Ja fork
4 good at matbs / a physicist 8 see animals in the for est / get up early

2 Write you, your, they or them.

'_I_'ve put the price

of stam ps up again:
'Oh, _ ' _ haven't.
have _ '_' _ . _ seem to do it more
a nd more often. _ 5_ can't buy more
than a few stam ps at a time. or else
_ "_ have to buy extra Ip stam ps
'I know . And it's got to add to 311 -.1..- letters.'
so expen sive! Nowadays ~,_ think
twice before _ , _ write a letter. Of course
~'ve got special rates for businesses -
it's only ordin ary people that
pay the extra.' 'I know.
II makes _ " _
wonder why we keep
electing _ " _ :
PRONOUNS A ND N OUN S 50

We can also use they. dtmt and OIdr(s} to refer to a singular indefinite
persoD - ror example. after sorndJody. IInlfbody. nobody. who. II Jlft"SOn.
Som~bodg plwllftl and saki thry wanlellw see you.
If anybody caUs. uU Ihnn rm out.
Who's forgoll#!n drrir umbrtlla?

3 TfwylthemlthtlrhNirs or another pnmoun?

I Someone's left me a note. but __ haven't signed it.
2 The person who phoned wouldn't give _ ._ name.
3 Nobody in the club bas paid _ _ annual su bscn puo n yet.
4 I can't help a nybody unless _ _ brin gaIllbe right documents with _ _ "
5 ((I find out wh o's made this mess in the kitchen . I'll kill __"
6 Judy says somebody's stolen _ _ lecture DOles.
7 Some idiot has taken my bag and left me __,
8 If anybody can fill in this form. __'re brighter-than me.
9 Nobody ",'ill believe me unless I show __ the picture.
10 That woman I was talking to bad _ _ car stolen yesterday.

Diplomacy - the They cannot seare me with their empty spaces

patriotic art of lying Between 5tlws - on stars where no human race Is.
for one'" country. I have it in me so much nearer home
......... Iliou To scare my5etf with my own desert places•
Rob.orl J'rOSI

Knowing what you

can notdo;" more You can get much Watermelon - It ' s a
important than knowing further with a kind good fruit, You eat,
What you can do. word and a gun than ),OU drink, you wash
I.ucilk &1lI you can with a kind yout f ace.
wontaJone. BnrtcoCaruso
AI Captlfle
Most people don't use
their eyes except to tf the chikl possesses
keep fTom running into You eannotfeedthe the nationality or
thing.. hungry on statistics. citizenship of another
Na..-y1/Q1t DlIrid. Earl UoydCAo ryt' country, the)' may lose
this when the)' get a
British passport.
I was UudgedJ in my Bntain would be a great
Prospon awliwliOll form
absence and &en1:enced country if only ),OU
to death in my absence. could roof it over.
so .Nid they could AoonynwU5 I hate to spread
shoot me in my rumours, but what else
absence. can one do with them?
No one can m ak e ), OU
15' (mloo I~hu" Amanda Lwr
feel inferior without
your consent.
Ekanor Roosevdl
one(s)
We useone(s) to avoid repeating a countable noun.
'What sort ofcab would !IOU likel' 'A big ont' with cream.'
I'd like someshoes like tile ones in the window.
'Could you lendme II pen?' ·Sorry. I haven't {JOt one.:
We don't use om for an uncountable noun.
We haven) got /resh €fTflm: W ould you like Unned?
(NOT ... tiRReJ:efle. )

I Put in wonts and expressions from the box with or without one(s).

big grey leather blue Chi nese long 1>1.UUly new

red woollen sharp solid practical tall unsweetened

1 'What colour cardigans would you 6 'What sort of holiday are you having thls
like to see?' ' 1~lrU' tll/('S. please.' year.' ''A __..
2 I've lost my jacket. It's a __. 7 'Ihlsisn't That food. tt's __.
3 ' What kind of juice is that?' •__.' 8 I don't want pretty shoes. but _
4 'Which glasses do I use?' 'The __.' 9 Hand me a knife. will you - a _
5 She doesn 't sell used cars, only __. 10 There's my suncase. the - I

If there is DO a~e: we do not use a with om.

'M,at sortof cake would you like?' 'One with cream.' (NOT 'A 8'U! ... ')
We use SiJme/any witbout ones. We use mi1l£ etc instead of my one etc.
'Could you lendme some stamps?' "haven'lgQt any.'
(NOT •... lIny 9Re6'.')
' Which car shall we take?' 'MilK'., (NOT 'AfH 8M. ')

2 Put in one, some, any or mine/yours/etc.

1 'What sort of job would you like to do?' '_ _ where I travel a lot.'
2 I haven 't got a train timetable. but ask Adrian - be may bave _
3 'Is that your car or Anna's?' ._ _ - Anna hasn't got a car.'
4 There aren't any matches here. but there may be __ in the kitchen .
S I need a watch - __ with an alarm.
6 'Where are the forks?' 'Oh, no! We didn't bri ng _ _ r
7 Barry has put his name on th is book. but Liz says it's _
8 If you haven't got enough plates, I'll be happy to bring _
pronouns and possessives: revision
1 Choose th e best words to complete th e cartoon captions.

'ft's just narural, that's all! _ _ love _ _

because you 're _ _. like the car.' '__ sold __ what to -------1'
( v..../ you/ thf'y /{Jurs/ yours ) (you /she/my/his{ whirl/who)

...,.
'Could _ _ tell _ _ d _ _ glasses are ready yet?" 'Have _ _ seen a lady
(you/mlmdus!myselflm.1J1your) without _ _ ?,
( I/you/h cr/ me/myself)

' ''-- ,.
~ ~
"r es. orcourse irs important enough to 'Have_ _ any "Do It _ _ w books?'
dlsturb _ _: (mt /him /hi mself) (you{helherself/ tI'frnsdl't's)
countable and uncountable nouns
Countable nouns have ~ah. and c::an be used with ,I1IU1.
a chair- chairs ahouse - houses an idea - idt.as

Uncountable nouns have no plurals. and cannot normally be used

with .1.... Exam~es: air, waler, sand. intellill!!JU. E~lish. wenha.
She speaks good English . (NOT ... " §664 EhSUsh.)
It's terrible wmther. (NaT ... ,. teFFillle we.dle...)

1 Can you divide these into uncountahle and countable?

book. cup. dust. Dour. Dower. h appiness. knowledge , love. milk. meat.
mountain. music, oil. piano. rain. river. snow. son g. table. wall

Some nouns can be uS6l1 both unr:oan12b1y and COIIIlllabiy.

Wood is mtldefrompaper. I'm going out to buy ... paper.
Did you remember to buy €Off«? I'll have II (cup of) coffee. plrase.
My nwther neverdrinks wine'. Spain producesSbme wonderful
wines. ( = kinds ofwine)

2 Uncoun table, singular countable (with alan) or plural?

Complete the sentences.
1 Could you pass me __? (glass)
2 This table is madeor_~ (glass)
3 I need a piece of ~ (wood)
4 The house wa s near __. (wood)
5 She looked a t him with _ _ . (pity )
6 It's __ Anne isn 't here. (pity)
7 __ goesso quickJy. (time)
8 Sbe phoned six __ yesterday. ( time)
9 Three _ _ , please, (beer)
10 __ makes yo u fat. (beer)
11 He hasn 't got much __. (experien ce)
12 It was _ _ [won't forget. (experience)
13 There's __ in the garden . (chicken)
14 Do you want _ _ or beel? (cllicken)

With a few uncountable nouns referring to emotional and mental activity,

we use alan when there ts an adject1ve or other description.
an oxeUent knowledfr c{ German a fOOd educczt.ion a low ofmusk
PROIiilOUIiilS AIiilD NOUNS .7

uncountable nouns: special cases

Sometimes uncountable and countable nouns have similar meanIn~

I T~1 yourself. Can you put these words in pairs (one uncountable.
one countable) npressing similar Ideas? Example:
[umiture -ltlb1~

accornmodauon advertisement baggage banknote

bread cars (act Oat furmture infonnation job
journey loaf money publicity suitcase table
traffic travel work

• 1 These nouns ere normally uncountable. Mlb1 can be made

countable by addingpi~ (e.g, II pie« 0/ advice). Do yOIl know
which three can be made countable by addingllJIash 0[. II stroke
oJand a dapo/?

advice knowled ge lightning luck news research

rubbish spaghetti tbunder

3 Choose the correct form ofthe caption for each cartoon.

'An odvice. ] A ",onl ofaJviu , / SOfll t' advias. Arthur:

no-one ever solved his problems by running away.'

;:0 0 0 0 0

'~TI't it make you sick? Our

baggoyr has I baYfJOYts haW' been
sent to Jupiter:
.. PRONOUNSANONOUNS

plurals of nouns: spelling

I Look at the examples aod an~'Wer the questions. Check your

anlOWcrs in the key.

babies books boys buses buzzes cars chairs

clties dishes echoes Eskimos foxes gases heroes
IlolWays kilos ladies lorries matches monkeys
photos pianos potawes quizzes radios
s/lops tables taxes Limes tomatoes watches
ways wishes zoos
I What Is the most common way of making the plurals ofnouns?
2 How do we make the plurals of words ending in coosonant + -y?
3 How do we make the plurals of words ending in ,,"owf'l + -y?
4 After which letters and groups of letters do we add -es to the singular?
5 Four common words ending in -0 have plurals in -es. Can you close your
eyes and remember which they are?

2 Write the plurals ofthese nouns.

address box brush computer desk face guy

list loss mess patch peach play poppy
reply toy tree video witch worry

3 Write a sentence using at least two plurals rrom ] above.

f..xample:

If you can work with another student, give himlber two plurals
to make a sentence with.

One potatO;, two potatoes

IN JUNE 1992. US Vice-President Dan Quayle
visited a school class in New Jersey while the
children were having a sp elling competition.
When 12-year-old William Figueroa wrote the
word pouuo correctly on the blackboard. Quayle
told him he should a dd a n e. WLlliam became
I a schoolchi ldre n's national hero (without an e)
and a ppeared on television; th e Vice-President

I became an international laughing-stock a s

echoes (with an e) of his mistake went round
the world .
-
PRONOUNS AND NOUNS
••
plurals of nouns: special cases
It. I Here are seven groups of nouns. Look in the box and find two
more neuns to add to each group.

aircraft crisis dozen mathematics mean s mouse

news police scissors sheep shelf thousand
tooth wolf

I CO UNT ARUl ::-lOUNS WITU SING ULAR ( AND P UJRAI.) IN·S

series crossroads analysis - analyses
2 OTHER NO liNS WITII S I NG I: LA R A ND PI- URAL TilE SA ME
trout deer fi sh salmon
3 NOUf\"S TUAT IIAV E A PLU RAL WITHOU T -S AfTE R A N UMBER
hundred (e.g. two IlImJred) million
4 NO UNS W ITI I S INGUI.A R I N -{(e). PLUR AL I N -Vf'S
calf- calves half knife leaf Life loaf self
thief wife
5 OTIIER xoures WITJlIRREG UI-AR P!.UR AI.s
child - chi ldren foot - feel fungus - fungi goose - geese
man - men medium - media ox - oxen penny - pence
phenomenon - phenomena woman - women
6 UNCOI)NT A IH,E SI NG ULA R NOUNS EN DING IN -5 ( NORM A LLY NO PLUR AL)
athletics billiards economics gymnast ics measles
physics politics
7 I' Ll"RA I, NOUNS WI TH NO S I NGC I.A R
arms belon gings cattle clothes congratulations
contents eamtngs goods outski rts people
remains surroundings than ks troops trousers
mixed singular and plural
Singular DOUDS for groups of people often have plural "erbs and
prooouns InBritish English. especially when weare talking about personal
kinds ofaction. Compare:

MyJum Uy are Iltrya ngry with me: they think I should flO W university.
The averagefa,mly hus 3.5 members: it is much smaller than in 1900.
The Uam are going to lose again. They're useless.
A cricket kant Is made up of eleven players. including Its coptain.

I Choose the best combination for each blank.

class is club has orchestra is school h as staffdo

class are club have orchestra are school have staffdoes

la In Engla nd. a state __ to give time to religious education .

lb My daughter' s __ decided to hold their sports day next Saturday.
2a The __ given £ 5.000 to charity this year.
2b The _ _ ftfty per cent more members than a year ago.
3a The _ _ notlikethenewmanager.
3b The _ _ not need to be increased.
4a Jane's _ _ in Room 6.
4b Our _ planning a party.
Sa The _ _ just tuning up -let's hu rry in.
Sb An _ _ composed of string. wind . and percussion instruments.

Z Choose the correct form orthe cartoon caption.

'It's the office. Shall I tell it/them/him you're sick?"

PRONOUNS AND NOUNS .,
The IOUowing slnpalar npressIons also usually have plural verbs:
o numberoJ.•. rlw majority of... a couple of .•• a group of..·
a lor of+ plural nounlpl"OQoun. the resL of + plural noun/pr~o~n. .o.u~o•.~_~. .
A nwnbn' oJ uson worried abollL it.
t1re majority dlSllgrw.
1"hut' «rr a eoupk of children ollUide.
A lot 0/ diem M:"1"e late.
~ rnt olthe rnnnbn-s OrT ill.

Some ........ apt essioDs have sin....... verbs;

names ofquantities.. plural names of countrtes. compound nouns joined by
(Ind. more than Ont + singlJJar noun.
Ten pounds Is too much topay.
Thnr W«ks l/Nlsn'L enough holiday.
'I1Ie Vrdud Stmes Is smaller than Canada.
Pbh and chips costs £3.
MOrT than one pt1'SOP disagrees.

We also use a singular verb after (mea/ + plural noun.

One o/yourdUldnn has losLo shoe.

3 Choose the right verb.

I A groupotteenagers in the town (has/have) organised a scheme to help
okl people with their shopping.
1 A number of people (has/have) com plained about the noise.
3 Do you think three pounds (is/are) a big enough tip ?
4 Hamburger and chips (is/are) not a very healthy lunch.
5 In the latest rail union vote. the majority (has/llave) voted to go on strike;
'he rest of the members (is/are) expected to support the stri ke fairly
solidly.
6 Two kilos (is/are) pretty small for a newborn baby.
7 Our teenage son thinks there (is/are) a number of good reasons for
staying up late a nd having a good time.
S More than one house in our street (has/have) been broken into recently.
9 A co uple of dangerous-looking men (is/are) waiting for you outside.
10 One of my friends (lIas/have) just won two free plane tickets to New York.
11 Six weeks (is/are) a long time to wait for news of your family.
11 The majority of the chdd ren's parents (is/are) unemployed.
13 A lot of shops (is/are) opening on Sundays now.
14 The Philippines (has/hOl'e) signed the new human rights agreement.
15 The police think that more than ail e person (wus/were) in the stolen ca r.
Ib Tom and Rosie were late. but the rest of us (was/were) on time.
17 (Is/Are) bacon and eggs what you usually eat for breakfast?
18 We've just learnt that a couple of our club members (has/have) been
chosen for the national team.
.. PRONOUNS AND NOUNS

possessive's
SINGULAR nOUD(S) + 's:
PUJRAL noun + ';
my IIfother'S au.
my JHlf"mtt' home
SIl"'" 6DUI Henry'. houu
IRREGlJLAR ~ural + ' II: t1l0: dd. . . .•• names

1 Make possessive forms from the items in List 1 to combine with

items (rom Ust 2. Make fifteen combinations. Examples:
mUll'llr/If'rs' d o1111's

W;T 1
your sister Jonathan Ann and Pat tho se women
my teachers Katie our dog Simon a nd Jill
most people doctors

IJ ST 2
address car/cars ideas health legs
father/fathers nose/noses clothes education
fearof hetghts

Possesshres usually replace articles before nouns. We can say die car or
Sue's car. but not SlIe', file earorfheSw!l Mr'.
But a possessive word can have its own article: tile Iro..•• car.
Notealso:thatcaro Sue'£a ndff De' like" entia mlnt:- p'!&c28.

2 Right or wrong? Put t/ for correct sentences;

rewrite incorrect ones.
J Is thi s th e tea cher 's pen?
2 Arc yo u th e AI's daughter?
3 Do you know Lesley's last name?
4 Here's th e Barry's add ress.
5 Here's my parents' address.
6 It was the school's responsibility.
7 whet's the Wilsons' number?
8 That's an c ld habu of Manon's.
9 It's a crazy idea of Alice.
10 where is that brother of Carol?

ute: We spent the tvmlng atAnne'• . ( = ... at Anne's house. J

', a t " .c: .
PRONOUNS AND NOUNS 83

noun + noun
We can put nouns together in three ways:
1 noun + noun: a shoeshop; a warfilm
2 peepestuon ,.1ructure: the topof the hill
3 possessive '5 structure: my boss'scar; Ann's iclea
Usually, an idea can be expressed in only one of these ways, and it is often
dillicult to know which is correct The rules on pages 63-67 will help. but
there are exceptions - this is a very difficult point of grammar.

We often put one noun in front or another. The 6rst DOIID is rather like an
~ . and is usually • • ' . even If the me.'U\ing is plural.

a horu rna fa kind of race) a rac~ horse (a kind of horse)

Q _fa« shop (:'l'OT Ii ,1I9H shtJp) Q LmK'ashln man
. a tm~miJe walk (!<lOT Ii " ' " lfIIhs IwHlt)
Articles belonging to the first noun are dropped in this structure. Officers in
t1I~ army =army officers. NOT dllt tli iii!j' effiA'1'5.

1 Match the expresroions on the left with their meanings 00 the right.
I chocolate milk a book describing cases
2 milk chocola te b chocola te made with milk
3 book case e leather for making shoes
4 casebook d drawing done in ink
5 leather shoe e garden with flowers in
6 shoe leather f ink used for drawing
7 Dower garden g mllk flavoured wuh chocolate
8 garden flower h piece of furniture for books
9 ink drawing flower that grows in gardens
lO drawing ink j shoe made of leather

2 What do you call these?

1 a shop that sells music 5 the clock in the station
2 a man from Binningham 6 a rocket that goes into space
3 a frame for a picture 7 a factory that makes biscuits
4 tea made from mint 8 powder made from soap

J Put these words into pairs to make noun + noun expressions.

Change plural to singular if necessary.

antique bicycle bus cowboy door film grapes

juice kitchen map newspapers publisher me,
roads shop station
.. PRONOUNS AND NOUNS

noun + noun or preposition structure

We use the noun + noun structure lor weUooknown everyday comblnatlons.
To talk about things that do not go together so often. we usually prefer a
structure witb a prepoMif1nn . Compa re:
Qwtlrji/m ll~fi~/m~abo
~u~t:a~dog~(~N~OT;-;;.~Je~.;jjid~,",:i)----------
a history book a book about vjolins (Naf II ' 'i9!i1<l he9k)
11 postma" a man/rom thebank (NOT 11 8dRk Ifl~fl )
road signs signs of anger (NOT flflyer tllym )
a corner table the girlin the corner (NOT t~8 eiJR lttr § i .o:J)

I Eight or these Ideas can naturally be expressed by 'noun + noub'.

Which are they? Rewrite them.
1 a cake made of chocola te 7 the door to the kitchen
2 a child in the garden 8 a bottle designed for wine
3 a cupboard in the kit chen 9 a timetable or tretns
4 a box for matches 10 a book about the moon
5 paste for cleaning teeth 11 chairs for the garden
6 discussions about furniture 12 a man with a knife

2 Look at the labels. Can you think of some more names offood
that use the noun + noun structure?

Blackcurrant
Juice Drink

Newspaper lieatllines often save space 6y using tile nOUII + noun structure
instead of the preposition structure. Strings of three or four nouns are
common.

Channel ferry safety drill leaves 18 injured

Decision day I Football club

in rail dispute burglars cut
home phones
PRONOUNS AND NOUNS ..
noun + noun and possessive 's
We use the DOUIl + QOOD stnae:t:ure to name common kinds orthinl.
The first noun is often like an ~ttI (of a verb or PreP.Qsitl;o:;
;: n,,
). -'
a ShlX shop = a shop tha' sells shoes
awarjilm = ajilm ooout ..or

We use the Jt088~ Is'we '. structure most often to talk about something
that bcIonas to a particular person. group. organisation, country or
arumal. The first noun is often like a so~ (usually of the verb how),
my boss's car: my boss has a car Ann's idea: Ann hod all idea

I Ch oose the correct noun group.

I' a bus's station or a bus station 11 vegetables' soup or vegetable soup
2 a toys' shop or a toy shop 12 China's history or t he China history
3 the teacher's otil ce or the teacher office 13 a cowboys' film or a cowboy film
4 computer's disks or computer deks 14 street's lamps or street lamps
5 my mother's ch air or my mother chair 15 the firm ' s office or the firm office
6 car's papers cr cer papcrs 16 a bath's towel or a bath towel
7 Tom's pla n or the Tom pla n 17 th at eat's tail or that cat tail
8 a telephone's box or a telephone box J8 a teacher trainer or a teac hers ' trainer
9 the dog's toy or the dog toy 19 the paper's editor or the paper editor
10 a horse's race or a horse race 10 a glass's factory or a glass factory

1 Complete the cartoon capti on .

.·.it .PIt . •
'1laid 67.000 eggs last year, a nd if I don't
receive a _ _ there'll be trouble:

Mother Day card Mother Dey's card

Mother's Day card Mother's Day's card
. PRONOUN S A ND NOUNS

possessive's or the of structure

We use the possesshte 's structure especially when the 6rst noun is the
name ofa penon. JlOUP ofpeople. orpnIsadoo. £OUIIb'y or animal.
In other cases we generall~ p'refera structure with oj; Com~:
my/ a ther's I10me tile nameo/t.he book
thefirm's struct ure the structureofplastic
Amer1ca's influence the influence 0/ alcohol
the dog's leg theleg o/the table
We also usc the possessive 's structure with com mon 'time when'
expressions. and in expressions or measurement ofUme.
today's paper tomorrow's weather HtstudDy's news
a month's holiday thru hours' delay

... 1 Rewrite these using 's•• oro/the. F..xamples:

the dub + its monthly meeting III" d ub\ II/(mtll'." ",{'('lim/
his parents + their car /Iis IN/n 'm ..· ow
the world + its end 11/(' (' /1(/ oII I/{' worl d

Angela + her leg the trees + their highest branches my suitcase + its lock
your dog + its leg the bank + its branch in Paris your office + its Ooor
the table + its leg my family + its name the town + its a tmosph ere
o ur company + its best sales manager th e police force + its main problem
next week + its timetable last n ight + its pa rty today + its n ews

... 2 Make two noun groups fmm each set of words. Example:
file: your secretary. legal documents:
!lo ur sccr('(ary ·s fife. I iI(' jilt- af {('!fil l (luu m ll'lIl."

1 story: Helen. the Fre nch Revolution 6 ideas: modern physics. my son
2 bed: the stream. the patient 7 rules: the dub. football
3 policy: full employment. the company 8 view: the committee. the lake
4 style: my favourite author. the 1930s 9 head: the cat. the queue
5 place: language education. women 10 arm: the cha ir. JOM
A 3 Put together the espresstons from the left-hand box, and three of
the expeesstons from the right-band box, to make captions for the
cartoons.

fear? your tests' results.

I have here the results ofyour tests.
He doesn 't know the word's meaning.
Let'sgo. I've gor (be meaning of the word.
Righi. AIr Wilson. somebody else's car
parked outside. the car of somebody else
.. ADJreTI~E'S AND ADVf:RBS

adjectives and adverbs

ADIP.cTIvt::.<;: kind. shy. cold. angry. wonderful. bad. unusual. mad
ADVERBS: kindly. shyly. coldly. angrily. wonderfully, badly. unusually. madly

We use adjecth>es to say how something Is. seems. becomes. looks.

feds. sounds. tastes or smells.
She Is kind. She seems/appears shy. It's~U1ng rold.
Ilelelt ungry. (NOT He}'p1l .JI"rllB.) That smells wonduful.

Weuseadverbswtth other verbs tosay how somethinghappensor isdone.

She spoke Jdndly but shyly. (NOT Ehe6fN1k$WN...)
Heanswrred meroldly. Heclosed the door angrily.

I Complete the sentences with words from the box. More than one
answer may be correct.

beautiful/beautifully calm/calmly cheap/cheaply

clear/clearly slow/slowly sort/softly terrible/terribly
unhappyj unhappily

1 I suppose I shou ld be nervous, but I've never felt so __ in my life.

2 'I suppose we'll never see ea ch other again: she said __ 0

3 I haven't got much money: ifl travel th is year. I'll have to do it __ 0

4 The house is small and rather simple. but Anne has decorated it __ 0

5 This soup tastes _ _ 0

6 He spoke very __. but she heard every worn like a shout.
7 Good computers are gelling quite __ now.
8 The train was very _ _ : perhaps they were working on the line.
9 She sal there __ lying about everything she had done,
10 This is a __ house. I enjoy looking at it every time I walk past.
11 Her hair is so lovely and __ - like a baby's hair.
12 This handwriting isn't very _ _ : can you read it any better than me?
13 The team played __ last Saturday.
14 Time seemed to go so _ _ , When would he arrive?
15 He looks reaJly __: I wonder what's wrong.
16 Mary doesn't speak very __: I often have trouble understanding her.

for u.p~ of . . word_ ttl.. w. II" to UIk about ar--, ... pea:. . ~302..
JlO'£ClI\lES AND ADVERBS e.

We also use adverbs beforeadJ«thra. past participles. other ach'erbs

and~lioDaI~.

JCs tnTibly ",Jd.IN~OT;.~..:k:':ii~~~":e9:hl~.»)-;T~his;· ;;is very badly rooked.

You 're drh'ingunusually/ast. He \.VaS madly in IOl1t with her.

2 Choose the right word.

1 Angela is (amtUingfmnmingly) good with animals.
2 As soo n as I saw him I was (sure/surely ) he had been drinking.
3 Do you th ink that's a (realfreaJfy) diamond in her ring?
4 He was wearing a (true/truly) astonishing tie.
5 I felt her arm (!Jf"ntk/gl'nlly) to see if any bones were broken.
6 I read an (amazing/amazingly) thing in (be newspaper this morning.
7 John was (wonderful/wonJi'Tfully) kind to me when I ca me to th is cou ntry.
8 Keith seemed (ge'ltle /gently). but there was somethin g cruel underneath.
9 One leg or the chair was (slight/slightly) damaged.
10 Sa rah drives a (reaIlrtaJly) beautifully restored 1914 sports car.
11 She looked at me (ki nd/kindly). bur didn't say anything.
12 The door was (bod/badly) painted.
13 The food was (wonderful/wonderfully). but the service was (awf ul/ awf ully ).
14 The room is (dt'\'t'r/dt'\'t~rly) organised so three of us can work there.
15 The job was (surprising/s urpris ingly ) easy.
16 He's ac ted (unbdiemble/rmbelievtlbly) stupidly in the past year.

Some verbs are used with both adjectives and adverbs. with
different meanings.
You look angry. (= l'ou snrd angry.)
lie '00,," anarUYQt the mtltlJl9f'r. ( = Ht'wrnd hisryn ...)
Ilis planappeared impossible.
She suddenly IlPlH"llred in the window.

tf a thing is worth doing, Speak softly and carry (You are] incredibly,
it Is worth doing well. a big stick. inordinately,
TradijiOllJd l're.IJdfnf Theodore Rro.W\'eh devastatingly,
Immortally,
calamitously,
tf a thing Is worth doing, POWItt" tends to corrupt
hearteningly,
it i s worth doing badly. and absolute power
adorably beautiful.
G K ChrSlernm conupts absolutety.
The pod Rllpt'Tt Brooke
Lord IIdol! /.0 the oaress O:lllt/een Nesblll
7. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

confusing adjectives and adverbs

I Are the words in the box adjectives. adverbs or boW Look at the
sentence!' and decide.

dally/weekly/monthly/yearly cowardly deadly early

fa st friendly hard late Ukely lively lonely
loud lovely silly ugly well

1 Irs getting late. 10 If you wanr me to work bard.

2 The Times is a daily pa per. you'll h ave to pay me more.
3 She's a lovely. rricndJy. Uvely I} Milk is delivered daily.
person. Rut she seems lonely. 12 The tram arrived late.
4 It doesn't seem likely th at 13 rcan't stand loud noises.
you r childr en will be ugly. 14 Don't be so silly.
5 The postman's t>.arly. 15 She's becoming hard to live with.
6 She speaks English very weU. 16 I'm very well. thanks.
7 We have monthly meetings. 17 That was a cowardly thing to do.
8 Don'( talk so loud. 18 Curare is a deadly poison.
9 If you've got a fast CCIC 19 I gel paid monthly.
why don't you drive fast ? 20 Try to come home early.

2 Which cfrbe words from Exercise 1 could go in each blank?

1 3 C(I \\'lm ll!J Id.'wf/y ,/Ol'd!l/ sil1!1 9 _ _ lIowers
expression iO 3 _ _ house
2 " ~_ magazine 11 Weleft _
3 _ _ music 12 trying _
4 She sings too _ 13 a _ _ illness
5 He visits LIS _ [4 __ work
6 a __ thing to say [ 5 a _ _ life
7 __ faces [6 _ _ phone calls
8 very __ to rain

Say it loud, I'm black People leU me there This universe I. not
andproucl. are a lot of guys like hostile. nor is tt
Titre0/SlmfI by /0/11/"5 Brown me, which doesn't friendly." i. &.Imply
explain why I'm lonely. Indtfferent.
Marl Soh! JH I IoI mf'S
Once the toothpast e is
out of the tube, it is
awfully hard to get it Give us tftIs day our tt is better t o be
back in. daily bread. beautiful than to be
1I II: lIakkm /l/l Tilt Lord's Prayer good. But ••• it is
better to be good
than to be ug1y.
Ostur Wil dt
and with adjectives
When edlectfves come after. verb. we usually put and before the last.
Brlort a noun. andis less ............
He was talL dark.a4 h1fJl4.sortte. I'm cold. tired and hungry.
"taIL dark. hRllflsomr cowboy a tired (and' hungry child
But w hen adjectives (or other descriptive words) refer to d ifferent parts of
a following noun. we use and.
Q ~lIaw IllJId "'ack drt.ss a roncrrt.e and glass building

1 Pot in lind Hnecess ary.

1 The brick was rough/ pink.
l: (~" '" t "lulh ,urd/'III/...
(1/1"":,
2 hot/ breezy weather
3 untidy/ red hair
4 Th e man was young/bearded.
5 The sea was cold/rough.
6 The church was old/ ugly .
7 a quiet/ tense woman
f; yellow/grey sa nd
9 The badges were red/blue.
JO a n arrow/brown room

In the softest,lightest sandals the world is somehow brighter.

72 ADJECTIVES AN D ADv e R B S

adjectives without nouns

~ We ~-'-~ ~-+ ~~;; (~thOU1 ;~~U~) to-ti.li alX)ut some - - -"Ililli
:"Soc~,,-~ s. -
the young the old the rich the poor the sick
the tILt/Iblen the handiCtlppetl the blind the deAf
the mentally ill tile homeless the unemployed the dead
These expressions are plural: the blind means 'blind people', Compare:
I'm coll«li"g money/or Ore bUnd.
Do you know the bUnd pt'rson nexl door? (NOT fJll~ "1111" Red ReeF,')
I met fI blind man on the train. (N()T ... A flUlid )
We can't use all adjectives In this way: we don't normally talk about the
loreiytl or the yreedy. for example.

] Complete the sentences with expressions from the box.

the blind (twice) th e living (twice) the poor (twice]

the dead the old th e rich (twice) the young (twice)

1 In the country of__ the one-eyed ma n is king. Af1OlIymolls

2 Love, like youth. is wasted on __. Sammy Calm
3When the rich make wa r on each other, it's __ who die.
Jean-Paul Sartrt
4 It's all that _ _ ca n do for _ _ . to shock them a nd keep them up to
da te. George BernardShaw
5 'Let me tell you about _ _ . They are different from you and me.'
'Yes, they have more money,' F Scott Fitzgeraldand En/est Hemingway
6 We owe respect to the dead; to ~_ we owe only truth. Voltnire
7 _ _ have more children. but _ _ have more relatives. Anonymous
8 Pray for __ and fight like hell for _ _ ' Mother Tones
9 Does it matter: -losing your Sight?
There's such splendid work for __;
And people will always be kind.
As you sit on the terrace remembering
And turning your face to the light. Siegfried Sassoon

The structure is also Used With d ie followmg aatiOnility iwiii'ttt DUtcb•

.~~~~A!..~, Scot!i!h. S~sh.t Welsh. ~~ =~#
The Welsh have a very old literary tradition.
BUT: I like the Welshman who works in tile gorage.
(NOT .•. Eh~ Wehh ...)

g, i}l. i:': i .: i ;. " .:,: i .: lei!'"' r: ,f·,

ADJEC"ll'ES AND ADVERBS 73

adjectives: order before nouns

'This is a complicated point orgrammar. The following rules have exceptions.

Words for colour. ortPnJpIace. -.terial and purpose go In that order.

Other adjectives come before these.
OTHER COI-OUR ORIGI N/ PLA CE MATERIAL PURPOSI>
oM ,ed Spanish kalhu riding boots
ofunny brown Gennan bee. mug

Opinioll$ often come before descripdons.

OPI!IlIOS DESCRIPTION
funny old buildings
o terrible little boy
nice new clothN

1 Here are descriptions from B newspaper. a Journal. a biography and a Dovel.

Rewrite each descrtptton in the right order. Example:
books: old. terrible It'rribk (lM bo~Jh (opinion + description)
I city: Belgian. beautiful. little 9 ink: drawing. Swiss
2 dub: jazz. local 10 jackec short. leather
3 dinner: excellent. cold 11 squares: brick, little
4 buildings: modern. industrial 12 boots: French. ski
5 dress: evening. red. sUk 13 tie: blue. woollen
6 eyes: narrow. colourless 14 trousers: cotton, grey
7 frame: llat, gold 15 trunks: black. nylon, swimming
8 furniture: old. lovely

~ slim. kind.cheerful.
malure. non·smoking Wel!Jlm an.
015. inl«esled in t"I--erythiag except
vpen and polilK's.. seeks attractive,
w;vm, 5Cf!\i,iK", inieUigent woman
in J(k for friencW1ip. love. who
~~'>PIease write to Boll No.18I .

'Single green male, 214 ...'

F'ust and last usually come before numbers:

tltlJlm tit,. weeks (NOT the ""'eefl"' ~'t'eh&)
my I••t tiro holhlays
Note the wont order in smtwtItJng nke; nofhjnfllWW
;;;,;~. _
AD n C TI V E S ANO A DVERBS
"
word order: adverbs with the verb
.t\d'&'erlts that go with the "erb include words expressing freQueoey (e.g.
• '_fls. oftm. USIUl'U", never) and ceI1.alDty (e.g. deftnlteJB,
pro....y). Note the exact position:
.... I'TI::R AM I A RF./ IS / WA S j WE RE A PT ER A UXII.lAR Y VER BS
You are usually right. She has prolnlb'y forgotten.
It was ur1alnly coM. I can never Wflkt up in lime.
B"I-'ORE OTHER VER BS NOT BETWJ;f.N YF.RB A ND OBJECT
He always forgot my birthday. He}JJJ'tlBIII'WIf"S '"8 "irih""8·
I often get hendaches. I Bet 6/f;ert hf!fltlfl~hts ,
All. both and each can also go wilh the verb.
You're all wrong.
They art' both st udy ing maths.
Werach gaw ajil1Hnimde talk.

I Make ten sentences from the box. F..xample:

l am always usuaUy ortcn happy late tired

_ _ is sometimes not often friendly bad -tempered
__ are occasiona lly never depressed worried
in love in trouble ft'

2 Make ten sentences beginning I have often/never _,.

Examples:
I 1I1l1'1 ' Oll l'll /JH'II so : \ m n in l, t nove IIl 'wr SI'/''' 1(/1 0llt'm.

3 Say how often you do some of'Ihe following things. Examples:

f .~(lrIl{'f illl('S Ntlly ill hal lull'. Illml '[ o/h't! IJI/ill till' I1m·lI.r.

stay in bed late have bad dreams ea t chocolate

get head a ches play tennis read poetry fall in love
go to concerts play the piano forget people's names
go to the cinema cook go to the doctor write letters
go skiing go swimming get depressed feel happy
ADJECTIVES AND A DVER BS

4 lIyou can work wtth another student:

• ask bimlher bow often he/she does the things in l:xercise J
• report hislher answer.
F..xample1>:
I . How liflen do yOIl 90 to concertsi: ·.\ 'ever.'
2 ."aria FIt'I'l'r !Jot s W fOnn'rlS .

5 These sentences are aU taken rrom real recorded conversations.

Can you put the adverbs in the right places?
1 You are here when some thing happens. (USUlll/y)
1 Her mum cooks it meal in the evenin g. (always)
3 We book that April holiday in January. (usllally)
4 They think that we have got bread. (probably)
5 You should look where you 're going. (a/ways)
6 She is going to stay over nigh t. (probably )
7 Chocolate cakes are the best. (d efinitely)
8 I \'1-'111 be a ble to get it cheaper. (prollObly)
9 I have had a n illn ess in my life. (nfl'fr)
10 We saw sweets in those days. ( never)
II I remember buying some. (Jejinilely)
11 Do you read upsidedown? (usually)
13 I can manage to get there. (usually)
14 She has done that before. (never)
15 Something is burning. (definitely)
16 She has been nervous. (alwcIYs)
17 [feel cold in your bouse. (newr)
18 They were against me. (always)
19 We are going to win. (dt-finitdy)
20 February is the worst. (usludly)
21 It is very difficult. [sometimes]
22 I buy them in boxes. (ahVlJ.l1s)
23 I have tried to find it. (often)
24 They are fighnng. (alwoHs)
25 She saw thls ghost. (often)
26 You are right. (probnbly) 'You never tell me you hate me any more:

Iftbere is more than one auxiliary verb. adverbs offttquency and certainty
usually go after the first auxiliary.
Tilt' Toof hos nnrr been repaired.
I will deJinluly be seeing him w night.
Adverbs go before or after IIot. depending on the meaning. Com pare;
She's not often tate. lt 's dt!jinJtely not raining.
78 ADJEC TI V E S AND ADVERBS

focusing adverbs: even and only

Ewn and onJy often go wtth the verb wben they focus OQ words later tn
thesentence.
He's nule tQewrybody. He's I"en
, Irude! to me.
, I
(NOT EVeR he's l'llJe (9 Rill.)

Hel nat
,
!plays tennisl"""n""lh'"',-m
, ""'n-. )

11only Iliked the Ifirst partof the cOllart·1

I ,

They'velDnlH ,
III..d here I10' "I'w we'h·1
I

1 Put in eYen or only.

1 She talks to her brother. SIf(' ollly lalks / 0 JUT tnother.
2 I am doing this beca use I love you.
3 She gets up at six on Sundays.
4 He wears a suit on holiday.
5 She are a piece of dry toast .
6 I can play very easy music.
7 He can't write his own name.
8 They make yo u pay for a carrier bag.
9 I was tbinking of you.
10 You can ski there in summer.

!Bwm 8Dd only caD also go just before the words that ~ em~slse.
He plaJIS tennis even In Ore raJn.
He eats anything - even raw polRton.
BVelI II €hJld could understand it.
They've lived hereonly a/nv weds.
Only you could do a thing like thaL
Rvendoes not normally go between the verb and the object.
fle can nom speak Chinese. (Nar He elm SJ'M'*
C!WJtI GJdn",IN'!.)

2 Join the beginnings and ends. and put mewQ oconly.

BEGI N NI NGS foNDS

I work every day my mother really understands me. rats.

They do everything together It's me! knew that he was ill.
Hellol the ca t thinks you 're stupid. hated him.
She likes a ll animals the clock but for a few minutes. broke the suence.
his wife his chlldrcn they brush their teeth together. on Sundays.
You can borrow it
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 77

adverbs at the end of a sentence

At the aMI oIa.......aeon we often put words and expressions which say
bow. wIHn: and wbea. They most often go In that order.
SIJ, Silng wry lUll at thec::onart last night.
HI'"'Orb in the gll_~on TundllyS .
(NOT . n 6'* 'FfI.eWBy5 iR tilt' §fIFlI!Jt'i)
H,,'s worki'Jgthnr now.
The children were playing quiltly in tM gardm.
Ld'sgowbdurly. (sOT m etlF's tBW.)
We do nol normally put adverbs between a verb and its object.
You speak English nry lUll. (NOT Y9115pN1f ..rill well BlttJliBII.)
Can you repaJr my watch now?
(:'IIOT C8R ]1911 ""P.RINl'W "'Ilw.h!hl)

I Put the words in brackets into the sentences (not before the verb).
1 I work at night. (best)
2 I paid at once. (the bill)
3 He always moves very slowly. (in the morning)
4 She speaks Japanese. (flllently)
5 I think we'd better open the parcel. (now)
6 She was crying in her room. (quietly)
7 We talked about it brie8y. (otlmll:htime)
8 I'm going to break the eggs into tbe bowl. (corefuU.llJ
9 Ann works at the village shop. (on Saturdays)
10 I can't explain my feelings. (dearly)
11 The team played yesterday. (brilliantly)
12 I always worked at school. (very hard)
13 She practises the piano here. (every evening)
14 I don't think she plays tennis. (very well)
15 lie read every word. (slowly)
16 Put the butter in the fridge. (at once)

Afterverbs of movement, the order can be diITerent: we most olten put

dpi' ioDs 01 ~ lint.

He Innt upsbllrs quietly.

AOJEC TI V E S AND ADV E R B S

still. yet and already

We use.un to talk about sltuadoos continuing.
We use lid to ask if something ezpected has bappeoccI, or to say that it hasn't.
SUU usually goes with the \1.'I'b; ~ usu~Uy goes at the cod llltbt::St'fl,lt;I\C\:.
Slie's8tlll asleep. Do you stJlllove me? I sUU don't understand.
Has the postman comeyet? Alice hasn't phonedyd.

We usem,"dy to say that somethlng has happened earlier than espected.. or earlier
than somef!Qdy thought. AlftCldy usually goes with the verb.
'When's .!Jour mothercoming?' 'She's already here.'
'You must go to Scot/ami.' 'We'vealready been.'
She's only been here a weekandshe tdnudy knows aU the neighbours.

1 Put in stJII. yet or alrmdy.

1 Are you in the same job? 9 Our old car runs OK.
2 He's seventeen . but he's married. 10 Is the rice cooked?
3 Has Susan arrived? 11 She's gone to bed.
4 rve finished! 12 Is she in that little Oat?
5 9 a .m.. and It's dark! 13 Why are you in bed?
6 4 p.m••and it'sdarkl 14 I'm bored with my new job.
7 Have you had breakfast? I S It's n ot lime to stop.
8 t ook - it's raining. 16 Have you written that letter?

'It's the wa iter a t the resta urant where we ale tonlghr.

lie wants to know if everything is still all right:
Orawl"ll by \' ioelOO':~ 1'19 J
'l'ho Nl.. .. Y<rler~"".IJIc.

2 Write three or more sentences about yourself using I pm still ,..,

I haven't ... yd or I hpve Rlrf'-IIdy •••
COMPARISON . DECREE

comparatives and superlatives

ea..-adve adjectivesare forms like JIOIfIlffW. more npensln.
Suptrladft adiect1l'es are forms like lIOungnl. most £%Pftls;;,lw
;;;;,' .I

DO IT YOURSIU

1 Look at the examples and match the beginnings and ends or the
rules.
more/mOSl bealltifld more/most careful more/m ostdiSfanl
easier. rosiest faster. fastes' happier. happiest tour, latest
more/most ifltelli9t'nl nicer. nicest otcer. oldest

Rules
To make the comparative and superlative of: you:
one-syllable adjectiv es en ding tn -e put more a nd most in front.
other one-syllable adjectiv es change y to; a nd add -er. -est.
two-syllable a djectives ending in -y add -er. -est.
other two-syllable adjectives put more and mo.~( in front.
longer adjectives add -r , -st,

00 IT YOURSELF

2 took at the examples and complete the rule correctly.

bigger longest fatter shortest sweete r hottest

o ldes t plainer thinnest meaner

Rule
Before -er and -esr. we double th e last letter of:
] all adjectivcs.
2 adjectives that have three letters.
3 adjectiv es that have one vowel.
4 adjectives that end in one vowel + one conson ant.
S adjectives that end in one consonant.
6 adjectives that end in -g cr -t .

1 Check your answers to F.xerclses I and 2 In the key. Then write

the comparative and s uperlative of:

boring cheap fi ne full fun ny handsome

b....d honest interesting lazy light nervou s sa d
safe silly sorry stu pid uncomlorteble useful
violent wet
irregular comparison
good/welt -. better - best bad - worse - worst
far - farther/further - farthest/ furthest old - older/elder - oldest/eldest
. Little - less - deast much/many - more - most

Farthn-Ifurthn and/ a rthestlJurthest are both used to talk about

dlstao<e.
We usefurther to mean 'additional' in some expressions.
S/Ie lives three ntiles f a rthnlfu rtlur awayJrom the office them I do.
further educnlion further ill!OWlQtiol1 Jurt1ler discussiQn

EJdw and eJdat are used with Iwothn. sJstu. son. daughter.grandsDn.
gr...".ughur. _

John's my elder brother. (I have one brother older tha n me.)

Sarah's my eldest sister. (I h ave more than one slster.)

I An swer the question s. uliling the words from the list at the top of
the page.
1 lf I'rn not happy with the pen I've got and money is not a problem. what
should I do? Buy ( I /wlla tvn.
2 Three thousand people entered a poetry competition. Max's poem won.
Why?
3 Five friends all a rrived for lunch at th e sam e time. Alice had lett home an
hour belore anyone else. Why?
4 I ha d a cold. I went to work. but left early a nd went hom e to bed. Why?
5 I wanted to make a pear ta r t, but 1 realised all the pears were going bad . 1
used parts or some oft he pears. Which three pears did I throwaway?
6 Jill was born in 19 70 . Her sisters Liz and Sue were born in 19 72 and
1973, and her brothers Ted a nd Joe were born in 1971 and 1974. What
ca n Liz call liU? What ca n Joe ca ll Ted? What can Sue ca ll Jill?
7 My cousin has a medical problem. The doc tors have done some tests. but
they sti ll ca n 't decide what the problem is. What are they going to do?
8 Seven different plants need different amounts or wa ter. \o\'hich one will
gro w best in a dry sunny place?
9 The Blacks have got a big house a nd three expensive cars. The Browns
ha ve got a sma ll Oa t and one inexpensive car. Why ?
(Answer in two ways)
10 Why dOL'S it take longer fo r me to walk to the post office th a n to th e park?
COMPARISON . DEGREE

comparative and superlative adverbs

ComparatIve and supertadve..,.ut. normally have more and most.
Could you drit..- more slowly? f~OT .•• lIIJ6w1lep)
French is the language he sptflks the most easily.
But the following adverbs have "U, -est. like adjectives:
tarly fast hard lale near soon
Bdur. best., worst and worst can be used as adverbs.

] Write the cOlIlparative/~'Upedatlveofa word from the box for

each blank.
1 Hwedon't walk _ _ , we'll never arriv e on time. beautiful
2 She sings _ _ th an anyone else I've ever heard. early
3 Andy's the most intelligent, but Sue works __" fast
4 Eight is late - could you possibly get here any --? fluently
S Of aU the children. Helen writes _ _ " hard
6 I would sleep __ if I weren't wonied about Tom. late
7 For the 10.20 train, _ _ we can leave home is 10. peacefully
B Mark speaks French __ of all the boys in his class. sensitively

2 If you are in a class, find out some of the fnDowing things and
write sentences.
Who: sings best. sings wo rst. coo ks better than you. coo ks worse th an you.
can run fastest. gets up earliest. goes to bed later than you. works hardest?

3 Complete the captions with comparative adverbs.

1 She ought to drive _ _" 2 lie ought to drive _ _

3 She should have got up _ _" 4 He ought to work __"

.2 COMPARISON. DEGREE

much etc with comparatives

Before comparatives. we can use mueh,/ar. wry mum. II tittle. II .'t
(Informal). • Iotllots ttn lormalj. any. no andesen.
He's much/far older thai her. (N<Yf loW's wry Bide" ...)
Slle's l1('ry much happIer in .he new job.
1/eel II Ihtle I II bit beurr.
Theseyrapes area lot sWNt('r than the others.
The train's no quicker than the bus. ! ... i.~n ·t any quicker ...
You look even more beautiful than usual.

1 Write ten or more sentences comparing some of the things in the

box. Try and use milch I wry much Ifar I a liule I II bJt lalot I nrn I
no I any. Example:
'flU' Tllj .\ /alwl h '" llrll oillt'!" t1/4/1I 111t' It /,ifl' 1I0USl',

theTaj Mahal the Great Pyramid the While House

a Ferrari a Ford a Volvo the Amazon the Thames
the Rhone a pen a typewriter a computer a dog
a cat a parrot a horse living in the country
living in the city the Mediterranean the Atlan tic
Europe Africa Asia North America South America
you your mother/father/friend /bo ss/ teacher

'How a bout a little more cotlee>'

I), d.. ongt". Got,. " W Ibu." e 1')';1.1
The'*"- Y", ker M~. I",, _
eO"PAItISOH , DE GREE 83

comparative or superlative?
We use a COIDparath't to compare one person. thing. action or group wtth
aootbff person. thing etc.
We use a Sllpftiadwe to compare one person, thing etc with the whole group
that hershe.u belongs to. Compare:
.\ lll'Y·Staller than Itrr thrn siskrS. Mary's the taUnt of the fOllr girls.
Your uccl'fIl ts worse loon mine. Youraccent is thr worst ill tJredass.
Some people use a com.parative instead of a superlative when the whole group
has two members.
[like them both. but Mal/d's dw niu:rhdrest offhr two.
You call have die biggrr/',jggnt sUfik if yotl likl'-l'm not very hW!9r!I.

1 Make two sentences for each item. Example:

a tiger large I a leopard? large I a U the big cats?
Is IIlilla lllf!",r el,,,,, II kOlllmF
Is II li!Jf'r Ill(' larqt"i' o( 11ft the hi!, m lS.;
1 this box strong / that oue ? strong I you've got?
2 Alistair tall I a nyone else / class (ali I the class
3 state of Ala ska big I othe r states I US big / US
4 this " inc expensive / that one expensive I the world
.5 AI' s party good I Pat's party good I l'vc ever been to

Z Compare four-wheel drive cars: here are some fa cts fcom an arncte about
three real can. Write at least ten sentences. Examples:
l "llr Z i\ 111.\hT than ( ar X. l 'flr \' i\ I'll' (n.\ I,'.,1 1111111 lIlt' 1111"('('.

CAR X CAR Y CAR Z

FAST ? TOP SrF.E D: 106 mph 113 mph 109 m ph

EX I' ENS IVE ? £23382 £35.889 U6.9 12

ECO~ O M IC A L ? 20.1 miles/gallon J 6. 7 miles/ gallon 15.8 miles/gallon
SAFE! ,/,/,/ ,/,/,/,/ ,/,/,/,/,/

COMFOI{ T AlH.E: .t.t.t.t.t ,/,/,/,/ ,/,/,/,/

COO D Off -RO AD? ,/,/,/,/ ,/,/ ,/,/,/,/,/

1.l"CGAG£ S PA CE? 1.011 lures 1.100 litres 1.020litres

.. COMPARISON, DE GR EE

comparatives: other points

We can use double comparatives to say that things are elMn"",,
It's gelling colder and colder.
Wewent more and more slowly. (NOT ... R'f91'e SHn W."l 1l1lll R>uJ/'e ti16wf.IJ')

1 Complete the sentences.

eeo 1.
1 She's driving __. 2 She's gcutng L c . ,
3 It's getting __.

4 The maths lessons are getting ~ 5 That cal's getting __.

6 I' m getting ~ 7 Bread's getnng __.

2 Write sentences with •.er and .. Kr or morr and more ... Example:
My daughter 's maths homework f difficult to understand.
My daugll rer's moths I/(!/Ilc\\,ork is nellillf/ more ///1(1mnre I/Wiwlt to I/Ilders lt"'d.

1 My mother's driving I dangerous as the years go by.

1 [ heard Jeremy practising the piano yesterday - / good.
3 It seems as ifpolice officers / young .
4 My temper I bad.
5 hard/ to find time for everything you want to do.
6 Profession al tennis J boring.
7 Restaurants I expensive.
8 IILor holidays I long.
COMPARISON . DECREE .
We use die ... die with comparatives to say that things change or vary
together. _
Throllkr ' gtt , thr happifl" om. (Illar OIfk.'~et. ,"Sf'(! lam happy,)
Thr mOft' du.nga-ous it is, thr more I like it .
()lOT T~ mere it is IlHRge."8l15 •••)
11rr rI'I(Jft morley he has. the more ust.'less thln.qs 111' buys.

1 Complete the sentences with espresstcns from the box.

Use Orr ... dle, Example:
__ Mark gets. __ he looks like his grandfa ther.
TI,e oldt"r .\ [/Ir k ~'ts, ('It" mort" Ill' looks like I,is gm lfJ.l{tll ll cr.

older/ more more/more older/darker more/angrier

wanner/more longer/more faster/more more/less
more/more/less

I __ he drove, _ _ we laughed.
2 __ Llive here. __ I like it
3 __ I get. _ _ my hair gets.
4 _ _ mouey he lost. __ It made him .
5 __ J learn, __ I forget and _ _ I know.
6 __ I get to know you. __ I understand you .
7 _ _ cloth es she buys, _ _ clothes she wants to buy.
8 __ it got, _ _ .time we spent on the beach.

4 Circular ",itualions: make sentences like the one in the example.

He drives fast: he gets nervous.
TIlt' (a!ill'f lit' J ri\'(·~. !II(' "'(l1.·lJt'r \'Ou.~ III' fJI'I!i: 111111 lilt more l/i'n'tlll S Il/' !/I'ls.
I ',r Jaslrr I/l' /lri \'.'_~.

J He cats ice cream: he gets fat. (The more k'e cream ...)
2 He reads: he forgets.
3 She ignores him; he loves her.
4 She buys shoes: she wants shoes . (Mitlll tile word order.)
5 We spend money; we have friends.
6 I sleep; I'm tired.
7 ( Make.'lOur own semence.)
8 (Make .lJOur own seruence.)

Why study?
The more • study, the more. know.
The more I know, the more I forget.
The more. forget, the Jessi know.
So why study?
. COMPARISON . DECREE

superlatives: other points

Arter superlati\'es. we do not use of with a singular word for 3
place or &rollP.
I'm the happiest man In the world. (NOT ... BJthe weFIJ.)
SII(,'s thefastest player in the tt'mtI.
(BUT ••• the fastest playerofdrem aU.)

1 Of or in after a superlative?
1 all of us 0/ I/{/ 0/ U.\ 7 the lour men
2 the Anny 8 the girls in her school
3 the books I own 9 the office
4 the class 10 the paintings in the gallery
5 Europe 11 Rome
6 my family 12 the school

We normally use the before superlatiwe + noun. when we are comparing

one person/thing/group with others.
He's the-most handsome man I know.
It's the longest day of the year.
We do not use the before superlative without Doun. when we are
comparing somebody or something with him/hcr/itselfin other situ ations.
He'sniust when he's had afewdrinks. (NOT Ue'6 £he "JeHt-wltffl ...)
England is best ill spring.

A 2 Invent suitable beginnings for these sentences. The or not?

1 __ most beautiful city In my country.
2 _ _ most dangerous when they're hungry.
3 _ _ best modem writer.
4 __ most interesting person I've ever met.
S __ quietest in the early morning.
6 _ _ most efficient way to learn a language.
7 __ most comfortable when there aren 't too many people around.

J Complete these sentences.

) I'm happiest when J _ _ .
2 _ _ is happiest when he/she __.
COMPARISON.OEGREE rn

than. as and that

nNiiii is used after comparatives.
A. is used in the structures ••._ . . and 1M _me••.
n..t is a coujundioo used. for example, after words of saying
and thinking.
n..d is also a ic:''''1ft proaoan. like whkh and who.
Sfuo's bdkr fhan me. (:':OT ... Ylk., ••tlh•• me.) Tm oldn fhA" her.
l,'s AS rold as ice. The meeting's lllt' .ame ,lmtAs but wtek.
I told them dlA. I diSlJgrted. Tfuort's tht house fha. I toldyou ~bout,
Wecao often leave out tllat (seepage 243).
I told tbem I disagreed. ThPrt'S tht hOIL'>t J told you about.

1 Than,as,orthatf
I It's _ _ warm _ _ toast in here. 7
It'll cost the sa me _ _ before.
2 It's later __ [thought. 8 The car __ l sawwastoo small.
3 I thtok _ _ she's Czech. 9 The cat seems worse _ _ yesterday.
4 I feel stronger _ I did. 10 There's the boy _ _ broke the window.
S Can·t you eat faster _ _ that? 11 It's not as cold _ _ yesterday.
6 He's as funny _ _ toothache. 12 She's got the same job __ me.

Z Complete the caption.

.• . . . ..
_ .... n ~.

There. dear! I think we've left the world a better plaee _ _ we found ill'
.. C;OMPAHUiON . DEGREE

as ... as
We use illS ••• lIS to say that peopleor things are equa}ln some way.
She's as faU as Iler brother. Is it as good as you expecktl?
Shespeaks French us well as the rest of us.
After not, we can use so ... as instead or as ... as.
He's hot solas successfulas his/ather.
Other useful stru ctures:
I haven't got liS much time as 1 thought.
We need as many people liS posslble.
She earns twJu as much money as me I as I do .
He went to theuune school as me I as I did .
(NOT ... ~ (9) f;f,lRie seR961 •.•)

I Look at the information about Jake and Susie. and then write
sentences comparing them using as ... as, not sotas _.. as and
the same ••• as . Exampleff:
SIlSit' wcnt to the SaltIt' school (IS Inkt'. 'oki",,; not as oMas 'u" .

JAKE SUSI E

UNIVI-: RSll''r' Manchester liverpool

SCH OOL Leeds H. S. Lceds H.S.
HU GHT 1.92m 1.70m
WEI GHT 87kg 56kg
lO B accountant accountant
BORN: WHE N ? 27.7. 64 31.3.64
WHERE? Leeds Leeds
r-... ~

SALAR Y £26.000 £ 52.000 r.

~ "-
'J
).
WO RK S FOR IBM Rolls Royce

HOLID AY 5 weeks 3 weeks

ADDRESS 3 Ross Street 8 Ross Street
Manchester , Manchester
CHILD RE N 2 12
LA NG UAG ES Fluent French , Pluent French,
some German f1uelltGennan
RIlA DlNG Newspapers Newspapers,
magazines,
non-fictjon
•
-
• ••
"There goes a ca r with esactJy
the same number as ours,'

~ ! ',I.,li.:.! i .,I.': i !.:",.J!TI:J".j iiClOir·:·:iIVh till' M' i '£)1 'K'H

COMPARISON. DEGRE E ..
2 Here are the beginnings and ends of some traditional expression s
with«s ... as" See how many yOlI can put together correct ly.
Esampler
ascold li S ice

....s: AS :
black cold Oat a beetroot gold
good green h ard grass the grave
old pretty quiet the hills ice iron
red thin wann night a pancake
white a picture a rake
a street toast

Some colo urful and unusual comp<Uisomi:

as slow as a broken down . . .

as d irty as a dustbin lid
_ thick _ two short p.lrb C- ........

as black as two o'clock in the m or ning

as ugty as horne-made soap

as happy as a dog with two_
as poor . . a chwcII mouse
as crooked as a dog's hind leg
as aooked .. a"'" of fish hooks
an_
as nervous as a brick wall
as brave as the ......... who ate
,,""'",.,,I
as cold as an ex-wife'. heart
as IMg as the _ _ 0I_"''ll
as welcome as a wet shoe
as noisy as two .kele'lon5 dMIcIna:
on a tin roof
as dark as the inside of a wotf
•
as sc.-ce _ hen's teeth
.. exciting as watching P8int dry 'How d'you mean I'm as fi t as a
man of thirty - I am thirty!'
00 tOMPARISO N , DEGREE

like and as
We can use lib and as to say that things are similar.
Un is 8 preposition. used before a noun or pronoun.
As is a conjunction. used before subject + verb or a tlonal~on.

He runs li.e the wInd. She looks lilce me.

Nobody k,wws herasldo. On Friday, as on Monday. we metlal eight
Notethe common expressions us I said. as you. know. as you see. as USwH.

1 Like or as?
1 He died __ he lived. fighung. 6 My brother isn't at all _ _ rne.
2 Being in love is _ _ an illness. 7 She left __ she came. silently.
3 It's mended. __ you can see. 8 You're shy. _ _ me.
4 In Paris. _ _ in Rome, traffic 9 Your smile is _ _ your sister' s.
is heavy. 10 __ I said. you're too late.
5 His eyes arc __ knives.

In inlOrmal speech (but not writing). many people use likt ,,8S:;;a:;;COIlJ
;;;;;;:.-;;;;cti
un ;;;;-o;;;D;. ~

Nobody loves you like I do. Ulcr: I said. she wasn'tthere.

We usc as a.s a preposition before a noun or pronoun to talk about the jobs. roles and
functionsor~Pkandthin~
~ ..
He worked as II walter for a yeN.
Compare:
A. your brodwr, 1must warn !IOII to be Cdref ul. (I am your brother.)
Like yov.r brolher, 1must warn you '" (We both warn you.)

2 Choose an item from the box for each blank and write it with like or a5.
1 Susan sings likf' /III llllf/l'l. a person
2 I worked __ for flve yea rs. a secretary
3 Benry uses the dining room _ a dessert
4 That ca t snores jU~1. _ a union representative
5 _ _, next Tuesday is a holiday. an angel
6 I've come to this meeting _ an office
7 This bread tastes _ _ cardboard
8 James speaks __: carefully a nd preci sely. he writes
9 She 's clever and passionate - _ her mother
10 Why don't we have ice crea m __1 you know
COMP AR IS ON. DEGREE
"'
so and such
We use se before an adjeulw (without a noun). or an edverb.
We use sudr before (adjecthre +) DOIUJ. AI." comes after audI.
She's sobahylsh.
l"m so hungry that I cQUId eat all(lrS(.
... your country. which is 50 MQutijul.
(SOT ,.. lJ8ltr selJNn.UJid eBN"&".'
I wisll you wouldn't driw 50 'ast..
Shf 's such III baby.
I did" ', kno", you had such nii'r friends.
"was such a ronifortobk bnf 'hal' ,vent stmig/" to skep.

1 Put in such or so.

I The weather was _ _ cold that all the football match es were cance lled.
l It was __ hot weather that no body could do an y work.
3 The book was __ boring that' slopped reading it.
4 It was __ a good film that I went to see it three limes.
S They've got __ a nice ho use t ha t I always love staying there.
6 And their garden is _ _ beautiful!
I His voice is __ pleasant that ( could mien to h im a ll day .
8 I don't know why she tal ks in __ a loud voice.

2 Rewrite the sentences in bemse 1. using such instead of so or so

instead of such. and making any other necessary cbanges.

3 Complete the sentences. using expressscns with such or so ,

I It was __ that ( couldn't see my hand in front of my face.
2 The canteen served _ _ food that nobody could eat it.
3 It was _ _ car that the police couldn't ca tch it.
4 The case was _ _ that nobody could lift it.
5 It was __ lecture that I couldn 't keep my eyes open .
6 Th is language is __ th at foreigners can't learn it.
7 lie was _ _ person that everybody liked him.
8 I was _ _ that] went 10sleep standing up.
9 I wish my __ wasn't/weren'r so L L .
10 I wish [hadn't got __"

Such and soemphliSise, To talk about similarity. we prefer ""'t.his/,hal,

Wok Otter tnere. I'd love to have a car like t.ha'. (NOT ... SIIf1h • fJIIP,)
.2 COMPARISON , DEGREE

very and too

1 1>0 you know the difference between wery and Wo? Put the right
expressions with the pictures.

very expensive too expensive very fast too fast

very hot too hol very slow too slow very small
too smal l very tall too ta ll

...,"
3

2
4

I"
•
....pP "

5
, 7

- 11

•
12
very (much) with past participles
We use wrs IIlIIdt With ~ ~ when they are In passive verbs.
She was P"lJ much adrrtJrn:I by her students.
(SOT ... R'W.4t"lrwI ...)
The bridyt> was Rry much wubnal by tk floods.

YnII is common wid! past participles that are used as adjedives.

especiaDy to say bow people 1eeI-1or example _ i k!d. s1u>d<aI.
~IrtmetI. eotf/aS«l.• _11I !'.~.Jaolaud. dI.urppolnt.ed.
tIorilW._.
\'\'e'", Kr1I wort*K4 about Sam .I ~OT 1"("Ft' R'PfI "'Heh weR"it'J .•0)
J was wry shodu4 w htJlrabout tbe aaiJenl.
Shl"s vny frighknrd ofspitWrs.

A 1 Put in "try or wry much.

Iller plans have been _ _ slmpljfied since I last told you about them.
2 I can see that you are _ _ worried a bout something.
3 I gel __ confused when people shout at me.
4 ('U be __ surprised il you can' t answer this.
S I'm _ _ annoyed because I can't open Ole safe.
6 His ideas were __ Imitated by other writers.
7 Many AIDS pa tients feel _ _ isolated.
8 My hook was __ improved by your suggestions.
9 She's been _ _ photogr aphed. written about a nd talked about. but
nobody realiy knows her.
10 She's __ respected by her colleagues .
11 The police have been _ _ criticised recently.
12 They weren't __ amused when you told that joke.
13 when I had money problems I was _ _ helped by my uncle.
J4 will she be __ disappointed iff can 't come?
15 You don't sound _ _ thrilled about seeing me.

Vn'lIlIIueh is used with nUstlllml,

That's 8iU's car, unless I'm wry much mistllkm:.
(SOT noftFH f'flis"''''m .)
.. BE , DO AND "AYE

be: progressive forms; do be

We use 11m IIdng. 4IR wing etc (or actions and bebariour. but not
rec.nngs. u 1lllpflr C:

YOIl rr being stupid. ( = You'rrdoing stupidthings.)

I was being careful. ( = I WRS doing somethingcarej uUy.)
rm depressed just now. (NOT ['fill " dllB 1kp1'e55f.'fi jll-St nell,'.)
She was VfJ1J cheerful yesterday. (NOT SlU? .IIS tHY"8 ..•)
Fo r the use of am being etc in passive verbs. see pa ge 176.
,
;
'j 1 Put in the correct fonn ofbr.
1 The ba by __ very good today.
2 , _ _ a bit lonely these days.
3 John _ _ difficu lt about money again.
4 Really! The childre n __ absolutely im possible this morning.
S I don 't know why 1__ so tired.
6 You _ _ very ca reless with those glasses.
7 I didn't really mean what I said. I __ silly.
8 She _ _ excited about her birthday.

Do Is used with be to make emphatic imperatives and nqati"e

Imperatives (see page 218). but I1Ilt usually in other cases.
Do M carejull Don', be sillyl
BrIT rm not often ill. (NOT SUN'l 8}f£R '''I ill.)

,. ..
~~ '. -: . -
, ..
'

"The dog's being impossible again.'

BE. DO AND HAYE H

be: age, colour etc

Note the usc of Iw to talk about pIIysicai cbaractlt'l'istks and condldoos.

I Complele the sentences.

1 I'm _ _ taU.
2 [ __ the same height as__.
3 Myeyes _~
4 My eyes __ the same colour as _
5 Myhair __.
6 Myshoes ~

l. Write a sentence giving the size ortbe room that you are in now.
Uyou are in a class. wrne seetences about some of the other
students.

1 Write ftve or more senteaces to say bow you feel now. Use some of
the words in the box.

cold hot hungry ill sleepy thirsty warm

well wide awake

4 Write three or more sentences beginning "m (not) afraid of...

People can have it In any The so-called white Eyes too expressive to
colour-as 'ong as It's races are really be blue, too lovely to
bl...... plnko-grey. be grey.
Htnry Ford. W11:ing abolll Ihe r M I'orslir Mullhtw ArnoW
MotJ,lT Fon! c.gr

I am black, but Of my The East is red.

The future is black. soul 15 white. ChifWSe commullist s/ogun
" "l/iom Blob'
.. BE. DO AND HAVE

do: emphatic auxiliary

Emotive emphasis: we can use -'0 to make an ~on sound stronger.
Do sit down. Youdo looknice today!

I loin the beginnings and ends; make the sentences more emphatic
by ui'ilngdo/doesldid. Example:

BEGI N NI NGS EN DS

I agree alot.
Tapologise eggs and bacon.
I feci he's really happy.
I hate ill .
I like cooking.
[need tired.
Peter enjo yed with you .
She looks yo u r party.
You talk alob.
I wonder if for disturbing you. 'Do come ou t. Rover. Susan won't bite.'

Contrastive emphasis: we can use 40 to show 8 cootrast - between false

aod true. 8~nce and reality. or a gcneml sta tement and 811 exceP!ion .
SIre think:> I don't lo~ ner, but I do loll'(' her.
lL looks tflSy, but it does need quitea bit ofpractice.
There wasn't much limefor shopping. but I did buy a couple of blouses.
We can also use do to compare what is expected with what actually
happens.
I said 1was golnn to win. and I did will.

f
BE. DOANDMAVE 01

z roin the beginnings and ends: add the idea of contrast by using
do/don/did. Example:

BF.G1,.NINGS ENDS

I've forgotten her name, Mind you, it has a nice big kitchen.
'You don't Ioce me. They said eight o'clock. didn't they?
I may not be educated. 'I jove you.
I'll be ready in 3 minute, but I remember it began with a 8.
I'm not sure she'll be there. but I have to make a phone call.
It's a small house. She plays a bit of tennis someumes.
My wife does the housework. and she had a broken finger.
Although she didn't say much. but I iron my own trousers.
She doesn't really like sport. she gave me her phone number.
I made her go to the doctor's. but if you see her give her my love.
There's nobody at home. but I know something about life.

] Make sentences like the one in the example. Use do/does/did.

Sh(lkt'\pt'tlrt' didn'r muke (ibm. bill he did write pltl~'5.

Shakespeare made films wrote plays beer sen

Scottish people lend money fought against England
In England fought a ga inst Chi na eat potatoes
Banks eat mice speak English speak Japanese
Cats rains a lot sno ws a lot
Napoleon

0Mr __.

For the Past seven )'ear:!! the Socoet)' tillS benef;t..c from tne t ax re~te CWI
)'OUr oove nanted sul;>SCr i p t iOn but, unfortunatel)' thll 0:>'01-.>1 has now
II>'P , ....". "". <lO """" YOU .. ill r ... e.. .t.

Daar ' "

I _ wrltiDg 'to tr...... lfCI"l Lor your 91.ft o! £200.00

by t-nkar t • 1t"'tU"dlng ordolr W>d.r)'Ql.C covenant,
r.ceived on SUI OCtober 1992.

'to OIU ->q:H',,,u"'9 _rlc.

1M do appreo;:i.at. aU your -..ppon _ :i.e h vi~1

o.u . . .
Tb.a~ yov f or yovr I.tt.e o f 14~ ~O~aber . f . . . .tee. .ly co r r y
t~.t yOU bey. be.n trovbl.d .nd I .otl ••• y .9ree t~.t .rltln9 t o
you ••• dl.court~• • nd • bad v ce or our fund • .
". d o I n f. et t.~. 900d c . r . t o en.ur. that t~i. do•• not h.ppen
. nd I . . . .Hn., .nquhlec u t o "")' _ clipped up In your eue .

For do be in emphatic Imperatives like /)() be careful!, see page 218.

. BE . 00 AND HAVE

do and make
DO IT YOURSELF.

I Can you work out the rule? took at tbe examples and answer the
qU(';!oitions. Then cheek your answers in the key.

Can you do theshoppingi' I want lime to do some reading.

Afake a copy oftlJis letter. Oncemy father and I made a boat.
Dad makes wonderfulomelelus. Shall I make a cake?
Do somethingl She's always makingcrazy plans.
Could you do the ironing tItIlI the He did sometlting reallyfunn y.
u'UslJing lip? Time to do some work.
He likes doing nothing. We dilltllot of walkingand swimming.
1love making model aeroplanes. What shall we do now?
I mllsl do the accounts.
1 Do we use do or make to talk about work?
2 Which do we use to talk about building and creating things?
3 Which do we use when we don't say exactly what the activity is?
4 Which do we use before determiner + Jn9 form. to talk about longer or
repeated activities (mostly jobs and hobbies)?

2 •.earn these fued expressions:

do: good, harm. business, one's best. (someone) a favour. one's h air.
one's duty. 100 mph{kph
make: an attempt. an elTort. an oller, an excuse. a suggestion. a decision.
an exception, enquiries. a phone call. a mistake. a fuss , a noise,
arrangements, a journey. progress, money, a profit. a fortune, love, a bed,
a fire. war, peace

3 Complete the cartoon caption,

~
'Pembroke. have you been trying to _ _ decisions again?'
ae. DOANDHAVE ..
4 Try to complete the sentences without ICNJking at the opposite page.

1 He's d(li,~ the shoppmg. 2 She's _ _ the ironing. 3 She's _ _ her accounts.

4 He's _ _ o 5 He's forgotten to _ _ 0 6 lIe's __ o

7 He's going to _ _ o 8 They're __ 0 9 She' s forgotten to _ _ 0

10 Ttrls car wilt _ _ o 11 Somebody's _ _ 0 12 'I'mlust gotng __.'

100 BE ,DOANDHA\l E

have: actions
We oftcIl use"'ft to talk ahout lIrtI"nli. l.5(Jl.riaUy in an infoJtm~J style.
typical expressions:
havebreakfast, lunch. coffee etc
have a was1l. bath etc
havea rest, sleep. lie-down. dream etc
haw>a good time, bad day, nirp ewn/tlR. day off. holMay etc
Iwve a goodfliglltlLripljourney etc
havea talk. word. conversation. disagreement. quarrel. fight etc
havea swim. walk. dance. ride. game etc
have a tnJ. a [10. a look
have difficulty/trouble in ...;ng
havea baby
havean acddenL. an operation. a nervous breakdown
In this structure, haw Is an ordinary ver-b with progresstve forms. and with
do in questions and negatives.
' Where's Jane?' 'She's having a bath.' What Umedo you haw lunch?

1 What can you do with these thlng.'ii I in these places? Use have
with the woeds in the bus:.

dinner a drink a game ofcards a game oftennis

a rest a s have a shower a swim tea

2 3

..,-;;.. / _.
11
.,;1.F
4 5 6

~p
t, ; j.1<,(
"
t- •
7 8 9
BE. DO AND HAVE 101

2 What are they going to do? Use hllYe with the words in the box.

an accident a baby a fight a nervous breakdown

an operation

I 2

'Yes. th is seems quite a clear bit. have a nice day.'

'This is your captain speaking _._I apologise for the

bumpy rtde. We are now Dying at a bout ten feet ...
Mr Tat low's had a 80 who's next?'

-""
·You have a go in ours. and we'll have a go in yours. oka y?'
102 BE. DO AND HAVE

have (got): possession etc

Haw! can be used to talk about possession. relationships.
characteristics and similar ideas.
The short fonns llutu. haw l? llulve not etc are unusual in
an infonnal style.
Instead. we generally usc forms with IuJw got or do •.• haw.

I NST F. A() OF WE USP.

J/you/eli: have I've got. you've got etc
have I/you? etc have I goU etc OR do I have? etc
J/You etc haven't I ha ven't ga l etc OR I don't have etc
had I/ yon? etc did] have? etc
J/ you/etc hadn't I didn't have eli:

1 Ca n you complete the examples?

I I've _ _ a new boyfriend. (More nalural than I have a new boyfriend.)
2 _ _ yo ur sister got a car? DR Does your sister __ a car?
(More natural than Has your sister a car?)
3 l haven 't __ your keys. OR , __ have your keys.
(More ualur,..1 than I haven 't yo ur keys.}
4 The schoo l doc s not __ ad equate sports facilities.
(Alore noue onhan The school has not adequate sports facihues.)
5 __ you _ _ good teachers when }'OU were at school?
(More nouuouhon Had you good teachers ... ?)
6 She children. (M ore nalural lhan She hadn't chlldren.)

2 If you're hmmless, you haven't got a home, Wl'ite sentences using

If you're .... you haven't got a/any ... to explain these words:
1 bald 4 unemployed 7 starving
2 penniless 5 toothless 8 an orphan
3 child less 6 lonely 9 unmarried

1haw flOt is not present perfect in this use. It means exactly the same as I ha\'€.
C>ot ~
forms are most common in the present.
The past fonns Ijyou/etc had are common without got.
llllld a bad wId lasl u'rek,
Do and got are not used together, NOT l:Je !Jell .'III1Y yet fflty ehihlF<'H.'
Progressive fonns of haw are not possible with these meanings.
NOT AFt! yell 'IQ\'fH!J an~ e1rihl""P1,'
BE , DO AND " AVE 103

3 Complete the con"t'ersatfOll5, using have got, has flOt etc,

I.__ an aspirin? __ a terrible headache: 'I'Il just look, I think _ _
some in my bag, Oh, 110, sorry, __ any.'
2 'How many brothers and s isters _~;' 'Just one brother:
3 'We _ _ a new car.' 'Really?' 'Yes, _ _ four-wheel drive, power
steering and anti-lock healing,' 'fascinating.'
4 'I'm afraid __ some bad news for you, ' 'Oh, no. What is it this time?'
5 'Why __ dark glasses on?' .__ something wrong with my eyes.'
6 '__ dirt 011 my nosez' 'No, but __ something funny in your hair.'
7 'Sally __ a new boyfriend.' ' Wha t's he llke?' 'Very good-looking. He's
quite tall. and _ _ big dark brown eyes and a lovely smile. But she says
__ a terrible temper:

4 Here an some 'contact' advertisements from a magarioe. Write

sentences about some of the things that the people have got.
Example:
Thr man in d~ firsr ad,,«wmlf'n{ has gol an atl,lt'!;(·build.

1lUndive. proCo:fil'lionaI black

lady, &lim, Sft 6in, Nee 5mi1",~
- . . ~t, liko!sbJg bail;
Inin5 in alnlllUting0389'134..
~ ~35,
natural ---.37. inteII:igo;ont, attnldive, tanned. llire hou>e,
fun loring, taU. browo baDotNe yacht., requires exciting. slim
e)"'I, good sense of bumour, female. Photograph. Ring
eojO)"S cine ma, tbeatre and I-"'...
oe stse.
.,.."--=-----=~
rreeel , "eek" s incere , ...ell
educaud mao , 35--55, for
hone st, caring relahonsbip.
Ring093 22815.

-
5 Complete some of these sentences.
I I've got plentyof_ _ . 6 I've got too much __.
2 I haven't got a __. 7 I've got too many __.
3 I haven't got much __. 8 I've got enough __.
4 I haven't got many __. 9 I haven't got enough .Lc.,
5 I haven't got any _ _ .

6 Urou can work with another student, ask himlher ten questions
usinghuvt" you got? Then write a report on what you have round
out.
have: habitual and repeated actions
Got-forms are not generally used to talk about habits and repeated
actions.
We hawe meetings on Mondays. (NOT We'w §et Hleeti1'f!JS eN It.~RHyS.)
Do you often have colds? (NOTIhIw !J6H 8ft;eH fl6t f.6hk')

1 Here is a child's school timetable. Wrlteten or more sentences

beginning Shehas ••• I She d(Wsn't have ... Exemples.
.lillt' tsos 1/ "'l h~ " / nine ""d ,l' k 011 ,\ It "II/I/!I.~ .
SIll' Ims ('« III" III ;C~ Ol/C!' (/ In't'k.
S/Ie .llll'.s,,', Jill "(' f Yl'lId , 1111 1\ ·('II/w.W/II.I/'.

M T IV TIl F
9.00-10.00 maths French English maths physics
10. 15- 11.15 history maLhs chemistry French chemistry
11.3G-1 2.30 biology physi cs Russian geography English
2.00-3.00 English geogr aphy sociology Russian maths
3. 15-4.15 games economics games English gam es

2 Write some sentences about what happens in your week Examples:

I hal'l' ,\w/t'1II/','1i1111.' 0 1/ tt ",'!lI/I'S!l" !jll/orllill!l'i.
Ilrl/\'(' EWjlh h I"ssm!.s IIl1n' t il/ln Ij 1\'1'1' 1.:.
I /I.~wllI!1 1 1{1\·I ' II /11' ·;11 11/1 SIIIII/('.'1 rII'" -lI j"!I~.

Ameriean inOumce on British usage

In Brltish English, present-tense ffo..fonns have traditionally been used
mostly to talk about habitual and repeated actions; got-forms have been
used in other cases, (Compare: I don't usually have colds: 1 ha\Ien'lyol Q cold.)
In standard American English. got-forms are unusual In questions and •
negatives. and do-fonns are common for all meanings. (I don'lluwt a cold.)
But modern British English usage is becoming more similar to American
usage.

For .........kMts of tIM wanls a.t ...... to mIk IIbout .... fIIIC" ~30Z.
BE . DO AND HAVE

have + object + verb form

Iflnr USicddns dour: ui@C!forsomethlngtobedone.
1mllSl have my watch rrpaind. We nmJ toluwr dJ~curtajnsdf!ll.m4.

I Make sentences using han + object + the past participles in the bos.

cbanged cleaned cut put 111 redecorated repaired reproofed

re-strung serviced sharpened valued

I When did you last [your hair)?

it -" t'" (fM .'ftlll '''se ',.n~ y.",r Ild;r ua?
1 We (our knives) once a year.
3 We're going to (tbe roof) next summer.
4 I must (my jacket). And I'd better (my raincoat).
5 '00 we need to (the car)?' ·WeD. we ought to (the oil):
6 When she (her jewellery), she found it wasn't actually worth much.
7 You need to (your tennis racket).
8 Shall we (the kitchen). or shall we do it ourselves?
9 It would be nice to (some more electric sockets).

TbJs structure can also be used to refer to kinds of esperieDce:

Haw so. dtl:q happen: aperieoce something that bappensJhappened./etc.
H f t e ~ ~ :expait:ace something that IsIwas happening.
lllftlt ~ tIonr. e~1encesomething that IsIwas done.
nWe had a stranBr: man wmr: to the door yesterday,
I'Ve :;uJdt>nly realised we had WAkr'wming through the ceiling,
"e had his cer stokn while he wasshopping,

'U you don't mind. I'm going to stop th is conversa tion right now and tum on the television.
Hl've got to have my intelligence ins ulted. then I'd rather it were done by an expert.'
106 MODAL AUXILIARY VE R BS

modal auxiliary verbs: basic rules

TIle 'modal auxiliary verbs' are am. eoald. .....fI. mIght. s,",". should.
will. would. must and ought.
'n ll"Y are used before other verbs. and in tags and short answers. ~

'You €a n speak Japanese, can', you?' ' Yn . l am.'

'YOlA shouldn"' be here. should you?' 'No.1 shorddn·t.'

DO 11 YOURSElf:

1 Compare the modal ve..bs and the ordinary verbs in the examples,
and answer the questions. Check your answers in the key.
ColJld you helpme? Do you expect to see her? Do you want to stop?
He must be happy . He seems to be happy. I can't sillg.
I hope UJ see him. It may rain. SIwn we swp?
She will not go home. ShedofslI't know much. She wants to go home.
They didn't ask to be here. They shouldn 't be here. Weougl ll to tell Iter.

1 Which sort of infinitive is used a fter modal verbs? Which is the exception?
2 Wh at is special about th e third person present (he/she/it ...) ol modals?
3 What is specia l about the questi on and negative forms or models?

Z Use infinitives rrom the box to complete the sentences.

be to be do (0 do finish (0 finish gel

to get go togo make to make pass 10 pass
play to play

JCan you __ the piano? 5 When will you _ _ school?

2 She seems __ better today. 6 She hopes __ a new car.
3 I want __ some shopping. 7 Must you __ so mu ch noi se?
4 We may __ to France soon. 8 Could you _ _ the salt?

3 Make these sentences into questions. and change the pronouns

as shown. Example:
I can swim. (you) - Cml1JVU sw im?
•
1 She can stay here. (I) 4 I shall drive. (we)
2 I must go. ( you) 5 He could do it. (she)
3 They will understand. (he) 6 I wouId like to. ( you)
MODAL AUJUUARl Y£RBS 107

\> Modal auxiliary verbs bave DO Inftnithes or parddples. Instead, we use

other expressions like be a.'~ w. be aHowed to,lune to.

4 Can you complete the esamples with expressions from the box?

be able to to be able to been able to been allowed to

have to to have to had to

1 He'd like __ travel abroad more. (NOT "e'd lU.e te €aEl .. .)

2 I've never _ _ understand maths. (NOT f"ve Fllwer €Il HM .•. l
3 The chl kl has always _ _ go ou t a lone. (sor She's ahva} 's €8HIe ...)
4 I'm sorry _ _ tell you thi s ... (NOT f IR serry ts IflH st ••.)
5 We've __ get new shoes for both the kids. (NOT We'lie ffl\i5t .. .)
6 One day, everybody will __ travel where they wan t.
7 I'm afraid you will _ _ work next weekend.
8 I would hate _ _ live in a big city.
9 I would have enjoyed the holid a y more if I had _ _ speak Spanish.

5 Complete MIme of these sentences.

I I've never been able to _
1 I'd like to be able 10 _ _
3 One day, people will be abl e to _~
4 I woukln't h k e to h a v e t o _

~ I've always had to _

6 I've never had 10_ _
7 When I a m Presiden t of t be World. people will have to _

6 Wbat do you think are the miS1iing words in the cartuon caption?

'But the good news is that you 'll never _ _ smoke. drink or drive a car again.'
108 MODAL AUXILIARY YERBS

must, can, may, might: how certain?

We can use must to say that something is logically necessary. or that we
suppose it is certain. The neptive is atn.... or am't. not ...... 116~.
If A is bigger than B. and B is bjg~r than C. then A must be bigger
than C.
Mary must have a problem - shekeeps crying.
Inere's the doorbeU. It must be Roger.
No. it aln't be Roger. It's too early. (NOT ••• il....N.."'·' l1e R6!ltr ...)
Can is used in questions.
There's the phone. Who can it be?

I Rewrite these seeeences using must or"4n't.

I I'm sure she's at home. SIll' 1Il/{." ( lvut hamc,
2 I'm certain you 're crazy.
3 I know that isn 't Janet- sh e's in America.
4 I'm sure she thinks I'm stupid.
5 I bet I look silly in this cool.
6 They're always buying new cars - I'm certain they make a Jot olmoney.
7 I'm sure he's not a teacher-. he 's 100 well dressed.
8 You're an architect? I'm sure that's an interesting job.
9 I'm sure you're not serious. I know you 're joking.
10 I'm sure he's got another- woman: he keeps coming home late.

JUMp, Boy!
'She must be blind. She's Smiling.:.

Goo, YouR I..~[

"""<.1ST et o ... &.&..
MODA L AUXILIARY VERBS
1"
IK«!f suggests tbat something is possible. HI.".' suggests 8 weaker
PClSSIblllty.
Sht muy fit at I,O/nt. (perhaps a 50% chancel
Ann might bt- 'lwre too. ta smaller chancel
I\ccorilillg UJ'he rodioo it may rain today. U might even snow.

. 2 (AJOk at the pictures and write sentences with mustlmay/mJghtl

om't: EIample:
j Sht mils' lit ill. OR SIlt Clm', be wt'1l.

I 2 3

6 7 '

Note the d!ffel\:nce between rnIIIIlrn¥hl: ... and cmt't.

The game rnaylrnjght not.fin.ish before ten. (Perhaps it won 't.)
The gamecun't finish before ten. (If's not possible.)
.a.
must. should etc: obligation
Must Is used for orders and for strong sunestions. advice and opinions.
SIrouJd is used for less stroIIl suggestions. advice and opinions.
You Inusf stop smoking or you'Udie.
You really should stop smoking. you know. It's bad for !10U.
People must realise thallhe world is in serious trouble.
People should drive more caref ully.
Ought is similar to should. but is followed by to.
People ought to drive more carefully.
Orders and instructions can be made more polite by using should.
Applications should be sent btfore 30 ]IJT/t.

1 Which do you think is better- must or should?

] You know. I think you __ take a hoUday.
2 Tell Mark he __ tidy his room at once.
3 Visitors are reminded that they _ _ keep their bags with them.
4 I'm sorry. but you _ _ go. We don't want you here.
S I really __ go on a diet. I'll start today!
6 I suppose I __ wnte to Aunt Rachel one of these days.
7 You absolutely __ check the tyres before you ta ke the car out today .
8 AU officers __ report to the Com ma nding Officerby midday,
9 You __ have your hair cut at least once a week.
10 l thlnk men _ _ wear jackets and ties in resta ura nts.

'For your first effort you should write about somethi ng you understand.
Don't try to write about yourself:
2 Complete some of these sentences with your own Ideas.
1 I think people should _ 0

2 I don't think people should __ 0

3 I think children should __ 0

4 I don't think children should _ _ 0

5 I reaUy must _ _
6 People really must realise that __ 0

7 My father/mother should __ 0

8 My husband/wife really must __ 0

We oIlen use shoIIld in questions when we are woodenn. what to do.

Should I change my job or stay ",here I am?

J Write questtons for people who don't know:

1 how much cheese to buy. 7 how to cook a crab.
11.11" mudl 1"1,,'1'.\1' ~ ""1I1d I /1".'1; 8 whether to go to the police.
2 whether to move to London. 9 whether to la ke a taxi.
3 what she should ca ll her baby. 10 whether to take a holiday.
4 where to put his bicycle. 11 how long to wait.
S when to pay her ta x bUI. 12 what to do at the weekend.
6 whether to invite his mother.

4 wrtte some similar questions for yourself. Example:

SI/llJIliI l !I,l llll \1,"1!,ill~1 J-:t1~jli.dl;

'Shou ld we w alk uPl"ight? Sbould we con tinue to live in trees?

Should we try to make th ings ? Decisions. decisions!'
must and have (got) to: obligation
Must usually expresses the feeJlnp and wishes urthe speakerlhearer.
Haw(sot) woftenexpresses obUpdoDS thatcomefrom somewhere else.
COIUMre:
1must stopsmoklng. (I want to.)
fn got to stop smoking - doctor's orders.
Must you wear those dirty jeans? (Is that what you want?)
Do you haw to wear a lie at work? (Is there a rule?)

] Pur in must or haw/has (got) to.

I I'm tired. J _ _ go to bed early.
2 John __ go to school on Saturdays.
3 We __ Ret another dog soon.
4 'This is a great book."I __ read it:
5 A soldier __ obey orders.
6 We __ go to London foc a meeting.
7 I think we _ _ pay in advance.
S You really _ _ visit us soo n.
9 I __ try to -spend more tune at home.
10 You _ _ go through Carlisle on the way to Glasgow.

&. 2 Read this with a dictionary; see how must reflects the hearer's wishes.
(In a dream. Mrs Ogmore-Pntchard is talking to her two dead husbands.
Me Ogmore and Me Pritchard.] .
MRS o-e. Tell me your tasks in order.
MR 0: I must put my pyjamas in tbe drawer marked pyjamas.
MRP: I must take my cold bath which is good for me.
MRO: I must wear my flannel band to ward offsciatica.
MR P: I muse dress behind the curtain and put on my apron.
MRO: I must blow my nose in a piece of tissue-paper which I afterwards burn.
MR P: [must take my salts which are nature's friend .
MR0: [must boil the drinking water because of germs.
MR P: I must make my herb tea which is free from tannin.
MR 0: I must dust the blinds and then I must raise them.
MRSO·P: And before you let the ~Ul1 in. mind it wipes its shoes.
Dylan TI,omas: Under Milk Wood (adapted)

UnUke haw to. must has no infinitive. ~ or ~ tense.

When you leave school yollll huve to find a lob. (N<Yr ¥eflll.lf.t ...)
I don't like having to cook every evening.
We'Ye had to change ourplnnsfor the summer.
Joe had to go homeyesterday. (NOT Jet .lfsllRfJlslM ...)
MODAL AUXIUARY VERBS

must not. do not have to etc

We use must JIO( in prohibitions (negative orders).
We use 40 not Jurw to. do aot need to or nacI not to say that something is
unn~.

Studrots must not kaw bicycles infront ofthe library.

Passengers must not speak to the drlwr.
Friday's a holiday-Ilion" haw to work. (Ncrr 1 6U1·' Ml'e~k,)
You ndn't pay no\\,- Ulmorrow'sOK. (Naf YeIl 8Q1·'fI.PI Mew •••)

\ CmnVlete the sentences. usmr,must not Imustn't or do not I don't

have to.
1 Campers __ play music alter 10 p.m.
2 Students __ ask permission to stay out after midnight.
3 Bicycles __ be parked in the front courtyard.
4 Residents __ hang washing out of the windows.
5 British subjects __ get visas to travel in western Europe.
6 Passengers __ lean out of the windows.
7 You __ pay for your tickets now.
8 It's rained a lot. so we __ water the garden.
9 You __ disturb you r sister while she's working.
10 You __ knock before you come into my room.

2 Make sentences. ustng must nof or do not nud to.

BEGIN NINGS END S

In rugby football touch the 0011 with your hands.

In tennis Lift your slick above your shoulder.
In chess bit your opponent below the belt.
In boxing pass the ball forwards.
In athletics look at other people's cards.
In hockey touch a piece if you aren't going to move It.
In baseball start before the gun.
In football hit the ball before it bounces.
\nbnoge 'o.i\ fuc'mM <ll\eT \\s bC\:()l\1,\ WuT\\:e .
throw the bat.
U4 MODAl AUXILIARY VERBS

can (ability): special problems

Future: we can m;ecan jfwe are deddinlDOW what to do in the future.
In other cases. we have to use w.lI be able w.
1can see you tomorrow morningfor halfan hour.
One day we will be able to llve without wars.
(NOT Olle JtfjJ we elfR li'Je •••)

Conditional: We c.m use could to mean 'would be able to',

. ~
You amId get a better job if you spoke a fore/g" language.

1 Put in eRn or can', if possible; irontousec.ouId or will hablr. to.

1 , _ _ pick it up tonight. if that's conven jcnt.
2 I think 1__ speak English quite well in a few months.
3 'We need some more oil.' 'OK,I __ let you have some this week.'
4 Dr Parker __ see you a t twelve on Tuesday.
S She _ _ walk again in a few weeks.
6 If we took the wheels off we __ get it through the back door.
7' Do you think one day people __ travel to th e stars?
8 Th is week's no good . but 1_ _ bring the car in next week .
9 IfI practised a bit. 1__ be pret ty good at tennis.
10 In a few years, computers __ think better than we do.
11 She __ give you a lessen this evening.
12 I'm free at the weekend , so the kids __ come round.
13 I'U post your letter. but I don't think the postman _ _ read the address.
14 I __ do your job with no trouble at all.
15 We're busy this week. but we _ _ repair it by next Thu rsday.

Past: We do not use ('ouJcf to say that we managed to do something

on one oceasaon. Instead, we usc, for example. manased to or
succeeded in ,..ing.
I managed to get up early today. (NOTI eBwtlget hlp etilrl.'1 ~y.)
After six hours. we succuded in {Jelling to tire top of the mountain.
( NOT After six IUlfl:F5. we eBN14get ...)
BUT: She could read when sire was four. (Not one occasion.]
He couldn'tfind the ticket office. (He didn 't manage it.)
1lI0DAL AUXILIARY VE RB S 115

2 Complete the sentences with could. couldn', or managt!'d to.

I[ _ _ speak French really well when I lived in Paris.
2 He _ _ repair the car. but it took him a long time.
3 Atlast I __ mak e her understand what I wanted.
4 We wanted to go to the opera. but we __ get tickets.
5 [ __ swim across th e river. but it was harder than J expected.
6 All three ch ildren _ ride as well as Ihey __ walk.
7 Fortunately. 1_ _ ge t her address from her office.
8 I don't know how the ca t __ ger through the window. but it did .
9 He _ _ already walk when he was ten months old.
10 After the accident. she somehow __ walk home.

We often use earr and NUld wtth 1lU. "'.J.I. mvJl and lastf'. wtth the
same meanlng ill> a progressive form.
I ('.an Ul! Susan roming.(:",oT I'm S<'t'iH§ ... )
What 's in lhl!soup? I mn tallksomethingfunny.
Througll the windon'. I amId hear a man singing.

1 Complete the sentences.

I 1__ something burning. What do you think it is?
2 He opened his eyes. but to his hOITOr he _ _ nothing.
3 Through roy study window 1_ _ mountains.
4 [ __ Susan practising th e piano next door: it sounds nice.
5 This isn't my conee-c I _ _ sugar in it.
6 lie thought he __ something crawling up his leg, but when he looked
he _ _ anything.
7 Spring is coming: you _ _ snowdrops in a ll the gardens.
H 1__ the ca ts fighting in the kitchen: a ID you go a nd put th em ou t?

4 (,ook around you. and write 6ve seetences beginning I con 5U •••
Listen to the noises around you. and write 6"e sentences
beginning I ron hear •••

-\
\

., can see why they made februa ry

the shortest month or the year:
~..,.~eI 9 1 1
T1w ""' y "","" 'lola:p*><. ""'"
111 MODA L AUXILIARY VIERB S

can, could, may: permission etc

We usearn to ask ror and Bive ~rmlssioo. and amnotlarn', to refuse it.
'Can 1askyou aquestion?' 'Yes. ofcourse you am,'
I'm sorry. you cern', come In here.
We also use could to ask for permission: it is more polite.
Could I have a lookat your newspaper?
May Is used in the same way. It is more formal and lesscommon. • ,.
May I help you. sir? •
We usecan and could (but not usually may) to talk about what is normally allowed.
Can you lMrk In this street on Sundays? (NOT MaN Y9~ fHlFH ••J )

] Rewrite these sentences using can. could or may.

1 I'd like to talk to you for a minute. BiU. (friendly)
CIlII { w i/.: /(J .lIoII /i w (/ m il/tilt', BilF
2 I would like to use your phone. (more pol ite)
3 ,I would like to stop work early today. (Jonn al )
4 Take my bike if you want to.
S Are children a llowed to go into pubs?
6 I don't want you to come into my room .
7 l would like to speak to Jane, ushe's there. (polilt:)
8 I would like to have a beer. (friendly)
9 Are students a llowed to use this library?
10 I would like to pay you tomorrow. (polite)

. " . " ...

. ..
" . "

-.'.. . .'<,
...
'" .. -.... .. '. ....
.
.
. . .. - ,- .'
'

_.1---

'Dad, can I borrow th e gun tonight}'

Dra'Nlr1i by Manlod: C I9'l J
The New Ymer MapD.... '=
MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS U7

We use . . . in uIJen. ~nrts and lmtnIl·u---

=. ....
em. I wrry your bog?
I alll baby-sit for you this eW?ning if you lik
Can you put the children to bt'4?
Wilen you\'t' finisht'd the bRfs yOIl con ctean up the kitchen.
Could sounds less de6nite; it is common in suggestions and requests.
I andd do SOJIle shopping/or you. if fho' wouldhelp.
'I'm oort'd.· 'You eou.ld gofor a hilt' ride.'
Could you IU'Ip melor aIe"' mirluh's?
Common structures in polire requests:
Could you possibly helpme?
I wondn iJ you rould help me?

2 Rewrite these sentences. beginning with I con .... Cun I ...?

You can ..., Can you ...?Could you ••.Jor I wonder IJyou could ...J
1 Would you like me 10 lake your coal?
2 Start cooking supper now. please.
3 I'd be glad if you would translate this for me. (frimdJy)
4 I'd be glad if you would translate this for me. (polite)
5 Why not watch a video if you don't know what to do ?
6 Why don'( you spend the day with us if you're free on Saturday?
7 I don't m.ind feeding the horses. if you'd like me to.
8 I'd be glad if you would lend me £ 5. (polite)
9 TeU me when it's time to go. (.friendly)
10 I'd be grateful if you would tell me when it's time to go. (polite)

3 Pur the words of the caption in the right order,

" ,. - - . , . ..U

,. -- .,
·FJIis. here my and come cou ld pa ss coffee me in you j\.liss ?'
60ncl
MOPAL.AUXILlARY VERBS

will: willingness etc

WID can express willinaness and intendODS.
We often use win to aonounce a decJsion at the moment when we make it.
I reolly wUl give upsmoking tomorrow!
We'U buy the tickets if you'U make su~r after the show.
T11ere's the doorbell. ru go. (N OT~)
ru have " . is often used wh en people order in ca fes, restaurants etc. -.
rIl have a blockcoffee, plea.w.
\
WJUyou .•.1 can introduce inlitructions. orders and requests. Wouldyou .. .1 is softer.
and can be used to make requests more polite,
WJ1l you get me a paper while you're out?
Will you be quiet, please?
Would you watchthe children for a few mtmaes?
Won't can be used to talk about refusals.
He won't talk to ullYbvdy.
The car won't start.

1 Put the begtnrengs and ends together. Example:

{"II d ri 1'(' if !lOll'1/ I/w/I-fflul.

BEGIN NI NGS EN DS

I'll drive I will.

I'll wash up I'll answer it.
I'm tired. I think I'll go to bed now .
If you see Ann, if yc u'il dry.
She won 't tell us if you 'll map-read.
The cat in the oven at 5.30?
The phone's ringing. shouting?
This video to this address. please?
Who's going to get the ticket,,? what's wrong.
wUl you deliver (he furniture when you 're ready to leave)
will you let me know won 't eat.
WiD you !-10P won 't play.
Would you put the meat would you tell her I got her letter?
"OOAL AUXILIARY VERBS 1.1.

We can use trill to make threats and promil!!ft. The simple present Is not
possible in this case.
Til hit you if you do that again. (NOT 1 It.. !l8N if...)
You'U gd your money tomorrow. (!\lOT ¥8NS" .n)
I promise TU slOp smoking. (NOT IpF9Hfl6e 1 B46fJ SR'l8IdRg.)

2 A boy left home (or the fint time to go to university. l.ook at the
pictures. and write the promises he made to his parents. Begtn:
'promm ru ... or' prontiu' won·' ...

1 3

Per will as a future a uxiliary, sec page 130.

120 MODAL AUXlllAR" VE"RBS

will and would: typical behaviour

We can use wlH to talk about habits and ~ behaviour.
She'lJ sit talking to herselffor hours.
If something breaks down and you kick it. it will a/ u n start working again.
If we stress will it can sound critical.
She will fall in love with the wrong people.
Would is used to talk about th e past.
0" Saturdays. when I was a child. we would all get upearlyand!JOfish lng.
He was a nice boy. but he would kdk about himselfall the time. -
,'.

1 Complete the sentences with will/would + verbs from the box.

be drive fall keep Listen make play ling

take talk tell

1 'Dad. I've broken my watch : 'w ell. you __ playing wuh it .'
2 On Sun days when we wer e kids. Mother __ us pancakes for breakfast.
3 He's no trouble- he _ _ by h.imsclffor hours.
4 She 's nice. but she __ a bout people behind their backs.
5 . People __ to you if you listen to them.
6 We lived by a lake. a nd sometimes Dad __ us fishin g,
7 I'm not surprised you had a n acctdent -c you __ too fast.
8 If you drop toast. it __ butter side down every time.
9 [f you 're having a bath. the phone __. And if you answer it, it _ _ a
"TOng number.
10 He _ _ you one thing one minute a nd th e opposite the next- he 's crazy.

2 Here are some laws ofnalure. Join the beginnings and the ends.

BEGINN IN GS ENDS

After you have bought it wiU.

somethi ng, somebody will.
If anything ca n go wrong, they will both be on at the same
If there are two good 1V shows. time.
If you explain so clearly that will a lways move faster.
nobody can misunderstand. will fan asleep first.
If you throw something away. you will find it somew here else
No matter how much you do. cheaper.
The one who snores you'll need it th e next day.
111e ot her queue you'll never do enough .
MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS 121

shall in questions
_,lw.. . lcan be used to_
make ...... and~.
ror_and_. and to
l\"hQt on earth shall we do? What timeshull 'II'r rome and see you?
Shtdl I amy your bag? Shall ~ flO out for a mt'Q1?

I Can yoo complete the sentences? (They are from a dlscusston

aboot holiday plan,"-) Use shill' we'
I where? \\ 'Jere ~'lll" ",' ~I; 6 -Oy/train/drive?
2 seaside/mountains? 7 hotel/camp?
.\i /JIlIl I\'f' flo l o flu' sra.<;iJt· 8 stay in one place I travel around?
tJr ,Itt- I1WUlllai"S; 9 take Granny?
3 this country/abroad> 10 go with the Jacksons?
4 when? 11 what do with dogs?
5 how longjorz

Z Write three questions asking for advice for yourself. If you can
work with other students, ask them your questions and get their
advice.

What shall1soy Howcon I hide the tears inside?

when our neighbours How canI face thecrowd?
. wont us to come to teo? I can make lips ofmine be still,
They don't know you're not with me. but my heartsighs too loud.
I What sholl I soy?
I couldexplain that
What shalfI say you're gonefor only a week to shop.
when the phonerings But after the week ;5 up
and someone asks {or you? What shall I soy?
.\ They don't know I ask for you too.
What shall I say? Peter Tinturin

For shall as a future auxiJiary. see page 130.

MODAl AUXIliARY VERBS

should have, could have etc

We can use should haw, could hllW etc + past participle to talk about
'unreal' past situations that are the o~te of what really ha~ned.
You should have bern here an #1ourago, (Bu t you weren't.)
Alice should ,lfver haJ'e bought that car. (But she did.)
1 was so angry It:ould have lUlled her. (Rut I dldn't.I
She could have married a1llJbody she wanted to. (But she didn't.I
lumplllg out 0/ the window like that - hecould/might have broken his leg.
l/l 'd known you wrrecoming, 1 would haw stayed in.
We can use this structure to criticise people for not doin g thlngs.
You could haw helped me! (Why didn't you?)
You mIght have Jet me know you weren't coming - I stayed in all el'eml/g.

] Complete the sentences with should have .... t:ould have .... might
hoW' ... or would 'love ... More than one answer may be possible.
I He __ me last week. (pay )
I k sJullIfd II/Il ~' /Hlirl lIIl' lIw !I'l'C,!,:.
1 You _ _ somebody, driving Like that. (kill)
3. 1__ you. but I didn't have you r nu m ber. (phone)
4 Ifmy parents hadn't been so poor, I __ to university. (90)
5 It's his fault she left him: he __ nicer to her. (be)
6 1__ mo re garlic in the so up. (put)
7 If you needed mon ey. you __ me. (ask)
8 ' We got lost in the mountains: 'You fools - you __ a map: (take)
9 It' s a good thing they got her to hospital in time. She _ _ . (die)
10 Wh~n be said that ro me 1__ him . (hit)
11 You __ me you wer e bringing your friends to supper! (tell)
12 You __ my jea ns after you borrowed them. (wash )

This structure can also be used to talk about things that are not certain
to ha"e happened, or that we suppose (bur don't know dc6nUely) have
happened, May have ... is common in these senses.
I may how l~ft my keys here this rnoming - have ,'IOU seen them?
He should hawe arrlYed home by now. Let's phone him.
So you wenL to Australia, That must have bun nice.
W here is she? She can't have gone uut - the door's ICK'kcd.

" "

Few • .'Ip'anaUona of .... ""'"'- tIIat .e _ to lelk about: • ... . . 298-3102.

MODAL AUJl;ILlARW VER B S

.z C.omplete the sentences with may have ..•• should haW' •••• must
have ..• or w,,'t haW' ... More than one answer may be pesstble.
1 'w bere's Phil?' 'J don't know. He __ home: (go)
2 'How are the builders getting on?' 'They _ _ by now. I'U go a nd see:
(fWsh)
3 'Ann isn't here.' 'Surely she __ - I reminded her yesterday.' (for!Jet)
4 Th e ga rden's all wet. It __ in the night. (rain)
5 'We went to Dublin for the weekend.' '111al __ a nice change.' (be)
·6 'Wh o phoned?' 'She didn 't give her name. It _ _ Lucy.' (be)
7- He __ all his money. I gave him (.10 only yesterday! (spend)
8 [ __ a new job. I'll know for certain tomorrow. (find)
9 Tb e car's got a big dent in the side. Bemie __ an accident. (have)
10 They're not.at home. The)' __ a wa y for the weekend. (go)

Note tbedItreceoces between ..... " Iww ... and un"t Iwrw•..• and
between _ '" __ and ...... ".,. •••
They may not haw arrivrd yet. ( = Perhaps they haven 't arrlved.)
7'heyt'll,,'t lunearri"ed Yt't. ( = Tbey certainly haven't arnved.]
JQ('hfldto yo home. ( = It was necessary for hlm to go home.l
Joe must hgffflOm home. ( = It see ms certain that he has gone home.)

3 Put in mIrY not ho.,e ...• ('4lII't hawl! .... had to ... or mllst haW' ...
1 Shakespeare __ been to Australia because it hadn't been discovered.
2 King Arthur __ existed - nobody's sure.
3 Castles in the Middle Ages _ _ been cold places.
4 People in those days _ _ get their water from wells and streams.
5 Poor people five hundred years ago _ _ had easy Lives.
6 But they __ been unhappier th an us .

'AU me eots have been sealed olI. He must have go t out through the ent ran ce.'

Por",ill have ... (future perfect tense) , see page 139.

For U't)uld have __.• see page 262 .
U4 MODAL AUXILIARY \'£IIB5

revision of modal verbs

] Co.-reet the mistakes.
1 (don't ca n sing.
2 I would like to can travel more.
3 He should to work harder.
4 Could yo u telling me the tim e?
5 [must work last Saturday and Sunday.
,
2 Choose the best form. (Sometimes both may be possible.)
•
1 We __ win. but I don 't th ink there's much chance. (may. mig'll)
2 1__ ask yo u to help me later. (may. mi9ht)
3 Tha t _ _ be her daughter -they 're nearly th e same age. [can't , mustn 't)
4 we _ _ decide to go camping a ga in a t Easter. (can. may)
5 The re _ _ be enough room for everybody on the bus - we'll have to wait
and see. (may not , can't)
6 You __ get in without a ticket - not a c hance. (may not. con 't)
7 You absolutely _ _ go and see Liz. (should. must)
8 [think you __ try to relax more. (SllOUJd. must)
9 You __ pass a specia l exam to be a teach er. (must, have to)
10 In th is country. boys __ do military service, (must not. dOll 't 'mve to)
II I __ see yo u at eight tomorrow. (can. will be able to)
12 One day. every body _ say what they like. (can. wiU be able to)
13 It took a long time. but I __ repair the car. (could. managed to)
14 When l was younger I __ sing quite well. (could, wasable to)
15 At what age __ you get a driving licence? (can. may)
J6 r promise 1_ _ smoking. (stop, will stop)
17 I don't know why she's not here. She _ _ have got my messa ge.
(may not. can't)
18 He's not answering the phone, He _ _ hav e go t home yet.
( may not. can't)
19 When I was eighteen we _ _ two years in the army.
(had to do, must haw done)
20 She __ very qutetly -. I didn't hear her go, (had to leave. must have kft)

3 Write sentences about three things that you should have done
last week but didn't.. and three things that ytJU shouldn't have
done but did.
MO DA L AUXILIARY VERBS 125

4 Complete the c artoon c apti ons with expressions from the box.

he might be it m ay not be can th is be it can be

you could ['II

'_ _ the sa me man who pulled Excalibur 'Yeah . they're all right, _ _ take them:
out of a stonez'

~
~

~~
'Oh my God! His report says _ _ Prime f..Unister 'Provided you eat sens ibly, stay oITthe beer.
o ne day!' cigaret tes and whisky, don't take any strenuous
exercise a nd keep a way from women , _ _ live for
another twenty minu tes.'

..
,",
f ,;
// t
. /~ {
- - .-.- ----
''''-------
.-/~ ~,

-=-- - ....
'Frankl}', \Vallace,I think yo u'd better st op telling ' It's a Valentine's card. I wonder who _ _ from!'
it. lfnoone laughs , _ _ a jole.'
need
Need can sometimes be used like a modal verb. Iquestions and negatives
without do). especially to say what is (not) neassary at the time of
speaking.
Do I need' to pay now? OR Naif I pay niJW?
Hedoesn" nndtogo. OR Henudn'tgo.

I Complete these senteeces with n«dn't. using a verb (mill the box. •

come get laugh phone ring take think try

worry writ e

1 You __ - my haircu t' s not as funn y as all that.

2 You _ _ up yet. becau se there' s no school today.
3 He __ everything down. Just the name and phon e number will do.
4 She __ a nd see me Hshe doesn't want to; I don't mind.
S You __ a bout me. I'm fine.
6 You __ I care about you. because I don't.
7 Tell him he _ _ th e bell; he ca n just walk straight in.
8 I'd like to sec her today, but it _ _ very long.
9. Just come when you like. a ny time. You __ first.
10 You __ to explain. I'm not interested.

Compare cII4n't need' to ••. and 1WftIn',-Junrr •••

Wedfdn'. nrd to hurry; we had Jots o/tlme.
(It was unnecessary to hurry.)
We budn', haw hurriw - we got there much too early.
{It was unnecessary to hurry. but we did.)

2 Complete the sentences with dIdn't need to ... or rJft'dn't have ..•
J I __ the flowers: I could see that Anne h ad already done it. (wafer)
2 You __ supper for me: I've already had something to ea t. (cool:)
3 1_ _ all that work. beca use nobody a ppreciated it. (do)
4 W, _ _ the encyclopaedia: the kids never look at it. (buy)
5 We had enough petrol. so I _ _ . ljill up)
6 I __ so much about Granny. When I got there she was fine. (worry)
7 Luckil y we had plenty offood, so I ~_sboppi ng. (go)
8 l __ long; she arrived just after me. (wait)
9 ' __ Latin at school; it hasn'r been any usc to me since. (stlldy)
MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS 127

had better
--(-I
We use"'" _
I, followed byan_w1u.-t"'.
to give- . _ to people (indudlng ourselves).
Had belurIs not past or comparative - the meaning is 'It woaIcI be sood to ....
You'd bdur turn that music d(nvn btfore ymlr Dad gels angry.
If's Sl'lIt'n o·clock. fd better put die melllin the ow n.
You'd better not say that ngain.
flnd beuer refers to the immediate future. It Is more urgent than should or ollght.
"Dught 00 go andsee f'rfil one01 tht'st days.' ·WeU. you'd betkr do it soon.
lie's If'tn'inglor South Africa next month.'

1 Complete the sentences with verbs from the box, using 'd better.

do not forget gel give have invite not let

open start not tell

1 The plane's at six o'clock, You __ packing, badn't you j

2 I suppose 1__ up and put so me clothes on .
3 You __ tbedoor and see who it is.
4 Tell Sheila she __ my birthday thls time!
:l We __ Pat her ca mera back. hadn't we? She might need iI.
6 We __ John round soon; we owe him a meal.
7 1__ some washing. or we won't have auythlng to wear.
8 You __ Jane whet 's happening: she'll get 100 upset if yo u do.
9 You don't look well. You __ some whisky and honey.
)0 You __ your father see that magazine- he'll kill you .

.1 What advice might you give to a friend who:

) feels very iU? 7 is going to work in Chi na and Japan?
2 is very tired? 8 can't sleep?
3 feels cold? 9 has got an exam next week?
4 feels tense? 10 smokes too much ?
5 has been working too hard? )) thinks she saw burgla rs breaking
"6 . seems very unhappy? into th e house next door?

HlaI brl.tt'r is quite direct: it is not used in polite requests. Compare:

CouldYDII help me ifyou'W'gol time? (NOT Y8lli hou help PRe .•. J
You'd Iwtkr help me or there'n be trouble.
us MODAL AUXILIARY YERBS

used to ... (I'ju:st to/)

We use used + in8nitive to talk a bout past habits and long-lasting
situa tions which are now finished or dilTerent.
I used to smDke likea chimney.
Used to ... is only past. For present habits. we use the simple present tense.
My sister sm okes occasionaUy. (NOT .\f.y /ii:6k'r 111"\'8 1M " ,"she ...) .,
In an informal sty le. questions and negatives are generally made with do.
lJid you u se tocollect stamps? I didn't u se to like her.
1 used' net to like her. (More Jorm al.)

1 Complete the text with words from the box.jjsing usr-d 10 •••

buy go have keep look after look at live

play stand take

Recently we took our l Seyear-old son Joe to the place in Paris where we
_ '_ w hen he was a baby. We showed him the house. with the balcony
where he _ 2_ and make speec hes to imaginary crowds. Then we went
inside. and believe it or not, there was Mme Duchene. who _ ' _ Joe when
we were working.She didn't look <I day older. We couldn't get into the flat.
but we saw the garden w here Joc- ' _. Th en we visited the park where we
_ ,_ him for walks. the zoo where hc _ 6_ the lions a nd tigers. and the lake
where we _ '_ boating. Not much had changed in tile area: most of the
sh ops were stil l there. including th e wonderful old grocer's where we _ 8_
dcllcactcs like cherries in brandy. But the friend ly butcher who _ 9_ the
best pieces of meat for us wa s gone. and so was the restaurant with the
bad-tempered old waitress where we ~ Sun day lunch. I found it
strange to go back: it made me feel ha ppy and sad <It the seme time. But Joe
was delighted with the trip.

2 Make sen tences with usrd to 3 Write some sentences about

anddjdn'( use to about how things tbat you used to or
people uved hundreds or dldn'. use to do/lhinkJ
yea rs a go. believe when yo u were
yo u n ger . Ifyo u can work
1 travel /horse
with other students, 6nd out
2 cook I wood fires
what they used to do/think!
3 live so lon g
believe.
4 fight / spea rs
5 hunt I bows a nd arrows
6 believe / ghosts an d devils
7 be able I vote
8 think I earth was lIat
9 bigger families
10 children I work
MODAL AUXILIARY \IERBS 129

supposed to (/S~'P~lUStt~/)
• suppost'd + infinitive can be used to talk about what is generally believed.
Hrs supposed to be rich. This slufIls BUpposd w lUll flies.
Another meaning is: what people a re expected to do, or what is intended.
" ou're supposed to stJlrt ",ork at 8.30 in the mornings.
She WdB suppoud to be here an hourago. Where is she?
. \'ou'u not BUppoud to purlt on doublt> ydlou'IiJlt'S.
: Tlmt':; a stra nge pictW"f. ~\.'hlU·s it supposed to be?

I Pul the begjnnlngs aud ends together,

BI::C I!\ XI !\"CS END S

Aspirins are supposed at th e cash desk on the way out.

Catho lics are supposed hut I can't find them.
You were supposed in rood shops.
It 's su pposed to have Inst ru ctions with it. su pposed to come toda y?
Wasn't my compu ter magazine th e shower with shoe s on .
What am r su pposed to do to cure headaches.
You 're not su pposed to go into to go to church on Sundays.
You 're not s upposed to smoke to come and see me yesterday.
You're supposed to be good a t geography with all this chicken sala d?
I think yo u 're supposed to pay - where the hell arc we?

2 What do yon think these are supposed to be?

•
3 4

_.-
-
,.'f ' - :J
•
"- ~
,.

, 6 7 8
130 TENSES: fU'URE

future: will (and shall)

r will (or shall) work Questions: wiD/shall I work? etc
youwiUwork NCgcJtive: I will/shall not work etc
he/she/it will work
we wiD (or s h a U) work Contractions: I'll. you'll etc; won't Iw:wntf. ,shan't
. Ifa :nt/
they will work

l/we will a nd l/ we shall a re used with no difference of meaning in most situations in modem
British English. (Bu t see page 12 1.) Will is more common th an shall.

We use wllllslutll to give or ask for information about the future. in cases where there
isno reason to use a present verb-form (see pages 132-136).
W e will needthe money on the 15th.
Will all thefamily be at the wedding?
It will bespring soon.
She'll be here in afew minutes.
We often u se willl!mall to predict the future - to say what we think. guess or calculate
will happen.
Tomorrow will be werm . with some cloudin the afternoon.
Hlho do you think w; II win?
rOll'Jl neverfinish thot book.

1 Here are some sentences taken from recorded conversations. Can you pul the
beginning.Oj: and ends tugether?

BEGINN I NCS EN DS

Buy the ca t food here. about you.

Don't give her you r keys. and th en your kids will laugh a t you.
Get Iobn to have a look at the Tv . He'll fIX it.
,
'He 'll grow up one day . he'll be dead in five years.
He'll need somebody he 'll drink it.
'How's Iunc?' he'll get hit on the nose with a ball.
I must get back to work, 'I hope you're right:
If he do csn'r stop drinking, It'll be cheaper.
lf we give her a shou t, on May 12t h.
rfyo u putlemon in it, otherwise I'll get the sack.
Knowing h is luck , if he plays golf 'She'll be OK.'
No good sending her a bill, is it? She'll just refuse to pay.
One day you'll be old , She'll only lose them .
She'll be fourteen she'll come and help.
She'll forget to help him .
nINSES: fUrURE

2 Complete the sentences with youe own predictions.

I It \\ ill willul" rain next week. (nun)
2 England \l'iII I\'jll/l"t \\ ' j" th e next football World Cup. ( wi n)
3 The weather __ much warmer- in the next few years. (geL)
4 There __ a world govern ment before the yea r 2050. (btl
5 Th er-e __ a wo rld wa r before the year 2050. (bt)
6 Private cars __ before th e year 2100. (disappeor)
7 English __ th e world la nguage in th e yea r 2100. ( be)
8 Everybody I Not every body __ a com puter in th e year 2100. (have)
9 Everybody I Not every body __ enough to ea t in th e year 2100. ( have)
10 Clothes __ very different in th e year 2100. (be )
II In the year 2 100. people __ th e sam e things as th ey do now. ( eaL)
12 ( W ri lt .'Jour own pmUcHon.)

1 (lOOk at the map and complete the

SUMMARY ;lj,
\\-'eather forecast. Use some of the .",' ~~
• Melolydry
words in the box. .,OS"""'Y
" ......"a...
0 _
be cold dry earthqua kes ,0
east
lightning
snow
warm
hurricanes
north
south
west
ice
rain
th under
wet will
0
,
• ... -
ft-
6
••
-
will be winds
.. Q ft ...
• !hen 1Il'1O"

0 • .. ' -'
Tom orrow will __ mainly __• bu t ..
;0
there __ some __ in the north. *• ~,

There _ _ be strong __ from th e

south- west later in the day. It will be
'•* * of Wood"f>"d
,-~
1lOOr) and
<ife(:boo

quite __ in the south. but Scotlan d Elf'

__ cold. and in th e __ of Scotland
th e rain __ tum to __ during th e
afternoon.

For will after if. see pages 137. 2 56. For will in req uests. promises etc. see page 118.
132 TENSES ; ,FUT\lIII E

future: going to
-We OCteD use present vttb-forms to talk about the future. For example.
we say that something is gotna to happen. This is common when we talk
about plans, det:lsions and firm Intentions. especially in an Informal
'lyle. "

We're golng to get a new car soon.

WIlenare !jOIl golng 10get your haircull
rm going 10 keep asking her out until slle sa~Js 'Yes'.
1 Ilerearc some orthe plans of various members ora family. Can
you put the sentences together. using going w ? f:Xample:

BEGINN ING S EN DS

Jane / study a professional pianist.

She / try to become a year learning German.
But first. she / spend as a pilot .
Max / do maths and SCience decorate the house.
Then he / train for his final exams.
Jennifer's eight. a nd she doesn't know muslc in Vienna.
One da y she says she / be a dancer.
And th e next she say s she / the summer learning to fly.
'Ihjs summer, Jane I start her own business.
Ma x / spend stay with her aunt in
Their parents I spend America.
Then they I two weeks walking in
Scotland.
what she / do.

'Right. children, there are going to be a few 'This is going 10 put the magic back tate our
changes this term ,' marriage:
f£NS£S : FUTURE 133

Goina to is common when we predict the future by using prn:ent

erid~lICe-when we can see that a future event is on the way. or starting
tobappen. _
l.ook- It's going to raJn. /'ook out - \\'i'"f"f' going to crash!

2 What is going to happen?

...
5 6

9 10
134 tENSES: fUTURE

future: present progressive

The present proaressJve is common when we talk about future personal arra.Q8eIDenls
and &xed plans: we often give the time. date. and/or plaa.
'Wllat are you doing this ewminn?' 'fm waBhing my hair.'
My car's having a servee next week. Wetrt'goJng to Spain in June.
Did you know I'm Bdting a new job? W hat are we havingJor dinner?

1 Look at the diary and correct the sentences.

1 She's playing tennis on Sunday afternoon.
2 She's having lunch with James at ] 2.30 on Tuesday. AUGUST
3 She's flyin g to Rotterdam on Thursday.
4 She's meeti ng Mrs Parson s in t he London office. 22 &nloy
S She's driving to the meeting with Mrs Parsons. T~5 win. !5afba,,(A
6 She's going to a funeral on wednesday afternoon. MMt""" ~.-v.
7
H
She's meeting the accountants a t 12.00 on Monday.
She's going to tbe theatre on Saturday evening. 23 """""
•
9 She's spending Friday at the races. 10'15 M fs 1'ttA'S b\lb
Ox fo rd c l'f>ce. ( ,,·OO tfiJAlIo)
10 Matthew Is coming to sec her on Sunday morning.
~ 4 'CflP fl1
24T..-,
2 Write some sentences about your
plans ror the comIng week. If you
can work with other students.
find (Jut about their plans.
25 Wed""""
~''lJ-'$ ~cJ e -co
L ~.J~ 12·30

- 26 Thur.;day
To 4wo,kld""", t t M 1f7, 8·Cf)
~ &.<k:.. IS·5 0 KlM. IS 6
•
~. ... ..
-,
I
Theak ~ ";/10 Po/~
0 • ,•
28 Sa""..,. -(7 .
V'-~
- -
'Hi. n's me. Listen . It' s David's birthday, so a
few million of us are going out
for a meal. Are you inte reste d?'
t E NS ES: F"'tURE 135

future: comparison of structures

We can often use more than one structure to talk about the same future event.
Present forms emphasise present ideas like intention, urtaiDty and plans.
We prefer will/shall when we are DOt emphasising present Ideas, Com~re:
l\~xl year is going to be different - 1 promise. 'present intention)
XeKtyear will probably bedifferent
Whal au you doing nt'X'l yellr? i'ou hal'lo'n'llold me your plans.
What ..Ill J/ou do fl('Kt ~ar - do you know?
We prefer present fonns when we are talking about future events that have some
preseot realtty. Compare:
rm sning Peleon Tuesday. (There is an arrangement now.)
I wonder if he'lI r«ognise me, (No present idea.)

In predictions. we prefer preseot fonns when there is outside evidence for what will
happen - when we can see something coming.
We prefer IriU when we are ta1kI.ng more about what is lDside our heads: our beliefs,
guesses. knowledge etc.
Look 0111 - we're going", crash' (l can see it coming.)
Don't lend him J/Ourcar - he'n crash it. (I know him.)

I A ] Which fonn do you feel is best?

1 Here's the bullder's esnma tc. It (will rest I is going to cost) £7 ,OOCHo
repair the roof.
1 I think it (will cost I is going to cost) about B ,(X)() to rebuild the garage.
3 Alice (will have I ts going zohal>e) a baby.
4 With a bit of luck, the baby (will hew / is goinylo haloe ) Alice' s eyes.
S (I will play I I'm playing) tennis wit h Sta n on Su nday.
6 ( lle'll win. / He's winning.) He always does.
I Don't tell her. (She'll tell / She's 90ing to tell) everybody else.
8 What's happening? The train (won't slop I isn 't 90ing W SIOp ) !
9 One day everybody (will haw I is goiny to haw ) pro per housing.
iO (Slle'll get married / SI,c's gelling married) on Friday at the local church .
)1 (It will rajn l It's 9Oi1l9 W raill) - look <It those douds.
12 Ifil gets a ny colder, (it will snow / it 's goiny to snow ).

'Separate futures, please:

136 TENSES: FUTUIIE:

future: simple present

We sometimes use th e simple present to talk about the future. This
happeos m08l1y wtk:& W~ ta lk about timetables. routines and schedules.
Next term st arts on 6 April.
My train leaves at 3. 17.
Whallime don ti lt bus arrIve in York?
Do you haw classesnext Saturda.ll?
The simple presen t can also be used to give and ask for instructio ns.
When .110 11 (Jet to the office .11011 go lip tv the firstfloor. you "n«Ie on tilt'first
door on the rigllt lind.'JOII ask for Mrs AIsUme. OK?
Wha t do we do now?
Where do I pay?

In other cases we don't use the simple present In main cla uses to talk a bout
the future. (For subordina te clauses after conl uncnons. see page 244.)
Lucy's t'Omlng fo r a drink th is CllCnitl9. (NOT 1.1JQ/f1elRes ...)
I'll phone HOU l promise. (NOT l"lt6Re !16w...)
There's thedoorbeU. I'll go. (cor ... ltJe;)

I Choose the best tense.

I \Vhen (does / wi11) school sta rt?
2 The plane (arrives / will arriw~) at 10.00.
3 I (write f wiU write) soon.
4 We (go I are going) to Spain some time soon .
5 You (go / will yo) next door for the ticke ts.
6 I ( sl op / will Slop) smoking a fter Christmas.
7 How (do / will) I switch th is on?
8 11leexams(are /willbe) in Junc.
9 I (l iave / will have) a lecture at 9.00 tomorrow .
10 The train (won't / doesn't ) stop a r Oxford.
11 I (come / wi/lconle) round after 7.00.
12 Where (do / will) I go for my interview?
13 I (play / am playing) football tomorrow .
14 What time (does / will) th e co ncert end?
15 I (post / will post) your lett ers.

'- And pease h urry. My cred it CO:Ird expires

at mldnjgh t,'

~A-, &: ,' I, ' .:i g,:"tj .'T"\i'Ilii: itjlM,' ':':" (" " M: :i;:;:!: , . "A
TENSES: FUTURE 137

future: tenses after if and when

After i/and wIwn. we nonnally use present teases to talk a bout
the"""'"
Ifrm there tomorrow. rll pholli: l1Olt.
Whftt it's muly I'll gnO(" It to 1/00.

I Put in if or when with the present tense of a verb from the box.

not find grow up pass rain say

1 What are you going to be _ _ you __I

2 we won't play _ _ It _
3 I'll try again __ 1__ older.
4 (,IJ besurprised __ she __ the exam.
S __ you __ your keys. you can use mine.
6 1"11 hit l'OU __ you __ that again.
7 Pete will take the job __ Ao n _ _ it.
8 We'lI all be happy _ _ the weekend _

If and.mn can be roUowed b .ill in indirect and direct: questions.

I don't know if rn be there.
They hawn'( said when it'" be trQdy.
Whm. .ill I see you Qgain?
We ca n also use wUI after ijin polite eequests.
If you ...ilI just come this way ...
And we use if... will to say 'if this will ha ppen as a I"ftulf.
All right. til give up smokil19 ;f it 1l'ifJ make fIOU hoppy.
We COil come lomorrow evening if it won't upm your pIons.

4 2 Put in the correct verb form (present tense or will ...).

I If you _ _ Ihere first , keep a scat for me. (get)
2 I'll see }"OU again when 1_ _ next in Lo ndon . (be)
3 1 don't kn ow w hen 1__ a job. (find)
4 Give her some marc choco late ifit __ her quiet. ( keep)
5 I'll open t he win dow when it _ _ raining. (swp)
6 You can borrow my coa t if you _ _ it back. (bring)
7 If you _ _ a sea t, ('II see if the doctor's free. (take)
8 All right. I'll a pologise if il _ _ } 'OU feel better. (make)
9 Can you teU me when Mr Ellis __ here next>(be)
10 Come back again soon if you _ _ a chance. (gel)
138 lENSES : fUTURE:

future progressive
I will be wOr'king etc
.
'?"
, wiD you be working? etc
she will not be working etc
-
W e can use the future progressin to say that something will be goiol on at a certain
time in th~ future.
This Ume tomorrow fU be siding.
Good luck withthe exam. We'll be thinking of you. e-
The fut ure progressive is also used (or pla nned or expected future events.
Professor Asher will beglwlng another tecuee at the SiJtrJe time next wetk.
ru be s uing you one of tllese days. I eXiled.
In polite enqulrles the fut ure progressive suggests 'Wha t have you already decided: ".
giving the idea that we are not tryi ng to influence people. Compare:
WUI you be stll y l ng in th is evening? Oust asking about plans)
Are you Boing to stay in this evening? (perhaps pressing for a decision)
Will YOll stay in t1,js evening? (request or order)

1 Make future pregresstve questions t o ask so mebody politely:

1 what lime they are planning to get up. 6 wheth er they pla n to have lunch out.
2 what they plan to wea r. 7 w hat time they intend 10 come back.
l how they intend to travel to work. 8 wbere they are planning to sleep.
4 how soon they intend to lea ve. 9 bow they intend to pay.
S whether they expect to take the car. 10 when they plan to go back borne.

2 Co m plete the cartoon caption. using a future progressh'e .

'My name is Mr Collins. I (teuch) you English literat ure. and I'm armed,'
DnIwil'lg by M. SlC\'ros; t 199 J
Tho N<'w YO<k , tdaga:nne.ln<.
lEN S ES : FUTURE 139

future perfect
SIMP LE PR OGRESSIV E

I will bave werked etc I will have been working etc

"•
)(
will you have worked} etc
she will not have worked etc
will you have heen working) etc
he wtll not have been working etc

We can use the future perfect to say thet something will have been
completed by a certain time In the future.
The builderSIlys he'll hawJjnishe4 the roo/by Saturday.
The car ",UI soon h4't'e done 100.000 miles.
We can use the future perfece prcgresstee to say bow long something
will have continued by a certai n time.
~xt Christmas rllMW! bun uadling for twenty years. J

I Use the future perfect to put the beginnings and ends together.

BEGINN IN GS ' ENOS

I (notjinisl ,) the report by Monda y. a nd we'll be a ble to get a

In a co u ple of years the children smaller house.
(leave) home a nd it's needed for Mond ay
On our next wedding anniversary morning.
When I get home tonight I (drive) for fourteen hours non-
When I retire stop.
l (work) for forty years.
we (be) married for twen ty-five
years.

2 A romantjc nontist writes lOO-page buoks. She writes teo pages

a day. and takeoo no holiday'"l Ise the future perfect tn an"wer the
questions.
1 How man y pages will she have written a fter ten days? Alter a month ?
Aller a year? After ten years?
2 If she sta rts today, how soon will she have Bntshed her first book ?
I low many books will sbe hav e written a year from now?
3 How lon g will she have been writing when she has wri tten 120 books?
4 She earns (.I OOJXX) per book. How mu ch money will she have made
alto gether after her 120th book?

1 How 10nK will You bave been learning English J working J going to
school J living in your present house by next summer? (Write
sentences with the future perfect p.-ogressiw.) Ifyou can work
with other students. ask them the same questions.
140 TENS IES: fUTUR E

future: I am to ...
We can talk about the future by saying that something is to happen.
We often use this structure to talk about omdal plans and fixed personal
amusement-.
The President Is to risit Swtland in September.
We are to get a wage rise.
Ifelt nervous because Iwas soon to IMvr homefor thefirst lime.

J Write sentences about President Morton's schedule. EsampJe:

Tile 1'J"(' ~id('IJf h io " n i l'(' ell Star CiI.IJ (// OX ,Of) .

w SChedule for Presidential Visit 10 Northland

I
•, Monday 27.6

00.00 Arrive Star City Airport. Inspect guard of honour.

09.00 Working breakfast with President Jensen.
11 .00-1 3.00 Tour of Star City; meet mayor and civic leaders.
I 13.00-14.00 Lunch with Foreign Minister Svendsen and
guests.

I 14.00-16.00
16.00-20.00
Visit inner city schools; open new eye hospital.
Meel business leaders; rest.

I
I ~
2O.()()-23.00 Attend Slate Dinner as guest of President and
Mrs Jensen.

You fin (not' to can be used (for example by ~rents) to glveorders.

= _
You're to do your homework bfforeyou watch TI'.
She cango out. but she's nm to be back late.

2 Put together sentences that a parent might say to a child. using

expressions from the two boxes and You're (not) to .,. Example:
rOU·/"I' /O d erl1l llJI !l'mr roolll.

dean up do give chocolate go to bed learn how to use

leave dirty leave empty make make your own
open door write

at nine o'clock bed Christmas th ank-you letters

crisp-packets lying around hour-long phon e calls
pian o practice room socks on floor to ca l
to strangers washing machine
future in the past
When we are talking about the past. we often want to say that something
was still in the ruture at thet dme. To express this idea. we can use the
put progressive (was ... ing). was gofnB to ...• would '" or was to.

I Put the begtnnlngs and ends together.

"BF:G IN N IN GS ENDS :
Carole and I hardly noticed each other and she still hadn't started packing.
that first evening. arrived one friday morning.
lie was to regret that conversation but I forgot.
I was going to ring you yesterday, for many years to come.
She was leaving in two hours. l didn't like it
So this was the school where I would Two weeks later we would be married.
spend the next five years. ,
The letter that was to change my life
•

.0\ 2 These seaeences are from C S Fcresrer's novel The Cerreral. set in
the Ftrst World War. Complete the sentences with expressions
from the box.

would stand would make would return was going to be

was going to say was marrying were to find were to lose

1 The parlourmald was in the room and her presence caused Lady Emily
not to say immediately what she _ .
2 As the Duchess had said. the fact that Emily __ a General was a very
adequate excuse for so much ceremony at the wedding.
3 There was gotog to be no muddling in his Corps. Everything _ _ exact.
systematic. perfect. •
4 (This was) the front line of the British trench system - in it many men
__ their lives for the barren honour ofretaining thai worthless ground.
~ There were six men bending over that map. and fiveof them __ their
graves at the point where the Ccnerel's finger was stabbing at the map.
6 A vivid flash of imagination. like lightning at night. revealed th e future to
Curson. lie _ _ to England a defeated general. one of the men who had
let England down. Emily _ _ by him. but he did 001 want her to have to
do so. Emily whom he loved __ it all the worse. He would rather die.
.4> TlNSES: PlfESENf

the two present tenses

SI MP I.F. PRESENT PRESENT PROGRE SSIVE

I am. you are etc working

" Ilyou/we/they work
he/ she/it works
? do Ijyou/we/they work ? am I. are you etc woeking?

~
does he/she/it work?
I!you/we/they do not work I am not, you are not etc working
-
he/she/it does not work

You Jive in North London, don'(you? My sister s living with me jll.'it IWW.
No thanks. I don't smoke. Look - Ann's smoldng a cigur.
Chetford Castle stands On a hilloutside Why b that girl standing on the table!
the town. . ' ,
Alice worll:s for aninsurancecompany. Phil's worldng in Japan at the moment.
What do frogs eall Hl.lrry upl We"re wwflng/or you.
I play tennis every Wednesday. 'What are .lJOu doing?' 'f m wrlLing letters.'
Thesun rises in theeast. Why au you crying? What's wrong?

I Study the above examples. and then look at the words and expressions in the
box. Whicb of tbem go best with the simple present, and wbich go with the
present progressive? Check your answer in the key.

permanent temporary babit just around DOW always

usually just at this moment these day s but not for very long

00 IT YOU••ElF:

2 Write a rule in your own language to explain the difference

between the two Engllsh present tenses. If you can work with
other students who speak your language, compare your rule
with theirs.

'I am standing UDder your foot:

We don't use a present reese to say how long something has been guing on .
I've knoll7J her for .lJt.'tlrs. (~ OT I 111I81.. lItr Jar yl'srs. ) See page 15h.

3 Here are some exchanges from an Interview between an

American Iournaltst and a . 'rt"uch (lint star. Ca n you complete
them with the correct tenses?
1 'flow do you start work on a 61m?' 'I (read) the script and (make) notes.'
2 ·1(make) Dotes of our interview. 1 hope you don't mind,' 'No, that's OK:
3 'whatlanguages (you speak)?' 'English. French and Spanish:
4 'I'm glad we (do) th is interview in Bngllsh. My French isn 't very good.'
S 'Who (play) that guita r?' 'My son. when he has time:
6 'Who (play) the piano upstairs?' 'My sister. She's got a concert tomorrow:
7 ' Wha t (she play)?' 'I think it's a piece by Mozart:
8 .( She piny) anything else?' 'The violin. She's very musical.'
9 ' Your da ughter's very keen on sport, isn't she?' 'She (piny) tennis:
10 'Where ts sbe now?' 'She (play) te nnis, as usual:
11 ' What's that delfctous smelf?' 'My hu sband (cook):
12 'Is that usual )' 'Yes, norm ally I (shop) and my husband ( w ok) :
13 ' whet a lovely clock!' 'It ( oot work). I'm afraid - u's been broken for yea rs:
14 'Could 1use your phone?' 'I'm afra id it (llot work) at the moment:

4 Choose the correct fonns of the cartoon ca ption s.

'Of course. he still bas his hobby. 'So (how's everything goblg I how d(JeS
lie (colln:ls f is collecting) dust.' e\!f~,y'hi "9 go)?'

Dr.twilll! by Go.....n Wilson , ~ I 'J'J )

Th< New Yoda ""'p<loe, In<.

Rrpeated -act,ioos not only around th e mom ent of spea king: simple present.
Repratrd actions around th e moment of spea king: present progrcsl!live.
'----
I go to Ole mountail1$ about twice a year. Water boils al l W Celsius.
Why Is he hJUlng the dogt Jake's suing a lot ofFelicity these days.
present tense stories etc
We often tellstories with present lenses in an informalstyle.
We use the simple present for events < tbfn gs that ha ppen one e fter
another.
We use the present progressive for background - things that are
already happening wh en the story starts. or thai continue through part of
the story.
There's this Scotsman. you see. amJ he's wallting through the jun!}le when
he meds a gorilla. And the gorilla's eating a snake ~ndwich. So the
Scotsman B(Hf!S up to the gori1la and says _._

-, ! 1 Put the story in order and put in the correct forms orthe verbs.

hoYd
U,"if keep notice open say
threw work/

S The ma n __ ano ther orange out of his bag and __ opening the
window.
( 'But there are no elephants in these mountains,' __ the woman.
Sudden ly the ma n __ the window, __ out the orange and __ the
window again.
f 'Because we _ _ through the mountains. Oranges __ the elephants
away:
__ A woman __ in a railway carriage when she _ _ th at the man
opposite her _ _ an orange in his ha nd a nd looking out orthe
window.
-I 'You seezsays th e man. ·U _ _ .'
'Excuse me: the woman _~. ' but why did you do (hat?'

2 You probahly know a betterjljjtory than tbis. Write it. or teU other
people.

We usc the simple prnent to describe e ve nts that happen one after
another in commentarin and demonstrations.
We also use the sim~e present to as k for and give In5tmctlons.
Calvin passes to Peters. Peters to O'Malley . [,ucas intercepts. LuCQSW
Higgins. lli99ins shoots - andit's a goal1
First I put a lumpof butterinto thefryingpan arulligh t the gas; then while
the blltter's melting 1break three eggs intoa bowl ...
'110wdo I gel. to the station?' 'YOII go straight onfor halfa mile, thenYOIl
(:ome toa garage. yOIl tum left and then YO II ",1re thefirst right.'
tENSES ; PRESENt

) Look at the map and foUow the directions. Where do you get to?
When you come out of the station you tum right Then you take the
first left and keep straight on till you come to a T-Junction. You turn
right and keep straight on till you get to a crossroads. and thee tum
right again.

4 Write similar directions to tell somebody how to get from the

station to the Apollo Theatre.

5 '(you can WOt"k with other students. give them directions to

another place on the map. See ifthey can work out where it is.

6 Lock at the pictures and write the instructions for boiling an egg.

3~~ i%~~.
I 2

- . .

~ i=;;.-

5
•
6 7
~~-

7 Write the instructions (or cooking something else.

'48 TENSES ; PAIES£Nl

present progressive for changes

We use the present fJI"'Ol(I'essive for charttdng and de"eIoping situations.
The climate is getting wanner. (NOT TheGliRlllk Bd & WMl'l'ler.)
That child's growing bigger every day.
The universe Js e;rpandlnfl. and has been since iu beginning.

I..ook at the graph and say what is happening.

£5.00
• 1 pinl milk • newspaper • reseot

£4 .00

£300

£2.00

£1.00

£0.00
January April

Say whal is happening to some of the following .

th e world 's population you (age) your English prices

days (len gth) pollution roads train s cars air travel
the world's forests wildlife the political situation children
cities medical care teenagers unemployment sprinters
men women older people people's holidays

J 3 Complete (he cartoon captions

'Seems a ll righ t. How (YOllr English I get on) ?' 'That funny noise (get , louder.'
lENSES : ""ESENT 147

simple present: spelling

DO IT YOURSELF

] Leek a t the examples of third person singular (he/she/it •..) forms

and answer the questions. Check you r answers in the key.
catches moks doe, eats enjoys fixes flies
lives makes misses passes plays pushes
"""
' rod> replies says SII01IS smokes spellks sumds
UllChe S thinks tries wails washes works
IW ha t is the most common wa y of making th e third person singular?
2 What happens with words ending in vow el + -8?
3 What hap pens with words ending in con sonan t + . y ?
4 After which consonants and grou ps of consonants do we add ~es ?
5 Which two other common words add ~s?

2 Write the third person sin gular ofthese verbs.

box brush buy complete c.-y defend deny

destroy excite expect fly g uess look prny
reach receive rush spend want watch

3 Complete the quotations with the verhs in the box.

come do ( twia) get happen hate (twice) love

make sing start teach wait wash

1 He w ho can. . He w ho cannot. . G B Shaw

2 It's not that I'm afraid to die. I just don't want to be th ere when it __ 0

W oody Allen
3 Hc's fanatically tidy. After he takes a bath. he _ _ the soap.
Hug" ILonard
4 Opera is when a guy _ _ knifed in the back an d. instead of bleeding. he
_~ Ed Gardner
5 Never marry a man who _ _ his mother: he'll end up hating you .
Jill Bennett
6 The brain is a wonderful organ. n __ working the momen t you get up
ill the morning, and it _ _ not stop until you get to the office.
Robert Frost
7 A m an wh o __ whisky and __ kids can 't be aUbad. IVC Herds
8 The man who __ no mistakes does not usually m ake anything.
J:: ] Phelps
9 Everything __ to him who __. Traditio"al
1" TENSES : PRES(Hl

non-progressive verbs
Some verbs are not normally used in ~ogressiveforms.
I know what y ou mean. (NOT r", &RSW"tI II'h61l !J6!lH fRMIf;R,.)
You sum worried. (NOT YsH'"e SlIt""'RtI ...)

1 These verbs 8ITn't normally used in p..ogresstve Iorms. Use some

or all ofeheen to complete the sentences. More than one answer
may be possible.

believe belon g contain forget bate like love

matter need ow n prefer realise remember
suppose underst and want

1 This book to me. 8 I how old she is.

2 1__ you're right. 9 She _ _ me andl __ her.
3 _ _ you _ _ this music? 10 Money doesn't _ _ tome.
4 His father _ _ a chain of botels. 11 'Beer?' 'I __ water.'
5 She sa ys she __ to sec Fred . 12 1 __ his face. but not his name.
6 1__ a drink of water. 13 That bottle _ _ petrol .
7 I _ _ you don't __ me.

Some verbs have progressive (orms with one meaning but not with
another. The following do not usually have progressive forms:
...... (~ 'possess'):..".....r (~'seem'); _ {e 'seem'):
see ( == 'u nderstand'): think ( = 'have the opinion that'):
~ ( = 'have the o~lnlon that').

2 Choose the correct form (stmpte present 01' peesem progresstse).

• 1 I (JUlve) a great time.
2 She (have) plenty of money just now.
3 He (appear) at the Fortune Thea tre next week.
4 She (appear) to have a problem .
S Why (y ou look) a t me like that?
6 It (look) as ifit's going to rain.
7 I (see ) wh at you 're try ing to say.
S I (see) the manager thi s afternoon.
9 I (think) you're right.
10 What (you tllink) a bou t?
I) I (feel) very tired today.
12 I (feel) she's making a mistake,

-.
'I think we've got a leadership problem.'
lENSES:PRESENT ...
he's always borrowing money etc
If somethi ng is always happening. it happens orten. but is unplanned.
rm aJwoys losing my keys.
Granny's always giving us little presents.
He'salways borrowing money.
Compare:
Whm Alice comes, I aJwuys m«t her at the slilUon. (planned meetings)
fm always muting Alan Forbes in tlte suptrnwrket. (unplanned) ,-

-
I Here are some sentences taken from real conversations. Can you
put the begimlings and ends together?

BEGI N NI NGS PoN DS

Dad is always teasing me a party ill one of the houses.

He's always arguing about my clothes.
He's always giving people and chest problems.
lIer best friend is always her family.
dropping in milking up stories about people.
I bat e those cartoons new products.
Jamie is always having colds Of" fightin g.
~Iy wue's slwa js buying she wishes she was prettier.
She's always Cliticising small presents.
She's always sa ying to cr iticise th e wa y she lives her life.
Someone is alwa ys giving wh ere Tom is always chasin g Jerry.
That old bitch is always

DO IT YOURSELF

2 This structure usuaUy expresses an emotion, Which emotion is

most common in the examples in Exerclse I - interest. criticism,
surprise or admjratkJn? Check your answer in the key.

3 Use tbis structure to write sentences describing people you know

who often do some of the following thin~s (or others):

worry a bout nothing lose their temper 1Q.<>e things

complain a bout their health forget things cry fall in love
c ha nge their job buy new clothes quarrel talk nonsense
100 TENSES: PRESENT

revision of present tenses

I Put in the cor re ct tense (simple p~nt or present progressive).
1 Vegetarian s are people wh o (don't eat I are noL eQling) meat.
2 Look out! My husband (comes / Is comillg).
3 Some people still think the sun (goes I ;s9O;n9) round the earth.
4 I (play I 'mplaying) ten nis every weekend.
S Who (sit.s / 's sitti ng) in my chair?
6 What (happens / is happening) in golf if you lose the bam
7 An alcoholic is a person who (drinks I isdrinkingJ too much a nd
ca n't stop.
8 wok! (Sh e wears / She's " 'earing) th e same shoes as me.
9 'What (are you looking / do yo u look) at?' •A stra nge bird.'
10 I ( stay I 'm stay ing) with John for a lew weeks until my fl at's ready.
11 We (usually stay T r e llsually sta./jing ) with Peggy when we go to Cbtcago.
12 Can you ex plain wh y wa ter alwa ys (runs / is running) downhill?
13 Wha t (do yo u do / are ~Jou doing) with my coat ?
14 Nobody (gets I is getting) up ea r ly forfun.
15 Not ma ny passenger planes lj1y I are}lyin9) fast er th an sou nd.

2 Match the questions and answers.

1 What do you do? a Actua lly. that's the radio.

2 What are you doing? b French - she's from Belgium.
3 Where do you work? c I want to get this car started.
4 Wbere are you working? d I'm a n architect.
5 Does your son play the violin? e l'm tn Cardlff thts we ek.
6 Is your son playing the violin ? f In a big insurance company.
7 What la ng ua ge does sh e speak? g It sou nds like Russian.
8 What language is she speaking? h Me - ca n I have some more?
9 Who drinks champagne? Me, when I ca n afford it.
10 Who's d rinking champagne? No. the piano.

3 Put in the correct tense (!oimp le present or present progressive),

I I (drink) he 's a wa y.
2 You (know ) wh at I (mean).
3 She (al way s complain).
4 We (alwaHs start) at nine.
5 Wh ile the butter ( melt). you (wke) three eggs and (break) them
into a bowl.
6 I (tlrink) a bout your father.
7 Scientists (believe) th e weather (change).
8 I (nor see) what the problem is.
9 Why (you look) a t me like that?
10 Now I (underswnd) what she wants.
TENSES : PERFECT AND PAST 111

simple present perfect: introduction

tI' I have seen, you bave seen etc

? have I seen? have you seen? etc
1 I ha"e not seen, you have not seen etc

x--------------------------------x
past present

The simple present perfect connects the past and the present.
We use it especially jor finisbed actions that are Important POW,
T~ have results now, or th .a......n ;;e ~.. ..
:ows .....
R.ESl'LTS NOW NEWS
I can't walk- fve hurt my leg. Haw you heard? He's arrjud!
l.ook -he husntt drunk his tea. You'Yfpassed your exam!
Com pa re: Brutus killed Caesar. (NOT ... MS IfiIkJ ... - no present meentng.)
We can often change a present perfect senten ce int o a present sentence with
more or lessthe same meaning.
fulwrt my leg. =I hauQ btMlleg. S1Il" S romebock. =Sue is home.
Hl"siost his keys. =: Hecanttfi,uI them. He's gone, = He isn't here.

1 Change these present perfect sentences into present sentences

with similar meanings.
1 The Foreign Minister has died . 7 I've done the washing up.
2 Lucy's had a baby. 8 She's gone to work for the BBC.
3 You've torn your coa t. 9 We haven't found out where be is.
4 I've broken my leg. 10 The no ise has stopped .
:> He's [ost his address book. 11 I've forgotten your name.
6 Have you mad e tea? 12 She's learnt French.

2 Complete the cartoon caption. Can

you make a preseer-eense sentence
about the situation in the cartoon?

'First tbe good news. His temperature lqo) down.'

TENSES: PERFECT AND PAST

present perfect and past: news

SIM PLE PRESENT P ERFECT SIMPLE PAS T

I saw ezc
'"
?
X
I have seen eLC
bave l seenz erc
I have not seen etc
did I see? eLC
I did not see etc

We often announce a piece of news with the present perfed.

We can use just to say that something has happened 'Vet')' recen~.
A light passengerplanehtls O'tlshrd in Surrey.
Andy's Justfound ajlat!

1 loin the beginnings and ends to make plttes of news. Which

sentence goes with which picture?

BEGI N NI NGS ENU S

A parachu tist has just a baby girl.

Lucy has had gone into hospit al again.
My poor old fath er has into our garden ga te.
Polly and Simon have just got married.
Some people have bou ght landed on the roof.
Somebody has just crashed lost £30 million thi s year.
The tirm has the cup again.
United have won the house next door.

~...
••
,, ~

•
•
,
I

,I .
I 2 3 4

6 7 8
'£NS[ S: PERFECT AND PAST

When we give more detaib.:. we usually change to the simple past. •

'I've had a terrible day at the office. dear. My secretary went home sick. we lost three
major contracts and a funny little dwarftumcd me into a banana.'

1. Choose the right tenses and put the sen t en ces in pairs to make
news items. Example:
/\ IIqlu Ill.sSt"t1!Jl'r 1,lwlt' /llIs a(/ ~/Il'ff ill Surre!J. i1n 'Vn li/!!J co t'YI' lI'illll'~ .~('.~ . the
/liraa.'l},il « sree wlli ll' {"(lmi ll!! ill lil lI/lid.

A light passenger plane (crash) in Surrey.

Five t housand fans ( be) at t he airport.
According to eyewi tnesses. the a ircraft ( Ilit ) a tree while coming in to land.
Ana Gomez. of Peru. [ set] a new record for th e marathon.
He (saU) I was just the person he needed.
Novelist Mari a Sa ntiago (marry ) ac tor Tony Delaney.
Peter (just offer) me a new job!
Police (find) miss ing schoolgirl Karen Allen.
She (awer) th e 42 km in just over 2 hours a nd 16 minutes.
She ( be) at a friend's house in Birmingh am.
The Wo rld Cup team (arrive) home.
They (fall) just before reaching th e summit of Mon t Blanc (4 .807 m).
Th ey (meet) while working on the screen play for the film Sun in the Morning.
Th ey (steal) dusunen's uniforms a nd walked ou t through the main gate.
Three climbers (die) i ll the Alps.
Two prisoners (esrope) from Caemarvo n h igh security prison.

Note that we use the simple past to talk about the origin of somcrhjng
present.
",Iw wrote that? (:'I:OT Whe has w";t~ th6Q)
BillBlEW me tllis necklace. Did you put this "ere?
WhoSt' idea was it to comehere on holiday?
1" TENSES : PERFECr AND PAST

present perfect and past: time words

To talk about linished actions. we can use the present perfect or tbe
simple pa!>... It often depends on the kind of time expression that Is used.
We do not normally use the present perfect with expressions which reter
to a finished time. like yesterday, last week. tllrf'f' Mears ago. tiun, \vhen.
We normally use the prescnt perfed with expressions which refer to
'any time up to DOW'. like ever. never, before. recently. often. already. ~l.
Compare:
1 saw Kate yesterday_(Naf I h.w Set'M K-6lu Yl'5leFllay.)
~HaYr yO Il sun Robruentlyl
were here Jast wuk. weren't you?
Y OIl
You'Yf' Men here befon. haven't you?
She studiftf Chinese when she was at unJversity•
• He's never studJed any/oreig" mngungfs.

1 l 'inished or unUnished lime? Put the expresss ions in two lists.

a long time ago before J was born in 1991 in my life

just alter I got up last yea r lately this year today
when I was nine

2 Choose the correct tense.

1 I (haven't seen / didn't see) much of AI lately.
2 "Who is shel"'f ('toe never seen I never saw) her before.'
3 I ('ve done I did) a lot of stupid things in my life.
4 She (has left / left) school last yea r.
S When (have ~Jou got I did you yet) ma rried?
() I'm sorry. I (hal'en'tfini.dled I didn'tjinish) yet.
7 I ('t't' o./kn wondered I often wondered) what he does for a living.
S He (hascaught / call{Jht) th e plane a t eight th is morning.
9 I ('\Ie read I read) a lot ofhcr books when I was at school.
10 (Have ,IJOU sem i Did.'J0u see) any good films rece ntly?

lust now (meaning 'a moment ago') is used with the simple past.
Compare, .....

She ha,'C just phoned. She phoned just now.

TENSES: PERFECT AND PAST
"5
We can think or.
finished ti.me even without using a time expression.
We can think of'any time up to now' even Hwe don't say so.
Did you sn ' Hamlet? lit was on TVlast night.)
Hau you Sft!lI '}Iamld'? (= Ha w: you ever seen ' Hamlet '?)

1 Put in the most suitable t ense (r.imple past or present perfect).

1 You (be) a beautiful ba by,
2 [( not read) her la test book.
3 (y ou visit) India ?
4 My great-grandmother (Jive) In Glasgow.
5 Columbus (fla t discover] America: th e Indians already (know) where it
was.
6 Amazing newsl Scien tists (discover) a new pla net!
7 Who (give) Shakespea re his first job?
8 How many time." (you be) in lo ve?
9 I ( newr enjoy) a holiday a s much as this one.
10 '(you hear) the thunder?' 'No, nothing wakes me up.'

4 Co mplete the three questions in yo u r own words. Ir you can , ask

somebody else an d"report the a n sw ers.
Ha \"C you ever ... ?
How often ha ve yo u ...?
wben did you last ...?

5 Complete the cartoon captions correctly.

'Oh yesl l rm>l / 'vt' met your sort before.'

'When did you last Iud / have ylJU last fM

that goldfish?'

'~H -- - ....
present perfect: situ ations 'up to now'

We use the present perfect to talk about situations condnuing up to

now. ~a Uf when we say how long th~ have lasted.
Alex has worked with children all halife.
•
lIe went to Rome 011 holiday ten pears ago. and he's lived there
rverslnu.
She's always wankd to go to Australia. but she's never had time.
We do not use a prrsent tense to say how long someth ing bas lasted.
rile known Joeforymrs. (NOT '.R8wloefN yeaFS.)
How 10119 have you bun here f or? ( = 'Since whe n ... n
Compare: How IOl1[lllre you heref or? ( = ' Untll when .. .?')

1 Read the sentences and answer the questions.

1 'How lon g has Ann uved in Spain?' Does Ann s[iIllive in Spain?
2 'How long did Bill live in Italy?' lJoes Hill slm li\'e i" ltiJ1y?
3 'Joe worked with me for two years.' Does Joe still work with the speaker?
4 'Sue has wor ked "lith me for two years.' Does Sue still work with the
speaker?
5 'I've had a headache all day,' Has the speaker gol a heilduche?
6 'I had a headache all day.' lIas the speakernot a headache?

2 Put the bracketed expressi ons into the sentences and choose the
correct lenses.
] I (like) sport. (alway s) I have alwaHs liked sport.
2 I'm sorry for her. She (have) bad luck. (all her life)
3 I (want) to be a doctor. ( until l was fifteen)
4 He (be) unemployed. (ever since he left school)
5 (nou live) in th is town ? ( How long)
6 I (not wor~) very hard. (when I was at university)
7 He was iU before Christmas. but he (be) tine. (since thetl)
8 I (have) trou ble sleeping. (all t his week)
9 I (have) trouble sleeping . (all last week)
10 I [learn] a lot. (in this job)
] ] I (not leam )mucb. (in that job)
] 2 My boyfriend and ( (know) each other . (for ages)
] 3 He (live) in Durban. (for a !Iillr beforehe got married)
14 I (spend) three days in hospital . (last month)
TfNSES: PERFECT AND P AST 157

We often use the present perfect focactions repeated up to now.

Compare:
8e"jllmill's bern to Africa Sfl'f'rol timt>$ tills year. (tup to now')
lwnrt co Africa three times la.st year. (not 'up to now')
rFe €limbed a lotof fflOlltltains. but I've never been up Mont Blanc.
In 1861 Ill' climbed mostof the llightst moulltains;1I Frana.

3 Complete the sentences with the present perfect or simple past,

1 I (play) a lot of tennis this year.
2 She (htlve) six different jobs since she left school.
3 He ( rull) a way from school three ttmes when he was fourteen.
4 How many cups of coffee (you drink) today ?
~ In those days, Andre w (come) to stay with us most weekends.
6 Shakespeare (wrile) poems as weU as plays.
7 Since my brother lost his job. he (write) two books.
8 I'm not cooking today -c l (cook) a Uthe meals yesterday. In fact . [(cook)
most of the meals thi s week.
9 would you believe I (make) twe nty-three phone calls today?
10 Our team a re rubbish. They (jll.~t Jose) eigh t games one after the other.

4 Complete these sentences in any way you like.

1 I've always _ _ " 6 I've bad my _ _ si nce _~
2 I've olten _ _ " 7 I've lived _~
3 I often _ _ when [was a child. 8 I've never lived __"
4 All my-life I have _ _ " 9 I've _ _ limes this year.
5 I've known __" 10 I _ _ times last year.

5 Choose the correct version

or the cartoon caption.

'Tve spent I I spent twenty-five years

making a name for myselfand now
you want me to CHANCr. it ?!'

•
With most verbs. we can also use the present perfect progressive to talk
about situations continulng up to now. for detaus, see pages 158-1 59.
Han yOIl bun waiting 10nyi
present perfect progressive
II' I have been working etc
? have you been working? etc
~ he has not been working etc

We onen use the present perfect progressive to talk about actions

continuing up to now, especially when we say how Iona they have
lasted. We do nol use a present tense to say how long something has
1,,",00.
It has been snowing since Tuesday.
(NOT It Is &N9WiRlJ siRes TfJesday.)
How long haW! you Iwnt learning English?
(NOT ... Rre t/9H INlRHlltI .ur )
For the djflerence between the progressive a nd simple tenses. see page 160.

- 1 Complete the sentences with verbs (rom the box. Use the pre1rent
perfect progressive. Which sentences go with the two cartoons]

cry Jearn live play (twice) rain wait (twice)

walk work

1 It __ all day.
2 1_ _ English since I was six.
3 She __ tennis professionally for te n years.
4 We ------l1't __ in thi s house for very long.
S That man __ up a nd down the street for ages..
6 1__ very ha rd this week.
7 She __ non-stop since she got his letter.
8 ITc __ that music for hours. I wish he 'd stop.
9 __ you __ lon g. sir?
10 '1bey call me waiter. but you __ for half a n bour.

B
TENSES: PERFECt A ND PA S t 11.

We can also use the p resent perfect progressive to talk about long or
repeated actions that have finished recently, and which have present

=-
results.
·Yol/ look. hot.' 'Yes, rve bent runnJnfl.·

2 Put together the beginnings and ends urthe eonseesanons.

BEGI N NIN GS I!NDS

'Aren't you hungry?' 'Helen's been looking at them :

'Is it true that Philip's been arrested?' 'I've been gardenmg all afternoon.
'Janet seems very cheerful .' 'I've been swimmi ng.'
'She's very dirty: 'I've been talking to Henry, and he just goes
' Why are my books all over the floor?' on and on:
'Why's your hair-wet?' 'No, I've been eating all day:
' You all look very mi serable. ' 'She's been cleaning the cellar:
'You look tired: 'She' s been skiing with Roger for th e last
'You're very late: week.'
'Your hatr's all white.' 'Yes. he's been stealing things from shops.'
'Yes. I've been painting the ceiling.'
'Yes . we've been telling eac h other our life
stories.'

3 Write sentences about the pictures, to ~y what has been

-, happening.
,

1 2

5 6
180 TENSES: PERFECT AND PAST

present perfect progressive or simple?

To talk about recent long actions and situations:
the present perfect progressive looksat the continuing situation
itself; the present perfe(;t simple says that something is completed..
achieved.
r~ bun reading yOllr book: I'm enjoying iL
fve read your book. ( = I've finished it.)
We use the simple present perfect to say how often something has
happened (because of th e idea of completion). Compare:
rtle played tennis three times th is week.
rYe
bun pJaying a lot of tennis m:enI11J.
We prefer th e simple pI"eSeOt perfect to talk about permanent or very
lon g-lasting situations. Compare:
He's bun Jiving in Doncasterfor the last few months.
r"e lived here all mn Ii/f.

1 Put in the present perfect progressive 01' sim ple.

I That man (sulI/d ) outside for hours.
2 The castle (swnd) on that hill for 900 yea rs .
3 An n (yardm) a ll a llemoon. She (Il lml t) a lot of rose bushes.
4 James (go) out every night th is week.
S He (see) a lot of Alexandra recently.
6 How lon g (lJOU wait)?
7 [ (wait) lon g enou gh. I'm going.
8 Her family (farm) this land since the tenth century .
9 She (o ll l!Jfann ) for two years, but she's doing very well.
10 I (leam) Germa n for six years.
11 I (learn ) most of the irregular verbs.
12 My mother (do) aU her Christmas shopping.
13 I (clo) Christmas shopping a ll day .
14 [ (clean ) th e ca r. Doesn 't it look ntcez
15 'You look tired.' 'I ( wash) clothes all da y.'

Remember that some verbs are not used In progressive forms even if the
meaning tsonefo[wblcha ~~vefbnnismoresuItable(see page 148).
He's (min known herfor twodays. (NOT #h's s'lly lIem kllflwillB Rer ...)
How 10llg haw 110« hlld that cold? (NOT .., ' ' \Of!' !:ISH "(!f!1I h.."IIIB...?)

for .Ap1IIrut~ of tIM worde tINIt we .... tv glk about • ... Z98-302.
TENSES: PERFECT AND PAST 16>

since and for

1 Do you know the difference between since andfor? Look at the

examples and try to meke e rule. Then check this in the key.
He's been here since un o'clock. He's been herefor two hours.
We'w had thi s car sJfK'-e Ik«mber. W e've had this car for six months.
I've kno"," her sJnu university. I've known her for a IIffY long time.

2 Complete the expressions.

since yesterday == for 24 hours
for 200 years = since the Ixth century
since 1980 =_ _ =
for 20 years since _ _
since Tuesday = _"_ for five days = _ _
since six o'clock = __ for the last tw o hou rs = __
since my birthday = __ the last __ days/weeks/months

3 Complete the sentences with sJuu or for.

I I've had this job __ a month . 5 I've lived here _ _ 1992.
2 He'sknown her __ AprU . 6 lie's been away _ _ a long time.
3 She's been ill _ _ years. 7 I haven't slept __ two nights.
4 I haven't seen him _ _ ages.

4 Write seeuecces about these situations with sillC'-e andfor,

IJake nuts a sma ll business. He started doin g this five yea rs ago.
1 Andy lives inDublin. He moved there last year.
3 Ilelen plays the piano. She started two years ago.
4 Rob ha s a Mercedes. He bought it five yea rs ago.
~ Jan is living with Pete. This started in 1994.
6 Sammy is learning Turkish. lie sta rted four years ago.

5 Complete the sentences in your own words.

I l've had this _ _ for __ o 3 I haven't __ [0' _ _ 0

2 I've known since 0 4 l haven't since __ o

6 Ifyou can work with other students, ask them questions

beginning 'How long have ...' They should answer 'Since ...' or
•..·o r ....
182 TENSES: PERFII:Cr AND PAST

tenses with since and for

Senten ces with SifK'e usually hav e a perfect tense. But pa!o't tense!' are
possible in the time exprrssion after slnu. Compare:
f w known her si nce 1980.
rve known her since wt' were sueimus.

\' 1 Ch oose the right tenses.

I It (is I was I has wen) snowing since I (have got up I got up) .
2 Things (have been I wt're) difficult since Carol (has lost I lost ) her job.
3 Since Ja ke (has taken up I took lip) the trumpet, nobody (hus t nos l/tld I
had) an}' peace.
4 lie (ha s been I was) quite different since he (has got I got) married.
S Since she (has gone I went) to live in Fra nce we (flawn '! hfflrd I didll't hair)
anything from her.
6 He (has been I was) strange ever since he (lias had / Iuld) th e accident.

I, A present tense Issometimes used In the main clause to talk about

changes.
Note a lso the stru ct ure It is ••_sirref •••
She looks quitediffererrt since her illness.
It's a Ion" time s inl'.t! lunrh.

2 Pur dle beginnings and ends together. ("tlTerent e n sw ees are

possible.)

BF.GI NN I NGS F.NDS

lie loo ks much yo unger since he ha d a job.

It' s nearly three years since he shaved olThis beard .
It's on ly a week since I met her. but it seems like years.
It's too lon g since she stopped going o ut wiLh Pete.
She's a lot happier since we got our own fla t.
Things are better since we la st had a proper talk,

Sentences with for have a perfttt ten se when the meaning is 'time up to
now', but other tenses are used with other meanln~.
I'w known herfor ages.
I was in that schoolJor three years.
She's stay i ng Jor another Wffk.
lie'lIlw in IlOspiWlJor a month.

For e~ of the wante u.t we u. . to talk aIlout Me Z9lI-302,

TENSES: PERFECT AND PAST 183

present perfect and past: revision

DO IT YOURSELF

I Tenses a nd time expressions. Which rule Is true] Ch eck your

answer in the k ey.
1 Present p erfect (simple o r peogresstve) with longer periods of time;
simple past with shorter periods.
2 Present peefecr with e xpressio ns or tinlshed time: s imple past with
exp ressions of unfinished time.
3 Present perfect with expressions of unfinished tim e; s imple past with
exp ressions of finished tim e.
4 Present p erfect with repeated actions: simple past with a ctions tha t
are not repeated.

1: Put in the correct fonns.

Dear Eileen
Hope things are OK with yo u. The doctor (l come) yesterday. He (2 not
like) my cough. I (3 lie) in bed looking a t th e ceiling since Tuesday, and I
can (ell you , I'm fed up with it. I (4 never be) ill like ibis before - don't
know what's ha ppening to me. And the weather's terrible, It (5 rain ) all
day, and I can't even hav e a cup of tea to cheer myselrup. because th e
milkma n (6 not come) this morning. Don't know why - I'm sure I (7 pay)
his bill.
Alice (8 get ) ma rried last week, so now all Mary's kids (9 leave) home.
She won't know what to do with herself, will s he?
Lucy Wa tson (10 move) to Doncaster. Since Fred (ll die) she (12 be)
a Ua lone. It (13 be) a hea rt a ttack, apparently. I'm sorry she (14 go) - we
(15 be) neigh bours (16 since/for) over thirty years, and she (17 always
be) frie ndly a nd ready to help out.
Amy (I S/eave). My cleaning lady. yo u remem bers I'm glad. She
(19 'lot be) mu ch use. and I (20 1101 trust) her since she (2 1 break) a ll
those plates and (22 so.y) it (23 be) the cat.
There (24 not be ) mu ch cha nge in the village. Some new people
(25 take) over t he shop. They seem quite nice. Hope th ey're more
efflctent th a n o ld Joe.
No more news. Write when you've got the time.
Love

Brmna
TENSES: PERFECT AHO PAIiT

past progressive
..... [ was working etc
? were you working? etc
)( she was not working etc

What were you doing As I was walking down the road

----------x-- -------- ---------- ---- - )(- --- -----------
at 1.oo? I saw Bill.

We use th e past proaressi"e to say that something was going on around

a particular past time.
'What wen you dolnH at 1.00 last night?' " was wakhlng TV.'
(NOT 'W~t did yOIl fig ... ?' 1 WM ~"e" 11'.1

We can use th e past prop-essi"e and simple paat together.

Past progressiw: longer background action or situa tion.
Simple past: shorter action that interrupted It 01' happened in the middle.
As I wa5 walking down the road I saw HiU.
The phone rang while I was havIng dinner.

1 Put in the cor rect tenses.

I At six o'clock thi s morning I (have) it wonderful dream. bu t then the
alarm (go) oIT.
2 This time yeste rday I (lie) on the beach .
3 w hen I walked in they ((llf talk) about babies.
4 l saw Sid when I (conle) to wor k t his morning. He (shop).
5 She (meet) her husband while she (travel) in l-;gypt.
6 Wh ile I (talk) to Mrs Singleton somebody (walk) into my office and (:~teal)
the computer.
7 When lake (conle) in everybody (stop) talking.
8 I (look) out oU he win dow and (see) that we (fly) over the mountains.
9 I (wake) up to lind that water (pour) through the bedroom ceiling.
10 He (break) his leg while he (play) football.
11 I (go) to see how she (be) and round she (ery) .
12 She (te ll) me she (have) a bad time with her husband.
TENSES; PERfECT AND PASf 185

2 · Look at the pictures. and write sentences to say what was

happening and what happened.

3 Complete the text with the verbs in the box (there is one verb too
many). You will Deed five PS!lo1: progressives and three simple pasts.

ask come dance grin hold not dance order

play throw

0[1 th e cJi:1IlCC floor half a dozen couples _ '_ themselves a ro und. Most of
them ~2_ cheek to cheek, if dancing is the word. The men wore white
tuxedos and the girls wore bright eyes. rub}' lips, and tennis or golf
muscles. One couple _ ,_ check to check. Mitchell's mouth was open, he
_ 4 _ . his face was red an d shiny, an d his eyes had that glazed look. Betty
_ ,_ her head as far as she could get away from him without break ing her
neck. It was very obvious th at she had had about all of Mr Larry Mitchell
that she could take.
A Mexican waiter in a short green jacket and white pan ts with a green
stripe down the side _ 6 _ up and I _ , _ a double Gibson and _ 8_ if
I could have a club sa ndwich. Raymond Chandler: l'layback (adapted)

Progressive fonns are used mostly for temporary actions and situations.
For longer. more permanent snuauons we prefer the !loimple past.
Compare:
When I walked in I foundthat waLer WIIS running down the walls.
Explorers belie ved that the river ran into the Atlantic.
\'\le do not normally use the past progre...stve to talk about past habits,
or to say how oftm something happened.
1pl~ a lot oftennis whm I was younger. (NOT I "'illS plBfliHfI ..,)
~"he rang the bell three Limes. (NOT Sh6 "'"" ri"tJiHfl ...)

Remember that some verbs are not used in progressive forms (see page
148).
IlrWd tM cake to seehow i( tasud. (NOT hew it .."s 'a",tiPlg.)
on
1" TENSES; PERfECf AND PAST

past perfect
t/ I had worked etc
? had you worked? etc
X he had not worked etc

DO IT YOURSELF.

1 Leek at the examples. Which ofrules 1-5 gtees the best

explanation for the use of the pa.d. perfect) Check your answer in
the key.
When I got to the car park I realised that: I had lost my keys.
She told me she had worked in france andGerma1lY.
He arrived kue; he hadn't ITalisM tilt' roads would be so icy.
She was upset because AndreI\! hadn't ulephorred.

Do we use the past perfect:

1 mostly in indirect spee£h?
2 to show that a past acti on was completed}
3 when we are alre ady talking about the past. a nd want to talk a bout
an earlier past for a moment?
4 to talk about things that happened a very long time ago?
5 to say why something happened?

2 Put in the simple past or past perfect.

1 I (be) sorry that! (not be) nicer to him.
2 Nobody (come) to the meeting because Angel a (jorge1) to tell people about it.
3 I (see) her before so mewhere - I (know) .
4 Because he (not check) the oil lor so long, the car (break) down.
S She couldn't find the book that I (lend) her.
6 AUthe people we (invite) turned up. and some that we (1Iot invite).
7 They (neva fi nd) where he (hide) the money.
8 It was a fum that ( (never bear] or.
9 When she (come) in. we all knew where she ( be).
10 The lesson (already Stllrt ) when I (arrive).
tENSES: PERFECt AND PAST 1.7

3 Choose the correct tense (simple past 01" past perfect).

W hen I (1 go) to Paris last spring for a job interview• • (2 not be) th ere for
five years. I (3 arrive) t he evening before the interview, and (4 spend) a
ha ppy hour walking round th inking about th e good limes . (5 have) th ere
as a studen t.
As I was strolling by th e Seine. I suddenly (6 see) a famjllar face - it was
Nedjma. the woman I (7 share) a Oat with when I was a stude nt. and wh ose
address I (8 lose) after leaving Paris. I could teU she (9 IIot set') me. so I
(10 call) her name a nd she ( II look) up. As she (12 turn ) towards me, I
(13 realise ) th a t she (14 'lat'€' ) an ugly scar o n th e side of her face. She
(IS Si'e) th e shock in my eyes, and her hand (16 go) up to touch th e scar; she
( 17 explmll) tha t she (18 get) it when she was a journalist reporting on a war
in Africa.
She (19 not be) uncomfortable telling me this; we (20 feel) as if the years
(21 not pass ), as if we (22 say) goodbye the week before. She (23 arriw) in
Paris th at m orriin g. and she (24 hat'e) a hospital appointment the next day.
The doctors (25 think) th a t they co uld remove the scar. but she would ha ve
to stay in Paris for severa l months. Both of us (26 'lave) the idea at th e same
time: if I (2 7 get) th e job. we could share a fla t again. And we co uld start by
ha vin g a coffee while we (28 begin) to tell one another everything that
(29 happen) to us in th e past fi ve years.

We often use the past perfect after when and afUr to show that
something wa s completely flni.5h.ed
. ." _
When he had painted the kitchenand bathroom, hedecidedto have a rest.
Afler I hadJinlshed the report, I realisedthat it was too late to post it.

4 Join the b eginnings and ends to make ~enslble sentences.

BEGI N NI NGS f.NO S

After he had tried o n six pa irs of shoes he decided he liked th e first ones bes t.
After Mary ha d done a ll the shopping he started going through the
When I had washed and dried th e last plate cu pboa rds downsta irs.
When Mark had looked through all the she took a short walk round th e park.
drawers in h is room he went to th e cafe in the sq uare for a
When he had finished ea ting lunch cup of coffee.
Paul came in and offered to help .
~-

; Use when or after to m ake one sentence for each struatton.

1 I wrote to my boyfriend. Then I wa tched television for an hour or so.
2 Everybody had a chance to say what th ey thou ght. Then we took a vote.
3 I posted th e letter. Then I fel t m uch better a bout everything.
4 She stopped tryi ng to lose weight. She looked much healthier.
:> He bought presents for everyone in his family. Then he bought
somet hing for himself as well.
'88 TENSES : PERFEC' AND PAST

past perfect progressive

t/ I h ad been working etc
? h ad you been wOI"king? etc
)( she had not been working eli:

DO 11 YOURSELF.

I Look a t the examples and think about when w e use the past
perfece progressive Instead ofthe (simple) past perfect.
All the roads were blocked; it had bffn s nowi ng all Rig/It long.
After I had bffn walking for an hour. 1decided to have a rest.
Shefell ill because she had bun working toohard.
Mary could Sit that tire child had lwm crying for some time.

DO IT YOURSELF

2 Look at these diagrams. Which one represents the (simple) past p erfect,
and wbich represents the past perfect progres!iiv e? Check your answers
in the k ey.

I I
A --- x -- ---- ---- ---- --- ---. -- --- - B -- - x--------------x-----------------
past present earier past past present

I
c ---' ••••••• x- -------------- ----
earlier past past present

3 Com plete the t ext w ith past perfect progressives: choose verbs
from the box.

Idrive lie repair wor k

.John Latton, 39, an engineer at 3 .00 this mor ning, Mr La tton

Felton Plastics in Upton, ha d a _ L for 72 hou rs wit hou t any
lucky escape a fter an accident on sleep.
the A34 in the early hoursofthe A passing motorist discovered
the accident after the engineer
morning. Mr Latton fell asleep _ 3_ in his car with a broken leg
while driving and crashed into a for h al f an h ou r . Ambu la nce
pile of sand left by worke rs who workers said that if Mr Latton
_ ' _ the road. ~ _ any fa ster his inj u ries
When he left Felton Plastics at m ight have been much worse.
lENSES; PERFECT AND PAST 18'

4 Read the story.

On Tuesday afternoon. everyone in my fa mily wa s ve ry busy - except me. During the
afternoon Helen repaired her car; John practised his karate; Kate did some gardening:
Stephanie played tennis; Roger swam for half an hour: Pam went ho rse-riding; Philip
painted the ceiling in his room light blue. I spent the afternoon silting reading.

Now answer the questions.

I Who had black grease on her hands at teatime? Why?
Helen. heceuse !lIlt' Ilflll/wm u ',Nlir ill!I II.., m r.
2 Who had dirt on her hands and knees? Why?
3 Who was wea ring a short white skirt? Wh y?
4 Who was wearing a white jacket and trousers and a black belt? Why?
:> Who was wearing high boots and a hard hat? Why ?
6 Whose hair bad light blue streaks in it? Why?
7 Whose hair was all wet ? Why?

5 In a murder investigation. some suspects were asked by police what they had
been doing at eight o'clock the previous evening. They all told lies. Write
sentences to explain what they told the police they had been doing, and what
they had actually been doing. f.xample: .
"M'~
t
,\ Irs mil'l'r !itlill she /uullwt'tl rt'IlIfi" !I. l/Ilt ll{"wllll!J S/lt'llIlrl //t'm \,'''t(/I;''9 ti ll' lleirJIJ1/tlllrs
lim 111!/JIIJi,ItIf."ul,lrs.

NA ME TOLD POUCIl H AD BEEN DOI NG TR UTH

Mrs Oliver reading watching neighbours through

binoculars
Mr Lucas watching TV steal ing m rs
Mrs Allen talking on the phone making a bomb
MrNash washing clothes forging £ 5 notes
Alice playing cards selling drugs
Pete studying chemistry fighting
Aunt Jan e writing letters plannin g a bank robbery
Miss Fry washing her hair out dancing with her sister's
boyfriend
Rob painting his lIat playing roulette
170 TENSES: PER FECT AND PAST

perfect tenses with this is the first etc

We use it shnple present perfect tense in sentences with OIls/lt/fhat Js
IN jirstlseamd/fhlrd/onlylltestlworst etc.
This is thefirst time that rile heard her sing.
(NOT Thi& is the}i~t liRle that! heRP her siRg.)
This is theftfth time YOll'n asked me the same question.
(NOT 'iRis is lheftIllf tinl!! !19tf Ilsh ...)
That's the third cake you've eAun this morning.
1t'5 one of the most interesting books I've everread.

I Com plete the sente nces cOI"rectly.

1 This is the first time I (see th is Jilm) .
2 That's the eighth time you (sing that song) today.
3 This is the only time this week I (feelhappy).
4 This is the third serious mista ke you (mfl ke) in t his job.
S This is the only time I (ever see) her cry.
6 That's the tenth cup of colTee you (drink) since breakfast.
7 It's the first time all the family (ile together) since Sue's wedding.
S This is the best meal I (eaL) this year.
9 'Excuse me: That's the first thing you (say) to me all day:
10 These are the first clothes I (buy) myself since Christmas.

when we talk a bou t the past. we use a past perfect tense in these
structu res.
It was the Olird time he had ban in love that year.
(NCYf It ',\IRS Ihe thiFfl lilHe he Wlil! S i R hwe ...)

2 Read the text and make sen t e nces beginning It was the first time.
Example:
[I It 'lI.'i II/(' fir!>1 tillll' Ill' f/lld lurn t/t\'Cl.If (rom 11(1/1,...
John didn't enjoy his first week in the army. He had never been away from
home before; he had never worn uni form; he had never had to make his
own bed; he had never clea ned his own boots; he had never fired a gun,
a nd he hated the noise: he had never wa lked more than a mile.
Ca n you make some more exa mples?

for .x~Jo•• of tIM words ttllIt w. u.. to uJll. ~ _ _, ... JNl:lI.. 298-302.
TENSES: PERFECT AND PAST 171

past and progressive in requests etc

Past tenses can make requests. questions and suggestions more polite.
(They sound less direct than present tenses.)
I wondered i/ you were free this ewning.
How much did you wallt to spend, sir?
The past modal forms would. mrdd and might are often used in this way .
1 thought it would be nk e to have a pimjc,
Could 1ask you to translate tlUs/or me?
You might see if the consulate can help you.
Pa!>1: progressives can make requests less direct, and so more polite,
1 WQS wonduinglf 1might use your phone. .
In other kinds of sentence. present progressives ca n sound casual and
friendly .
We',., hopIng you'Ucome and stay with ItS soon.
rm looking /onllO.rd to ',eanng/rom you.

& I Make these sentences tess direct.

1 How many days do you intend to stay ? (- past)
2 "1hope you ca n lend me £ 10.
( - past progressive and past modal)
3 I wonder if you have two single rooms.
( - past progressive and past)
4 Are you looking for anything special?
t -« past progressive)
5 Can you give me a hand? ( - past modal)
6 1look forward to seeing you again .
( - present progressive)
7 I think I'll borrow your bike for the afternoon ,
if that's OK. ( - past progressiveand past modal)
8 We can ask Peter to help us. ( - past modal)
9 I wonder ifl ca n ask you a small favour.
( - past progressiveandpast modal)
10 I think it will be a good idea to invite Simon. 'Hil l th ought you'd be sick
(- past and past modal) of chocolates an d Ilowers.'

Another way of making r~uests less dired is to use a future verb form,
l'm afraid you'U ned tofill in thisfoml.
ru have to ask you to wait tI minute.
revision of past and perfect tenses
I Ch otme the rtghr renses (present perfect. past or past perfect:
simple or progressive).
I Reports a re coming in that a tra in (crash) near Birmingha m. According
to eyewitn esses. it (hit) a concrete block which somebody (pill) on the
line.
2 Halfway to the office Paul ( tllm) round and (go) back home. because he
(forget) to turn the gas ofT.
3 I (do) housew ork all day today. I ( clean) every room in the house.
4 I (lie) in bed thinking abou t getti ng up when the doorbell ( ring).
5 It wasn't surprising that she (start) getting too thache. She (nol flO) to tb e
dentist for two years.
6 I (play) a lot of bridge recen tly.
7 When I (get) home everybody (watch) TV.
8 We ( not see) yo ur mother fo r ages.
9 How long (you learn ) English?
10 London (chnnye) a lot since we first (come) to live here.
11 'How many limes (you see) this film?' 'This is the first time I ( see) it.'
12 'who's that?' 'I (never see) him before in my life.'
13 I hear Joe (get) marr ied last summer,
14 I (of ten wonder) where she (gel) her money.
15 (You read) Pam Marshall's latest book?
16 They (just discover) a ne w fucl- it's half the price of perrot. and much
cleaner.
17 (You hear) the storm last nigh t?
18 My sister (be) married three times.
19 While she (talk) on the phone the children (start) fi ghting and (break) a
window.
20 He used to tal k to us for hou rs about all the interesting thi ngs h e (do) in
his life.
21 You know, she (st and) lookin g at that pict u re for the last twenty minutes.
22 The old cross (stand) on top otthe hill as lon g as a nybody can remember.
23 I (spend) a lot of time travelling since [ ( get ) this new job.
24 Whe n [( be) a t school we a ll (study) Latin.
25 After he (finish) breakfast h e (sit) down to write some letters.
26 Whe n I (meet) him he (work) as a waiter for a year or so.
27 I ( never learn) to ski.
28 (youfinish) with the bathroom yet?
29 We (live) in Scotland until 1 (be) e ighteen.
30 She (lw. ve) a hard life, but she's a lways smiling.
TENSES: PERFECT AND PAST 173

2 ChOO!!ie the right tenses (present perfect, past or past perfect;

simple or progressive),

Going to the Pictures

That aftemoon we all (1 get) ready to go to th e pictures. We(2 get ) a 63 bus
to take us to the Elephant and Castle. beca use the pictures are just next
door. There (3 be) a great big queue waiting to go in and we (4 be) at the
very back. Soon we (5 get ) in. Th e picture (6 already start ) and it was very
dark in the re. We had to go down some stairs to get to our seats but instead
of walking down them we (7 fall) down them . Soon we were in our seats.
We (8 sit) there watching the film when somethi ng (9 hit) me 00 the head.
It was an ice-cream tub. I (10 turn) round to see who it was and a little hoy
who (II sit) two rows behind me sa id, 'I am very sorry. It wasn't meant to
hit you. It was meant to hit the boy in front:
Anonymous child

The lJtt1e Girc and the Wolf

One afternoon a big wolf(I 2 wait) in a dark forest for a little girl to come
along carrying a basket of rood to her grandmother. Finally a little girl did
come along and she (13 carry) a basket of food. 'Are you carrying that
basket to your grandmother?' as ked the wolf. The little girl said yes, she
was. So the wolf (14 ask) her where her grandmother lived and the little
girl (I S tell) him and he (16 disappear) into the wood .
Wh en the little girl (17 open) the door of her grandmother's house she
(I8 see) that there was somebody in bed with a nightcap and nightgown
on. She (19 approach) 110 nearer than tw enty-five feet from the bed when
she (20 su ) that it was not her grandmother but the wolf, for even in a
nightcap a wolf does not look iI1 the least like anybody's grandmother. So
the little girl (2 1 take) an a utoma tic pistol out of her basket aod (22 shoot)
the wolf dead.
Moral: It is not so easy to fool little girls nowada ys as it used. to be.
lames Thurber: Pobtes for Our Time (adapted)

Rioting students battle against pollee

May 7 (1968). in th e last tw o days, Paris (23 see) the worst stree t-
fighting since th e I..iberalion in 1944. Up to 3O.tXlO students, locked out of
their own campus yesterday by th e Sorbonne rector. Jean Roche, (24fighl)
the tear gas of the riot police with barricades, bricks, paving stones and
Molotov cockta ils.
The trouble (25 be) fermenting for some time. On March 20. six students
(26 btl arrested after an ann-American demonstration; the next day, a
mass sit-in at the Nan terre ca mpus (27 begin). Last Friday, th e police -
whose alleged. brutality is said to hav e sparked 01T the violence - forcibly
evicted the students, who were led by Daniel Cohn-Bendit.
All day yesterday, the Latin Quarter (28 be)tb earcna for running street
fights centred on the Boulevard St Germ ain.
Chronicle of the 20th Cent ury •
1,. TENSES: PERFECT AND PA$T

1 Complete the cartoon captions with the expressions (rom the box. and put in the
right tenses.

a nother bit of metal, Maureen .

Could you tell us. please. where we (go )?
I ( start) leaving my husband a n hour ago.
(do) thi s job. is it?
this fear of heights. Mr Winthrop?
what. exactly. (you do)?
you (die).
AUhis batteries (run) down.

~(I,>I"l
B How long (you have] C You ( book) us a holiday abroad duri ng the s umrne:
tENSES: PERFEct APlD PAST 178

D I (find) E Good Lord. Fenton. I had no idea

w''-"

1- 0-:'(\0'"
,,,<-."
1--1 ~f .....

1-' First lim e you

'\ 2 \'7\ G ~""\ 1/11 ,,,,,, =

//
I] ~V!!rW
I
i\5 r~}

---
-
1)
. lfJ
.-
--"'- ~~ V1W~
~
~- ,
H He has nothing to do.
G Perhaps I co uld help you choose. sir -
passive structures
PASSIVE nNSE STRUCTURE flXAMPUI

simple present am/are/is + past participle English is spoken here.

present progressive amfare/I$being + pp Excuse the mess: the house is beiDg
painted.
simple past "'Q$/were + pp I wasn't invited. but I went.
past progressive was/were beJrlfl + PP I felt I was being watehtd.
present perfect have/fillsbeen + pp Has Mary beeo toldi'
past perfect I,ud been + pp I knew I had bun rorgotten.
will future will be + pp You'U be told soon.
future perfect will !'ave been + pp Everything wiD have been done by
Tuesday.
(JOing to future am/are/is gQing to be + pp Who's going to be mrited?

Examples of passive infinitives: (to) be told: (to) mlllc be.en taken.

Examples of passive -ing Corms: being told: hal'jng been taken.
Future progressive passives (will be being + pp) and perfect progressive
passives {e.g. has ~n being + pp) are unusual.
Two-word verbscan have passiveforms (e.g. TIl(' mefting has bun put off).

I find the pa",,,,lve verbs In this text, what tenses are they?

IN I>E..'fMARK, 24 people were An official for the Ieirground. .

left: hanging upside down when a at Aalborg in western Denmark,
roller c o a s te r c a r made an said the riders had been firmly
unscheduled stop. locked in and had no' been in
The passengers were stranded danger.
60 ft in the air for20 minutes before 'TIley were given their money

.
• -
firemen arrived with ladders.
•
back,' the official said.

The subject of a passive verb corresponds to the obiect of an acti

•
_·.~e~.~er
.b
.

• .~ ...

SUBJECT $IlBIECI'
Passive: This house was InUit in 1486. C.enmm is spoken in Austria.
2 Write passive sentences.
1 Chinese (speak) in Singapore. 8 These computers (make) in Korea.
2 The Ta] Mafia! (build) around 164 0. 9 Passengers (ask) not to speak to the
3 The new hospital (open) next year. driver.
4 She (interview ) now . 10 Sorry about the noise - the road (m end) .
5 I reeh sed f (follow). 11 The village church (bum down) last yeac.
6 (yo u invite) to Andy's party? 12 A Roma n pavement (;ustfind) under
7 He found that aUhis money (steal). Oxford Stree t.

With a passive. we can use"" + DOUD If we need to say who does the action.
ThiS house was built in 14 8611y Sir John l.atto...

3 Make the sentences passive. Use by ... only ifit is necessary to say
who does/did the action.
1 Sha kespeare wrote 'Hamler'. 9 A drunken motorist kn ocked her down .
2 They have arrested her for shoplifting. 10 Liverpool beat Manchester 3--{)
3 1bey ace repairing your car now. yesterday.
4 People in Chile speak Spa nish . 11 The Chinese inven ted paper.
5 Has anybody asked Peter? 12 You need hops to ma ke beer.
6 My mother made this rtng. 13 They don't sell stamps in bookshops.
7 Electricity Wives thi s car. 14 The directors are still considering your
8 Somebody will tell you where to go. application.

4 Ch oo se the correct version of the cartoon caption.

,, " '

. ,
I

'Bad news, Crom well- you're rfplaffd /

you'rf bring rfp/Clad I yvll " 'ftf replaffA by a machine.'
1111 PASSIYES

reasons for using passives

:DQIl YOIJ RS ELP

I Rule study. Read the text and then do the rest of the exercise.

A DRJVER has been sent to jail Ile wasdisqualified for twelve

for 90 days fordriving wilh excess months in 1986 for a simila r
alcohol. offence.
Gra ham Sm ith. 29 . o f Nort h Me PeterJones, defending.said
Street, Barton. was stopped by Smi th had used the car to visit a
police officers near his home last sick fri end.
November and was found to have He sa id S mith was depressed
drunk almost twice the Jegallimit after the visit. and went to a pub
for drivers, Didcot magistrates and drank five or six pints before
heard on Thursday. drivinghome.
Twelve months earlier Smith He wascaught by police during
had been disqualified fromdriving a routine speedcheck in Wantage
for three years for drink-driving. Road. Bartoo.

The Collowing expressions in the text have passive verbs. Would it

be easy to rewrite tbe text with active verbs (e.g.... SDlt a
disqualified drivn to jail; police offioers s topped Graham Smith)?
A disqualified driver bas been sent to jail
Graham Smith ... was stopped by police officers
... was found to have drunk almost twice the legal limit
Smith had been disqualified from driving
lIe was banned for twelve months
lie was caught by police
Which two rules are best? Check your answers in tbe key.
We use passives when we are interested in wbat happens. not who it
happen... to.
2 Passives are common when we are thinking about what Is done to the
person or thing that we are interested in. not a bout what he/she/it does.
3 Passives ca n help us to go on talking about the same thing. in cases
where a n active verb would need an unwanted new subject.
4 Passives are best in a formal style. Actives are more informal.

for -xpl-.f:iefts of .,.. . . . . ~ • • '1M to talk ........t ..... ~ 2.

PASSIVES 17.

2 Choose the best way ofcontinuing after each sentence.

1He lives in a small house. a. Somebody built it about forty years ago.
b.It was built about forty years ago.
2 Fdlgljsh is worth learning. a. People speak it in a lot of cou ntries.
b. It is spoken in a lot ofcountries.
3 He got a sports car. but he didn't like it. a. So he sold it again.
b. So it was sold again.
4 My nephew is an artist. a. He has just painted another picture.
b. Another picture has just been painted by him.
5 The new Virginia Meyer film is marvellous. a. They are showing it at
our local cinema . b. It is being shown at our local cinema.

• J ChOOflic the best sentence from each pair to build up a continuous text.
1 a. HOW BOOKS ARE MADE
b. HOW PEOPLEMAKE IlOOKS
2 a. fi rst of all. the printers print big sheets of paper .
b. first of all. big sheets of paper are printed.
3 a . Bach sheet con tains the text ora number ofpages (e.g. 32 ).
b. The text or a number of pages Ie.g. 32) is contained in each sheet.
4 a. People fold and cut the sheets to produce sec uons (Ifthe book.
b. The sheets are (aided and cut to produce sections ot the book.
5 a. These sections are called signatures.
b. We call these sections signatures.
6 a . The pnnters put all the signatures together in the correct order.
b. All the signatures are put together in the correct order.
7 a. Then they are bound together and their edges are trimmed.
b. Then they bind the signatures together and trim the edges.
8 a. Finally. the cover -. which has been printed separately - is e uacbcd ,
b. Finally. they attach th e cover - which they ha ve printed separately.
9 a . Now the publishers can publish the book.
b. Now the book can be published.

DO IT YOURSELF.

4 Change t h ese sentences as in t h e example. Then t hi nk a bout w hy

this makes them better. and check your answers in t h e key.
1 That she had not written to her parents for over two years surprised me.
/ In /.\ \ 1I'J'ris<'lt ,Illlf ~1U' "1/1/ 1/01 1\ '/"jfll ' l/ to 11/',- /I/I/"{'II/ _' ...
2 That nobody was prepared to take him to hospita l shocked us.
3 That Mary wanted to tell everybody what to do annoyed me.
4 That George ran g me up at three o'clock in the morning to tell me he was
in love again didn 't please me.
5 The fa ct that he looked completely dilTerent from the last time I had met
him confused me. (l wascotifused by ...)
180 PASSIVES

passives: verbs with two objects

Verbs with two o~eets (see ~ge ] 83 have two ~bJe passive structures.
ACTIVE. PA SSIVI;
They gave the winner a prize. The winner was gjvr.n a prize.
They gnvell prize to the winner, A priuWQs gillen to the winner.
We c ho ose the structure which fits best wjf.h what comes before and after (sec page 178).
TIle structure with the person as subject is probably more common.

I Change the structure.

1 Nothing was sent to me. / was smt /Wl hitly.
2: Papers were brought to us to sign.
3 A dock was gjven to Henry when he retired.
4 Stones were read to the children.
5 ( 5.000 is owed to me.
6 A new job has been offered to me.
7 French is taught to us by Mrs Lee.
8 A car has been lent to me for Lhe week .
9 A full explanation was promised to us.
10 A lot of lies were told to me by the secretary.

2 Complete the text with expresstcos from the box.

had been given had been told had never been taught
was given (twice) wa s offered was promised was sent
was shown wasn't being paid

I'll never forget my first day at that office. 1_ to arrive at 8.30, but when
I got there the whole place seemed to beempty. '_ I didn't know what to do.
because I _ ' _ no information about the building or where I was going to
work, so I just waited around until some of the secretaries began to tum
up. Finally l _ '_tl. dirty htrle office on the fifth tloor. where 1_ 4_ a desk in
a corn er. Nothin g happened for an hour. then I _ , _ some letters to
type on a computer by one of the senior secretaries. This wasn't very
successful, because I _'_ how to use a computer. (In the letter l _ ,_
when I _ 8_ the job, I _9_ computer training, but they'd obviously
forgotten about thi s.) By lunchtime things hadn't got any better , and I
de cided that 1-2L en ough to put up with this non..sense. so I walked out
and didn't go back.

J Complete these sentences any way you like,

1 I was given ._ _ 1<151 Christmas / for my last birthday / _ _ .
1 I h ave often been given _ _
3 I have never been giv'en __.
PASSIVES 181

passives: progressive, perfect etc

Further practice on som e passive verb forms.

] Present peogresstve passive. Imagine you are in a busy hotel at

m idday. Make sentences to say what Is being done. using words
from the two boxes and the present progressive passive. Example:

beds bills coffee drin ks food luggage money

new guests reservations room s ta bles

brin g down change clean la y make order pay

prepare serve take welcome

2 Present perfect passive. Imagine that. ri ch and famous. you

retum to your old home town after fifty years. A lot of things are
different. Make sentences. using words from the boxes and the
present perfect passive. Example:
TIIC CllI;: RI'!/',j 'rfl~ I/I'm lllrwd ;"'0 (l fw,ilf(l.

Cafe RoyaJ houseboats new car park new schools

opera house old fire stauon ring road sta tion streets
town centre statue of you Super Cinem a your ho use

build mod ernise put up in park rebuild widen

turn into casino / flouting restaura nts / mu seum / su permarket /
theatre I pedestrian precinct

3 Infinitives and -ing forms. Make some sentences beginning

I (don'f) Uk,. ... ing or I (dun'f) wanf to ..•• using verbs from the box.
Examples:
, like III';r1q (ulkl'lI fO. I do,,'Ill'lmf (n lli' Icmlott..".

admire criticise forget

give presents ignore
invite out laugh a t like listen to look at love
need shout at take seriously talk about talk to
undervalue
PA551VES

passives: complex structures

Note these passive st ructures. They are mostly rather formal.
A actin object co m pleme n t - paMiive subject complement
A CT I V E PASSIVE
The Queen considered rum a gmlus. He wasconsidered a gm.ius.
They elected Mrs Robins President. Mrs Robins was elected President.
The others call him stupid. He is called stupid by the others.
You've made me very happy. I havebeen made wry happy.
8 structure with introductory if: It is thought/believed etc that •.•
ff i s thought that the Minister will resigrl.
At the time. it was belirved that illnesses were cau.~ ed by evil spirits.
It i s erpecud that the comlHmy will become profitable in the New Year.
C subject + passive verb + infinitive
... is thought/IwJJeved/said/aslr.m/san/made etc to ...
She is thought to have left home. He is lw.Jievf".4 to be in Wales.
They au said to be millionaires. I was asked to Irelp.

Note that we use to-infinilives in the passive after see. hear an d make.
He was seen to enkr the bank. I was made to It'll them everything.
D structure with tmu is: Tlwre is thought/said etc to be •..
There are thought to be fewer d um lWfllly peI)I,le still lil>
ing in the village.
Thf"'" were said to be gllosts in the house, but 1 never heard anything.

• I Make these sentences passive, using one ofthe above structures.

1 People thln k the government will fall.
2 We appoin ted Mr Evans secretary.
3 The villagers called her a witch .
4 People believed that fresh air was bad for sick people.
S Some people say that there are wolves in the mountains.
6 Police think the man holding the hostages is hea vily armed.
7 They say he is in an agitated state.
8 Ev.erybcdy considered her strange.
9 We expect tha t the rate of infiation will rise.
10 They say he is somew here in Germany.
11 Somebody saw Harris Icave the plane in Ontario.
12 People think that she died in a plane crash .
13 People believed that the earth was the centre of' the universe.
14 They th ink that there is oil under Windsor Castle.
15 They made me give them deLalls of my ba nk accounts.
I,

verbs with two objects

Many verbs can have two objects - one direct and one indirect.
Usu aUy the lndlrYd object eefees to a person. and this often comes Drst.
Heyave his w{fc Q camera. 1 wish you Q Merry Christmas .
Ifwe put the indirect object last. we use a preposition (usua lly to or [or),
I passed my licence to the pol1«man.
Mother bought the ice creamfor you. not/or me.

1 Change the structure. Examples:

I gave my sister some flowers.
, !IIII'!' SIIIIII' .f1Il1Wrs til I"~I sh tt'r.
Lei me make some tea for you.
I..." /III' IIm1.:I' 11011 .\0 1111' /l 'f/.

] Could you send me the bill?

2 I've bought a present for you.
3 Leave me some potatoes.
4 I lent Bill £5 yesterday.
S Show Granny you r picture.
6 Read the letter to me, will you ?
7 She teaches adults French.
8 I took the report to Mrs Samuels.
9 Would you get me a beer?
10 We owe £20.000 to th e bank.

""""'6,WI,
'Get me the Zoo. please. Miss wtnterton .'

2 Write five sentences with two objects beginning I would like fo

gbelund ...• u.." ing verbs from tbe box.
~-~- -- -~- ---~ -------------
Common verbs with two objects:
bring buy cost get give leave lend make oiler
owe pass pay play promise read refuse send show
sing take teach te ll wish write

Eqlajn. say. sug"..st and descrifJredo not have the indlred obIect flr~,~.,;...
Can you explain the plan to us? (NOT CaR 1J8f,/ eNfl'"iR Y8 fhep/tlR?)
n-e come to SlIy goodbye to you . (NOT ... t8 81fl1 lillY §8f1R9ye.)
I BUgBeSud a new method to her. (NOT I SHfIflf!8t1d her tl new /<HetlleJ.)
fHscrjbe your wife to me. (N(Yf lJese,.ille Rle Y8f,/F wife.)
srRucrURES AFTER VERDS . ADJECJlVES AND NOUNS

verbs with prepositions and particles

PR EPO SITIO NS:
afler ac during fa' from into of out of Co
willI without
( AD VERB ) PAR TICLES :
ahead aside away back forward nome ouc
ROTH PREPOSITIO NS AND PARTI CLES :
about across (llong (a)round before behind by
down in ;"side near off on outside over
past through under up

English has many two-word verbs. made up of a verb and a maaII word
like lit. Jn. on. up. Two-word verbs are very common in an infonnal style.

• 1 Match the two-word verbs and the more formal one-word verbs.
Example:
look tor-. !wt'k

blowup break up getup give up go away

go into look for put ofT send back talk about
think over tum up

abandon arrive consider discuss disintegrate

enter explode leave postpone return rise

The smaU word in a two-word verb may be a prepositiou or an adverb

particle, (A good dictionary will tell you which.) There arc some
differences.
VERB + PREPOSITION VERB + ADVf,;R8 PARTICLE
Look at this. Lookout!
Don't sit on that chair. Sit down.
She climbed up the ladder. Sht- ('ui the wood up / cut up the wood.
I/ellin the river. l}illed the/arm in. llJiIl~d In the/orm.
He flOt off the bu.~ . Swiuh the light off. I Swit('h offthe light.
URUCTURES AnER VERBS . AOJECTIVES AND NOUNS ...
It OURaE

2 Which three rules are correct? Check your answers in the key.
1 Verbs with prepositions are normally followed by objects.
2 Some verbs with prepositions don't have objects.
3 Verbs with adverb particles are normally followed by objects.
4 Some verbs with adverb particles don't have objects.
S Prepositions can come just after their objects.
fi Adverb particles can come just after their objects.

An adYerb particle must go after a JH!!.OOllO obIect.

She cut jf up. (NO'f She f.d HI' jl,) Swikh if off. (NOT S\I'ih:h sf/il,)
Compare the word order with a preposition and a pronoun obiect.
SheclimbeJupJf. (NOT She diRlged it ..".) He yot of/It,

... ] Change the object to a pronoun; change the word order if

necessary. EJarnples:
Sit on the wall. - Si l 0 11 i t
Switch on the light. - Swit ch it 0 11.
1 We talked about the accident. (preposition) 6 She put the dress on . (adv. part.)
2 I put orr the meeting. (adverb portic1e) 7 I'm looking for my bag. (prep.)
3 Could you look after the children? (prep.) 8 I wrote down the address. (adv. part. )
4 We broke off our relationship. (adv. part.) 9 I sent the steak back. (adv. part.)
5 Can you dean up the kitchen? (adv. part) 10 Istood on the table. (prep.)

... 4 Look at the adverb particles in the following sentences. and

choose the bes.. meanIng from the box rDr each DDe.

away further higher into pieces louder quieter

on paper to various people working not working

1 He drove ofT. 6 I've sent out the invitations.

2 wrne it down. 7 Goon.
3 The heater's off. 8 Prices are going up.
4 Tum the radio down. 9 Is the printer on?
S Can you cut up the onions? 10 Who turned the music up?

Note the position or prepositions and particles In passive sentences:

after the malo om. (See also page .!'J2.)
Their weddin..q has been put off. All the li..qhts wert switched on.
~ likts to be looked at. He's already beell spoken to.
Someverbs have both prepositions and particles: e.g. geton With. lookout/or.
structures with get
Get has different meanings in different structures.
Wherecan I get somr sUlmpsl She got a letter from her mother.
It'sgrl.ting lak. The problem is getting worst.
What time do y Oll usually srt up? It takes me an hour to get to work.

DO , OUR&EU

1 Look at the examples above. and decide which structure goes

with which meaning. Check your answer in the key.

ST RUCT URES MEA NI NGS

gel + direct object mo ve. change position

get + adjecti ve receive. obtain. fetch. bu y ...
get + adverb particle I preposition become

2 Ca n you malch the expressions with gd and their more formal

equivalents? Example:

get across get better get bigger get off get older
get on get out of get over get sm aller get to ge t up

age a light from. leave (public t ransport]

board (public transport) cross decrease. shrink
improve increase . grow leave reach recover from
rise (from bed )

1 Complete the sentences using expressions with get.

I My English is ----.J og _
2 Ann _ _ her car a nd drove away.
3 __ the bus opposite the cinema, and __ at th e second stop.
4 What are you doing in my room? __I
5 lf you go out in th e m in without a coo t. you'll _
6 If you do n't put on a swea ter. you'D _
7 J don't wa nt to __; I'm going to die young.
S If[ don 't ha ve breakfast. 1_ _ rea lly about eleven o'clock .
9 I'm ing __. (think I'll go to bed.
10 It __ very early in winter.
STRUC' URES AFTER VERBS. ADJE'CnVE'5 AND NOUNS 187

Get is often used with a past: pIU1idpIe,

Common expressions:
fP'f dr6Sftl yet chttnyed gel kJsl get married
yet dh'OrCM get broken yet drowned
This structure can be similar to a passive verb.
J()('got aJT('St£4fordrunkendrJving last week. (= ... was arrested...)
They had a dog, but ilgo( run OWf',
We never get invjtEd onywhtre.

4 Put together the beginnings and ends, using a structure with

+ past partidple. Example:
flet
'.-t'm arm Hill nrc !JCll ill!1 dh'Ort'cd."' Hul flw!!'w ollly b<'fIl lIIorricd a YCf/f, ,

BEGINNINGS , ENO S

'Ann and Bill are (divoru).' ' But they 've only been married a year.'
'Shall we go swimming?' 'Eight o'clock.'
'What ume do the animals (feed)?' 'OK. I'll just go and (change).'
Every time he goes walking in the country and go to bed.
His glasses (break) but we (cut off).
I was talking to her on the phone he (lose).
I'm goiIig to (undress) in the Bgbt.
lf you leave your bag there, it'll (steal).
That child takes an hour next April .
They're goi.ng to (marry) to (dri'SS) in the moming.

We can often add a direct object to structures with get. Com~

Gd 011:( Ofherel an him out of here!
1can'tgrl worm. I can't gn my!ed warm,
You'd beUtrgetdUSsM. You'd better get fhat chJld dresud.

'I still say she's too young to get married.'

... 5TRUCTUR£6 AFTER \'£RB5. ADJECTlVl5 AND NOUN5

infinitives
There are simple. pro~ve, perfect and passive infinitives. with and
without to (see ~ ) 90).
S IMP LE: 1want to see the manager. It may rain.
P ROGRESSIVE: It's nice to be slttinfJ here. You must Ire Joking.
PERF I!CT: I'm glad to han sun her. Shecould hau told us.
P ASSIV E: She likes to lit lIIud. lL will". pomd wday.
There are also perfect progressive a nd perfect passive inhn lnves.
PERPE CT PROGR ESS IVE!: I'd like to hllPe brnI sitting there when she waIkeil in.
PERFECT P ASSI VE: You could hll"~ bun Jdlled.
Negative infinitives are made with not (to).
Try not to Ire late. (f"OT Tr-y 18116.. ·(.e 18 ~. )
I'm sorry not to haW!' phoned.
You should not worry.

I Put in the right kind of in fin itive,

) I o ught ( work) right now.
2 Your wa tch will (repair) by Tuesday.
3 I'd like (go) home early today.
4 I'd like (see) her face when she opened th e Jetter .
S She must (have) a shower - I can hear th e water running.
6 It's important (listen) to people.
7 She hopes (choose) for th e national team.
8 Try (not be) back late.
9 You should (teU) me you were ill.
10 He does n't like (interrupt) while he's working.

2 Say what you think the woman in the pictures is doing, Begin She
could/may/must be ,.J n fJ o r She sums to be ,..infJ. Example:

2 3 4

5 6 8
srRucrURES AFTER VERBS , ADJ ECTIVES AND NoUNS 189

perfect infinitives (to have gone etc)

perfect infinitives have the same kind of meaning as ~ect or past: tenses.
l'mglad whlWe kJt school, (= •.. that I hf"'~ left school.)
S~ was sorry not w huv~ snn RilL ( = ... tlwt SM had not seen Bill.)
We hope to hUW!jJnJshed the job soon. ( = ... that we will haftjJnJslwd ...)
1Sl'nr1 hi hDveannoyed Anne yesterday, ( = It seems that I annoyed ...)

1 Rewrite these sentences uslng perfect inf"'nitives,

1I'm glad I've met you.
2 I was sorry I had disturbed bim.
3 I expect I'll have passed aU my exams by june.
4 It seems that you made a mistake. (You seem ...)
5 I'm happy that I've had a chance 1:0 talk to you.
6 I was disappointed th at I had missed the party.
7 It seems that she's got lost.
8 She was pleased that she had found the house.

With _slwren. would Ulle and mMI'It. perfect Infinitives often refer to unreal
sttuations that are the opposite of what really happened.
He wus to have gone to art collegebut he fell ill. {He didn't go.)
I'd lille to have~ sitting there when she walked in. (I wasn't there.)
I meant to have telephoned but Iforgol .

2 Rewrite the sentences as shown.

I She didn't marry a friend of her parents. (was to)
Sill' 1I'(I~' lo lw\'(' tlu/rril'd nfrin ul of Ira p(/rrtll~.
2 I didn't see his face when he realised what had happened. (would like to)
3 He didn't finish aU his work by three o'clock. (mean)
4 We didn't spend a week skiing. (were to)
5 It wasn't the happiest week ofmy life. (was to)
6 She didn't say goodbye to everybody before she left. (m~n)
7 I didn't live in the seventeenth century. (would lik£)
8 He didn't play in the Cup Final. (was to)

For perfect infinitives after medals {e.g. should have gone), see page 122 .
.90 STRUCTURES AFTER VERBS, ADJECTIVES AND HOtJN$

infinitive with and without to

We use the ln6nJtlve without to after the modal verbs: can, could. may.
might. must. shall. should. will and would. and after had better anJ needn't.
Could you help me? (NOT Qudd!Ji:l1l16 lIel" RleJ)
You should try toforgtt about it.
'Can Igift you a lift}' 'No, thanks. fd rather walk:
She'd Meter 90 home now.
Youneedn'c UlOrry.
Note also the structure With Why (not) .•.1
WIlY worry?
Why not give him socks/orChristmas?

In most other cases, we use the Infinitive w1th to.

I wan' to haw a r~t. (NOT I W.II" "fI'"
8 Fest)
les neus$Ilry to plan carefully. (NOT U 'S"H!e'Ii'!i:ll"8' 1""" BaI'e{iIcl1y.)
The infinitive with to is used after the modal verb ought.
We ought to 5n i/Pat's OK.

I Change the sentences as shown.

I I couldn't understand the timetable. (u.'a.m't tlble)
1 II'''S/I '/ ((lJ/e to wlllers/uml tilt' 1i1ll1'wMr.
2 It's important 10 eat enough. (You should)
3 I'd like to go salllng this summer. (I might)
4 She will probably get married in Iune. (She eX[I«ls)
5 I said I would help her. (l agreed)
6 It's necessary to make careful plans. (We must)
7 Perhaps he's ill. (He ~em<;)
8 I want to change my job. (I wish I eQuld)
9 I m ay come and see you next week. (llwpe)
10 You don't need to a pologtsc. (You needn't)
11 They will open a new branch in North London. (They haw decided)
12 I will cert ainly pay you on Saturday. (l promise)
13 I cou ldn't flnd the ticket office. (l didn't mallaye)
14 I prefer to go by myself. (l would rather)
15 She said s he wouldn't see him again. (She refused)
16 Lcan play chess. j'I've jeerm)
STRUCTURES AftER VERBS, ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS 191

I don't want to etc

We can use to for the infinitive or a I ~ted ve , tfthe meaning is clear,
'Are you moving?' 'We hope to. '( - ... 'We hope ro mOR.')
'Come and dance.' 'I don't want ro . '
I don't play tennis, but' used ro.
'You madeAnn cry.'" didn't mt>Qn to.'

1 Put the beginnings and ends together.

B£GINNIf\;GS ENDS

'Ann really upset Cranny,' but we can 't afford to.

'Are you enjoying your new job?' 'He seems to.'
'Can I see you home?' 'I don't really want to - it's toc cold.'
'Can you mend this by Tuesday?' 'I intend to. They can't goon keeping
'Did you get my coal from the cleaner's?' the whole street awake every night.'
'00 you collect stamps?' 'I'd Like to, but I'm working late.'
'00 you thtnk he knows wbat he's doing ?' 'I'll try to. but I can't promise.
'00 you want to come out with us tonight?' 'I'm sure she didn't mean to.'
'Does she think she' ll win?' ' Hyou'd like to.'
'How would you a nd Sue like to spend the 'No, but 1 used to.
weekend with us?' 'Sorry. 1 forgot to.'
'I think you ought to see the police about 'We don 't need to - there's always
the people next door. plenty of room.'
'Shall we go swimming?' 'We'd love to.
'Should we book seats in advance?' 'Well. I'm starting to.'
We'd like to move to a bigger house. 'Yes, she expects to:

We cannot usuaUy drop to.

'Come and have II drInk.' 'I'd lih ro .' (NOT ,,'d ""(1. ~

But we can drop to In the expressions if you like/want. wilen you like/tnmt
and as you like.
'Can I Ilefp?' '1fyou IIh.' We'll slop WMn you want.

4.a",-,
'I can say we live in a fascist state if
I want to. It's a free country:
102 STRUCTllRES "FlER VERBS. ADJIECTIVES AND NOUNS

infinitive of purpose
We can use an lnftnidve to say why .....ebody does something .I
She sat dowtl to rest. (NOT m /B P N'5t. OR ... /6F H'stiR8.)
In order to ... and so as to ... are common before be. know and have; a nd before
other verbs in a more formal style.
1yot up early In ordrr to be ready to leave at eigllt.
She studied English jn order to have a betterchance ofgetting a job.
1came to Britain so as to lenow more about British culture.
In order and so as are normal before not to.
I spokequietly SD as not to frighten her. (NOT I fTl*lk:e qNl6tJy Ret W .n)

1 Write sentences to say wby people go to some of the following

places. Begin ¥ougo ...
1 a library Y OU!fO to Il li!w(/f!/ lo b orrow IWilks.
2 abookshop
3 acinema
4 a theatre
5 a swimming pool
6 a gymnasiu m
7 a driving school
8 a sta tion
9 an airport
10 a travel agen t's
II a church
12 a football stadiu m
13 abank
14 a post office
15 a restaurant
16 a supermarket
17 a garage
18 a newsagent

'Plcase -. ( come bere to forget my troubles.'

2 Write a sentence to say why you are leaming English. (To get a
better job1 To study something elsez ro tranl? To .. .1) lfyou can
work with other srudeeus, find out why they are learning English.

21"'302.
'.
interested and interesting etc
In~. bored. txdted etc say how people feel.
'nkrUtfng. boring. exciting etc describe the people or thinKS that cause
tlte feeli0m!.
I was very jnknsUd' in the ItsSOll. (ncr 1....'6'5 W!FH I .. &lPHURfI ...)
His lessons areQlways jnkrellUng. (NOT His 1e5661t& are t o. iRWreSW. )
Do youever gel bored' at work?
My job's preUy boring.

1 Compleee the words.

I Iwas surpns to see Ann there. 9 We were shock__ to he ar about your
2 It was surprts .Lc, to see her. brother.
3 I find this work very tlr_ _. 10 The news was reeily shock_~
4 It makes me tir__. 11 His explanations are confus -.
5 Her exam results were disappoint__. 12 Listening to him. I got confusc.L;
6 She was pretty disappoint __. 13 I get annoy__ wh en people break
7 Sile was excil - a buut her new jub. promises.
8 It was an excn_ _ new challenge. 14 It's annoy__ when that happens.

A 2 Look at the cartoon. Who is boring?

':-Jo real/yoyour husband's right. it is late and we must go.'

3 What are the people interested in? Make senreeces. I-:xamph=:

..1 " t/WYO/lN lIl'r is imrn',w nf il1 till' stars.

astronomer botanist cook doctor explorer fashion designer

geogra pher historian linguist mathematician zoologist

animals clothes food languages medicine numbers places

plants the past the stars travel
-Ing forms as subjects. objects etc

Sm oking is bad/or you. (subject)

I hatepacking _(object)
Myfavourite activity is IWlding. (complement)
An -i"lJ form can have its own object.
S mok ing d garrlUs is bad/or you.
I hatepuck'ng sult£llses.
Myfavou riteactivilY is reading poI'try.

1 Complete the sentences with -ing rarms cf tbe verbs in the box.

answer climb drink forget hear learn lie

pay say ski type watc h

I _ _ too much alcohol is very bad for you.

2 I don't llke _ _ bills.
3 lie really enjoys _ _ his own voice.
4 what's wrong with _ _ in bed all day?
5 Her favourite sports are __ a nd _ _ mountains.
6 _ _ lan guages is hard work .
7 I hate _ _ goodbye.
8 __ is better than remembering.
9 __ animals can teach you a lot.
10 'What's your job?' ._ _ the phone and __ letters:

2 UfOU can work with other students. find out what their favourite
activities a re. They shou ld use ••lny in their answers.

That's not writing.

that' !II typing.
First I write one
sentence: then I write
AU good writing
swimming under water
'S
Cupou'scriticis m oj Keroll(l{" another. That'. how I and hokting your breath.
write. And so I go on. E-" Scali FifZlJf'Tuld
But I have a feeling
Writing is nothing more
writing ought to be like
than a guided dream. Writing a book of poetry
running through a field.
1L Hcryes is like dropping a rose
L SLrlU:hey
petal down the Grand
Canyon and waiting for
Writing is easy. all you
11tere are three rules the echo.
do is sit staring at a
for writing the novel.
blank sheet of paper
Unfortunately. no one
until the drops of blood
knows what they are.
form on your forehead.
W SOOII'rst! Maughom
Gene fowler
STRUC'URES AFlER VERBS, AOJECTIVES AND NOUNS 1"

We can use a detenD1oer(e.g. 1M. this. my) ora po'$EIslve's before

OJI·tng form,

Ow rebuilding ofthe cathedral Do you mind my smoJdng?

I don '1 like his borrowing my things without asking.
\\'hat's all this shoutlng1
lohn's '''twlng home upseteverybody.
Object fonns are possible instead of possessives. especia1ly after a verb or
preposition , They are less formal ,
1don't likehim borrowing my things ""ithout asking,
SIw was upset about John leaving home.

3 Make these sentences less formal.

I Do you mind my asking you a question?
2 I do not appreciate your shouting at mc.
3 r could not understand Pat's wanting to pay for everybody.
4 What is the use orthetr asking all these questions?
5 The delay was ca used by Peter's needing to see a doctor.
6 I was astonished at your expecting us to give you a room.
7 The holiday wa s ruined by Ann 's having to go home early.
8 She cannot stand my telling her what to do.

No Is often used with an -Jrrg form to say that something is not aUowed.
NO SMOKING NO PARKING NOWAlTING

'Sorry sir, no smoking in the museum.'

For more about ·ing forms alter verbs. nouns and adjectives. see
pages 199-209.
1" STRUCTtJRES AFlER VERBS, APJECliVES AND NOUNS

preposition + -ing
We use ~l~ I'ormsafter ~_.
ti.
o;;;
ns. "",
You can only live for afew days without drinking.
(NOT ... w Ua uat Is "NAIr:. )

I Make ten o r more sentences from the table. You can use the same
preposition In more thaQ o ne s ent e nce. F.xam ple:

Arc you interested about a nswering th at child' s questions.

Do yo u feel as well as changing her job . but I don't think she will.
Doyou have time to do at coming to Greece with us?
anything else besides convincing the police that she was not a
lie insisted lor burglar.
He passed his exams ;n cooking.
How in spite of disturbing you.
I apologise instead of ea ting.
I like walking like going out to a resta urant tonight?
I sometimes dream of ha ving time to read a Umy books.
I'm fed up on helping me?
I'm not capable with looking a fter th e children?
I'm tired withou t moving to Canada.
She succeeded not doing any work .
She talked paytng for everything.
She's kee n playing football.
She's very good see ing George next week.
Thank you selling things.
We're excited stayi ng at home?
We're th inking swimming and da ncin g.
Why don't you come out telling me the truth.
with us understanding Lhis - ir s too difficu lt
You can 't live

2 Complete this sentence In fiv e or more dilferen' ways:

I couldn't live without __ tng (~_).

(lor after. before. wi len. while and since + -ing. see page 240. for -ing a fter the
pre position to. see page 198.
preposition + -ing: special cases
We use IIy ••Jng to say how by what method or means we do something.
We use/or ...1ns to give the purpose ofsomething - to say wbat It is used lOr.
On doing something (formal) means "when las soon 8S you do something'.
You can/indout somebod.IJ 's phone numberby looking In the directory.
He made his money by buying and sel11ng houses.
t've bought somespecial glue/or mending broken glass.
'W htil's thatfunny knife/or?' 'Opm;ng Idlers. '
On hl'Aring the fire alarm. go stralghl to the nearest exit.
On arriving at the office. she noticed that hersecretary was absent

I Find the answers in the oox; write them with bN ••Jng.

look in a dictionary oil it play loud music ro b a bank

stroke it switch on the ignition take an aspirin
use an extinguisher

1 How do you make a cat happy? H!I strokiW! it.

2 How cal)'you annoy your neigh bours?
3 flow ca n you get money fas t?
4 How do you stop a door squeaking?
S How do you find out what a word lDe"dJ1S ?
6 I low can you cure a headache?
7 How ca n you put a fire o ut?
8 How do you sta rt a car?

2 Write sentences to say what these things are {or.•:xa m pl e:

..\ It'lI'riwl/f' is ior Il/lkillY 10 pl.'Op/l· 11'110 Clrt' II lm1!1 \\'(1.'1 Im 'II!I.

1 Write a sentence beginning On "rriving home yesterday, I •••

STRUCTuRES AFTER VERBS, ADJECflVES AND NOUNS

to ...iog
The ~1ioD til Is followed !>l' an -111/1 form.
llookJorward to your letter I to hearing from you . (To is a
preposition used after lookforward - it ca n be followed by a noun
or an ·ing fonn .)
Compare: I hope to Irear from you. (To is part of the infinitive after
hope, not a preposition - it couldn't be followed by a noun.)
Other expressions followed by to ...ing: be/gd used to, object to.
1/ you come to England Hou'll soon get used to drilling 01/ the Ie/t.
I object to propJe trying to sell me things over the telephone.

o IT YOU.SELF.
1 Choose the best explanation ofeach expression. Check your
answers in the key.
1 I look forward to seeing you.
A It gives me pleasure to think that I wiU sec you.
B I know I will sec you .
e I hope I wtll see you.
2 I'm used to driving in Londo n.
A I drive in London regularly.
B In th e past. I dr ove in London regularly.
C I have driven in London so often that it seems easy and natural.
3 I object to paying good money for badly made products.
A This often happens to me.
B I am not pleased when this happens.
C I try to stop thls happening.

2 Here are some sentences taken from real conversations. Can you
put together the beginnings and ends, usmg to ... in9 ?

BEGI NNI NGS END S

Aren' t you used (walk) back to school.

Starting at half four's no problem - difficult kids.
I look forward (receive) I'm not used (come) this way.
I look forward (see) you again I'm used (gel up) early.
I object (paJJ) for it. in stx months' time.
1'0 never gel used (sleep) It should be free.
I'm not looking forward (go) it's hard to be without it.
I'm not sure where to turn. all the Door.
If you're used (have) money. this fae?
Sean's used (deal) wtth your comments.

For used to + infinitive (e.g. I used to beshy wlrell , wtlS younger). see page 128.
SlRUCTtJRES AFTER VERSS, ADJ£CTlVES AND NOUNS

verb + infinitive or -lng form

Some verbs are followed by the "'''tth'es 0( other verbs. Example: want.
Some verI:ts are foUowed by' the :!!r6. ror.s of other verbs. Examp-e: enjoy.

I Om.••LF:

1 Do you know which verbs are 2 Put in the correct forms oftbe verbs.
followed by infinitives and which are
1 You ca n't help (ljke) hun.
followed by -ln8 forms? Make two
2 We decided (swy) at home.
lists; then cheek them in the key.
3 Wc expect (hear) from Ann soon.
4 Do you fancy (go) our tonight?
agree avoid can't help
5 I don't ft.-ellike (cook).
dace decide deny expect
6 When do you finish (study )?
(can 't) face fail fancy
7 I've given up (smoke).
feel like finish give up
8 Imagine (be) married to herl
happen hope imagine
9 I managed (find) a taxi.
keep (on) manage mean
10 Would you mind (pass) the bread}
mind miss offer postpone
11 I m issed (see) the beginning ofthe film.
practise prepare pretend
12 She pretended (be) ill..
promise put off refuse
13 Don't put orr (see) tbedoctor.
risk seem spend time
14 He spends ages ( talk) on the phone.
(can 't) stand suggest wish
15 I want (see) the manager.
16 IX> you enjoy ( watch) football ?

'j don't want 10 go to their party an d have a good

lime. I don 't enjoy having a good time:

Some verbs arefoUowed by ~011 + .. ./Jrg.

I'm thinking ojchunging my job. (NOT I'mlllili&iRg W ehtl~ my j9h.)
Por verbs that can be followed by both infinitives and -Ing forms, see page 204.
... STRUCTURES AFTER VERBS . ADJECTIVES AND NDUHS

•
go •••lOg

We often use go ...ins to La1k about sportlog and ldsure activities.

Let's go cUmbJng nexl weekend. Did you flO duncing last Salurday?

1 What can you do In these places?

1 2

3
StRUCtURES AfTER VERBS , ADJECTIVES AND NoUNS 201

need ...ing
It fIItIflfh.rm... means 'It oeeds to be done'.
Thtcar nre4s washing. ( = ... needs to be WClshrd.)
My shots nn4 mnrding.

1 Look at the pictures. What needs doing in each one? Use the
words in the box.

cook cut make mend paint re-string

I 2 3

5 6

./.t't~'.
7
verb + object + infinitive
Some verbs can be followed by obIeet + Inftnitift. Ex:am~: want. ~ r.
He wants me w wash his socks. (NUl' We WARM "'11' I was" his ~ks.)
I would prefer you In JIIlY now.

Other verbs that can be followed by object + infinitive:

advise allow ask can't bear cause encourage
expect forbid force get help invite leave
mean need order persuade remind teach
tell warn

I Make seereeces about Mary, using ... ",ant(s) her to ... Rxample:
[ w rylwt!u \\'(1111S IIt ' T til tltl SOl/lj't IIi" {I .

Everybody Her boss Her daughter Her husband

Her mother Herson The butcher The dog
The government Th e vicar

do some th ing buy her a car buy him som e n ew clothes

cook supper go to church leave her husband pay his bill
pay taxes take him for a walk work harder

2 Change the sentences. Example:

I told John 'I think you should stop smoking'. (advise)
1advised !(l /lt/ fO slopsmo1-:i"9.
1 Th ey sa id we couldn't look at the house. (did"'!QIlow)
2 I said to Jake. 'Please be more careful.' (ask)
3 She sa id to me, 'Do try the exam: (encourage)
4 I think he'll come soo n. (expt',ct)
5 I went a way. so he had to solve the problem. (I left ...)
6 Was it your idea that I sho uld pay ? (Did you mean...)
7 The captain told the men. 'Atta ck!' (order)
8 'Don't forget to buy coffee,' I told Sue. (remind)
9 She gave me lessons in cooking. (teach)
10 She mustn't tell anybody. (I don't want ...)

3 Complete one or more of these sentences.

I My parents want(ed) me to __"
2 My parents don 't /didn't want me to _ _
3 I would like my ch ildren to __"
STRUCTURES AFTER VERBS. ADJECJJV(S AND NOUNS 203

4 Com plete the cartoon caption with the correct structure.

'I'm not asking (you serve) me- just to include me tn your con versa tion.'

In and mah are roUowed by object + in&nidve without to.

Don't In rMJorgd to phone Jill. You mah me laugh.
Passive structures with make ha ve the infinitive with to.
He wos made to apologiu.

:; l~t 01'
make1 Make sentences beginning Her parents Id her ... 01'
Her paunts made her •••
1 stay up late 6 drink beer
2 do the washing up 7 clean up her room
3 rea d what she liked 8 go to church
4 iron her own clothes 9 have parties
5 do her homework 10 choose her own school

6 What did you r parent...'etfmake you do when you w .. ee small?

Write three or more sentences. Irposstble, find out wbat other
students' parents Id/made them do.

For structures with see. hear, watch a ndjeer, see page 205 .
STRUCTURES AFTER VERBS. ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS

-Ing form and infinitive both possible

Some verbs can be followed by both ~lnB rOf'DlS and 'nfinlakes. There are
often ~tt dUl"erenas uflDNl".

Exercises 1-7: check your answers in the key.

1 Rr.mnnbn-,Jorget and ngrd. Look at the enmples. Which

structure is u!>eel to talk about things people did, and which is
used to talk about things prop/eau/wr.re suppoud to do?
I still remember buying my first bicycle.
Remember to lock the garage door tonight.
I'll never forget meeting the President.
J forgot to buy the soap.
I regret leaving school at fourteen: it was a big mistake.
We regret to say that we are unable to help you.

2 Goon.IAKIk at the examples. Which structure is used fora change

10 Q' nt'W actlwUy. and which is used fort:ontinuation ofan
activity?
She went on talking about her illness for hours.
Then she weer VI] to talk about her other problems.

3 Allow and pt"rmlt. When do we use an -ing form and when do we

use an Infinitive}
We don't allow/pennit smoking.
We don't allow/permit people to smoke.

4 Slop. One structure says that an Il.ctJ-vity stops: the other gives the
reason for slopping. Which is which?
I've stopped smoking!
I stopped for a few minutes to rest.

5 lJlu. love. hate and prefer. Both structures can be used except-
when?
Do you like dancing I to dance? Would you like to dance?
I don't get up on Sundeys.I prefer !o"taying / to stay in bed.
'Can I give you a lifO' 'No. thanks. I'd prefer to walk:
STRUCTURES AFTER VERBS, ADJECtiVES AND NOUNS ...
6 Try can he used to talk about trying wmething difficult, or about
trying an experiment (to see if something works). Which
structure(s) is/are used for each meaning?
He tried sending her flowers and writing her leiters. but it had no
effect.
I tried to change / changing the wheel. but my hands were too cold.

7 Sn,hear, watch and/eel. These can be followed byobjut +

inftnjthe without to or obJrd + .ing/orm. One is used to talk
about an lICtIon going on. the other about a complded u.rtion.
Which is which?
I saw her pick up the parcel. oPen it and take out a book.
I last saw him walking down the road towards the shops.
I heard her play Bach's A Minor concerto on the radio last night.
As we passed his house we heard him practising the violin.

8 Choose the correct verb forms. (If two answers are possible, put
bolh.l
1 Do you remember (meet) her last year?
2 Sorry- I forgot (post) your letters.
3 I regret (not \isit) her when she was lll.
4 We discu ssed the budget and then went on (talk) about sales.
5 Do you want to go on (learn) English?
6 He doesn't allow us (make) personal phone calls.
7 The hospital only allows ( visit) at weekends.
8 I like (walch) TV in the evenings.
9 Would you like (spend) the weekend with us?
10 Thanks -I'd love (rome).
11 If nothing else wor ks, try [read] the instructions.
12 I'U try (repair) your car tomorrow.
13 I saw John (wail) fora bus as I came home .
14 I heard you (break ) something - what was it?
15 1 can feel something (crawl) up my leg.
16 We'll have to stop (8et) petrol.
1j He stopped (work) when he was sixty-five.
]8 I regret ( teU) you that you have failed your examina tion.

Aftersome verbs (e.g. begin. CQ1I"1 bear. continue. Jnttnd. propost. start), both
-~ forms and inftnIttvd are ['liable w1tt-,{'oUt much dlD'etenceof meanIng,
I brtJan playing I to play the plUm """en I was six.
We musloontinue looking Ito look/or II newhouse,
S f R U Cf UR E S AFTER VERBS. ADJECflVES AND NOUNS

adjective + infinitive or -tng form

Many adjectives can be followed by infinitives. This is common when we
are talking about feeUngs and readioDs.
She was very pleaud re see me. I'm sorry to disturb you.

v.vnn
I Thirteen ofthe adjectives in the box can be used in the sentence
, WIIS ••• to see hr,..Whicb five cannot? Check your answers in the
key. Example:
I was lifmil! to see her.

afraid anxious certain fine glad happy

intelligent lazy likely lucky ready right
shoc ked surprised unusual well willing wrong

Some other adjectives are followed by preposl.tioo + -'riff form.

... 2 Choose the right prepostttons and make sensible sentences.
Exa m ple:
I'm WII111WII af /llll(IUf fUll'illy 10 wurk hmig/li.

I'm annoyed a bout studying.

bad at breaking the speed Iimjt.
bored of listening to the children.
capabl e with going for a long time without sleep.
excited seeing my family next weekend.
fed up having to work tonight.
fond getting up early.
good seeing th e same faces every day.
guilty repatrtng cars.
t ired dancing.

3 Write sentences about three things you are good at doing. three
things you are bad at doing. and three things you are fed up with
doing.

4 , j'- ii · : h U~l,i ' · " · ! i ' I · , .. tI·te~ r! , ,~

STRUCTURES AFlER VERBS . ADJECliVES AND NOUNS "J

noun + infinitive or -ing form

Some ~ can be foUowed by infinitlwes; others can be foUowed by
pi!!¥! " ... + .~.
;;';';;;;~--~~----..I
You wert' 11/001 w agr«.
She has a terrIble/ear of being alone.

I~'
- - -
I Are these DOunS Dormally followed by infinitives or by
peepesteton + ..Jl1g? Make two lists; check your answer in the key.

decision difficulty hope idea need plan

thought time wish

2 Choose the correct way of completing each sentence.

I Has she told you about her decision (to yo / of going?)
2 I havedifficuJty (to read / in reading) quickly.
3 We have no hope (to arriVt' / ofarriving) in time.
4 I hate the idea (to le-ave I 0/leaving) you.
S Is there anynced (t o tell / of teWng) Peter?
6 She has a plan (to spend / ofspending) three years studying.
7 I won't get married: I dislike the thought (to tose / o/Iosing) my freedom.
8 It's time (to go / forgoing ) borne.
9 I have no wish (to meet / o/ meeting) him again.

3 Join the beglnnlngs and ends. Put in prepositions where

necessary. Example:
It'ho heulclle il/ea of mOl'illg (0 tle,-li,,?

BEGIN NI NGS I EN DS

Has he got any hope (pass) (buy) th at car.

He made a decision [start] ( ge') an gry.
Does your fear Uly) (get) upl
l.ucy has dillkulty (keep) her temper.
She hated the thought (die) (mo ve) to Berlin?
She was II fool the exam?
There's DO need (start ) a business.
They have a plan II new life.
TIme sto p you travelling?
Who had the idea without seeing the world.
for ... to ... after adjective/noun
After an adjective or a noun. if an inllnittve needs Its own subject thls is
introduced by for. Compare:
Ann will be happy Iv help you.
Ann will be happyJor the €hUdrrn to help you.
My idea was to ll!am Russ;olL
My idea was/or her to learn Russian.
This structure is common after adje ctives and nouns when we are talking
about possibility, necessity. importance and fttquency.

I Rewrite these sentences using the structure withfor ... to ,..

Example:
She can't come. - f( s IIll/JO,'OSiNf' fitr IIl'r lIJ coml'.
I The meeting needn't start before eight. (There':> no Ilfdjor tile ...J
2 The postman ought to come. (U's time/or ...J
3 He's not usually late. (ll's unusual/or ...J
4 I want the children to go to a good school. (I 'm anxious/or ... J
5 John shouldn't go to Australia. (It's a badidetl. .•• J
6 Sue shouldn't change her job just now. (It would beu miswke ...J
7 Can Paul come lathe meeting? (Is it possible •.•?)
8 The c ar really should have regular services. (It's important ... J
9 lie normally stays up late on Saturdays. (It's nonmd ... J
10 I'd be happy if you took a holiday. (I'd be happyfor .. .J

We can use for with the lnfinjtfve of thtre Is for therl' ltD ...
It's important/or therr 10 be enDlJyh jobs for nterybody.

2 Imagine you are planning a new town. Rewrite the following

sentences using/or there w bt-.
1 It's important that there should be public libraries.
2 It's vital that there should be a good public transport sy stem.
3 It's important that there sbould be plenty of open spaces.
4 It's essential that there should be enough car parks.
Now write five more sentences about the town using/or there to be.

'Of explanatlolta of die words thM we UN to UIk about .,....... . . . paa;e. 29&-302.
stRUCtURes AneR v e A B S. AD JeC TIVes AND NOUNS ...
Aftersome ad)ecttves. we can use an infhdtIve lO mean 'for people to ..: .
Sht'S ~4SfJ tomnuu. ( = She's elUlJJor people to amuSt'.)
]wt opeon the packet. and it's rrady to eat.

3 Make some sentences from the table.

English Ch inese is/are =Y hard to please amuse

small children difficult impossible understand dean
silver boiled eggs nice (un)pleasant listen to watch
lobster maths good interesting cook eal
modem music bortng drink read
"" learn el£

ItUDrro ORI/III(
APPLE &
CHERRY
-,
:1
!I

For for ... to ... after too and enough. see page 4 5.
.... BASIC SEHJ(NClE· SfRueTURES

.questions

~-
illPoily
marry Danny?

What
Dmmwill
yandbuppen
~ 'IlILeslie
ki/iHiJ/y?

IJert?to
____
- Will Ma ry'bal e
WI alii''' ___
~
sjesstca

-
,..,...~ . aeaa.
dead ?

bat,~',*"",;:;:~:::::~::::::
These qu("SlWr1S. Q
. • W1Jo "/lmJ 'OI~ ,,-j/fht-d,mt't!roo

---
Dutch choose? Wendy?
;;.---

From the Amrric-IJ1l TV Sf'T/o /'Soop'

In questions. we normally put an audliary nrb before Ihr subll'ct.

If there is no other auxiliary. we use do.
Have you. seen Ann? (NOT ¥ew hRe !it t " ..h ili':)
Why ere thou mnllau8h1ng? (:>JOT H ·If.~ "'II~ Mt>ff 1IP'e hnlflldRflJ)
When can I PQyl(NOT WIH!f11MR fll'y.;)
What does 'gaun!' mean? (NOT What Me,,,.s 'BIWIII '?)
We onty put an auxiliary verb before the subject. not the whole verb.
Is your father coming toniglltf (NOT h fl6'.,IiR8 flflwr}stheF l8/1lyhO)
Where au dH! President and hls/amilg singing?
(NO" HJh8Fe lEN &HftJiRfI ... 1)

We do not use do with other auxiIJaries or with w.

Can you tell me the time? (NOT Off flflil. ell" ...?)
Are HOU tired! -
After do. we use the inftuith'e without to.
What doesshe want? (NOT nlHBl_s she II'II.. I&'? )
Did you go out last night? (NOT DiEl ."J8U ? OR Wf!R' ... 1JiJ~ .. lie , • .. 2 )

I Which is the correct capti on for the cartoon?

1 Was the train very crowded. dear ?
2 The train was very crowded . dear? //
3 Was very cro wded th e train. dearz

,
I,
!1
:Jh
l Read the t ext. and then write questions for the answers. };xample:
Two. - H (l1\' m(//I!I d lildrm /llll'f: JV(' 1I/1l11'1I1II f/OI?
In a smal l viUa ge in North Yorkshire, t here's a hig old farmhouse where
three families live together: M ice and George a nd th eir th ree childre n. Joe
and Pam and their two children, a nd Sue and her baby daughter. The
adults divide up the work bet ween them. George does the cooking, Joe a nd
Sue do most oftbe housework. Pam looks after the shopping and does the
repairs. and Alice tak es care of the garde n. Alice. George a nd Sue go o ut to
work; Joe works a t home designi ng computer systems, and Pam. who is a
painter. looks after the baby during the day. Two of the childre n go to
school in the village. but th c three oldest ones go by bus to the secondary
school in the nearest town , ten miles awa y.
The three families gel on well. and enjoy their way of life. There a re a few
difficulties. ofcourse. Their biggest worry a t th e moment is mon ey - one of
the cars needs rep lacing, and the roof needs some expe nsive repairs. Rut
this isn't toc senous - uhe bank has agreed to a loan. which they expect to
beable to pay back in three years. And th ey all say they would much rather
go on livin g in their old fannbouse th an move to a luxury fiat in a big city.

1 In North Yorkshire. 8 At home.

2 In a hig old fa rmhouse. 9 Computer systems.
3 Three. lO She's a painter.
• Sue has.
5 The cooking.
11
12
Tw oof tb em.
Byhus.
6 The housework. 13 In th e nearest town.
7 The ga rden. I. Ten miles.

We tie aut use do wh ro the sal+ r t is a question word like ..... d l' whtrt.
Who opellftf th, noi,ufow? (NOT i"lh8 did 8'pt11...?)
What happmftf 10 your arm? (NOT Wh/ol l '"4 ~R .. .?)
Which ('OstB more? (NOT WI/kIt flBrs €9Sl Ht6M~)
But we use do if the question word is the object.
Who do you beJiel't - himor mf'?
What did you tavefo r supper?
What dMs 'catalyst' mron?

3 Look at the text again, and write questions ror these answers.
I George does.
2 Joe and Sue.
3 Pam does them.
• Alice.
5 Money.
6 One of the cars.
7 1beroof.
BASIC SENTENCE·STRUCTURES 2U

2 Read the text, and then writ e questions for the answers. Exam ple:
Two. - IICI\\' /lIllt1n d 'iltlrnl lun'( /{If' m ill PIIII! fi liI ?

In a smal l village in North Yor kshire. there's a big old farmhouse where
three families live together: Alice a nd George and their three children, Joe
a nd Pam a nd their two children . a nd Sue and her baby daughter. The
adu lts divide up the work between them. George does the cooking. Joe and
Sue do most or the housework. Pam looks after the shoppi ng and docs the
repairs, a nd Alice takes care of the garden. Alice. George and Sue go out to
work; Joe work s at home designing computer systems. a nd Pam, who is a
painter, looks after the baby duri ng the da y. Two of the childre n go to
school in the village. but the three oldest ones go by bus to the secondary
school in the nearest town. ten miles away.
The three families gel on well, and enjoy their way of life. There are a few
difficulties, of cou rse. Their biggest worry at the moment is money - one of
the cars needs replacing. and the roof needs some expensive repairs. Rul
this isn't too serious - the ba nk has agreed to a loa n. whjch they expect to
be a ble to pay back in three years. And they aJl say they would much rather
go on living in their old farmhouse th an move to a luxury fiat in a big city .

J In North Yor kshire. 8 At home.

2 In a big old farmhouse. 9 Computer systems.
3 Three. 10 She's a painter.
4 Sue has. 11 Two of them.
5 The cooking . 12 By bus.
6 The hou sework. 13 In the nea rest town .
7 Th e garden . 14 Teo miles.

"'eOO DOt use. "'hen the su&fect Isa gUeltiun word like who or ......
Who opI'lIftf tile window? (NOT Wil e tlill epeR...?)
What happetwd to .'lourann; (NOT What ,I'd RHjIfe1f .•2 )
Which ('OsLs more? (NaI' Whieh MS €8St Rf8RY)
But we use do if the question word is the object.
Who do you be/iew - him or mel
Whot did.'lOU haw for supper?
What dof's 'CtItalysl'meanl

} Look at the test again. and write questions for these a nsw ers.
1 George does.
2 Joe and Sue.
3 Pam does them.
4 Alice.
5 Mon ey.
6 One orthe cars.
7 The roof.
212 B ASIC SENtENCE-STRUCTURES

what ... like. what time. what sort etc

Note the di1Terence between howl and what ... like?
We use how; to ask about things that change - e.g. moods. health. work.
We use what _•• lib] to ask about things that don't cbange - e.g. people's
char-deter and appearance. Compare:
'How's Joel ' 'He's very well.'
'Wha t 's Joe lib?' 'TaU. yood-looldng. a bit shy.'
'How does aile seem Wdayl' 'Much happier.'
'Wha t does your sister look llker ·Slwrt. dark and cheeifu'~lookjng.'

1 Make quesncns with how or ..hot ... like.

1 ('your flat?') 'Small but very comfortable.'
2 ('your mother?') 'Fmc. thanks.'
3 ('work going?') 'Not very well at the moment.'
4 ('businessl') 'Terrible.'
5 ( 'Anile's boyfriend?') 'Not vel}' nice.'
6 ('School?') 'Much better now.'

Other common expressions beginning wilh what:. . ., dnte. wJtat SDrt 0/.
whAt eoJour. what siu. ...hat make. Note the way they are used in
sentences.
What tJmedDes thefilm sUIrt? (Nm USUALLY At ",hilt lime .•.J
What sort ofmusic do you like?
What size areyour sliDeS? What size shoesdo you wear:
What t:tJlour arehereyes? Wlutt roloor r~s has sM got?
What make is your ('{lr? What mdkr 01car didyou get?
Ever can be used with a question word to express surprise.
Who eft'r gave you ,hal neclda{'e? What rwr does sIte sn in him?

2 Complete the questions with a suitable espeesston.

I _ _ jeans do you wear? 7 __ food do you like?
2 __ is her hair? 8 __ are your gloves?
3 __ books do you read? 9 _ bike is the best?
4 __ is your TV? 10 __ did you find that coat?
5 is the concert? )) _ _ told you you cou.ldsing?
6 _ _ does the tratn leave? 12 _ _ are you going to do?
BASIC SENTII!"NCE-SrRUCrU"f'S ...
negative structures
To make negative verb forms. we put not after aD aus:lUary verb or h .
If there is DO other auxiliary, we use
_flo
..
" -"
Wi' han not/oroolkn. It wasn't raining. She €an't swim.
Tlml isn't right. I don't liki' the soup. (NCIT lUke RS't tRl! 58~.)

Do is followed by the infinitive without to.

I didn 'l twnk. (NOT , AIR', ... &It,.." '''''''''''11' CII'NIfI"" ,)
Do is uot used with other auxillary 'Verbs or (nonnally) with be.
You musUr" worry. (NOT Veil fleR" MIN' W8F!1t.) Tea Isn't read.IJ.
Do is not used with infinitives or .;ng forms.
It"s important not to worry. (Nar ... f8 116,.', W'8R'f1.)
It's nice sitting bere anti not worldng.

I Correct these sentences by making thero negative.

1 Marx discovered America. .' fan: did,, '1 tli Sl,'fIVt>r AtIIl'rim.
2 Austrians speak Japanese.
3 Roses are green.
4 Cats can Uy• .
5 Shakespeare was French.
6 Fridges run on petrol.
7 The sun goes round the earth.
8 Telescopes make things smaller.
9 There are seventeen players in a rugby team .
]() BanaD3S grow in Scotland.

We do oot usedo with other ne~ative words like nnn or _nU".

He nrvu 11'0'*5. (NOT He JileS Hew,. ...",14,) It hardly matters.

'Leave it, 'Icrry.I slept with him, but it didn 't mean anything.'
negative questions
CONTRACTED (INFORMAL) \.lNCONTRACTED (VERY fORMAL)
Isn't it nady yet? Is it not rtody yef?
Why hIrftn't fIOII. ,""tuft to Ann? Why hft fIOU not writun to Ann?
c.m·tshe .......? Can,hr not swim?
Note the different position of n't/not in contracted and uncontracted
structures.

1 Write informal negative questions to ask somebody:

1 if she is not cold 4 if the shops are not d osed
2 why she is not eating 5 Htbe postman has not rome
3 ifsh edocs not speak Frenc h 6 ifber mother is not at home

We often use negative questions to cooIin:a that somethIns bas

happened. is true. etc. The meaning is similar to 'k's lrue that ...• iSD't
W·
Dldn', you go and see llelfn yesterday? How is she?
We can use negative qu estions to make expressions ofopinion less direct.
Wouldn" it be better to swillh the ligld on?
(Less direct than Il,vollld be better ...)

2 Use negative quesUons to coo'b-m the following ideas.

] I think you went to Paris last week. - IM" "1 ~/OU go ...?
2 I think you speak German.
3 That looks like Pamela in the green dress.
4 I believe you studied at Cambridge.
5 Perhaps this is your coat.
6 I think your father is a doctor.
7 I thought Ton y was going to come with us.
8 You'll be in Edinburgh next week. won't you?
9 I think you 're making a mistake.
10 Perhaps it would be better to stop now.

An:: er use of D tive questions is in po te Invltationl:.

Won't you come In? WOIIldn'tyou like somellling todrinkl
But we do not use negative questions to ask people to do things for us.
Can yotJ lleJpmei You couldn't Jwlpme. could you?
BUT NOT ea..·' Hey help /'lIe.' (This sounds like a cnuctsm.I
BASIC SE"TENCE·STRUCTURES

We can also use negative questions to dleek that somethJol bas not b8ppened, Is not
1nIe, de. The meaning is like'ls It true that ..' oot ",r .

Don', youfnJ well? 011 dear. Can', they £OIIfe this evening?
Negauve quesuons can express surprise that something has not happened, is not
happening, etc, This may sound critical.
Hasn', 'ht posfman anne yeI? Didn'f she tell you she was morried?
Can"' you uad? It says 'closed'. Don', you. ever fjsfnllQwhat 1say?

A 3 Use ceganve questions to confirm the folJo"'ing ideas,

1 It looks as if she can't swim. - elm', sill' swim.;
2 Is it true that she didn 't pass the exam?
3 I believe you m ay Dot have paid for yOUT ticket,
4 I think perhaps you didn't lock the door.
5 It seem s as if you can't understa nd English, I said 'No',
6 I'm afraid you don't like my cooking.
7 Perhaps you didn't get the letter (sent.
8 So you didn 't enjoy (he fllm ?
9 Is it true that you and Iobn aren't going to get mamedz
10 It seems that you don't want any more potatoes,

In answers to negative questions, 'Yes' goes with or suggests an aIftnoative verb, and
'No' goes with or suggests a oqative verb.
'Von't you 'ike it?' 'Yes (I do like it), . 'Aren', you retUly?"No (I'm not ready),'

4 Add Yrs or No to the answers,

1 'Aren't you ready?' 'Yes, I am :
2 'Don't you like this?' 'I don't:
3 'Cao't you stop?' ' I can't. '
4 'Isn't this nice?"1t is:
5 'Haven't you paid?' 'I have:
6 'Wasn't she at home?' 'She was.'
7 'Are n't you happy?' 'I'm not:
8 'Didn't you get my letter?' 'I didn 't:

'Have n't you brought an y vegetables with it?'

For negative qu estions in exclamations, see page 121,

218 BASIC SEHTEPlICE·S'RUClURES

not and no
We use not to make a word. ~ ()(" clause n~,;a."• •;;;.. ._~~"",
Not surprisingly. we missedthe train. (KO'f Me s",..~p";si~!J m )
The students went on strike. but not the tt'achf'rs.
(NOT ... "" the k'arher s.)
I ran see.'Iou tomorrow. but not on Thursday.
I have not received his answer.
We don't usually put not with the !>ubject. Instead. we use a structure
with it.
It wasn't BiJl who phoned.lt was Pete. (NOT NSf BilIphR"ltetl ...)

We use no with a Dono or .Ins form to mean 'oot 8IIY' or 'not alb' (see
e 351.
No teachers wt'nton strike. ( = There wt'ren', any teadwrs on strike. )
l'vcgot no Thursdays/ree this term. ( == •.• no(a1lY Thursdays ...)
I telephonl'd. but there was no tmswer, ( == ••• not an Qnsu'f'r.)
NOSMfJIQNG

1 Put In not or no.

1 I like most vegetabl es. but __ peppers.
2 She was __ able to understand him.
3 They had __ butter left in the shop.
4 They re paired my watch. but _ _ properly.
5 We've gOI __ time to talk now.
6 I can come round. but _ _ tonight.
7 They did _ _ want to help.
8 '00 you smoke?' '_ _ usually.'
9 She's a woman with __ sense of humour.
10 'Shall I put some music on ?' 'OK. but __ [aza,'
.... SIC SfNfENCf·SfRIJCtURES 211

negatives: I don't think etc

We usually use' .Ion', tJtjn. + aflinDative verb, not' tJtjn. + negative verb,
The s'-we is true with beJJew,~,....~hI? and shnUar verbs. ... _
140..', think you .OOW Joe. (More usual than 1 thin. you don', know Joe.)
14on', brliew she's at llOmt'.
1don', suppou you cen It'nd me £5?

1 Change the sentences as in the example,

He's not al home. (I think) - I do,, 'f lhitlk J,t"~ tll homt'o
I You're not right, (1 think)
2 You haven't met my sister. (1 believe)
3 You don't know where Ruth is. (I supposp)
4 We won 't arrive before midnight. (1 imagine)
5 They don't know what they're doing. (I think)
6 I didn't make myselfclear. (I think)
7 You didn't remember to bring my book hack, (I suppose)
8 I haven't got enough money. (I believe)

We use similar structures with seem, uput and _nt.

lledOPsn', semi to lJke you. (Less formal than Ill'sums no' to lib you.)
I don'tnp«t to br back be/orr Monday. (Less focmal than leJCput not )
I nner want re see you ugtlin. (More natural than I wllInt rrenr to S« )

2 Change the sentences as shown.

I I don't think he's well. (He doesn't 500n ,..)
2 I probably won 't be home late. (l don't expect ".)
3 I would hate 10climb another mountain. (I never want ...)
4 lt's not raining, apparently. (It doesn't stem .,.)
5 r probably won 't pass the exam, (I don't expecl ...)
6 He is determined not to get married. (Ill' never wants .•.)

With hopt, we make the foUowln verb negative,

I hope it doesn't rajn . (NOT I . . .', h61'eit FaiRS.)
21B BASIC SENTENCE-STRUCTURES

imperatives
We use ImperaUfts to tell peoplewhat to do. advise them. encourage
them etc.
lm.peratlves look the same as infinitives without W.
Neptlve Impuadves begin with do aotIdou·t.
Look in tbe mirror before you driVf off. Try tlgain.
Have some more tea. Chnrup.
Please do not lean out of the window. Don't worry.
We can use do to make emphatic imperatives.
Do sit down! Do stop mf1Jdng that noise!

] Read the text and put in the verbs from the box .

I add hake don't use oil put in sh ape

POTATO PANCAKE
one JXlund of boiled potatoes Mash the potatoes in butter.
two tomatoes _ 1 _ any milk. Season. _ '_ lhe
---=';'
bu~,te=r='--- chopped onion. choppedtomato.
flou r. and a handful of chopped
tablespoon flou r
parsley. _ '_ well, lightly _4_
seasoning a flat baking dish and _ 5 _ the
parsley potatoes. _ 6 _ into a fairl y thick
one small fmelychopped onion circular cake. Brush lightly with
melted butter and _ , _ in a hot
oven until brown on top.
Bruce & eby; fath er in the Kiuhen

A 2 Can you write a recipe (instructions for

cooking something). or instructions
for doing something else?
Note the ~tion of ""NY'S and mwr: before jmperatives~. 1
AllIPays try to tell the truth. (NOT Try alwaY6...I
Nner do that again.

) Put In aJ.,uys o r n nrtr.

1 Add sal t to potatoes when you cook them.
2 Check the lyres before you drive a car.
3 Cook chicken when it's frozen.
4 Wait more than fifteen minutes for somebody
who' s late.
S Unplug electrical appliances before repairing
tbem.
6 C-ount your change after buying something.
7 Put otr tiUtomorrow what you can do today.
8 Say 'I wiU love you for ever'.
9 Pay bills the da y you get them.
10 Apologise fOl'" things that are not yo ur fault. 'No. no. always land buttered side down!'

In impera lives, do and 4on'. can be used before bot.

Dobeqwet! Do..'. be sil/y.

4 Make s entences beginning do be or don'. be (or the following

situations. Use tbe words and expressions in the box,

an"", back by midnight careful frightened greedy

jea lous 00 lime rude stupid

1 You are a parent; your child ts eating too much .

2 Your child is going to cycle to school through heavy traffic.
3 You are just going to tell somebody that you have damaged their car.
4 Your fourteeo-year-old child is going out to a party .
5 You arc going into a room where a nervous old lady is alone in th e dark.
6 Your ten-year-old ch ild has just told you she is going to leave home.
7 You are arranging to meet somebody who is u sually late.
8 YourchiJd has just told you to shut up.
9 Your boyfriendjgirtrriend is upset because you went out with
somebody else.

5 Write some advice for people "'!Oldng your country. Do this

together with other students if possible.
let's
We can use In's (or- let us - very fonnal) + lnfinlti"r wilhout to to make
sugestions or give orders to 8 group that lDc:lodes tilt ~er.
Let's have a drink. Ln.'s stay in this i'wning.
The normal negative isut's not ...: Don't let's ... is infonnal; Let us not is
very formal.
ILt's not tell Granny what happened.

J Write the suuesUoQIi. usiug Let's. Examples:

2. IA'f "-, /101 .fl,1 s l\"im m irr'l.
.

Note also the common expressionsId 11K see and let ~ tIdRIc.
So what time willI get there? LeI. me an - suppose I start at
halfpast six ,..
What am I going to wear? Let me dtink - it's tooroldfcr
the black dress ...
.ASIC 5£NTENCE·SfRUCfUR£S

exclamations

.IOW + AVlti CTIVE WHAT (+ ADJECTIVE) + NOUN

How beautf/w! What a surprise!
Howstrn1J9f! What strange peoplel
\\'e do not drop articles after What.
WhClt II stupid idea! (NOT VJRat SltifHEl jdtra!)

DO IT OURSELf:

1 Look at the examples, and write a rule to say where the ,......blect
and verb come in an exclamation. Check your answer in the key.
No"' btiJl.ltifl.llshe is! (NOT UBw she is 8esHtijlll!)
How hardhe works! (NOT Uew he "WJrks haw!)
What a 10l of languages your sister speaks!

2 Change the sentences into exclamations with how or what.

1 That's a strange picture. 6 Those children are noisy.
\\"I«1f a slrll",,.. I'klll"·.' 7 He cooks well.
2 That's interesting. 8 We were wrong.
3 That's a nuisance. 9 He talks a lot of nonsense.
4 You've got big eyes. grandmother. 10 She wears funny cloth es.
I \\ 'Iwi "'ill ...~ , 11 She plays badly.
5 That's disgusting. 12 I was a fool.

We can use oqaUve questions (see page 214) as esdamaUOIl5.

Isn't she bMl.ltifu1l Doesn·t he work hard! Wllm·t Jt a surprisel

3 Change the sentences from Exercise 2 into exclamations with

negative quesnoms, Example:
1...,,·, lIll1l l1 Sfrill/./l' "klUre!

'How romantic! Breakfast ID bed!'

222 BASIC SENfENCE·STAlJCTURES

there is
r ue MOST COMMON ST RUCTU RP.S W IT H I NTR ODUCT ORY TII EIl P.
there is/ a re there was/were th ere wiU be
there is/ are going to be there has/have been there had been
Questions: is there. are there etc
Contraction: there's (pronounced liJ;)7J. like the beginningof 'the wo')

We use flterT is to say that somethin8 aIsts (01" doesn't exist)

somewhere.
It is is not used in this way.
Tlwre's a hole in my sock. (N OT I,'. s h9le iR Ill!'} ~k. )
Thue's snow on the mountains.
ThUl! lin t wo men III the door.
Once upon a time then!' were' three Imlt pigs.
Therr will be rain tonight.
Thnr has never b«n anybody like you.
In an informal sty le we often use th£re's before a plural noun.
~'s some SNIpes in the fridge.

1 Put In the correct form of .z Put in tMre·. or it's.

Oren b(n'i).
I _ _ a cat in your bedroom .
1 __ no water on the moon. 2 __ hard to understand him.
2 _ _ no railways in the 18th century. 3 __ cold tonight.
3 Once upon a time _ _ a bea utifu l 4 __ ice on the roads.
princess. 5 _ _ nice to see you .
4 Tomorrow __ l>TIO W . 6 __ somebody on the phone for you .
5 _ _ some soup. if you're hungry. 7 __ a problem with the TV.
6 _ _ any potatoes? 8 __ too late to go out
7 _ _ wars all through history. 9 __ a funny smell in the kitchen.
8 _ _ many tigers lett in the wild. 10 'what's that noise?' •__ the wind.'
9 _ _ an accident - can I phone?
10 I'm afraid __ time to see Granny.

nr.r.lslnlroduces _subjects. ~.:_~ ""

1'hen'. a wlndo.. open.
TM window's open. (NOT 111.4 ; £.. . ..... . .. I,......)

FOf ex lalWtion. of the words UUIt we use to

BASIC S£NTENCE·SlRUClUR£S

More compUcatN structures:

there may/ can/must ell: be there ls likely to be
there is certain/sure to be there is no sense/point/use in .,.ing
there is no need to ,.. there is something/anything/nothing
there seems/appears to be wrong I the matter with ,..
lnji,litil't?: there lo be
· ;ngform: lhere being
U~ hI tags (see pa~ 226}: There will be enough, won't there?

There can also be used with auxiliary be.

11Ien wen children playing in the {JfJrden. ( = Children wen playing ..•)

3 Put togelher the beginnings and ends.

BEGINNINGS llNDS

According to the forecast, 'lie says there's nothing wrong with

I can't see how to open the door. me.'
I'm looking forward to the party. "There seems to be some th ing lying in
OK, children. now I don't want there to be the road.'
That must be Jeff. any noise while I'm on the phone.
There are too many people but there ma y be some tom orrow,
There aren't any tickets now. if you've got a headache -you won't
There's no need to hurry. enjoy it.
There's no potnt 1.0 gol.og our it won't start.
There's something the matter with the car - looking for too few jobs in this country.
'What did the doctor say r There a re sure to be some nice people
'Why have we stopped?' there.
There can't be two people who look like
that.
There must be a keyhole somewhere,
there's likely to be more snow tonight.
We've got plenty of time.

'George, is there a mountain near here?'

224 BASIC SENTEHC£·STRUCTURf:$

dropping sentence-beginnings
In informal speech we orten drop unstressed beginnings of sen tences.
This happens mainly with articles. possessives. personal prooowtli.
aunlia!)' verbs and be. demonstJ'attves and mtroduClory fJIen is.
Car's ru nning badly. ( = The car 's ••.) Must dash. ( = I mllst dash.)
Won't work. ( = It won't work.) Be/our powulsfifty. ( = That'll be...)

I Put back the words that have been dropped and write the
complete sentences.
1 Wife's on hoUday. {, 1)00'1 think so.
2 Couldn 't understand a wont 7 Train's late a gain.
3 Seen Joe? 8 Know what I mean?
4 Careful what you say. 9 Col a pen?
S Nobody at home. 10 Lost my glasses.

2 Make these sentences more informal

by dropping words from the beginning.
I I've changed my job.
2 She doesn't know wh et she's doing.
3 Tharll cost you £10.
4 Be careful of the flowers.
5 There's no time to waste.
6 The bus is coming.
7 Do you speak English?
8 I haven 't been there.
9 He th inks be's c lever.
10 Have you got a light?

We only dr nouns before stressed words.

Ub your Lie. Havrn't 5«n him. c.n't swim.
BUT NQf u"W! seeR mFR. CaR swim. (Affirmative auxiliaries are
unstressed.I
We can drop auxiliary verbs before ~al pronouns except I and it.
You coming? She WQnt something? BUTNOT ~ If. FliiRiR§?

for.ll 1....10fI. of tIIte word. Uurt we use to ask lIbout _ ..... pII _ na-302.
BA. SI C SEHYENCE·5TRUCTURES

dropping words after auxiliaries

In informal speech, we often use just an auxiliary vel"b instead of
ftpeatlngalooser bplesslou.
'Get up!"1 am .' ( ='1amgeUing up,')
He SJdd /Je'dwrltt, buthe hasn't. ( = ... he hasn't written.)
If there is no auxiliary to repeat. we use do.
She said she would phone, and she did.

1 Make these conversations more natural by dropping unnecessary

expressions after auxlJiaries,
1 I ca n't sec you today, but 1can see you tomorrow.
2 I've bought oneofthose blouses. and Sue has bought one too.
3 'You wouldn't have won ifl hadn't helped you .' 'Yes. I would have won.'
4 'That car needs cleaning.' 'It certain ly does need cleaning.'
5 'You'd better phone Bill.' 'I have phoned Bill.'
6 'The photocopier isn 't working.' 'Yes, it is working.'
7 Sbe can't swtrn.but 1can swim .
8 Phil doesn't wa nt to go, and Celia doesn't want to go either.
9 She thi nks I don 't love her, but I do love her.

.. 2 Read the texr. What words have been drupped?

'I came round because I realJy think the whole thlng is too absu rd.'
'So do 1.1 always did (I).'
'You can 't have (2) half as mu ch as I did (3). I mean really. when one
. COllies to think of it. And after all these years.'
'Oh. I know . And 1 dare sa y if you hadn 't (4), I should have (5) myself.
I'm sure th e last thing (want is to go on like this. Because, really, it' s too
absurd.'
'And iftbere's one thlng I'm rwt. it's ready to take offence. 1 never have
been (6), and I never shall be ( 7).'
'Very well, dear. Nobody wants to quarr etiess than I do (8).'
'When a thing is over, let it be over. is what I always say. 1 don't want to
say any more a bout anything at all. The only thing I must say is that when
you say I said that everybody said tbar about ydOr spoiling that child, it
simply isn't what I sa id. That's all. And I don't want to say another thing
a bout it.'
'Well, certainly I don't (9). There's only one thlng I simply can' t help
saying ....
Adapted/rom a pieceby E M DeInjieJd
BASIC SENTENCE·&1'RUCTURES

question tags: basic rules

Question taBS often foUow sentences in speech and infonnal writing.
They are used to ebeck whether something is true. Of" to ask for
agreement.
You haven't seen Joe, have you? This tea isn't very nice, is it?
Negative tags are usually contracted. The contracted tag for I am is aren't l?
Nice day, isn't it? I'm tate, aun't I?
We most often put negative tags after affirmadve sentences, and non-
negative tags after negative sentences. We do not put lags after
questions.

I• I- •
It's cold, isn't Jtl It's not warm, is it? Bl;iNOT bit feU. 1511" IV
If the main sentence has an auxiliary verb or be, this is used in the tag. If
not, do is used. There can be used as a subject in tags,
Shearn swim, €an't she? You wouldn't like a puppy, ",ould you?
lIe Baw you a cheque, didn't he? There's a problem, Isn't then?

1 These are sentences from real conversations. Put in the question tags,
1 I'm cooking tonight, _ _ I
2 We're going to Mum's.tben. __I
3 Your brothers are not being kind to
you today, __,
4 I'm not quite myself, _ _'
5 They weren't ready. __ ?
6 She's not a baby now. _ _ '
7 That's the law, __I
8 He's a lovely Little boy, _ _ ,
9 That fireman can see them, __,
Dave?
10 It must be a year now, _ _ ,
1] It'll be all righL-------.l
12 They look like big candles.-------.1
13 They won't have bulbs, __ ?
14 'Ibere's a ugbt out there, _ _'
15 Cathy's stUl got curly hair, __,
16 She doesn't look well, _ _ ,
17 They've been really horrible. __I
18 I was first really. _ '
'1t'1; always pooryou, isn't it. Albert?
01...... "1\ by C 8/1' 00'11: ( , 19'15
The New VOO'kt ""'Sail"".Inc.
BASIC SENTENCE·Sf.uefURES

question tags: advanced points

We use dwy to reler to nobody, somdlofly and everybody (and no 0fU etc).
We use nOD-negative tags after neRr. no, nobody, h...tIly, ~,ljttJ~.
We use Jt. In question tags to .-eler to not.hJ"9~.,-__
Nobody phoned. did th~? It's hardly rainedall summer, has J,?
She never smiles, drws she? (NOT . . . ."ROt .lte?)
IL'sno good, is it} Nothing can happen, can Jt?

• I Put in suitahle tags,

1 Everybody's here, aren't __I 6 She hardly spoke,-------.1
2 You're never happy, __I 7 Somebody's forgotten their coat, _ _ I
3 'Ihere's no mdk. _ _ ' 8 The re's scarcely enough time, __I
4 Nothin g mat ters, __1 9 You never wrote, __I
5 Nobody likes her, do _ _ '

Informal quntioosJrequests often use negative sentence + question tag.

After Imperatives. we can use won't you/to invite people to do things. and "HI/wouldl
('4n/ranOtlcoald you' (informal) to tell or ask people to do things.
Arter a negative imperative we use ",HI you} After ut,
we u.-.e shall .,.}
You €an't. lmd me £ 5, ('an you? Do sit down, won', you?
Give me a hand, will you? ShUlllp, ('anOt you?
Don'L /orget, will you? l.et's have a party, shall we?

• 2 Put together the sentences and tags.

Do have some more tea Don't drive too fast Let's start again
Pa ss me the newspaper You couldn't tell me the time

could you ? shall we? will you ? won't you? would you?

If a tag is a real question, it is pronounced with a risinS intonation.

If the tag only asks for agreement. it is pronounced with a faUina
loton.doD.

.> <,
1'ht: meeting's al/our o'clock, isn'UU Niceday, isn't i t)
SA SIC 5ENTIEIlIC£·STRUCTURES

short answers and attention signals

In conversation, we often give short answers using
PrOnoun + auxiliary verb.
'Can he swim?' 'Yes, he€an,'
'Has the rain stopped?' 'No, it hasn't.'
'Don't /orget to phone.' 'I won't. '
'S/If likescakes. ' 'She certai nly don.'

1 Write short answers (or these sentences.

I 'Are you ready?' 6 'Have you seen Lest
2 '00 you speak English?' 7 'Can you understand him ?'
3 'U's too hot.' 8 'lie plays well.'
4 'Don't be Iate.' 9 'She sounded tired.'
5 'Send me a postcard.' 10 'Sa y hello to linda jor me.'

Interrogative short answers using aurillary verb + proIlOIlD fUke

question ~) can e~ attention. Interest or~.
'It was a terrible party.' 'Was it?' 'Yes• ... '
'We had a lovely holiday.' 'Dld you?' 'Y~. 14'f went ..•'
'I've got a headache.' 'Hare you, dear? get you an aspirin. . rn
'John likes that girl next door.' 'Oh, dots he?'
'I don't underswlId.' 'Oh, don'tfIDu? I'm sorry.'
Negative replies to affinnalive sen tences can express emphatic agreement.
'It was a 1o~lyconcert. ' 'Yes. wasn't W 1did enjoy it.'
'She's lost a lot of weight.' 'Yes, hasn't sh.?'

A. 2 Rewrite this as a conversanen, putting in Inrerrogauee short

answers. Example:
. II \I'lI.\ II 101"".1/ \I'n1<lill" . " : \ \ '11 \ it,; ' 'l'" ,_ TlI" "'I/, ._.
It was a lovely wedding, Though I didn't think much of Maggie's dress.
That colour doesn't su it her at all. Anyway, I don't really go for c hurch
weddings. The service went on for ages. And I was sitting right at the back,
so I couldn't hear th e vicar. The music was nice. tbough. They played tbat
hymn about sheep. Lovely. I must say I didn't enjoy the reception m uch.
The food wasn't very good. And the bride's father made su ch a stupid
speech. ADd I got one of my headaches. Champagne always gives me a
headache. And I wa s sitting next to that Mrs Poster from down the road.
I can' t stand that woman. She's always criticising. Anyway. I must go.
Nice to talk to you. It really was a lovely wedding.
BASI C SENTENCE·SlRUClURES ...
I (don't) think so etc
We oren use so in answers. instead ora thnt-clause. This Is common after
".afraid."""'. suppa... think.
'Didyou lose?' rln a/raid 50. '
'Do you think Wi'1IhO\'egood "'ftllfter?' 'yes, I hope so. '
"e,t.')
(NOT '¥i's. I
'An you reMlI?' 'f suppose 50.' (unwilling agreemen t)
'Is Ak-x Iw-er 't think so.' (NOT 'I t"iRk U.' OR '1llHflk.')

I Here are some exchanges laken from recorded conversations, See

if you can guess which or the following expresstons was used in
each exchange: rm
a/raid S41,l hope 5O.lsuppose so or' think so.
I 'Is it working?' 'Yes. __:
2 'Dead. aren't they?' '~ '
3 'Do we want it?" 'Not sure. _ _ .'
4 'Is that when she said it?' ' .'
5 'It should be warmer in April.' ' _ _ :
{) 'Did he know who you were?' 'Oh. yes, __:
7 'When is it? Tomorrow?" 'Yes, __:
oo 'you ' re mean, aren " you.}" __. ,
9 'It should be quite easy. though. ' '__:
10 '1 could borrow one of your dresses, couldn 't I?' '_ _ :

Negatives are: rm a/raid not,' hope not,l suppose not and (usuaUy)
I don't think so.

2 Complete the negative answers.

1 'DidyoufindouO"(ajrald).'
2 'Will you be home late?' 'No, (think) .'
3 'We're not ha ving lunch too early. are we?' '(hope).'
4 'It's not a good idea. is it?' 'No. (suppose).'
5 ' 00 they serve lea here?' '( afraid).'
6 'I think she's got a new boyfriend?' '(hope).'
7 'We won't be in time for the tr ain.' '(suppose).'
8 'Is this where she lives?' '( t hink).'
230 BASIC SEHlENCE·STHtJlCTlJRES

so amI etc
So"m' means" am too': sodoes he means 'he does too'; and so 00.
NdtherlNor.rn I means ,,'m Dot either', and SO on.
She's from Scotland. and so "'" I. I was tired. and so wen dre otltus.
'I've lost theIr address.' 'So hGtt ' .' llike dancing. und so ~ he.
1can't swim. andndtheram Bill. 'She didn'[ undusltlnd. ' 'Nor did I .'

1 Complete the sentences with so am I etc or neither/nor am I etc.

) He's tall.and __ h ts stster.
2 'l baveD', pal>d •" _ _ I ' >

3 Penguins can't fly, and __ ostriches.

4 'I love this music.' '__ I:
5 " lost my passport. ' •_ _ Nicola.'
6 I don't like her. and _ _ my friends.
7 The food was bad. and __ tbe wine.
S Sue won't be there. and __ her mother.
9 'Pete looks ill: '__ you:
10 " was n't surprised: '_ _ I:

2 If p6S!oible. work with another student and find five or more

things thal you have got in common. Write sentences. F.xample:
51111' likes 11'llllis. IIIld ,'WI do I.

-3 Look at the pictures, and make sentences about pairsufdtings

using so is etc or mither/nor is etc. Examples:
1'/lI' /JIkl' has !Im two ""lI'l'ls. flIut S(l llas lIu' lIIolOroikl".
Til l' SI," i"x is 110f f,/; I...-. fIIld "d,/lf'Y is (hI' PlJYf//nitl.
.ASIC SENTENCE-SUIUCU/RES
BASIC SUnEHCE-STRUCTURES

it: preparatory subject and object

When the subject of a sentence is an infinitive or a clause. we ge nerally use
It as a preparatory subf«t. and put the In6niliu or clause later.
It 's nice to talk to you. (Moreneturatthan To talk kJ y ou is nice.)
It was surprising th.d 8M didntt (:Ome buck.
Note also the structure It looks 1115 Ulthough ...
It looks 11.5 if she's goin9 to win.
It looks II.S though we'll miss the train.

1 Rewrite these sentences with It ... to make them more n atural,

1 To book early is Important. II i_~ ;I1Ill(lrlullll,' fl( ~ 'k C""/U.
2 To hear her talk like that a nnoys me.
l To get from here to York takes four ho urs.
4 To get u pset about small things is silly.
S To get up in the momlng is nice, but to stay in bed is nicer.
6 To watch him makes me tired.
7 To bea r her complaining upsets me.
8 To say no to people is hard.

2 Put the sentences together using It ...

1 He wasn't there . This surprised me.
11 .\ lI1p r h l'l i IIl1' 1Il//l /... II'//'\/' ·' illc·,..·.
2 She's go t some money sa ved. This is a good thing.
3 He's go t long hajr. This doesn't bother me.
4 John never talked to her. This worried her.
S She should be told im mediately. Gf~
This is essential.
6 He d idn 't remember my name.
Th is was strange. ¥==.m.iJ!ID==f
7 He can' t come, Th is is a pity.
8 The child ren should get to bed early.
This is important.
9 Wo lves attack people. This is not true.
10 She stole mo ney. Thi s shoc ked me.

--
'Can 't I plead with you, Helen? It isn't my wish
that our marriage should end like this.'
BASIC SENTENCE·STRUCTURES

3 Put the beginnings and ends together.

8EGlN NI NGS " NOS I

It doesn't interest me as if we're going to have trouble with Ann again.
It looks how many unhappy marriages there are.
It seems if we have to ask her to leave.
It will be a pity that everybody should have a chance to speak.
It's exciting that be forgot to buy the tickets.
It's important that we'll be a little late.
It's probabl e what you think.
It's surprising when a baby starts talktng.

We can also use Jt as a preparatory subject for an -lng rorm.

This is especially common in the structures Jt's worth ..• and It's no use ...
It's worth .lsiting the We District.

4 Write me 01' more sentences about places in your country,

hqinning It's (not) worth visiting .... because .••

We can also use it as a preparatol'y object.

lfind it dijJicult to talk to you.

5 Put the beginnings and ends together.

BF.GIN N1NGS EN OS

He made it difficult a problem to walk.

I lis bad leg made it that she hadn't written.
[thought it strange what he wanted.
lie made it clea r to hear her stones.
[ find it interesting to like him.

When it i. not n8Ceasaf)' tt Is Impossible to Anybody who has

to change, it Is necea&ary enjoy klling thoroughly ever struggled with
not to change. unless one has plenty poverty knows hoW'
Ludus C,ary of work to do. extremely expensive it
',ronll K Jerome Is to be poor.
knnes &11dwln
It·s e asy to see the
faults In peopfe' know; " was such .. Jovely
it's hardest to see the day I thought" was a
good. especially when pity to get up.
the good isn't there. W Sompsel M nug!>am
Will CIlI'P!I
234 BASIC SENTENCE-STRUCTURES

emphasis with it. what etc

We can enaphasJse a part of a sentence by using the structure It is/was ..,
that. Compare:
The seaetaty sentJake the photosyesterday.
It was the ucretary thatlwlw sent Jake the photos yesterday.
(not the boss)
If was lake that the Sfcretnry sent the photos to yesterday. (not Bill)
If was the photos that the St'Crewry sent Jake yesterday.
(not the drawings)
It was yrsterday that the secretory sent Jake the photos. (not last week)

A I Change these sentences to emphasise each part in turn.

1 The baby put marmalade on Dad's trousers this morning.
2 Maria gave her old bicycle to Pat last week.
3 Ca rl broke the kitchen window with a ladder today .
4 Mark met Cathy in Germany in 1992.

... 2 Change these sentences as shown.

II don't want tea, I wantcolfee. 6 Bob isn't gettin g married, Clive is.
II '.\ /lor I,'" I \1'11111. ;! \ l(~ni'f'. 7 I didn 't see Iudy.I saw Jill.
2 I don't love you. I love Peter. S He's notstudying maths. he's studying
3 Carol isn't the boss. Sandra is. phys ics.
4 I don't hate the mustc.J bate the words. 9 Max isn't crazy, you are.
5 (didn't lose my glasses. I lost my keys. 10 You don't need a nail, you need a screw.

Note the use of pronouns in this structUre In fonnal and informal styles.
FORMAL I~FORMAL

It is I who.am responsIble. It"s IJU' o..a.'s responsible.

It is you. ",ho.are in the wrong. It'sflOu dur.'s In the wrong.

'Irs not the fighting [bate. it's the washmg-upt'

BASIC SENTENC E·StRUCTURES 231

Another way of emphasising is to use a structure with what

( = 'the thing(s) that' ].Compare:
TM wind k«ps me awake. What keeps me awakeIs the wind,
I fretd achangt. A f:hangt Is what I need.
We can use all (that) (meaning 'the only thinK that') in the same way
as what.
AlII nnd is a home somewhere. AlII dJd was lOlJ£h him.

A 3 Change the sentences so as to emphasise the words In ltalks.

1 He wan ts a motorbike.
\ rlmf lit: \l'fllII wi_~ II " /Illltrll; kt'.
2 1 need a drink.
3 I Uke hersense o/ humour.
4 I ha te his jetdousy.
5 Cycling keeps me fit.
6 The travelling mak es the job inte resting.
7 I only w antfive minuus' rest. (AliI want is ... J
8 I found something very stTtlItge.
9 The weather stopped us.
10 I don't understand why she stays with him.

4 Complete qtese sentences.

1 All I need is __ 0

2 What I really like is _~

3 What I really bat e is _~
4 What I want to know is _ _ 0

t.&IOT ",ilU3 "OW~\.~!

R~"T~'" VC;;V 'fiM-
WNZ-.....J vIE Ntl;U!
~?>

"
1:!\
CONJUNCtiONS

conjunctions
Conjunctions join clauses into sentences.
Examples: "",............ whJJe.lf",. ....
She was poor but she was ho'lesL
I went liJ bed beaJuse I was uml.
Can you watchthe kids while I'm out?
I'lldo it 1/1can.

DO IT YOU.SELF.

1 Six of these words carmot be used as conjunctions. (For example,

they could not come just before the clause •.. she went home.)
Which six? Check yOUT answers 10 the key.

after all although and as at because

before by if or smce so that this
under unless until when whether with

One conjunction is enough to join two dauses - we do Dot oonnaUy

use two.
Although she was tired. she went to work.
She was tired. but she went to work.
BUT NUr AI~" Mt WrM UNII. ... W MW/f &9 w ....
As you know, I work very ha.rd.
You klwwthat I work \",ry liard.
BUT NOT ASJjeN kRew. thst I weRe wFM 'lIu'fl.

2 Put the beginnings and ends together.

RP. GI N NI NG S EN ns

Althoug h he was very bad-tempered. after you h ave a meal.

Always brush your teeth and I'U hit you .
Always wash your hands before you have a meal.
As LJz told you. but everybody liked him.
Because I knew her family. he had lots of friends.
Talk to me like that again I did what I could for her.
Don't do that again her mother left for Berlin last Friday.
He had a terrible temper. or I'll hit you.
liz explained to you so I tried to help her.
I was sorry for her, that her mother went back home last week.
Uyou do that again. unless you stop that .
There'll be trouble you 'll be sorry.
CONJUNCTIONS . .7

conjunctions and clauses: position

Some coo)uoctlons and their clauses can go either first or last In a
sentence.
If you neM help, come and set> me.
Come and see meII you neN help.
We often use a comma (.) when the conluuction a nd its clause a re first in
the sentence.

J Write the sentences with the clauses In italics first, when this Is
possible,
1 ['IIcome round to your place after fvefinished work.
2 Let's have a weekend in the country when the weather gelSbetter.
3 You ought to see Paula before you 90 back to Canada.
4 (enjoyed the lecture, allhouglll didn't understand I!VI!rything.
5 Your train leaves in halfan hour. so you'd better hurry.
6 We won't know what's happening unul Seanphones.
7 I'm going to buy some new jeans. as we're going out toniyht.
8 Somebody broke into the house while they were asleep.
9 He hasn't looked a t another wom an since he met Julie.
10 I'm quite sure that she's telling the truth.
11 I'd llke to know whethermy photos are ready.
12 Ill"didn't understand the policeman because he wasdr,a{.

Note the order of events with lH:/on .an.d.'<fi;::,;....

;;;,;. ...
He worked as a salesman before he got mArried.
Before he got m'''"lied. he worked as a salesman
(Both sentences say that he worked as a salesman first.)
She went to China aftn' shejJnlshrd school.
A,Ikr she jJnisheJ ~hool. SIl l! went to China.
(Both sentences say th at she finished school first.)

2 Underline or write down the verb for the thing that happened
lin;t.

1 Ill" did military service before he went to university.

2 I phoned Sarah after I spoke to Bill.
3 Before the rain stopped, he went out shopping.
4 After she gave up her job at the bank, she left her husband.
S I felt really depressed before you turned up.
6 Things were quite different after Susie left.
using conjunctions
Do you know how to use these conjunctions: so t1uIt. (purpose or result),
•• Ionga. 1~ldetf. wfdle (coDtrastl.lIJttJI•• • IJIO"",,-
_~h .?... ..
[d's SUl rt now. so that we re sure to IUl\'f enotlflh lime.
She spoke w:ry quietly, so thut nobody could hellr a word.
You can go out as long as (OR prowidnf) you lill US wheN' you're going.
The summers hereare wet, "hile die wintersore \'t'ry dry .
I'll lookafter the kids until you get back.
l/eeills i/(OR liS though) I'm getting a cold.
In a formal style. where-ll.~ can be used in the sa me way as whJ1e.
Sound trawls at 330 metres per second. whums light trawls at 300.000
kilometresper second.

1 Put in suitable conjunctions.

I You can have my bikc __ you bring it back tomorrow.
2 I'm staying here __ I gel my money back .
3 It was very dark in the passage. __ I couldn't see where I was going.
4 Joe was short and dark. __ his slster wa s the exact opposite.
S You look _ _ you've seen a ghost.
6 He won 't get a ny money __ he finishes the work properly.
7 It looks _ _ it' s going to rain.
R You can cancel theticket _ _ you tell the airline 48 hours in advance.
9 I'm going to th e bank now, __ I'll have enough money for shopping.
10 _ _ I think h is novels are good, h is poetry isn't up to much.

2 Join the beginnings Bnd ends with so thllt. or CiS long as,

BIiGI NNI NGS ENDS

He went to Switzerland he co uld learn Fre nch .

I don't mind you singin g it doesn't rain.
We moved the piano that's OK with you.
We took some blankets there would be room for the
We'll come back this afternoon Christmas tree.
We'll play tennis we would be warm enough.
you do it qui etly.

~ '':* !,:.,tj.jtjCiN'li*atr·:':',I·, ,, .. i a nNe ] i f Ht # _

3 Rewrite these sentences, beginning While ...
J It wa s sunny, but there was a cold w ind.
lUliI" it \ms sli/my. there U'US II cold lI'ilUl.
2 She's very clever. but she's got no common sense at all.
3 I know how you feel. but I think you're makin g a mistake,
4 The job's weU paid, but it's deadly boring.
5 I'm Interested in economics, but I wouldn't want to work in a bank.
6 The hotel was nice, but it was a long way from th e beach.

4 Write sentences about the pictures. beginning HelShe/lt looks

as if ... Use eapeesstons from the boll: to help you,

been painting goi ng swimming going to rain got a cold

had bad news had good news lost someth ing seen a ghost

4 .
;, ,

6 7 8

Compa re 6«auu and haruu 0/. and (al)thouflh and in spite oJ..
. _ _.....
She lost her job buauu she was ill.
She lost her Job brcauseo/her illness.
Althoughfl'hough it was raining. we went outfor a walk.
In spiteo/the rain. we went out fora walk.
conjunctions with -Ing forms
Some eooJuoct:ioDs can introduce clauses made with -Jng forms. This is
common with afkr. hfore. when. whil~ and sin«.
A/Ur tcdJdng to you IjeJt beua.
l.ook In the mirror Wfore driVing off.

1 Put in a sulteble ccnjuncuen.

] I usually have a snack _ _ going to bed.
2 lie bad a heart a ttack _ _ watching a video.
3 __ spending all that money on Cljs I'd better not buy anything else.
4 Usc damp strtng __ tying up parcels: when it dries it shrinks and gets
tight.
S 1I0w many jobs have you had __ leaving school?
6 We went for a walk _ _ leaving for the airport.
7 Put thi s on _ _ shaving and you'll smell wonderful.
S I haven't heard anyth ing from her __ getting that letter last month.
9 I often listen to mu sic __ working.
10 Always wear goggles _ _ working with metal .

2 Put the sentences together. using conjunction + ...fng,

BEGINNIN GS ENDS

Don't go swimming before (Wi) to Eric.

Have a rest every bour or so before (go) on stage.
He has been terribly depressed he began to feel ill.
I had a word with Janet immediately after (eat).
I often solve problems En my head since Uail) tile exam.
She always gets nervous we haven't even had time to unpack.
Since (come) back from America when (dri\oe) long distances.
A few days after (return) from holiday while (run).

A lew conjunctions (e.g. until. when. if) can be used with past participles.
Lt'Dve in oven until roolmf.
Whnr qmstionftl. he lknied everythiny.
I can usually remember namestmd/ares if giwn mouyh time.
CONJUNCTIONS

-ing clauses without conjunctions

It is possible to bave ~fnB and -ftI clauses without cootunctioos. These
are usually rather formal. and are most common in written ~ "• ._ _"""
H""ing/uJled w persuade John. 1tried his brother.
( = As I hadfalkd ... )
USftfaonomJtIIUy. a tin willlfistlor weeks.
( = Ilit is used eamomicaUy ...)
Puttlng down my newspaper. I u'£nt ever to the phone.
It rainedlor two weeks on end. c.ompleuly ruining our OOIl4"y.

'" I Rewrite the sentences, using -ing or -ed clauses without

conjunctions.
1 As he had left school a t twelve. he had no qualifications.
2 It tastes delicious ifit is fried in butter and sprinkled with lemon juice.
3 She walked over to her desk and picked up a paper.
4 The water ca me Into-the houses. and flooded th e downstairs rooms.
5 As I knew his tastes, I took him a large box of expensive chocolates.
6 lie put o n his coat and went out.
7 A lorry broke down in Bond Street. and ca used a massive traffic jam.
S As I dido't want to frighten her. I phoned before I went ro und.
9 [fit is sent first class. it should arrive tomorrow.
10 At 3 a.m. Simon cam e in. and woke everybody in the house.

'" 2 Complete the text with words &om the box.

Idreaming
thrown
getting sacrificing thinking

Then they quarrelled. and Micky._'_IDs head wa s getting too hot for h is
tougue. went out to the dunes and stood in the wind _ , _ a t th e sea. Why
was he tied to this weak and fretful man? For three years since the end of
th e war he had looked after Charlie. _'_ him out of hospital a nd into a
nursing home. then to houses in the country. _ 4_ a lot of his own desire to
have a good time before he returned to Canada. in order to get his brother
back to health. Micky's money would not last for ever: soon he would have
to go. and then what would happen?
Bul when he returned with cooler head. the problem carelessly _ 5_ off. he
was kind to his brother. Tbey sat in eased silence before the (ire. the dog
_ 6_ at their feet. and to Charlie th ere returned the calm of th e world.
V S PriuheU: The Two Brothers
CONJUNCTIONS

both ... and; neither ... nor

These expressions can }oIn nouns. verbs or- other kinds of expression.
She plays both tennis and badminton.
--
He bof.h sinss and dances.
That's llt'ither inuresting nor true.
NeJtf!n Sue nor Ann was there.
The place both depressed meQ1Jd modeme want to go home.

1 'Din the ,,;entenc.es with both ... and or ,.,.ith"r ... nor.
1 He repairs cars. lie repairs motorbikes. / Hi' ""'dj~ lIt./" .•. J
2 He doesn 't speak F..nglish. He doesn't spea k French.
3 I don't like her. I don't dislike her.
4 I admire him. I distrust him .
5 Paul is on holiday. Sally ts on holiday.
6 The secretary did not have the file. The accountant did not have the 61e.
7 The play was funny. The play was shocking.
8 lie collects paintings. lie collects jewellery.
9 You 're not right. You're not wrong.
10 She didn 't look at me. She didn't say a nyth ing.

2 Write sentences using both ••• ilIndor nrilher ... nor. Example:
.\dlll/·r ju{ill\ GIC·...IIf IIor Citldt'rl'(ftj /wd Ii n',

Queen Victoria Dickens HdenofTroy Kennedy

Sitti ng BuU Cinderella Shakespeare julius Caesa r

3 Make sentences about yourselfand another person. using

both ... and or neither ... nor.
CGNJUNt:nONS 243

leaving out that

\'\'e often leave out the conjunction that in an informal style. This happens
mostly after very common "erb~s~an ;;;;d
;.;;ad
~l~_
~;;;;·'~es
;;;;. ..1
She ~ (that) I was right. Tm glad (that' you're better.

1 Put the beginnings and ends together.

8F.(;INNINGS EN US

Did you know he didn't say hello to you.

He suggested I phoned YOUf
I believe I wouldn't forget your birthday.
I expect she wasn't angry with me.
I heard there were mice in the cellars
I thought this is your coat.
I was surprised we might like to go skiing with him.
I'm glad we've had thi s talk.
It's funny you laverne.
TeUme you'd get lost .
Were you surprised you'd got a new joh.
You knew you've seen this already.

We can also leave out that. in an informal style. after so, such, now,
providrd.
Come in qukdy so (f1u,t) she doesn't hear you.

... 2 Put in the right conjunction. with that if the sentence is formal,
and without that if It Is informaJ.
1 He may use the flrm's car __ he pays for a ll petrol used.
2 I left the bedroom door open __ I'd hear the phone.
J __ she's sixteen she thlnks she can do what she likes.
4 It was __ a serious operation __ she wa s not expected to live,
S dosed-ctrcuit television wa s installed _ _ everybodywould be able to
watch the perfonnance.
6 You can go out _ _ you're back in time to give me a hand with the
cooking.
7 __ the new managers have taken over we expect the company to
become profitable in the very near future.
CONJIJNCnONS

tenses after conjunctions

If the exact time Is shown once in a sentence. this may be enough. So
tenses are simplified after many conjunctions.
for example. we often use present tenses instead of will ...
Thls discovery will mean that we spend less onfood .
1 will be delighted if he wins.
We use a present perfect (instead of a future perfect) to express
completion.
I'll tell you when fw: finbhrd.

I Complete these sentences using will once and a present tense

once.
1 You (find) ham burgers wherever you (go).
2 When ((have) time, I (wri te) to her.
3 (you swy ) here until the plane (wk e) DO?
4 lt (be) interesting to see wh ether he (rewgnise) you .
5 I (go) where you (go).
6 He (give) £ 5 to anybod y wh o (find) his pen.
7 One day the government (ask) people what they (want).
8 You (find) all the shops (be) closed tomorrow.
9 Whether I (Win) or not. I (htlVi') a good time.
10 As soon as I (arrive) I (phone) you.

'I'll call you back in twenty minutes when the restaura nt iscrowded:

for .xplarwf:kIns of the "onho tt1at " . a... to ~ aDcMrt . . - _ . ... .. ~ 2.

CONJUNCTIONS

After- conjunctions. we often use simple past teases Instead of would.

ll~ would never do anything that made her unhappy.
It would be nice if slw asked be/ort! she borrowed things.

... 2 Complete these sentences. using would ••• once in each.

I In a perfect world. you (beablt:) to say exactly what you (thin k).
1 I (always try) to help anybody who (be) in trouble, whether (/mow)
tbem or not.
3 He (nt'verdo) anything that (go) age test his conscience.
4 It (be ) nice Ifeverybody (have) what they (want) .
5 I (hit) anybody who (talk) to me like that.
6 In your position, I (tell) the boss what I (think).
7 I (be) h appier if I (can) live where I (like ).
8 I kn ew he (notgil<e) me what I (ask) for.
9 lfwe lived in London. it (mean) that we (spend) less time travelling.

We sometimes use simple tenses instead of perfect or progressive.

I hadn', understood what she saId.
H~'s working. But at the some time as hr works. he's exercisilly.

... ] Complete these sentences.

1 I (be) sorry that I (not help) her when she (need) it. (simple past twice.
pas! perfect once)
2 It (be) a good time while it (last) . (simplepast and present perfect)
3 I (USWlIJy like) tile people I (work) with . (simple past and present perfect)
4 Por the previous thirty years, he (do) no more than he (iteM) to.
(simple pa$t and past perfect)
5 Usually when she (talk) to you she (think) about.something else.
(simple present and preSeliL progressive)

... 4 Complete these sentences in any way you like.

1 I would never __ a person who _
2 It would be nice if _
3 In a perfect world. you would be a ble to _ _ when _
4 I would be heppler tl__ what _

'Nobody calls me stupid. Meet me

outside when the big hand and th e
little hand are on the 12.'
indirect speech: why things change
I Look at the ted. and write down aU the words and expressions
that aredUTerent in 8i11's and Peter's sentences.
BILL (on Saturday evening ): 'I don't like this party. I want to go home
now .'
PIlTER (on Sunday morning): 'Bill said that be didn't like the party. and
he wanted to go home right away.'

DO IYOUR81L
2 Which do you think is the best explanation for the differences?
Check your answer in the key.
I After verbs like said. you change tenses and pronouns tn English.
2 The tim e. place and speakers are dilTerent.
3 If the main verb is past. the other verbs have to be past loa.

1 Read the dialogue. Imagine that 8i11 talks to a friend lhe nert day
and tells him about the conserseuon, us!nglndi.trct speech
structures ('J saJdltold her that ...: so she asked if •..•). Write down
len or more words in the cenversanon that would have to be
changed in 8iU's reporL
BIll': You 're looking good today.
ANN: Oh. thanks. Bill. You are sweet.
mu.: OK. If you sit down I'll get you a drink.
ANN: Ther-e's nowhere to sit.
BILL: Yes. there is. Over-there in the corner.
ANN: I don't want to sit there. It's too dark. I'll sit here.
BUI.: You can't. These seats are taken.
ANN: No, they aren't.
BUI.: Really, Ann. Why do you always have to argue? They're taken.
ANN: Excuse me. Are these seats taken ?
JOE: Well, this one is. but the other one's free.
ANN: OK. I'll sit here. then. Thanks.
JOE: You're welcome. What's your name?
BIlL: Hey, what about me?
ANN: Ann. What's yours?
JOE: I'mJoe Parsons. Can I get you a drink?
ANN: That's very kind. Can I have a bitter lemon?
BILL: I'm getting her a drink.
JOJ.:: No, you're not, mate. I am.
ruu: I don't believe this. Ann, what are you Playing at]
ANN: Really, Bill, I don't know what's wrong with you today. I'll see you
around,OK?
INDIR ECt SPEECH 247

indirect speech: 'here' and 'now'

Some words may be changed in indlrect speech. because the original
~tt's "here' and "now' are not the same as the ~ ·s.

o.:IT. YOUR••

I The following sentence was said in England In November 1994:

'I've been in this part of the world since March this year:
Does the ftrst or second 'this' have to be chan8ed trthe sentence
is reported:
a in England a week later? c in Holland a week later?
b in England a year later? d ill Holland a year later?
Check your answer in the key.

2 Match the direct and indirect speech expressions. Example:

IIt'rt' - lIwre

DIRF.cT SPEECH:
here last week next week now this this morning
today tomorrow tonight yesterday

INmRECT SPfECH :
th at day that morning that n ight that/the/last
the day before the next day the next week I the week after
the week before then I that day I righ t away there

3 Imagine these sentences were reported in another place a month

later. Put in the 'here' and 'now' words.
1 'I'll see you tomorrow: She said she'd see me till' IIn :1 tIllY.
2 'I'll phone you this evening.' He said he'd phone _ _ "
3 '00 you like it here?' She asked ifI liked It __"
4 'My uncle died last week. ' He toW me his uncle had wed __"
S 'Thts meat tastes funny: She said __ meat tasted runny .
6 'I'm leaving now: lie told us be was leaving _ _ "
7 'I overslept this morning: She told him she'd overslept ~
8 The train leaves al11 .00 tonight.' I was told the train left at 11 .00 ~
9 ' Pete phoned me yesterday .' lie said Pete had phoned him _ _ "
10 ' My brother's arriving here today.' She said her brother was arriving __"
indirect speech: tenses
After reportlng expressions like he Mid.'• .w. site though'. tenses are
usually different from those in the original words (because the reporter's
time Is different from tbe original speaker's time). Verbs become mort past.
ORI GI NAL WORDS RRPOR TED WORDS
(DI RECT S PE ECH ) (INDIRECT SP EECH )
YOt/look nice. I told her sheloolwf niu .
(NOT I (8h1Rer site '88" Riet.)
I €Un't swim. He pretended het:6u1tln't swim.
rm ImrnJng French. She said she was IMming French.
Has heforgot.ten? I wondtml if he had forgollm.
John phoned. She wld me that John had plwnd.
WIll you marry me? I asktd him if he would many me.
(N<1I' ... if"~ will "",tiffS me.)

DO IT Y.OU. S EL

1 Complete the table. Check your answers in the key.

DIRI!CT S P EECH I NDIR ECT SPREe tt

simple present --

-- past progressive
present perfect --
Sim ple past --

-- would ...

2 Complete the reported sentences with the correct tenses.

1 'I'm tired: She said she __ nred.
2 'You play very well.' He told me 1__ very well.
3 'Can you help us ?' Th ey asked irI _ _ help them.
4 'We're leaving.' They told us they_~
5 'She hasn't brushed her hair.' I noticed thatshe __ her hair.
6 'John's had an accident.' Pam rang to say that Iohn __ an accident.
7 'J Icftschool at fifteen. ' Her Ictter said that she __ school at fifteen.
8 'She won't say anything.' I knew she _ _ anything.
9 'Nobody will know.' I thought nobody _ _ .
10 'This letter has been opened: J could see that the letter __.
1 Put in the right tenses.

I had a really funny evening yesterday , Mary . I QOt

talking to this roy in the pub. very nice-looking
he WllS. and I could see he 11 fancy) me. He said he
Do you want
( 2 never meet) anytOOy like me before. and he felt
a urt home?
I (3 have) a very Ul'\1,UlUa1 kind of beauty _ Oh. yes?
I said . Then he asked me if I (4 AAlllt) a li f t home,
What do you so I said no, I (S .be) hungry, so we went out for a
do for a living? cuny .
I asked him what he (6 dol for a living, and he
&aid he ("1 dol sere undercover work tor the CIA a t
the rranent . He said he (8 can not) give me his
address because he 19 move) around all the t.Ime , SO
I asked him why he (10 think) I (11 want) his
address . '!hen he asked if he (12 can) have my phone
llUIIt>E>.r . He said he (13 Co!Il l ) me tOo:1ay to f ix for me
to go to America with him . SO I asked. hiJn why he
(1 4 want) to take me to America. and he said he
(15 thinkl he (l6 fall ) in l ove with me. I knew he
117 lie) , b.lt it was kind of fun . AnywaY. I told
him I (18 have) got a boyfriend a l r eady. b.lt he
said that (19 not Altter) . we (20 be) meant tor I think
eeen other. h e said. and nobxly (21 go) to stand i n f m falling in love
our way , because our lives (22 .be) writtpn in the with you .
stars _
'I'hen he bor-rowed £20 f rem me t o pay the hi 11
because h e said he (23 le"ve ) his wallet at home.
and he went otf to the toilet . and I never saw him
agdin .

Tenses don't cbauge after preseot or future reporting verbs, because

there is no important change of time.
He says hedotsn'f want to play any more. (" don'f want ...')
rll ull her yOllr ideA Is great
Tenses do not usually change after present perfect reporting verbs, either.
The government has announud that taxes will be raised.
... INDIRECT SPEECH

indirect speech: present situations

Situations that have not changed: utbe original speak er was talking about a
present or future situation that Is stiU present or future when the words are
reported, the tenses may DOt change aft.ec a past reporting verb.
DIRECT S PE ECH I~DlRECT SPEECH
The earthIs round. Heprowd that: the rorth is/was round.
'How old lire you?' 'What?' "asktd how old you ~/wue. ·
Where-does she work? I'veoJten wondered where she II1Orkslworlud.
It wlll be windy tomorrow. They said it wUI/would be windytomorrow.

1 Imagine these sentences were reported soon after they were said:
change them to indirect speech in two different ways.
1What day is it? ' lI , k...f It'll,'f (Ill!' if is. lll~kl'jl what cia!, if U'll!' .
2What's the dark-haired child's name? (l asked)
3I'm utterly fed up! (Are youdeap I said)
4U'sraining.(ltoldyou)
5 You'll get your money. (I saUl)
6 The weather is changing. (This article I was rMding said)
7 The repairs will cost £5.000. (AI told me)
8 Is Jane comin g to see us? (Iaskt'd)
9 You're going to the north. (Pal wid me that)
10 You won't pass your exam. (I bet C'.rorge £ 5 yesterday that)
11 lie hasn't got much sense of humour. (Se e - I wid y ou)
12 They're getting m arried next week. (Sue rallB this morning, arufshe said)

We do not keep the original speaker's tenses if we do DOlapee with

what he/she said. or if we want to show that the Ideas do not come
from us.
They were certain that the gods lived In the sky.
Did you hear toot?She said she was !ourr«n!
He announced that profits wtU higher than!orffost.
I didn't know she WP5 ilL

'Ed Ro xeyl I dido'! know you were dead f

Dr-awIot! by """"" FanI<; Cl I'l 'H
",. New Y<dor Mkll...... toe.
IHDIREC' SPEECH '11

indirect speech: questions

Jndb <rt qur*" nonnally have the -bird b '"1ft the "erb.
He wanted to know when I €OIdd start. (NOT ... 'Wltll 6fJlflfllsMrt)
I ash-d where 1M president and' his wife were staying.
Do is nol: used In indirect questions. and question marks arc not used.
I wondertd how tltey/dt. (NOT •.. hew did the!Jftel,')
The same structure Is used to report the answers to questions.
1kntW how dig/ell.
Nobody told me why I had to sign dw p4lper.

I Turn these into indirect questfons, beginning I Q5ked.

1 What's Peter's address?
2 When's the new manager coming?
3 How doe> she know my name?
4 Why ace all the windows open?
5 How many books does he want?
6 Where do they keep the money?
7 What time is the meeting?
8 When does the last train leave?
9 How does the photocopier work?
to How often doe s Ann go shopping?

Yes1no questions are reported with If or whether.

The drO'f!r Qskt>J Iflwhrthn 1 WQnted the town centre.
We prefer whether before or. especially in a formal style.
I enqwml whdhrr she wascorning by road or by air.

2 Turn these Into tndfrece quesnons, beginning I wondered.

1 Do lhey like me?
2 Willi be ready in time?
3 is there any food in the house?
4 Is service included or not?
5 Can I pay by cheque?
6 Does my hair look funny?
7 Has the postman been?
8 Do they speak English?
9 Am I doing the right thing?
to Is the meeting on Tuesday or Wednesday?
202 'HDIRE~' SPEECH

indirect speech: infinitives

We use Infinitives to report sentences about future actions - focexample
~ agreements. orden. oIFers., advice. suggestions. ~

Hepromised w ,...Jk. She agreed to walt for me .

I toldAndrew to be careful. Ann has offered w lu:aby-sit lollighl.
I adviseyou to think again. She asked us not to be late.
The structure questlOQ word + lnfinitive is common.
He asked her how to mab a whik sauce.
Don't tell me what to do.

1 Change the sentences as shown.

1 I won't tell anybody. (Hepromised)
111' l,rolll h l'd flOCltl lt'l11 /lllJ1M1n.
2 I'll cook supper. (Sheoffered)
3 Leave early. (lle advise4 me)
4 Please close the door. (She asked me)
5 I'll stop smoking. (She promised)
6 Why don't I do the shoppin g? (He offered)
7 You ought to tell the police. (She lIdvist'd me)
8 Wait outside. (I w ld her)
9 OK,I'Upayhalf.(lIeu.yrmJ)
10 Park round the comer. (She told me)
11 How do I find the house? (I askedhim)
12 Phone me before nine. (Sh e wid me when)
13 Say you're ill. (lwld him ",hat) 'I to ld him to choose his
l4 We'll pay for the tickets. (WeoJfertd) weapons and be here CIt six.'

This structure is not used aftec ~ or...,.

He suggeskd trying somewhere eJst.~(~';(JT;"~"~':";§;'":'':.~''':::':'l/;:''~');--'''''
The policeman $AId I musn't park there, (NOT ... sttltl Me lI.t 16 ,..... ...)
IN DIR ECT SPEECH

tell and say

Tell and~.are slm.l1ar. but there are cWI'ereoces. Look at the examples and try
to see what tneY are.
lrold the assistanl that I wanted size 8. (NOT I teW I/oHIt I \WU'I~ sl;;e g.)
I said that 1wanted size8.
I said to lire assistant that I wanted size K (NOT I sfiiB tlie /His/sill'll thst ..•)

I said to flt'r 'What areyou doing?' (NOT I teld heF 'What a'f!'J8H tleiRg?')
1said ·hello·. (NOT I t81d hlffIIit'Ue.)
1told him whurry up. (NOT l~iJ him t8 RHR"]j flfJ.)

I Choose the correct forms of the rules. Check them in the key.
1After (saU/tell). we normally say who ts spoken to. We do not put 'to'
before the object.
2 After (say/tell). we don't have to say who is spoken to. If we do. we put
'to' bejore tbe object.
3 (Sa.IJ/Tel1) means 'tnlorm' or 'instruct'. It can't introduce questions.
4 (SaU/TeU) can't normally be used before an infinitive.

2 Put in the correct forms of sllY or kU,

I 1_ _ that I wasn't ready.
2 __ me what you need.
3 Have you __ the doctor about it?
4 Did you __ something to me ?
5 He doesn 'L _ IDe anything.
6 Mary __ her mother she wa s
going to the office.
7 Why didn't she __ goodbye?
8 _ _ him to be quiet
9 Who _that}
10 _ _ that you won't forget me.

'I did say something. but that was yesterday.'

Tell can be used without a personal object in a few expressions hire tell a lie.
lellthe trulh. ttY a slom. tellthe Lime.
indirect speech: special cases
Past tenses are changed to past perfect tenses after past reporting verbs. but only if this
is necessary In order to make the time relations clear. Compare:
DI RECT SP EtiC H I NDIRECT SP EECli
I saw Penny a couple of da.IISU{JO. In his teuer. ht said he'd sem Penny
a roupk ofJays before.
DilWsaurs 1RR aroundfor 250 milffun years. This guy Oil TV S4lid dirwsaurs tun
aroundfor 250 million years.

A. 1 Change these to indirect speech.

J I saw him once before in London. (I knew)
2 Sha kespeare didn't speak French . (The professor smd)
3 He died two years a go. (\Vhen 1got Llrere. I fowid out)
4 Three Lhousand yea rs ago there were tigers in F.ngtand.
(It said on this TV programme)
5 Somebody threw a bomb at the Prime Mini ster.
(It said on this morning's news)
6 The ancient Romans suffered from lead poisoning. (I read in a mayazjrH')

u•....uy unchanged afiec_ reporting verbs:...... perl'ect. """ bnur. lIIOldd. «>td4.
shouJ~. oogh••"!lIIh•. ........

DIRECT SPEI>CH I NDlRI'.CT S PU:C H

I hadn't sun him INfort. She said sht' hadn't sun him before.
You'd betkr go. Ill.' said r4 IIrtUrgo.

Ii. l Change these to indirect speech.

I Would you like a drink? (She askeJ mt')
..,.. 2
3
I couldn't help it. (1 said)
We sho uld be home about six. (They lhouyhll
4 It might rain. (The/ orecm.! said)
:t She must be joking. (Everybody said)
~_ _ 6 I hadn't seen the notice. (1explained)

'I thought you'd Uke to know th at the day after you died you won a $22.5 million lottery.'
INDIRECT SPEECH

revision of indirect speech

I Change these sentences to Indirect speech (reported some tJme
later).
I He' s ill . (She thought)
2 I'U be back tomorrow. (He sakf)
3 I don't like thi s music. (She said)
4 wbere's the bus station ? (She asked me)
5 Have you finished? (I asked him)
6 Nobody loves me. (lfclO
7 Do you want tea or coffee? (lie asked her)
8 I'll clean the flat. (She offerttl)
9 When is the car going to be ready? (l asked)
10 What a m I doing here? (l wondered)
II The earth is not flat. (He proved)
12 These figures can't be right. (l knew)
13 Her cat understands everything she says. (She thought)
14 what does the boss want? (l asked)
IS Did Mary phone back? (l worufered)
16 Did dinosaurs lay eggs? (l wondered )
17 You ought to see the doctor. (Hcadvised me)
18 Would you like a drink? (SheasW him )

2 Choose the correct forms of

the cartoon captions, L
•
'Don't ask me -I thought they
(ort' I
Wfrt' I would be) yours.'
fi[

'Well.now.Swtnnerton. nodoubt you'rewondering (whydid I send / why I ~"t I why Jdid~,rd) for you.'
... STRUCTURES WITH IF, UNLESS. IN CASE ETC

if: ordinary tense-use

1/ can be used with the same tenses as most conJuoctioos.
If you didn't do mudl maths at school. you'UJin d « onomJcs dijJirult.
If that was Mary. whydJdn't she stop and say hello?
Oil}loats if you pour it on water.
An if-clause can come a t th e beginning or e nd of a sentence. When it comes
first. it is often separa ted by a comma (,).

1 Join the beginnings and ends. putting in jf.

BF. GI N NI NGS E~ DS
~ -~ -~~ -

anybody a sks yo u what you're doing. l'Il take it back to the shop.
1I0w ca n you make decisions you're not feeling up to it.
I buy three kilos, say you 're with me.
r don 't get up [iii nine. that'll do for a few weeks.
I can't fi x the video. I never get anything done.
I'll go with you we can catch the earl y train.
The shops are easy to get to you want to learn a musical
We don't have to go out Instrument.
you're ready before eight. you don't know wh at's going
You have to practise on?
you like.
you park ncar the station .

Note the difference between if and what.

u..: somethlng may ha~D. WlIm: somedli~ de6.ni~ h8~.
2 lforwhm?
1 _ _ I become President
2 __ tt gcts dark
3 __ the film finishes
4 __ sbe passes her exam
5 _ _ it doesn't rain tomorrow
6 _ _ I wake u p tomorrow
7 _ _ you ch ange your mind
8 _ _ his parents die
9 _ _ the bu s sto ps

lO ' But are you a bsolutely sure yo u S<l W him ta ke

something. because _ _ you' re wrong ....
STRUCTURES WIT" If, UNLESS, IN C"SE ETC 257

In anIJ~use. we nonnally use a present tense to talk about the future.

(This bappens after most conjunctions -see page 244.)
If I have enough LIme tomorrow. I'U come andsee you.
INaI' Ijlwil-l
rllgive her
"_w...)
your love if lsa her. (NaT ... if I wf.l.I see heF.)
If it's fine tomorrow. I'm going to paint the windows.
For cases when we use will after if. see page 137.

1 Ch oose the correct lenses (present or wIll ...).

1 If you (say) that a gain, I (scream).
2 I (be) surprised if she (marwye) to sell that car.
3 If the boys (come) to supper. I (cook) chic ken breasts.
4 I (need) some money ifwc (go) out tonight.
5 I (miss) you ifwe(move) to Wales.
6 If you ( wash) up. I (dry).
7 AIUl (be) sorry ifHelen (not come).
8 [f yo u (get) lonely, I hope you (phone) me - any time.
9 If you (look) in th e top drawer. you (find) your passport.
10 It (be) funny if Noonan (get) th e job.

4 Complete these sentences any way you like.

1 I'll be surprised if__.
2 I'll be very happy if _ .
3 I'll be sorry u_ .

• 5 Here are a formne-tetler's predictions for

a race. Who doeN she think will win?
Jake will com e first iflloward com es third.
[f Howard comes third, Pete will come seco nd.
Pete won't come seco nd if Jake comes first .
Iloward will com e first if Pete comes tbtrd.
Pete will not come third if Jake comes second.
If Jake com es third. Pete will come first.
Howard will come second if Jake com es third.

We sometimes use if... then to emphasise that one thing depends on

another. (Note that we do oot use 1/... so in this way.)
IJshe can't come to us.11rflI we'U hove to go and see her.
(:-.IaI' ••• 89 lJJt'Jl RW,}8 16 g6 aNd see ReF.)
if: special tense-use
With if. we can use would and past tenses to 'distance' our language from
realit~. when we talk about I!:es€nt or future unreal situations.

MAI N CLAUSE: W O ULD ••• ( 'v) IP- C LA USE: PA ST ']"I,NS E

- -
I would uJl you hername if I knew it.
(NOT I will fftI ye~ hflr I'l6Ilfle) (NOT fjlw81f111 IHIew it.)
She'd be perfectly happy if she had a car. .
What would you do if you lrnt your job?
After 1and we, should is possible instead of would. (Would is more common.j
The if-clause can come first in the sentence.
Ifl knew her name. I should teU you.
This structure can make a sugges tion sound less definite (and so more
polite).
It would be nice if you helped me a bit with the housework.
Would you mInd if I(;time roundabout seven tomorrow?

1 Put in the correct verb forms.

1 The kitchen (look) better if we (hiIve) red curtains.
2 I ( be) sorry if we (rIOt see) her again.
3 [t (be) a pity if Andy (not get) th e job .
4 In (know) his address. I (go) round and see him .
5 What (you do) if you (win) the lottery?
6 It (be) quicker if you ( use) a comp uter.
7 If you (not be) so busy. I (sllow) you how to play.
8 If we (have) some eggs. f (make) you a cake.
9 If you really (love ) me. you (buy) me tbosedtamonds.
10 I'm sure Moira (help) you if you (ask) her.
U Hit (nol be) so cold. f (tidy) up the garden.
12 IrI (have) th e keys, I (show) you the cellar.
13 ur (have ) children like hers. I (send) them to boarding school.
14 Where (you go) if you (llted) to buy a picture framez
15 (you mind) if I (go) first?
16 If all orus (come). (you have) room in your ca r?
] 7 it (be) nice if you (spend) some time with the children.
18 I (not do) this in (not hal'e) to.
STRUCTURES WnH IF. UNLESS. IN CASE ETC 2'.

2 What would you do if ,.J Here are some people's answers. Can you
write the sentencesz Example:

J If I SI"'''I' ('lIi'II"9.'. , \I'll/lid !/iI1iJ CI';'U/. 2

3 4

5 6

3 If you can work with other students. do drawinwo like the ones in
Exerd!te 2, and see if they can write the seeueoces.

As well as would, we ca ll use could ( := 'would be able to') and mJght

( := 'would perhaps').
1oould lend you my car if you wanted.
llemighr change his mind if we talked to him.

4 Complete these sentences usJngcould or might.

1 Ifit wasn't raining. we (play) tennis.
2 lf she asked roe politely, I (feel) like helpin g her.
3 If be wasn't so bad-tempered. I (go) out with him.
4 Ifl had more money, I (get) a small flat.
S If you spoke more slowly. I (understand) you better.
6 If you cooked it in butter, it (taste) better.
280 STRIJCrUR£S WITH IF, UNL ES S. IN C A S E ETC

in go and in went: the difference

The difference between. for example. iJI gq _.1 "ill and 1/1 went ...
• would or between U'1pN1t •.. and U' spoh •... is not a difference of
time. They can both refer to the present or future.
The put tense (and would) usually suggests that the Situation Is less
~bIe, or lessdefintte. or ~bIe, orima~. Com~ _:...' _ ....
If I become President. I'll ... (said by a candidate in an election)
If I"""'.... Presidenl I'd ::: (said by a schoolgirl)
If I win this race. I'll (said by the fastest runner)
If I won this rocc. I'd (said by the slowest runner)
Is it aU right if I invit(' John to supper? (direct request)
Would it w aU right if I inriud John to supper? (polite request)

1 Choose the correct verb forms.

1 Ifshe (comes/came) late again. she'll lose her job.
2 I'll let you know ifl (find/found) out what's happening.
3 lfwc (Iive/liwd) in a town. life would be easier.
4 I'm sure he wouldn't mind if we (arrivejarrive4) early.
5 (We'U/We'd) phone you lf'we have time.
6 HI won the lottery, I (will/would) give you half the money.
7 It (will/would) be e pity ifsbe married Feed.
8 Hl'm free on Saturday, I (will/would) go to the mountains.
9 She (will/would) have a nervous breakdown if she goes on liketbis.
10 I know I'Dfeel better ifl (stop/suwed) smoking.

2 Cboose the most sensible verb Conn.

I Ifl (live/lived) to be 70 .
2 If l (1ive/lived) to be 150 .
3 If I (am/were) better looking ...
4 Ifl (wuke /woke) up early tomorrow ...
S IfScotJand (declares/de,clareil) wac on Switzerland ...
6 Uwe (have/had) the same government in five years' time ...
7 If everybody (gives/gave) len peecent of their income to charity ...
8 Ifeverybody (thinks/thought) like me ...
9 Iftbere(is/was) nothing good on TV tonight ...
10 Ifmy English (is/was) better next year ...
11 Hthe govemment(baru;/bannetl) cars from city centres next year ...
12 Ifl (llave/had) bad dreams tonight ...
STRUCTURES WITH IF, UNLESS,IN CASE ETC 281

ifIwere
After If. we often use arere Instead 0",..s. In a formal style. were Is
oonsidertd more correct.
If 1 were rich, 1 would spend all my time travelling.

I Put the beginnings a n d ends together, using If.., were. Example:

If IIC "'nt' II ""'UtT l1wlfcr. ner [eet I\'OlJlIlll 'llmrl ,

BHG IN NINGS ENDS

he I a beuer dancer her reel wouldn 't hurt.

I I a rabbit I wouldn't be working.
I I forty year'S younger I'd be quite pretty.
I I Moroccan I'd give everybody ten weeks' holiday.
I I the manager I'd go dan cing all night.
it I not so cold I'd go for a walk.
it I Sunday I'd live in a hole.
my nose I shorter I'd speak Arabic.
people I more sensible life in the office wou ld be easter,
she I bette r-tempered there wouldn't be any wars ,

We often use the structure 1 .hould(n't) .., if I were you to ghoe advice.
1 shouldn't worry if 1 wrre fIOU .
1/1 were fIDU. r4 Bet that car serviced.

l Write some sentences beginning Ifl Wfl"t! you ... to: other students 1
your teacher 1 your mother 1 your father 1 your child 1
the Pret.i dent 1 the Pope I ...

'Look, I should sit down ir l were you, Have you

got a dri nk? Now n's nothjng to worry about.
reaUy it isn't ..:
282 SfRUCTUR[S WITH IF, UNLE S S,I N CASE ETC

if: unreal past situations

WUh if. we use woWd' haw ... and past perl'ect tenses to 'distance' our language fn:m.
reality. when we talk about unreal situ.dons in the past.

MAI N CL.... USl::: I F- CL.... USE:

WOULD HAV E: + PA ST P.... RTl CIPLE PAST P ERfECT TEN SE

I would haw ban in bad t rouble iflunehadn't hrlprd me.

Youwould have passed your exam if you hAd worlu-d flamer.
(Nar Ifyefl: we."""_w Wflrkllll ..•)
The if-dause can come first.
If Jane hadn't helped me, I wouldhave bien in bad trouble.

1 Put in the correct verb forms.

1 If I (know) you were coming. I (invite) some friend s in.
2 He (go) to university ifh i:<; father (not be) ill.
3 If'you (say) you weren't hungry, 1 (not cook ) such a big meal.
4 The team (win) if Jones (play ) better.
S [fthey (not wI) off the electricity. I (finish) my work.
6 JfUeU (not invent) the telephone. somebody else (do) it .
7 [f you f oot spend) so much time making up. we (not be) late.
8 TIle burglars (n ot get ) in if you ( remember) to lock the door.
9 lfhe (not be) 3 film star. he (rlOJ beccme) President.
10 If she (haw) more sense. she (sell) her car yea rs ago.
11 If he (not spend ) so much on his holiday, he (have) enough to pay for the house repairs.
12 You (not CfJl.ch) cold if you (take) your coa t.
13 You (Win) if you (run) a bit faster.
14 We (get) better uckets if we (book) earlier .
15 It (be) better if you (ask) me for help.
16 'If Cleopa tra's nose (be) shorter. th e whole history of the world (be) different: (PascaJ)

lusteed of would MW .•.• we can use could ....w .,. ( - 'would beve been
able to') ftud lllJflb ' IuJft ,., (= 'would ~ ~ h.ave ._'),
Jfhe'd runa bitfCl$ter. herould han won.
If I hadn't been sotirm. I might Iw~ naUsed what was happening.
StRUCtURES WI'" IF, UNLESS. IN CASE lYC

2 Write sentence chains with if to show how things could have

been different. Example:
I If lit' 'wd,,'( lI'orkrd so II(/rd, Iii' l\'Ould" 't lIal'e IHlssed /lis exams. If Ill' IUIlI,, ' f
(H,:>sNIliis exaFl/ s. lit' \w"hl,, ', 11IfI't' none to Uflil'f'rsil!l. I) III' /radII" !lOll(' CO
W,il'f'rsi(ll, ..•

1 He worked hard - passed exams - went to university - studied

langu ages - learnt Chinese - went to Ctuna - went climbing in TIbet
- tried to climb Everest - disappeared in a snowstorm
2 He bought a bicycle - went fOl'" ride in country - fell off-woke up in
hospital- met beautiful nurse - wrote bestselling novel abo ut her -
got rich - married beautiful nurse a nd had three charming children -
lived happily ever after Ifhe hadn 't bought a bicycle, ...
3 Mary's mother went out tha t even ing - Mary cooked for herself- got
Interested in cooking - opened very successful restaurant - had Prime
Minister as customer- PM ordered mussels - mussels poisoned PM-
PM died - Mary went to prison for life

3 Jfyoll can work with other students, make Hsen tence chain for
them.

This structure is sometimes used to talk about present and future

situatioos whlch are DO loDger possible because of the way things have
turned out.
Ifmy mother had been al1ve. sift! would have bam dghty nert year.
(OR lfmy mother were lllive. she would be ...)
lfmy mother 'tadn't knockedmy father off his bicycle thirty years IlgO,
I wouldn't haw b«n Iren now. (OR ... I wouldn't be here now.)

'jus t think. I'd have been an old man by now if I'd ever grown up.'
... STRlJClUAES WITH IF. UNLE S S,IN CASE ETC

unless
Villas means 'If not'. in the sense of 'eu:ept if".
Come tonight unless I phone.
( == •.• I/ldon't phone { ... a«ptl/l phone.)
I'll take the job unless the pay is too low.
Note that after unless we use a present tense to talk about the future.

1 Join the beginnings and ends together. using unless instead of

iJnot. Example:
1'I1/H.' //{Ifk 10llwr/"OII' 1I"'t'S ~ l h,'n.',s II slrik,'.

BEGI NNIN GS ENDS

('II be back tomorrow ff'hedocsn't start working.

He'll get thrown out of school iff don't phone to say I can't come.
I always watch TV in the evenings if I don't go out.
Let's have dinner out if it doesn't rain.
I'll see you at ten if the children don't want it.
I'll teU you a good joke iftbere isn't a c hange of government.
Things wW go on getting worse if there isn 't a strike.
We 're going to have a picnic - if you 're n ot too tired.
You a ID have the last sa usage if you don't know th e code.
You ca n't open the door - UYDU haven 't heard it before. ,

My wife will be upstt ifl don 't gel back tomorrow.

(NOT A ~ .rfl~ ,WII "" Nt,.'
N~' or ,,,., ~ " " " JM% 'Ifoot ' doesn't
mean 'except if here.)

2 Which of these seetences can be rewritten with unJ~ss?

1 I'll be surprised Hbe doesn't have an accident soon.
2 It will be better il-we don 't tell her anything.
3 You can have the car tonight if Harriet doesn't need it
4 I'll teU you if I can't come.
5 I'm going to dig the garden this afternoon nit doesn't rain.
6 She'd look nicer ifshedidn't wear so much make-up.
STRUCTURES WITH IF, UNLlSS,IN CASE ETC ...
incase
We use in case to talk about prec::8utioDs- things we do to be ready for
what mlaht happen. After In cast we use a present tense to talk about
thefuture.
l'\>e boughta chicken in case you.r mother sttlys to lunt:h.
1 wrote down her address 1ft case I forgot it.
We can use should .,. after in case -this gives the idea of' by cha nce'.
Should is comm on in sentences about the past.
I've bought a chicken in case your mother should stay to lunch.
l wrote down Mr address In case I should/orget it.

J A woman is packing to go on holiday in Austria. Make sentences:

SHI;'S PACKING:
a Germ an phrase book a pack of cards a racket
a thick sweater a swimsuit aspmns binoculars
her address book some books walkin g boots

IN CASE:
she decides to send postcards she has time to read
she meets people who play bridge she wants to go walking
the hotel has a heated pool the hotel sta ll don 't spea k English
the SWl gives her a headache the weather is co ld
there is a tennis court she wants to go bird-watching

... uar is not the same as q. Com~:

l'Ubuy a bottle0/ wine (IWW) jft CQse Rogercomes (later).
I'll buy a bottleo/ wlne (later) if Roger comes (and i/he doesn't come
1 won't).

2 Iforint:ase?
1 I'm taking my umbrella with me ~_ it rains.
2 I'll open the umbrella __ it rains.
3 People phone the fire brigade __ their houses catc h fire.
4 People insure their houses _ _ they catch lire.
S We have a burglar elarm __ somebody tries to break in.
6 The burgl ar alarm will go olf __ somebody tries to break in.
7 I'U let you know _ _ I need help.
8 I'll take the mobile phone __ I need to phon e you.
... STRUCTURES W ITH IF . UNLESS,I N C A S E ET C

it's time. would rather: structures

Infinitl~~ are possible after- fl'. time and would rather
(= 'would prefer'),
Would rather is followed by an infinitive without w.
I.'s time to buy a ncw car. I.'s time/or him toffo to bed.
She doesn't want togo olJl. She'" ruth" stlly at Iwme.

I Put the expressions together (0 make conversations. Example:

'1 r \ 1;1111' /(l !In 0111. • 'I'd rUlII/'r ~ W.I , III Ilt'lIl,',.

IT 'S TIME T O
go out. dean the car. cook supper. get a new fridge.
get your hair cut. go home. invite the Harnses.
plan ou r trip to Scotland. see the dentist.
start work on the garden.

j'D RATHF.R
slay at home. go on usin g the old one for a bit.
have something cold. invite the Iohnsons. keep it lon g.
not clean it today. go 10 Wales. see her next year.
start next week. sta y here for a bit longer.

'I'm afraid we've done all we can do. Now it's 'I often say, Mrs Dent. I'd rather have your little
time to play golf.' Christophe r in my class than all the bright, clever
onest'
StRUCTURES WITH IF, UNLESS,IN CASE ETC ..7

In clauses after ft'. drtN and would rather, a past tense has a present or-
fu1llre meaning.
It's time he went to bed. Itts time you washed thosetrousers.
'Shalll open a window?' 'r d rather you didn't. '
Don't come today. Wetd rather yOUQ:utU! tomorrow.

2 Write sentences u~inglt's time you/he/etc.

1 You ought to clean that ca r.
It 's l illlt' !/I 'II d n/llt'tl dill! ver.
2 She should get her hair cut.
3 We ought to have a holiday.
4 You need t o cut the grass.
5 You sbould wash that swearer.
6 You ough t to stop smoking.
7 lie ough t to grow up.
S We ought to paint the kitchen.
9 He needs a new car.
10 That team hasn't won a match for- ages.

3 Rewrite the second sentence in each conversation, starting with

rd rather we/you/etc,
1 'You'd better phone Judy.' 'No, you phone her.'
1',' rll//l('r !II'" IJfWlh'I! I/I'r.
2 'Let's talk things over.' 'No, let's talk tomorrow.'
3 'Shall) come at nine?' 'Ten would be better.'
4 'I'll phone Sue.' 'No, don't.'
5 'Can sbe wor-k with you ?' 'why doesn't she work with Maggie?'
6 'I'll cook tomorrow.' "Tonight would be better.'
7 'Ask that policeman.' 'You ask him.'
8 'Mark wants to go out. ' ' I'd prefer him to stay in.'
9 'Can they use our sbee tsz' 'It would be more convenien t If they brought
their own:
10 'The governm ent wan ts to cut taxes.' 'It would be better if they did
something about the homeless.'

4 Write a sentence beginning 't's tirM the government did

somrthins/or/about .••

5 The government is planning to build ten new motorways. Write a

sentence beginning rd rather tlwy spmt the money on ...
wish. if only: structures
Wish and if only can be used With W'OUld and past teases (like if-see
page 258).
These structures express regrets. and wishes ror unlikely or impossible
things.
lj only is more emphatic.
Past tenses ace used to talk about the present.
I wish I was ba ter looking. I wish I spoke French.
Don't you whh youoould/lyl If only I knew more people!
Were can be u sed instead of was. especially in a formal style.
He wishes he were teuer looking_

] Write sentences beginning' wish _._ or 1/ only ...

I He smokes. 6 I don't nkedanctng.
I \\';:;11 Ill' dill,, ", slIlllke, 7 It rains all the time.
2 I don't speak Ru sssian. S She works on Sundays.
3 I haven't got a car. 9 I can't eat eggs.
4 I'm not hard-working. 10 The radio doesn't work.
S I'm bad at sport.

We use wOldd ••• to talk about things that we would like people (not) to
do. This often expresses dissatisfaction or annoyance: it can sound critical.
I wish you would go home. 1/ only the postman would romt'!
We can use this structure to talk about things as well as people.
1wish this damned car would start. If only it WOIIld stop rainmg!

2 Write sentences beginning 1 Write some sentences

I wish ... would ••. beginning:
1 Somebody won't stop talking. I wish I had ...
1l1'is" he l\'tJllIif .';11'1' 1111kin". If only I could ...
2 Irs not snowing. I wish I spoke .._
3 The phone keeps ringing. J wish I kn ew .__
4 The baby won 't stop crying. ff only I was ...
5 'Ibekenlewon't botl. f wish I wasn't _..
6 The traffic Ilghts won 't go green.
7 Your mother ha sn't written.
8 Pat hasn't found a job.
9 The exam results haven't come.
10 Spring hasn't come.
StRUCtURES WitH If, UNLESS. IN CASE EtC ...
We use a past perfect tense to express regrets about the past.
I wish you hodn't said that
Now she wishes shehad gone to university.
Ifonly she hA"dn't told the police. everything would be all right

4 Put the begtnnjngs and ends together. using' wish + past perfect.
hample:
, ",i.d, rff teen /lin 'r to Ill " ~iSlfr \Vhf'll It'(' \\'f'ft' kid~.

BEGI N NI NGS END S

(be) nicer to my sister a bet ter school.

(choose) a different career.
(do) more travelling harder at university.
(go) to last ni ght.
(go) to bed earlier my teeth.
(ool gel married) the truth.
(not tell) him when I had the chance.
(SIlve) mo ney when I was eigh teen.
(study) when I was earni ng a good sa lary.
(take belle, care of) when we were kids.

I WISH I WAS EIGHTEEN AGAIN (1978) (wm) Sonny

Throckmorton (P)George Burns.
I WISH I WERE ALADDIN (1935) (wm) Mack Gordon - Harry
Revel (l)Film: nuo For Tonight , by Bing Crosby. (P)Bing Crosby.
I WlSH I WERE IN LOVE AGAIN (l937) (w) Lorenz Hart (m)
Richard Rogers (l)Musical: Babes In A rms, by Grace McDonald

I and RoUy Pickert. (R)1948 Film: Words A nd M usic, by Judy

Garland a nd Mickey Rooney,
I WISH I WERE TWINS (SO I COULD LOVE YOU TWICE AS
MUCH) (I934) (w) Frank Loeeser -, Eddie De Lange (m)Joseph
Meyer <P)Fa ts Waller
I WISH IT WOULD RAIN (l96B) (wm ) Barrett. St.rong - Roger
Penaabene - Norman Whitefield (P)The Temptations. (CR)
Gladys Kn ight and The Pips.
I WISH IT WOULD RAIN DOWN (1990) (wm) Phil Collins (P)Phil
CoUins.
I WISH THAT WE WERE l\fARRIED (1962) (wm) Marion Weiss
- Edna Le wis (P) Ronnie and the Hi-Lites.

D and H Jacobs: Who wrote that song?

relative who, which and that
We etten jotn sentences by putting.ho or .1Ik.. I'relanve pronouns') in
~laceof he. she,ll Of" rMH. WI;: use wfIofor ~Ie and wid"" rorthin~

I've flot ajrieml. He collectsstamps. - I'll(' got Q friend who cottects stnmps.
(NOT .•• ",hg he f8/Ieet6 6h1 RljJ5. )
There's Q problem. It worries me. - Thffe's Q problem wh1€h worries me.

I Join the sen tences with who or whIch .

BEG INN ING S ENOS

Do you know a shop? He lives next door.

I know somebody. He stoic my car.
I wan t some plates. He/She deals with exports.
[ W<l S at school with the man. U tsn't working.
I'd like to spea k to the person. It needs to be eaten.
She 's got friendly with a boy. ft sells good coffee.
The police haven't found the man. They last for years.
There's some cheese in the fridge. She cou ld mend that chair.
We've got some light bulbs. They can go in the microwave.
This is the switch. He is driving that taxi .

We often use tlurt instead of which. and instead of who in an lnfonnal style.
There's a problem that you don't lirukrswnd.
1know some peoplf' that ('DUkE help you. (inlOrma!)

2 Rewrite (our or more o(the sentences fn)m Ellercise 1 u sing that.

In place of him. her, fl and them (objects), we can use who(m). whkh or
Ourt. Who is vel)' Informal as an object; whom is more (ormal.
When's that nurse? I sow hu last tUne. - WlU'n" s that nurst' who(m)1
dKtt 1 sow last time? (NOT ... wIt6(M) 1 SIliIV"ftC /tlst liMe.)
These are problems. You don't woe thnn. - TlIeSf' are prtlblems whkh I
"ii
dUd you dm,'t have. (SOT .., ..1rWIr!J9N tItHf Of JfllI'l' ill. )
3 Do you know the Englisb words for nationalities and languages?
Compwte the sentences: use a dictionary tn ht'lp you.
1 The people who live in __ spea k Greek.
2 The language that people speak In Hungary is cal led __ 0

3 The language __ people speak in Chi na is called _ _ 0

4 Thc people who live in __ spea k Italian.

S The __ live in __ Turkish.
6 The language __ Algeri a is called Arabic.
7 Th e language __ Scots Ga elic.
8 The people__ Holland _ 0

9 Th e language __ Irish.
10 Thepeoplc _ _ Portugal __ o

II _ _ Webh.
12 __ Japan __ o

4 Write five more sentences like the ones in Exercise 3 .

We normally use tllfft. not which. a£teraJl. rverudtJng. nodtJfItI.

Ow onlH ••• and su~thes.We do not use ....t in these cases.
I've told you aU that I know. (NOT .. . . 11 ",1I.t I kR811'.)
Thr only thing that matters to me is your happiness.

5 loin the beginnings and ends.

ilE GINNIN GS ENIlS

All th e poetry that happened.

At school I learnt nothing th at he wrote was destroyed in a lire.
I've told you everything that she sa id made a ny difference.
Noth ing th at w as ever madc.
It's the best western fllm that I could get.
The mo st useful thing th at was useful to me.
This is th e only hire car th at you ca n do is leave now .
You can have everything that you want.

After words for time and ~ce. we can use when and where as relatives.
I'll never forget the day WMr Ijirst met y ou. ( = the day on whIch )
Do you #mOWQ shop when 1canfind snndaJsl ( = a shop a! wh1€h )
272 RELAYIWE CLAUSES

leaving out relative pronouns

We can Ieave out objet:t pronouns who(m). whkh and that.
Where's that nurse I saw last Lime?
Theseareproblems you don't ho se:

DO OU I n
I In which three sentences do yo u reel the relative pronuun can be
left out?
1 The job tbat he got wasn't very interesting.
2 A woman who(m) my sister knows bas just bought the house next door.
3 The doctor who treated me didn 't kno w what he was doing.
4 I'm sorry for people who haven't got a sense of hurnour.
S Ha ve you got a nythi ng that will clean this carpet?
6 Have you got a typewriter that ( can use?

Which role Is correct? Check yo ur a nswer In the key.

We can leave out a relative pronoun:
I when it refers to a person.
2 when it refers to a thi ng .
3 when it is the subject in Us clause.
4 when it is the ob;ect in its clause. _

... 2 Is the relative pronoun the subject or object In these clauses?

1 That's the woman who Lives next door.
2 Our doctor is a person whom I really respect..
3 He had a simple idea wh ich changed the world.
4 I've lost th a t nice ring which Bill gave me.
5 It's a book that everybody talks about and nobody reads.
6 Once there were three rabbits tha t lived near a river.
7 That's the man who I wanted to see.
S An orphan is a child who hasn't got any parents.
9 He keeps telling you things whi ch you already kn ow.
10 They never thanked me for the money tba t I sent them .

A 1 Look again at Exeectse 2 . Take the sentences in which the

relative pronoun Is the object. and r ewrite them without
who(m)/whichlthot.
RElATIYECLAUSES

.6. 4 Make eecb pair or sentences into one sentence without using
who(m)/which/that ,
1 You asked me to get yo u a pa per. Here's th e paper. ( Here's •.•)
2 You recommended a film. We went to see the film , but we didn't think
m uch oOt. ( W e went .•.)
3 My sister bought a new car last month. Th e ca r ha s broken down four
times already. (The car ••.)
4 You didn't recognise an a ctor OD television last n ight. The ac tor was
K telcr Sutherland. (The acUlr ...)
5 Jane had some friends at school. Only a very few of th e friends went on to
university. (Only ...)
6 My father had an operation for his heart problem. The opera tion was
only a partial success. ( The apem tio n •.•)
7 Mark wrote an essay while we were o n holiday. The essay has won a
prize in the school competition. ( Tile essay •..)
8 My daughter brings friends home. Some or tbc frien ds look as th ough
th ey never wash. (Some of ...)

•
.. .... .. .... .......

"". ',...;Jfl,o,

' It's really very simple, Miss Everhart. Now you just move
the cursor across th e screen to the area or the world you
wish to destroy.'

Women haYe their faults EYerything I like Is either illegal,

Men have onl)' two: Immoral or fattening.
EYerythingthey say, Trudi fional
Everything the)' do.
TruditiolPl

For relative clauses ending in prepositions Ie.g. That's the nid I told you
about ). see page 290.
what = 'the thing that' etc
We can lL"C what to mean 'the thJng(s) that' or 'the stufTthat·.
What is like e noun + relative pronoun together.
What she said made me angry . ' !lOve him what he needed.
We don 't usc what aftcraU. ellery thing or ,wthing (see page 27 1).
fj"e rythin g that I ',ave is yours. (NOT Ev-erythiH§ what .•.)

1 ' oin the beginnings a n d e n ds using what. Examples:

H "Iml '''1'111 h u ,lrillk.

BEGI N N I N GS EN DS

I'll pay for ha ppened to poor Harry?

I need I broke.
Did you read about Ldon't cat.
He just teaches yo u [ expected.
[ want to kno w [ mea nt.
The dog can have is a drink.
The holiday wasn't at all made me very ha ppy.
They hadn't got she as ked for.
You misunderstood - tha t isn't is whore's my car gone?
you said you already know.

'I've alrea dy met the tall. dark man. Whal f d like to know is. where is he now!'

For emphasising uses of wlmt , see page 235.

RELATIWE CLAUSES 27.

relative whose
We can join sentences by putting 'W~ 1n place ofhJlJ. lin or JtIJ. lbis
structure is rather formal.
I saw a girl. Hrr beauty took my brf,uth away. - I saw a flirl whou beauty
took mu breath away.
Ill' \Wilt to a meeting. Ill' didn', untkrstand its purpose. - lie \Wilt to a
ml'l'ting whou purpose he didll't understand.

A ] Make sentences with whou.

1 A good builder is (III(' w"ose IWlIscs 1101/ ',1(111 110\\,1/.
2 A good parent is one whose __ 0

3 A good gardencr Lc..,

4 A good doctor __ 0

5 A good writer __ o

6 A good teacher __ 0

7 A good tourist guide __ 0

8 Agood cook Lc.. .

A 2 In the Alpine village of'Femalm, everybody Is rdated to everybody

else. Can you sort out the four sentences. putting in whOSf" where
necessary. so as to make everything dear? Example:
I Amon. I\'IIOSf brvtJll' r fril: ...
I • Anton,
• sister Anneliese a lso helps out in the sports shop
• brother Fritz helps him run the sports shop
• lives with Marika
2 • girlfriend Hcidrun is an instructor at the ski schoo l
• Annelicsc has a younger brother Max
• wife Paula works in the restaurant run by Anton's o ther brother Toni
3 • daughter Liesl runs the pizzeria
• wife Monika works part-time for the baker down the road. Karsten
• The person in charge of the ski schoo l at the moment is Klaus
4 • wife Christiane was national lee-dancing champio n in her
younger days
• Monika also helps in the bar, the 'Happy Skier'. which is run by Erwin
• uncle Erich runs a hotel. in partnership with Klaus's brother Paul
non-identifying relative clauses
Some relauve clauses Identify - they say which person or thing. 01" what
kind ofperson Of thing. you are talking about. Others do not identify.

DO II YOURSELF.

I IAJOk at the following paino of sen t ences. Which relallve clauses

id c n tify - the ODes in the ' 3' sentenc es 0 .. tbose in
the ' b' sentences? Ch eck your answers in the key.
1 a The woman who/that does my hair has lust had a baby.
b Dorothy , who does m y hair. has just had a baby.
2 a She married a man (thatlwhnlwhom) she met on a bus.
b She married a nice a rchitect from Belfast whom s h e m et on a bus.
3 a Have yo u got a book that's really easy to read?
b l lent him The Old Mlm and the Sea. which is really easy to read.
4 a What did you think ol the wine (that) we drank last night?
b I poured him a glass of wine . which h e drank a t once.

O I1':YoUWIIL
2 Look a t I-:xercise I again and answee the questiuns. Check yo o r
answers in the k e y.
1 Without the re lative cla uses. which make more sense - the 'a' sentences
or the 'b' sentences?
2 Non-identifying re lative clauses (in the 'b' sentences) ha ve commas (••).
Why do you think this is?
3 In which kind of clause can we use that instead of \Vho(m) or which?
4 In which kind of clause can we lea ve o ut a relative pronoun when it is
the object?
5 Do you think non-identifying clauses are more common in a for mal or an
infonnal style?

• 3 Ch a n ge wholwhom/whlch to that, or leave it out, if possible.

] This is Peter -Taylor. who wo rks with my sister.
2 People who don't answer letters annoy me.
1 What happened to the oranges which I bought yesterday?
4 Thts room . which isn't used any mor e. belonged to our eldest son.
S My Uncle Sebastian. who has always been a bit of a traveller. has just
gooe off to Thailand.
6 We live in a village ca lled Netherwold. whic h has 150 inhabitants.
7 I like a film which has a beglnmng. a middle and an end - in that order.
8 I've had a card from Sally. who used to live next door.
9 Do you remember those people who we met in Corfu?
10 We had some good advice from Mr Blenki nsop, whom we consulted
about in vestments.
11 She took twelve aspirins, which is six times the norm al dose.
12 He published a book called Asleepin the lkith, whi ch nobody ever read.

Note the use of whidt to refer to a whole clause. Compare:

The dmtist pulled out tire tLetJr whim/that were causing the trouble.
('Wbkb/thHt' just refers to 't he teeth'.)
Thedmtist had to pull out twoo/my tuth. which was a real pity.
I'which' refers to the whole clause before: 'The dentist ... teeth ' .]
Note that what cannot be used In this way.
He fIOt the job, whidl surprised us aU. (NOT ... wh.t s!lrpFiseJ N-S till.)

A 4 Put in whIch or what,

I She cycles to work every day, _ _ keeps ber healthy.
2 I very much liked _ _ yo u sai d at the meeting.
3 They ga ve me _ _ [ asked for.
4 The ligh ts s udde nly went out, _ ._frightened Gra nny terribly.
5 This is _ _ I need.
6 Everybod y a rri ved late , __ didn't surprise me in the least.
7 Th e door was locked, __ was a nuisance.
8 lie wouldn't tell me _ _ I wanted to kn ow.
9 She let me borrow one of her dresses, _ _ was very kind of her.
10 We're go ing to ha ve to repair the roof. _ _ will cost a fortun e.

September 9 1971
January 16 1979
AUGUST 51950 GEOI" I''REYJACKSON, the ",:"'(I; ~HAlJ of Iran fled [
hiScapital loda"''''
56-year-old British Ambasador . rom
T~e ;:r:woman.
reco ncan
D' S C h a ronel swim
brOken today by an
who an
cut
to U~ who has been held
ca ptive for eigh t months by
by s u Y, uo1Yenmloe;o;iJe
K'- pp0r(ers o( AyalOIl L
Ilomem, Who h a ll
the left-w ing Tu pamaros mi nde d I h~ d as masre-,
Arne ff the ti me set 24 years
g uerrillas. was rele a s ed 'PeacOCk Throl~ ~n(alJ ?( Ihe
"""' °Flore nce Chadwick had
ago. tonight, ~l(i'e in Paris. from his Own

Oecember 8 rsso
J ANUARY 25 1971
JOI I]';LEI',fNON, who as one
of the Beetl es helped sha pe
PRESIDENT MD..TON OBOTE of the mus ic a nd.phllosophies
Uganda, who has been attending of a genera tion. w a s s hot
the Commonwealth conference in dead lat e tnnjght outside the
Singa pore. has been overthrown by Dakota Building, hi s home
bts army commander, General Idi in New York.
Ami n, who a cc used Obote of
reduced relative clauses
We somelimcs leave out who/which/dud + IsIQrr/wQslwue.
Do you know that man slanding ntar th~ door?
( = ... who is standing ...)
The man Quused of the kUling said that he was at the cinema at the time.
( = The man who was accused ...)
Letters posted before twelve noon willusually bedelivered by the
ll ext day.

.. I Change the sentences as shown in the examples.

Paper tha t is m ade from rice is sometimes used for stationery.
I'll/It',. I/IWII' .frolll ,-in' b W IIII'l iml ''i " _'>I'd (,'r Slllli,,,,..rn.

1 Who's that good-looking man who is talking to Alison?

2 Luggage that is left una ttended wlll be taken a way by police.
3 left-handed children who are forced to write with their right hands Dilen
develop psyc hologic al problems.
4 The nurse who is looking after my aunt is very kind to her.
S All the rubbish th at is floating in the sea is a real danger to health.
6 Ham wh ich is made in the traditional way costs more. but tastes better.
7 Women tourists who arc wearing trousers a re not allowed in the temple.
8 Ja mes thought that the m an who wa s with h is girlfriend was her brother.
9 The man who was bitten by m y neighbour's dog wa s her husband's boss.

• Z Join the sentences without using who/which/that. Example:

Th ere was a man. Th c man was see n running from the burning
building.
There \I'/IS (I I/IWI .'11'1·" r UlII/i,,!/ jrtllll .lIt' /IUnlilif/1Jllildirl!J.
I I keep h aving a dream in whi ch there's a woman . The woma n is
sta n ding with h er ba ck to me.
2 James says he heard a shot . The shot was fired in the street.
3 Arc those yo ur trousers? The trousers are bangin g over the balcony.
4 Tbcy live in a beautiful o ld house. The house was built 3(JO years a go.
5 Th e Navajo are famous lor beautiful jewellery. The jew ellery is madc or
silver an d turquoise.
6 Pa ssengers arc asked to keep behind the yellow line. Th e passen gers are
standing on Platform 2.
7 Pauline has a very strange old painting or a woman. 'The woman is
bolding a sm aU dog.
RELATIVE CLAUSES

relatives: revision
I Put in which. what or that.
1 He spoke very fast, _ _ . m ade it hard to understand him.
2 Thanks, but th a t's not __ I wa nted.
J I'll tell you something __ will surprise yo u.
4 I did _ _ I could.
5 I did every thing __ I co uld.
6 She kept falling over. __ made everybody laugh .
7 He's a university pro fessor. _ _ is ha rd to believe.
8 You can ha ve anything _ _ you wa nt.
9 Her- sense of humou r -. tha t's _ _ attracts people to her.
10 He said nothing __ made sense.

. 2 (a) Put in nothing at a ll. or (b) Ifthat is not possible. put in that•
or (c) if that is not possible. put in who(m) or which.
I This is Ann Hargreaves. _ _ runs th e bookshop.
2 Have yo u heard a bout th e problems _ _ Joe's having at work?
J Never buy yourself anything _ _ eats.
4 I don 't like people __ can 't la ugh at themselves.
5 We too k th e M4 motorway, _ _ goes straight to Bristo l.
6 ,'U never forget th e first film _ _ I saw.
7 Harry Potter. __ wrttes detective stones. lives in our street.
8 1 th ink this is the best holida y __ we've ever had.
9 I'm loo king forsomething __ wi ll clean lea th er.
10 We planted some birch trees. _ _ grow tall very quickly .

- 3 Put the quotations together.

'I'll discuss it with you ,' she borrow your watch and tell you what time it is,
said , in a voice then walk off with your wa tch.
A politicia n is a statesme n Robert Townsend
Any man who hates dogs and can be taught. Oscar Wilde
babies can't be a ll bad. I, Rosten on W C Fields
Anyone who bas been to an that cou ld have been used to delrost her
English public school re frigerator. Rex StoJJt
Cons ultants are people who what he never had . Izaak Walton
No man can lose who approa ch es every qucsnon wit h an open
Nothing that is worth knowing mouth. Adlai Stevenson
will feel compara tively at home in prison.
Evelyn Waugh
zoo RELATIVE CLAUSES

reading relative clauses

Relative dausn can make sentences more dJmcult to read,
A 36-year-old teacher who was urusted in Car diffafter trying to set
fi re to Q sdtool is StUd to have seriously injured two policemen.
ThejilUJnclaJproblems whlc" someofthe comp«ny's brandr~ "au
ban/acing over the last eightft71 months are mainly caused by
increased foreign competition.

o ITYOURSE F.

I Why do the r el ative cl a uses make the above sen tences harder to
read?Check your answer in the k ey.
1 They separ ate the subject from the object.
2 They separ ate the subject from the verb.
3 They separate the verb from the object.

When relative pronouns are left out. this can make reading dit6cult.
The woman Barbara wes out shopping with that Tuesday afternoon " 'QS her
stepmother. ( = The woman that Barbara n>os out shOWing ",ith ..•)

A 2 Make these sentences easier to read by ad din g

who(m)/whll:hlthat.
1 The ea rri ngs he gave her for Chrtstmas must have cost at least £500.
2 The fax he got that morning was addressed to someone else.
3 The sofa we bought last: year is falling to pieces already.
4 The people he had hoped to introd uce Lee to were not there.
S The flat the terrorists hid th e gu ns in was owned by an MP.
6 The song she couJd not remember the name of was Rambling Boy.

Relative clauses can put together DOIIIU and "ubs that do DOt bcIooa
too<t!!<r.
The hair of the young \yomansitting next to mt'on the park bench was
purple. (It was not the park benc h thai was purple.I
11l(! picture thutl Pllt in lIeInt's room. ~s deaning.
(It's not th e room that needs cleaning.)
RElATIVE CLAUSES 281

... 3 Read the sentences and answer the questfoas.

1 The rosebush Sue gave to my little sister is growing beautifully.
(Who or what is growing?)
2 The two tall men we saw with Duncan and Jack were their nephews.
(Who are the unelesand whoarethe nephews?)
3 The man my mother was working for before she met my father was very
intelligent. but also very disorganised. (Who was disor!JClnised?)
4 A woman who lives near my sister has just won the oationallottery.
(Has my sisler won the lottery?)
S The newspaper which first made co ntac t with the kidnappers telephoned
the police immediately. (Who telepllOned?)
6 Police called to a house In Aston. Hampshire. after neighbours reported
cries for help found 18~year-old J... E... stuck in a cat-nap after being
locked out of his home. (Who jound him?)

... 4 Here are the ends of some sentences. Find the beginnings in
the box.
1 Spain taught me things about myself I had never suspected.
2 my wedding wa s bought in a liUle shop in Bath.
3 my parents' home was the nicest place I've ever lived in .
4 th e airport in Memphis was going to Italy to collect a tiger for a zoo.
S my little cousin Pam had crazy plans for an expedition to th e North Pole .

A very ordinary-looking woman I got talking to at

A man I met by chance on it business trip to
Some Polish people I was introduced to by
The dress my sister wore to
The little nat tbat I rented just after I left

... 5 Can you write some beginnings for these endings?

1 __ my brother had rain coming through the roof.
2 _ _ the green armchair is Emma's boyfriend.
3 __ me doesn't work.

Reduud relative clauses (see page 278) can be bard to read. Some
examples: '
M~t oj tire IWOple "rusted hadbeen in trouble brjore.
( = ... the peopJt who wen! "rrt'sud' ...)
Three quarters oj fhoSl! quesdoned' wt.lnted more money.
l=... lhose who werf'~sUoned...)
Thrr.r l:hiJdrenJound sleeping in Abbey Park lau last night were taken to a
joster"orne by social lVOrkers.
(= ... l:hiJdrm whowerf'Jound ...)
A lot of the buiJdJngs designed by architects don't take yOUllg children.
282 RELATIVE CLAUSES

whoever. no matter who etc

We can use whotYrr to mean 'it doesn't matter who'. 'anybody who' or
'the ~H1 who'.
Whoever told you that wes lying.
WhMWr comes to the door. tell them I'm out.
I'm not otrening the door, w~r you are.

Whatever. whichever. whenever. wherever and however are used in sim ilar
ways. Present tenses are used to talk a bout the future after t hese words.
Whatever you do, I'll always love you. (NOT ~f:'W'r ye i/II dB .n )
Whlcltner 0/ them you marry. you'll have problems.
I try to see Vicky whrnevrr 1RO to London.
he'Ufindfriends.
WJrert'vtJ' he g 0f!5.
However m uch he eats. he never getsJat.

1 '·ut in whon'er. whakwr etc.

I _ _ you marry. ma ke sure he can cook.
2 Keep calm. __ happens.
3 You'Ube very welcome. __ day you come.
4 The people in Canada we re Irteudly _ _ we went.
5 You can stay wnh us __ you like.
6 _ _ many times you say tha t. I wo n't believe you.
7 I'll marry __ I like.
S _ _ you explain it to her. she's still go ing to be a ngry.
9 It's certain to be a good ga me. __ wins,
10 __ I try to talk to her she goes out of th e roo m.

'Well. wherever he is. he's jusl du g up two dozen snowdrops!'

REUnVECLAlI S £ S 283

A 2 Rewrite the following sentences using whot'''"' whakl't',.. etc.

Exa mp le:
1don 't know who directed thls fil m, but ir s not much good.
\rllc>t'l'n dirl't'trtl tMs film. it's not ItIf/{"h good,
1 Send it to th e person who pays the bills.
2 The th ing that is in th at box is making a very funny noise.
3 People always wa nt more, lt doesn't ma tter how rich they a re.
4 It doesn't matter how you tr avel. it'll take you at least three days.
5 You can say w ha t you like. I don't thin k he's tb e right man (or you .
6 Use whic h room you like. but make sure you clean it up afterwards.
7 It doesn 't matter wh at problems you have. you can always come to me
for advice.
8 The person who phoned just now was very polite.
9 An y time I see you I feel nervous.
10 It doesn't ma tter what you do: I'll love you.

We can use no ..attn'

whottvtr etc.
.ho'....tJwltftr etc in the same way as

No malkr UollO comes to the door, ull them I'm out.

) Put in no matter- wllo/what/etc.

1 __ you do. I'U always believe in you .
2 __ he goes. he'll find friends.
3 __ ha rd he tries. be always gets everything wrong.
4 __ you say, I know I'm right.
5 __ we go away, Paul won 't be able to come with us.
6 __ many times I tell them. t hey forget.

It'hether ... or ••• can be used to mean 'It doesn't matter whether ..• or .;',
W1uthrr WI' yo by busor train. it'll takeat least six hours.
I'm staying whether you like it or not.

4 Put the sentences together.

.
Whether he' s lying or a n expert. it's a wonderful story.
Whether we tell her now or cross-co untry. she's not going to be pleased.
Whether you're a begin ner or dislike her, the equipment costs a lot.
Whether you ski dow nhil l or later, you have to admire her.
Whether you like her or telling t he truth, you'll lea rn somet hing from the
course.
.04 PREPOSITIONS

prepositions with verbs. nouns etc

I Test youndf. See if you know what
pr rpm:ilion is n eeded wi th each of
l Look a t the esamples a n d com ple te
these words. (w rt re '-' if D O
the rule for the u se of u,_I n a n d on t o
prrpmilion is u s ed. )
talk abou t t ime, Check yo ur answers
] Don't approach __ the dog. in the k ey. .
2 I arri\'ed _ lhesta tio n al six.
in 1976 in Jll ~
3 Hyou don 't know. ask _ _ John.
4 She's very good __ la ngu ages.
intht morning a,4.15
5 Co n gra t u la ti o n s _ _ your success.
at lunchril1W on Sunday
on Mcmdaya/Url/Don
6 The bus crashed __ a tree.
7 It all d epends __ the wea rber. al Christmas at IN "~.tund
S I'd like drtails __ your courses. Rule
9 Let's discuss _ _ your plans.
+ clock time
10 I divi ded the cake __ three parts.
__ + part ofa day
11 \\'hy is she dr nsro _ _ black?
__ + part of a particular da y
12 Nobody entered __ the room.
__ + particular day
13 This is an rxam ple __ his work.
__ + weekend. public holiday
14 There ts no tn c reese __ prices.
__ + longer period
15 l'm tnrerested __ most sports.
16 He was very k ind _ _ her.
17 The soup la cks __ sa lt. 3 Only one of t hr-se esprnsions h as a
IB I'm looking _ _ a place to live. prepost Uon. Which o nes
19 He has to look __ his mother.
1 I'Usee you __ next Monda y.
20 My sister is m arried __ a builder.
2 I'm not free _ _ this Thursday.
21 She marric d _ _ tumlast year.
3 Tell me __ ",'h al tim e it starts.
22 He wasn't very n ice _ _ me.
4 Th e exam 's __ m y birthday.
23 Ha ve you pa id __ the drinks?
S Let's meet _ _ one weekend .
24 We need proof __ his story.
6 I train _ every day .
25 What's the r eason _ _ tb e change ?
7 She phoned _ _ thi s evening.
lb You remind me _ _ your brother.
27 Who's respon sible __ securi ty?
28 I didn't take part _ _ the meeting. 4 Putinut,ln , on o r- .
29 Could you t ranslate thi s _ _ Greek! 1 _ _ Bester
30 That's just typical __ you.
2 __ Tuesda y
31 "01 reading a nov el __ Dtckees.
3 _ 1994
32 _ _ m y opinion you're wrong.
4 __ the evening
33 Who's tb e man __ the picture?
5 __ Friday evening
34 I love walkin g __ the rain.
6 __ M ay
35 Don't talk _ _ that silly votce.
7 __ next Wed nesd ay
36 The answer's __ page 2 9 .
8 I don'I know _ _ what tim e
9 __ SUpIXr time
10 __ this Sund..y
Ii __ that a fternoon
12 _ _ Sunday afternoon

,i i , . ,: ! ' 1=' j I .; 'Elf" r :' i,l 1 c::J... I:';: ::'~ I

PIllE POSITIONS ...
at/in and to

1 Look at the examples, and complete the rule with words (rom the
box. Check your answers in the key.
I met herat a concert, [Lt's go to a concert.
He's In [.lmdon. Isem it to london yesterday.
Role
At and in are used for __" To is used for __"
distance experience intentions movement
position tim e

Jfwe say what we do in a place before we say where we go, we uscatlln

with the place. Compare
tel's go to MaruI's for coffel',
tet's go and haveaJffeeal MaruI's . (NOT ... W ,"'~ ."f;·e1's, )

2 Do ytHI know which of these verbs can be followed by al + pwson?

ask call laugh look phone point shoot

smile speak talk walk wave write

You can shout at or to somebody: you can throw something at or

to somebody. Do you know the difference?

3 Put In the correct preposition.

I I've spent the day _ _ York.
2 Why don't you take Joe __ the cinema?
3 Your key's __ the reception desk.
4 We usually meet __ the pub.
:') They're delivering the furniture __ my flat on Tuesday.
6 what's the easiest way to get __ Bristol?
7 Stop shouting __ me"
g Throw the keys down __ me and I'll let myself in.
9 Let's throw snowballs _ _ Mrs Anderson.
10 Can you shout __ Paul and tell him it's supper time?
11 When you smile __ me like that I'll do anything for you.
12 Promise you'll write __ me every day.
13 I went __ Canada to see my father.
14 l weru to see my father __ Canada.
'88 PREPOSITIO NS

by and until

] Look at tbe examples. and put together the best explanations of

how to use by and hllfif. Check your answers in the key.
'Can yOIl rf'pa ir my walch if ltrove it until Saturday?'
'No. but Wf'am do it by next Tuesday. '
VOlt can have the car until this el'eniny.
But you must briny it back by six o'clock at tlte latest.

By is used 1 to say that a situatiun wiU continue up to a certain moment

VntJl is used 2 to say that something wto happen around a cert ain time.
3 10 say that something will happen at or before a certain
moment.

In aJilurvr •nal style we t~ we tfH instead of until.

2 Complete the sentences with b.ll or until.

I 'Can I stay __ the weekend?'
2 'Yes. but you'U have to Leave __ Monday midday at the latest.'
3 This form must be returned __ April 17.
4 We'll just have to wail __ he's ready to see us.
5 The books have gOI to go back to the library __ Tuesday.
6 Do you think you can finish the painting __ Easler?
7 'Can I borrow your raincoat?' •__ when?'
8 You ought to use this meat __ tomorrow.
9 There won't be any trees left __ the year 2050.
10 She went on screaming __ somebody came.

Beforea verb, we can use ~ die tJrrw. (For ''"til before a verb. Sff ~ 138.1
He'll be gone by 'he time \\'t' gel hOlne.

" . -1 '1 •• ,
- .<.'_., •

•And returned by one o·dock.

I go to lunch then.'
for and during
:lOURSELF.

I Look at the examples. Which word leU,. yuu how long eod which
word tells you when? Check yuur answers In the key.
My father was in hospital/or six Wfeks during the summer.
(NOT ... flfwintl Silf week!> ...)
It rained during the " iohtjor two or three hour'S.

2 Pulinfororduring.
I Drinks will be served __ th e interval.
2 I'll come and see you __ a few minutes _ _ the afternoon.
3 They met __ the war.
4 He said nothing _ _ a long time.
S I woke up several times _ _ the night.
6 She studied in America _ _ two years.

opposite and in front of

I Look OIL the picture. Which is oppo.dk the bouse - the bus stop or
the car? Which is in/ront a/the bouse?Check your answers in the
key.

2 Put in opposiu or in/ront 0/.

I There's a superm arket __ my house.
2 __ me in the queue there was a very strange-looking woman .
3 I can't sec the TV if you stand _ _ it.
4 The lifts are directly _ _ the reception desk.
S Somebcdy's parked __ my garage door. and J can't get my car out.
6 She sat down _ _ me a nd started talking to me.
... PREPOSITIONS

between and among

o IT YOU••IEI;F.
I Look at the examples and complete the rules. Ch« k these in the
k ey.
She was standing between Alice and Mary.
Our house is bt>hveen the woods. the riwr and the village.
His house is hidden among th e trees.
We were in a Iiltle valJe.1f berween high mountains.
RULE S
We say _ _ a gro u p. crowd or mass ofthings that arc not seen separately,
We S<lY__ two or more dearly separa te people or things.
We say _ _ th ings on two sides.

2 Look at the di agrams. Is X betWffll or among the utbcr things?

2
,

.~. .
3
, 4

.-.
• ..
-. x • •
'

1 Put in bnWft"n or among.

1 I saw something __ tbe wheels of the car.
2 She was standing __ a crowd of children.
3 We 'll come and sec you some tim e __ Christmas and Easter.
4 I found the letter hidden a way __ some old photographs.
') This is just one problem __ man y.
6 Switze rland lies __ France. Gennany. Austria and Italy.
7 I couldn't see W y __ the visitors.
8 The ball h it him direct ly __ the eyes.
9 The lift got st uck __ two floors of the hotel.
10 She stood there _ _ piles of suitcases looking for a taxi.
PREP OS IT I ONS ...
prepositions at the end of questions
PreposItions often come at the end of questions,
n'ilh whom ",j. For what ,.,?etc are unusual and very formal.
We usually prejer Who '" wfthl. WINrt ••• /orl etc.

I Write questions for these aru..wers, using ''''''ho .•.?' or 'What ...r
EIample:
'I went with my sister.' '\1 "110 (lid !Iou f}oll'it1,:'

I 'I'm thlnklng about my exams.' 6 'She hit him with her shoe,'
1 'J bought it from Janice.' 7 'My father works for Shell Oil.'
3 'She sent it to the police.' 8 '[ made it for you.'
4 'I'll carry it i.n a paper bag.' 9 'The book's about Egypt.'
5 'You ca n eat it with a spoon.' 10 'I was talking to Patrick .'

2 Write questions for these answers, using ' Wh o ..J' or 'What •.. r
Example:
'Soup.' (start) ,\l'/lI/t (lr/' II'(' sfll r t iny wid,: '

I 'A bu s.' (wa it) 6 'A stra nge bird.' Oook)

2 'The future.' (worried) 7 'A.·fy keys.' (look)
3 .'Films.' (til/king) 8 "Travel and music.' (interested)
4 'The manager.' (speak) 9 'My mother.' (write)
S 'Universal Export.' (work) IO 'Life.' (think)

3 Make questions witb some orthese words and expressions, using

r
'What ... you ... 01' 'Who ... you ...?'. Example:
\\"IllIf \\ 'IWll rl' nou looki /I!J (1[: OR .", !Ollkil1f/ for:

looking waiting listening play tennis country

letter get it have lunch buy that car in love
change your job studying English

~ote the common structure Ifhooe _. tD/from]

WlH're should 1send It tn?
'Where do you come/rom? I Wht're are you/romP' 'Canada,'
... PREPOSITIONS

prepositions in relative clauses

In relattve clauses [afler who. whom. which.thot I. ,'em + preposition
combtnauons usually stay together. This means that prepositions can be
separated from their relative pronoun objects.
OBJECT VER B+ P RE POS I Tl O~
somethinn (thatl youea» wrIte with
thegi r l (whom) I was hd'dng about
the music (which) we Ilstnled to
Prepositions ca n a lso go before their objects. but this is usually very formal.
something with whl€h you write tile girl about whom I \\'os talking
tile music to which she listened

1 Join the ~innjngsand end s 10 make sensible sentences.

BEGINNINGS

A cu pls
f. N US

someth ing that a child plays with.

I
A ptcture ts something that water comes o ut of.
A tap is something that } 'OU can look at.
A toy is something th at you ca n look through.
A vase is someth in g that you drink o ut of.
A window is something that you put flowers in.

2 Put the words in order. Which description goes with ,,,hlch

picture?
1 bite you with things th at
2 in something you sleep that
3 on you that something put things
4 valu ables in you that put something
5 teeth with you that thing a your clean
6 on a thin g hang that clothes you
7 with liquid rushes you wash that c
8 can a fire start with you that something

o E F H '"'---
PREPO SITIONS 2111

3 Make up similar descriptions for six or more of these things.

a key a purse a chair a Indge soap

furniture polish olive oil a knife a razor a gun
a notebook a cooker money

4 Make these expressions less formal.

I the people with whom we went on holiday
t ill' IJe0J'1c \\"(' •.. OR tlll'IWOI'1£' llt,.1 W£' ...
1 a man with whom I sometimes play chess
tl //Inti I ... OR 1/ mall tlwl I ...
3 somebody for whom I have great respect
4 the gtrl to whom I was writing
5 the problem about which r wa s worried
6 a car for which I paid too mu ch

5 Look at the teble. and then write some descrtpttons ending in

prepositions. Examples:
Jo'", is III,' man IlInl Bill pfll ys f"t'SS wilh
Sue is the II'VltWI/ ROil is married 10.

NAME pt AYS CHESS WITH IS MARRIED 1'0 WORK S WI TH

Bill John Alice Anne

Ron Anne Sue Mary

Peter Alice Anne Sue

Sally Mary John Alice

,
-t!
'We're planning <l small dinner party. Do you have
any vegetables no one's heard ofyet?'
PREPOSITION S

prepositions in passive clauses

In passive structures, verb + preposition groups stay together. Compare:
ACTIVE; The doctors opuaud on her yeSlPrday morning.
PASSIVE: She was operated on yesterday morning.

I Take words from each box to co m plete the sentences, More than
one answer may be possible.

heard looked operated pald played sal slept

spoken talk ed

I about from in of on to with

"'
1 She was taken into hospital today, a nd she's going to be _ _ tomorrow.
2 f don't like being __ behind my back.
3 The new secretary's working very badly. He'll have to be _ _ o

4 I don 't think he came home last night. His bed hasn 't been _~
5 That antique chair's not really meant to be __ o

6 It's not really our house yet. It hasn't OC'C11 _ _ 0

7 He left for America in 1980, and he hasn 't been __ since.

8 The cal loves being __ 0

9 He's so shy: it even upsets him to be _ _ o

2 Make three or more questioos from the following table.

Who was America Australia built by?

the novel Alina Karerrina composed
Hamlet Happy Birtllday to Y OII directed
penicillin radio television discovered
electricity Invented
the Him The Birds painted
the Eiffel Tower the Ta] Mahal written
the Mona Lisa I'La Ctoconda')

1 If you are in a class. write more questions like the ones in

Exercise 2 and ask other students.
PREPOSITIONS

preposition after adjective + infinitive

Prepositions come after Inflntti-ves in structures like:
She's easy to work with. He's interesting to lillie to.

1 Change the sentences. Example:

It's easy to work with Jane. -r tones {'(lS!1 to \\'01 Ii wi/ 1l.
1 It's nice to talk to her.
1 Ifs dillicult to live with him.
3 It's impossible to a rgue with my brother.
4 It's not very pleasant to travel in those old tratns.
5 It's not easy to drive on ice .
6 It was difficult to swim across the river.
7 It's hard to get to her village.
8 It's very easy to get on wi th him.
9 It's difficult to paint with water-colours.
10 It's interesting to work witb her.

2 Join beginnings, middles and ends to make s ix or more sentences,

BF.G INN INGS MIDO LES ENDS

A broken cup is boring Ito listen to .

A broken fork is comforta ble to sit on.
A cushjon is difficult to eat with.
A sma ll bani chair is har<! to talk a bout.
A warm bath is interesting to drink out or.
Baby a ni ma ls are nice to listen to.
Class ical music ls uncomfortable to talk to.
Family pro blems ca n be to lie in.
Lectu res are often to play with.
People who travel a lot can be to sit on.

3 Using this structure. what can you say about the following?

a very small spoon shoes that are too small

a bani bed a not sy hotel room a broken pencil
MISCELLANEOUS

numbers
A hundred, II' tllOusand etc are less formal than OUf' hundrt'd etc. C-Ompare:
n llet you have it for II hundred pounds.
W e are prepared to sell the item for Q slim of om~ hundred pounds.
We use one hundred etc wh en we wish to sound preci se.
It costs exa.dly one hun dud dollars.
We use one. not Q. just before another number or inside a larger number.
1.300: one tholl.<;fmd. three hundred (NOT II IR8ft5QM, IRFff RlIllIhed)
£ 1. 70: one pound seventy
six thoUSllnd. one hundredand eleven (NOT ~1ls.aRd, a Rltlitlffil ...)

I Write the figures in words.

I We drove about 100 miles.
2 li e wants £1.450 for the car.
3 'What's th e popul ation of your villa ge?" 'Oh. UXXl.1 suppose:
4 3,144
5 $1.85
6 (on Q cheque): Pay G S HalJam £1 .000 o nly

Doun. hundrul. thouSG'nd' and million have DO·$ after a number.

!few Of' several.
three dozen bottles (NOT 011'« "8_8 (en belt/es)
Q few hundred timn
six thousand miles
several million pounds
In other cases we use dozens (aD. hundreds (on ere.
We'vegat doten' a/bottles.
He's done it hundudso/times.
She made millions in the propert.IJ market.

2 Put in dozen(s) (on. hundud(s) (on . thouSII'nd(s) (on or

million(s) (on .
I He bad to sign his name five __ limes. (hundred)
2 We export 40 __ tons a year. (million)
3 [ just need to borrow a Jew__ pounds. (hundred)
4 I've told you __ times. (million)
5 __ refu gees are flooding into Lbe co untry, (lho ll$ilnd)
6 Could I have two __ eggs? (dozen)
MISCELLANEOUS >to

3 Do you know how to speU ordinal numbers? Write these in words.

1st first 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8t h
9th 10th 12th 16th 20 th 21st 30th
IOOth 1000th

We use ordinal numbel'S to say the names of KIngs. ~eens and ~.

HenrlI the Eighth Eliwbe.h the Second Pius the 1'wf'lfth

j,.i (to.li.;
'I'm afraid you 've got the wrong num ber. This is Louis XV.'

WRITING DATES: 30 March 1995; 10 June 1980

SAVING DATI'S: the .hlrUeth 0/ March / Milrch the thirUtth, nineteen nindy-five
the tenth of ]UfIf / June tiletenth. nineteen e!Bhty

4 Change these from written to spoken or from spokr.n to written form.

1 the tenth of April, n ineteen ninety-six 4 16 May 1970
2 September th e seventeent h. n ineteen eleven 5 12 March 1993
3 the sixtee nt h of Jun e, nin eteen seventy-nine 6 14 January 1986

Tele~one numbers are usuaJlr said one number at a time.

3174522: three OtIC seven/our fi ve two two (OR ••• double two)
20645: twooh (OR zero)six/ourJive

5 Write the following all in words:

1 your telephone num ber
2 your dateof birth
3 the a pproximate population of your home village/ town an d your cou ntry
contractions
Contrecuons like sM·s.lsn't represent the pronunctanon of informal speech.
They are common and correct in informal writing. but unusual in formal writing.

A FF IR MATI VE CONTRA CTIONS:

PRON()UN+ 'M. ' RI:; . '5.
.VE. D . ' LL
NEGATIV£ CO NTRACTiON S :
Al"XILI ARY VERB f 8 1> + N'T

l am-e I'm are nor-e aren't sball not-e shan'I

weare-we're is not-e- isn't would nOI ..... wouldn't
she is-she's have not ..... haven'( should not - shouldn't
he has- he's has not - hasn't cannot ..... can't
1have - I've bad not - bedn't could not - couldn't
you had - you 'd do not - don't might not ..... mightn't
you would-e- you'd does not - doesn't must not- mustn't
they wtll-« they'll did not ..... didn't ought not ..... oughtn't
\\111 not - won't need not ..... needn't

Wlth be,two negative forms arc common: you're not or you artn't . sht·s not
or she isn't etc. \'\'ith other verbs. the forms with n'l are more common.
Am not is contracted to amt', only ln questions.
I'm late, aren"tI? tin rmnol ready. (~OTI . . .·t .... '
The contraction's t = is or has} can be written after pronouns. nouns.
question words .thf'rt and here,
n's late.
TMn's the phone. Ikft·.
VOll( Jathu's!JOnt' home.
YOllr mOMy.
How'. twrydtin9?

The contractions " 1'. '''t'. 'd and ." are nornudly only written after pronouns.

I Rewrite these sentences using contractions.

1 I am tired. 10 My car has broken dOWTl.
2 She is French. 11 You need not worry.
3 She has forgotten . 12 1ca nnot swim .
4 They have finished . 13 The door wiU not d ose.
5 l thought you had left. 14 Udoes not matter.
6 We will tell you tomorrow. 15 IIUl\'e not for gotten.
7 l wish he would slop. 16 I a m not sorry.
8 How is yo ur mother? 17 Why are you not in bed?
9 Nobody is perfect . 18 no you Dot like this?

_#.:1 il'! ,; ,.:': ,i·,I:'1 :' I '"jj' I i,1 i .ttI!'" r. "t':l,:=:::lM:::l... ! i f;:*:.;"~
MISCELLANEOUS 297

ABirmatlw contractions are not USUIIDy stressed. When an a ffirma tive

auxiliary verb is stressed (for example a t the end of it sente nce) we don't use
a contraction. Com~:
'You'rf' laff'. ' 'Yes, WE' are.' (NOT '¥eli, 1iW"'N!. ')
'He's /or9Ot /£I1 .' 'I think h e has.' (NOT ~ "iflk lie' s, )
Negati ve co ntractions can be stressed, and are possible in any position.
'Il lsn'( true.' 'No, it bn't. '

2 Rewrite the sen tences only if con tractio n s a re possible,

1 Can you tell me where she is slaying?
1 ' Remember to take your medicine.' 'Yes, ( will.'
3 Do you know wh ere she is?
4 'Have you paid?' 'No . I have not.'
5 'It is not true.'
6 'On th e contrary, it is true.'
7 'Would you like another cup?' 'Yes, I would.'
8 I do not believe they are fresh.
9 Telephone if you cannot come .
JO 'Can you help me?' 'No, I cannot jus t at the momen t. '

3 Co m p lete the poem by putting in the con tracted fonns of the

verbs in the box,

can no t he has he wo uld I will th at is th ere is

we have you ha ve

Mother. ~l_ a st ra nge man

Wa iting a t the door
With a familiar sort of ra ce
You fecl _ ' _ see n before.
Says his nam e is Jesus
Can we spare a co uple of bob'
Says _ '_ been made redundant
An d now _ ._ find a Job.

Yes I th ink he is a foreigner

Egyptian or a Jew
Ob a ye. and that reminds me
_ '_like some water too.
Well sh a ll I give him what he wants
Or send him on his wa y?
OK ~_ give him 5p
Say _ 7_ alI _ '_ got today.

From Roger McGough: Three Rusty Nails

• a couplc ofbob (m illings): a little money
... MISC£LLAHtous

grammar: useful words

It will be easier to use thi s book if you know the words in tbe boxes. If you
don't know them. we suggest you read the expla nations a nd do the exercises.

noun singular plural countable uncountable

Nouns are mostly Dames or things. e.g. cat. idea. money. oil. reason;
strenyth.
Singular nouns: cat. ide~. reason: plural nouns: COlS. ideas. reasons.
Countable nouns [e.g. cat) can bc stngular or plural: uncountable
nouns (e.g. oil. happiness) are only singular. a nd cannot come aneca!an.

adjective com pa rati ve superlative

Adjectives describe things, e.g. old. big, strange, rfaJ~l./amous. impossible.
Comparative adjectives: older. moreiemous.
Superlative adjectives: oIdest. most famous.

determiner a rtid e possessive demonstrauve

Determiners go before (adjectives and) nouns. They include articles
(a. the). possessives {e.g. my. your). demonstratives (e.g. this. that) and
quantifiers (e.g. some. any .few. much. seeerol. enough).

] Look at the expresstoms in the hox and writedowo:

1 all th e nouns. and say wh ether they a re uncountable. singular
countable or plural
2 all the adjectives. and say whether tbey ace ordinary. comparative or
superlative
3 all the determiners. and say wh ether they are articles. possessives.
demonstratives or quantifiers.

a few small potatoes some cold soup this stupid su ggestion

my best suit a more interesting book the cheapest petrol
his older brother those high buildings our worn: problem
many you nger people these new rules no dry wood
MISCELLAPlEOUS

pronoun personal possessive reflexive relative

Pronouns replace nouns. They include personal pronouns (e.g. I, she. us.
you). possessive pronouns (e.g. mine. yours). reflexive pronouns (e.g.
myself. onesrlf) find eelanve pronouns [e.g. WilD. whose. which. tJull).

2 Write down (a) three more personal pronouns; (b) three more
possessive pronoun..: (c) three more reflexive pronouns.

verb auxiliary verb modal auxiliary verb

tense future present past simple progressive perfect
Verbs mostly refer to acttons. events or situations. e.g. run. turn. stop.
seem.
The auxiliary verbs be. have and do are used with other verbs to make
tenses. Questions. negatives and passives.
Modal auxiliary verbs are a sm all group of ver bs tcan. may. must etc - see
pa ge 1(6) which add me anings like possibility or obligation.
Tenses are forms of verbs which show time relations. There are future.
present and past lenses. These can be simple te.g. will work. works.
worked). progressive [e.g. will be working. is working. was working) or
perfect (e.g. will haveworked. has worked. "ad
worked).

3 Read these sentences and write down the verbs.

She lost her temper. It never rains there. Open th e door.

This fish tastes funny . Our team won . I got a letter from Dave.

4 Look at these verbs. and lOay whether they are/uture. prt"SOIt or

past and whether tbey are simple. progressive or per/rd. Which
are the auxiliary veros?
1 wil l rain
2 is working
3 had forgotten
4 sits
S came
6 will be seeing
7 was running
8 will have finished
9 has stopped
10 did not a nswer
300

cond itiona l -tng form tnrlruttve perfect tn rl muve

pas t pa rticiple tm pera n ve acttve passive
Co n d itio n a ls: fo rms made wnh \\'(luhf. c.g. / would like 1/ drink .
-;119 fo rms: SI/Iokillg. lI'lIilillg etc
I"filli.hoes: f 1I'i1Jlt to 90 : H 'I' /lWSI s loll etc
Perrccr inliniti\'t·s : SII(' IIIIN have a rrived etc
Past participlt·s: swim . qonc etc
Imperatives: Plmw si' d()II'II: Go /III 'II!! etc
Acnvc ver bs: A/lIlf invited Ceorqe: \\'(' make cars etc
Pal'Osiu' v erbs. GIW"!/l' was invit ed /!!I ;lIllH': CalS an' made 1/1 (' /Ir
j(ldoryetc

~ Find a conditi onal, an .itlglorm . a n in finl rlve. a perfect tnflmuv e.

a past participle. an fmperanve a n d a n a c t n e a n d passtv e ve rb in
this text. and wrne them d own .
I smoke too much . a nd I would ccnamlv stop smoking ill co uld. bur
w he n my friends ta lk a bou t it I just S<lY, 'Sh u t u p a nd lean' me ",10 [11."
I do n't actu ally th in k [" JI stop un les s lm or dered 10 by a doctor.
I suppose I shou ld never have st a rted.

prepos ition adverb adverb particle

Preposmons help nouns a nd pro nouns to tit int o sentences. e.g . Slll' r li ll
down the rom/; 1 11{/((' thf ideaof'kml,: / 'm .'//lid aboul ,l j(lur "ell' ji'b,
Adverbs say more ab out ver bs. adjectives or other pa rts of a sentence. e.g.
11'f' rt'f,lIy Ivied: I often SI't' Ira: terri bly (,lid: ri9hl d 011'1I (//e ftJi/(I :
1sInn .oday.
Adve r b particles <Ire smal l adverb s that follow verbs: they took like
preoosntons. bUI <I re n ot rsec pa ge IR-l I, c.g. Sil dowI! ; t,'I ·." l/,' o n .

6 Find the preposmons a n d adverbs a n d wrtte them down. \\ hilt

sort of word is out in walked O U f ? Ca n \O U wru e down fin' more
prepostnons a n d five more adv erbs!
Rob usua lly sits at the back wit h .-\nn . but ~ ' t'st e rday he sudde nly
decided to sir <I t the lront by Kar en for a c hange..\ n n gotrerr tblv upset
and starred shouting ell Rob (IS loud as sh e could. SIl th en Rob fhl l upset
a nd walked out in a temp er.
301

su bjec t objec t direct/ indirect complement

The subject usua lly comes before t he verb. find most often says wh o or
wh at does somet h in g. e.g. My/athe,. drives fast m rs: She sings well.
The (direct) object usually comes after the verb: it e tten says who or what
somerhlng h appens 10. e.g. My [allll'r drJl'es f ast cars : ! brokeR cup .
Some verbs have two objects: th e tndfrect object says who something is
given 10 . done for etc. e.g. Sill' sent the maha!1f'r a dozell roses.

7 'hitt' down Ihe !'Oubjecis. direct objec ts and indirect objeces Irom
these seneenccs.
1 ja ke writes songs . 4 whar sor t of books do y'OU like?
) I gave Mon ica my ad dress. ") Write me a postcard when you hav e
3 (a n yo u tell me the tim e? time.

.After be. W I' III and some other verbs. we can describe the subject with a
noun or adjective compl..menr. e.g. He's fl doclOr : SIll' seems tu'rvous.

8 What a re the co m ple me n t s in (h('!'>e seneencesz

1 You 're pretty. 3 Are you a student?
) He looks tired. -l Wh en I sa w him I fell sorry,

sentence clause ma in/subordina te clause relative clause

ind irect speec h con juncti on tag effl rmenve
interrogative negative
A sentence begins with a capita lletter and en ds w ith a lull sto p. a question
mark or an exclamation ma rk.
Some sentences heve more tha n one clause (e.g.I I ·U pl1ollf'J [ when I gel
IlOme/l.
Su bo rd ina te cla u ses a re int roduced by conjunctions Ie.g . wire" I gel
110me).
Some co n i u nct i on ~: if. 11'111'11. beall/se. wllile. affe·r. all1w/lgl1.
!\lain clause!'> re.g. 1"/1 pholll'l do not need con junctions.
Afffrmanve ver bs/sen tences ma ke sta tements te.g. You're laIR ).
Inrerroganv.. e verbs/sentences as k qu estions (e.g. Am llate! l.
Negan ve verbs/sentences a re ma de with nor re.g. I'm 1101 late).
302

9 wrne down tilt" conjunctions and subordmate clauses from these

sentences . Which sentences have interrogative main clauses?
Which han' arhrmeuve main ctausesz Which have negatjve main
cleusesz
J She talks all the time while I'm trying to work.
1 I do n 't m ind if you slay GUl la tt' .
l Did you tell Alice where yo u were staylng-
4 when I gel back 1"11 explai n everyth ing.
') Before yo u wen t o ut . did yo u sw itc h the lights ofT?
6 Altho ugh it wes sn owt ng. it W <lSIl "' verycold.

Rclauve clauses are int roduced by rela tive pronou ns. e.g. Ttus is the SlI'itdl
wlricJllIIrns on tllf·llfOuling.
In Indirect speech. we use subordinate clauses 10 repo rt things tha i a re
sa id or thought. e.g. Sue Sllid that' was wrong : I \\,o"rlered ifdlf'y were
lost.
Tags <Ire sho rt auxiliar}' + pronoun expres sions that a re a dde d (0

sentences, e.g. l( s gf lfilllj WI/m la. isn't il?

consona n t vowel rurucontracred srressredt intonat ion

express ion formal Informal empha tic
Consonants: b. c. f 11 etc. \'owels: a. r. L 0. u.
if,

t:ncoillracted forms: I will . is lIOt t'1C. Contra ctions Contracted

forms: 1'11. is,, 't etc,
Stress- pronouncing one pa rt of a word. or one w ord, more strongly th an
others . In m-ll fr. we stress /IN/ ; in I"ffUr n . we stress tIIm : in l( s late , we
stress lair.
Intonation: th e 'm usica l" movement of the voice u p a n d down. Ques tions
often end with a ris in g intonation,
Expression: a grou p of words th at belong tog ether. e.g. 0/11 (I} lI'ork:
vll i'vfollday ,
Informal la n gu age is used, for example, in frien dly con versations: formal
la ngua ge. for exa mple, in bu siness leiters . \\ "r 'I'C gOt n sUfjgr st ioll is inform al;
\ \ '1' I UII 'I' n StlfUWSliOIl is formal.
Emphanc: expressing so meth in g stron gly. \\ ·c Iwd I1V I/Wllen III nIl is more
emphatic than We didll " have alln mOllt'n .
303

Answers to exercises
~ I Iii and "nIl an 1 it 3~m 4a Sa 6 an 7a 8a 9 a 10 an
11 an 11 a 13 a 14an 15 a 16a 17 <1n 18<1
I I A/An and ollt'J l One 2 a Jan 4 on e/a n 5 a (, one 7 a Sa 9 one
~ I 2 is a doctor J is a teacher 4 is a scientist ~ is a musician
6 is a pain ter / an art ist 7 is a photographer S is a secretary 9 is a builder
10 is a hairdresser 11 is an electrician 11 is a butcher I j Is a mechanic
14 is a wok l 'i is a ga rdener 16 is a lIorry!lnlckj d river
2 A curtain is a t hin g that yo u put across a window.
A d rctlonary is a thi ng used for fi nding th e meaning s of wo rds .
A de nt ist is a perso n who helps peop le to keep their teet h healthy.
A la wyer is a person w ho helps peop le wit h legal prob lems.
A mechanic is a person who services and repairs ca rs.
A ta p is a thing thai wa ter comes ou t of.
A teacher is a person who helps people 10 learn thi ngs.
A telephone is a th ing used for tal king 10 people who are fa r away.
~ I (Exnmples of pos.~ible n /lSIlWS )
ls go t a lon g n ose f a small mouth. T s got a short be ard / a ro u nd face.
l's go t a round face f a n ice sm ile. S's got a big mout h / a lou d voice.
3's got a Ion!! neck I a sma ll beard. 9's gOI a big moustach e I a long nose.
-:I 's got an oval face / a lo ng nose . 10 's got a sma ll mou th J an oval face.
S's got a sm a ll nose ! a big mou th. II 's got a sma ll moustache Ja nice sm ile.
e's got a lon g beard J a bad temper . 12 's got a long beard Ja square face,

.-a I 1 t he
9 the
1 the 3 a
lO the
4 a ) the: the 6 the: th e 7 the: the 8 a: a: the: the

l I th e 1 th e 3 an 4 t he :; a 6 the 7 the 8 A 9 a 10 t he 11 th e
12 the

Em I 1 - .2 - 3 - 4 - J - 6 t he 7 the 8 the 9 the 10 -

• J the wheel ], the novel 3 the computer 4 The violin

'" The fa x ma chine 7 the wha le 8 The X-ray machine
5 the ballpoint pen

~ I 1 to {Own: on fOOl / by bus: by bus J by ca r 2 a t wo rk: 10 bed 3 to schoo l

4 a t Chris tmas f at Easle r Jin su mmer: at home :; in the evenin g: a t n igh t
6 at un ivers ity; in hos pita l
1 'He's from Texas:
3 (Examples of pos.~iblf answl'rs'
B We me t t he King <I I dinner in Oxford Prison .
C Pa ul wen t home by ca r.
D An na goes 10 college in Sydney by bu.".
E All or us mel a t Boston Atrpo rt.
F n's easy 10 get to Oxford station on foot .
G Anna flew 10 Ihe Ha gu e from Ona wa Airport.
I I All of us went to Oxford Town Hall on foot .
r Ann a flew a plane from Slirling to Lake Hu ro n.
J I sa w Paul a l d inner in Stirling yesterda y,
K The King h as just co me home from Sydn ey.
L Can you go by t ram fro m the Alps 10 the North Sea :
304

.\ 1 All of us are going to rrv and climb Everesr.

~ I {rare! from home 10 wor k by brke.
o It's easy to gel from Onawa to Boston by train.
P The King was in pnson in CardilT.
~ 1 1 a.n.t hc .2 athe 3 - :-:- -I an:a:t he ~ an: a an: the ,
" "
- -

8 - : <1 9 - : 11:- tn - ;-' -' - I I - : the 12 II - : a: a a: ,he

15 e.rhet he If> - : a \; th e. the 18 a. a 19 it the III a: a 21 a: an : the
11 a'an 2~ - ; -
2 ] - :a IBI 1 th e (1)1 3 - : - :-:-: - : - 1( 1 -I lhe: a: iln: - ; a 1:\ 1
EE I DIY This belongs 10 IDe . This is m_~ (0<11. This is m int'.
This belongs to ~(Ju , Lhrs is ~-ullr mon ev. This is ~ ours_
Th is belongs 10 him. Th is is his car. This is his.
This belo n gs 10 h er. TIm IS her oilier . This is hen .
This belongs to u s. Th is is our ho use. Th is is ours.
Th is belon gs to (hem. This is (heir dog. This is the i n:
Who does this belo ng lo i whose bike IS this: Whose IS th is hLk ei
l I yours: hers 2 whose: ours 3 your: Its -I his: her 5 their n our: theirs
, nJ\': min e
3 ) that unemployed brot her of hers ~ a beau tiful co usin of hers
) another geed friend of mine 9 this wond erful news of yours
-I a bnlham idea of mine to thatlazy son of o urs
S rhese stuptd plans of he, 1 1 tho se impossible child ren of therrs
h rbose old books of yours 12 th ese silly cats of ours
I some distan t rela tions of his
4 I his jacketvra mcoat 2 her foot mout h ~ its foot tail mout h -I their coats
'5 my ra incoa t jacket h vour mouth
5 So. he's nor o ur-,' ....

-=:I l DIY \\'ilh this/f~: ha ppening now: just about to start: here : nea r
\\'irh rhar lthos-f': finished : sard before; over there- dasranr: unwanted

• I this ) th<ll ~ the-se -l t hat '5 tbose

1() Th at II tha t 12 that 13 this: that
th is ~ that Y that

4 t his

~ I which 1 \\'ha t 3 \\ hieh -I \fh ich I (l r \fhat l ) u nat 6 wbkh

R \\'hi<:h 9 \ \'hic h 10 Whic h 11 what
.e!J
l 1 a ny: rom e 2 some 3 an vtmng -:I any 5 some h somebody
3 I a nybody 2 some 3 some -I an v '5 a nything h so mebody anv
4 I anv 2 sornerhmg ~ a nything -I somet hin g enythmg 5 Some
6 som ething -; any S am- 9 an y IO some: some 1 I anythin g
1 3 some any 1-1 a nything I ) anyone someone 16 anv 1-; am-
5 _. anyw here with anybody <It a ny urn e ,

~ I I an v ) 3 MJme -1 - : 5 - I) some S some Y some 10 -

II - 11 anv I 3 some 1-1 -
1 some children
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 305

~ I 1 no 1 Nobody .I No 4 none 5 No 6 None 7 no 8 nobody 9 None

10 no; no; no
2 f F.xamples oj posstbie answers)
2 Nobody in my family speaks french. 7 There's nothing good on at the ctnema.
3 Nobody speaks sevenry-stx languages. 8 I had no money,
4 There's no rbing to eat at home. 9 lhadnothin g to say.
5 I'm alrajd I've got no collce. 10 None ofthem.
6 There's no body at horne just now .
~ I 1 Any 2 No 3 anything 4 nothing 5 can't bea r 6 any 7 nobody
8 anybody
2 (I:).:amplesoj possibte answers)
1 any garage: any supermar ket: any post office: any sports shop: any bookshop
2 any English teacher: any law yer: any accountant; any photographer; any fanner
~ I A Th ere's no place for women in the church,
B I suppose you've brought me here to tell me you ha ven't got any mo ney.
C It's your birthday ?Cook anything you want for supper.
D I'm sorry. he 's not seeing anybody/anyone today,
~ 1 I All 1 everything 3 everything 4 everything 5 all 6 everyth ing
7 everyt hing 8 everyt hing 9 all
2 I All 1 everybody 3 All 4 all: everybody 5 everybody 6 all
~ 1 a who le family all the islands the who le road system the whole of South Africa
all the children th e whole country all the traffic the who le of Asia a whole week
all the vegetables the whole political party all the students all the luggage
all the meat all the MPs a who le class
~ 1 1 very much I so muc h l as many .I too much 4 very much / so much
5 very much / so much 6 as many / so many 7 so many / too many 8 as many
3 l lin le2 Ii~e3kw4kw5 linle6 I inle 7kw ;kw8 kw

4 I little 1 a little 3 Few 4 a few 5 a few 6 a litt le: a little 7 little 8 few
I II is not much usc ... .I Only a few teenagers ...
7 Nadia didn't drink much coffee, or a ny alcohol / ... and she didn 't drink (any)
alcoh ol.
8 Unfortunately, he ha dn 't got / didn' t have many fne nds.
~ I 1 theleast. thejewest 1 Fewer (orless):lcss 3 fewer tor lessuless q fessiless
5 the least 6 the fewest
1 ( I:.'xamples oJpossibie answers)
I less confident 2 the least optimisti c 3 less fluentl y 4 less prosperous
5 less politely 6 the least dangerous
~ 1 I othe rs l other 3 others 4 others 5 other 6 other 7 others Bothers
9 other 10 other
2 more cloth es more friend s another child ano ther three pages / three more pages
another hour anoth er mile more sleep more job possibilities
anothe r few days / a few more days anoth er hu ndred pounds more money
more time more freedom more holidays another problem
an other twenty miles I twenty more miles
~ I DIY £ IWl lfl h normally comes after an adjective or adverb. and before a nou n.
1 1 enough money: eno ugh time 3 big enough 4 en ough friends 5 old enou gh
6 enough cham pagne 7 hard enough 8 clever enough: en ough confidence
.1 (Examples of possible answers}
1 There were too ma ny people for one car. .3 She was too busy.
4 It is too expensive. 5 There's too much traffic. 6 I wrote too slowly.
7 There's too much noise in here. 8 No, he's tal king/speakin g too quickly,
4 ( Examples of possible answers I
2 nol enough people 3 not enough water 4 too much wa ter
5 100 much work 6 100 many cats 7 not enough food 8 too muc h food

5 2 old enough 10 lake 3 100 quletly for me 10 hea r

4 clean enough for people to swim in 5 weUe nough to decide
6 100 mudd}' for tbem 10set" 7 100 tired 10 understand 8 weU enough to listen
9 100 fast for t he police to catch

~ 1 I of 1 of .3 - 4 - 5 - 6 of 7 of 8 - 9 of 10 of II - 12 -
13 - 14-
1 1 M~I people 2 Most of the people 3 most of the people 4 Most people
5 most people 6 Mosr ol the people 7 most people 8 Most ct the people
J ... enoug h disorder: ... A nme less noise ."
~ I I me 2 me 3 he: him 4 Me 5 mc. bjm fl he:her 7 him
8 me/him / her 9 me 10 her
1 1 Anne has tgon the sa me car as I have, 6 w e're nor We aren't es old as them.
2 They ha ve been here longer than we 7 He had a bigger mea l th an me,
ha ve, 8 I'm not as quick as her.
.3 I am muc h taller than he is. 9 'I ve're Iroru York.tMe too. '
4 'He is goin g to Mexico.' 'So am I.' 10 'Who wants a drink?' 'Me:
5 'Who sald tha t)"'She did,'

• 1 She 1 it 3 Ifs 4 it/ber j it 6 Who 7 It 8 it 9 who 10 it

Em I I herself 2 himse lf .3 itself 4 ourselves 5 him 6 yoursel f 7 herself: her

8 you/us/ her/him 9 me
l I ourselves 2 herself 3 himse lf 4 t he mselves 5 myself 6 itself
J I each ot her 2 themselves 3 each other 4 yourselves :; eac h other
6 ourselves
4 I ourselves 2 him .3 each other 4 myself 5 her 6 me/himlher{us them
7 myse lf 8 eac h other 9 Itself 10 themselves 11 yourself 12 you: them

Em I ( Examples of possible sentences}

l One needs / You need a pass port to get into the US.
2 One needs / You need a ticket 10 travel by traln.
3 Can one/you fi r directly from Gdansk to Pragu e?
4 One has / You ha ve to be good a t maths to be a physicist.
5 One needs / You need a warm cumate 10 grow oranges,
6 OaeiYou can', get a drtvtng licence until one is I you're seventeen .
7 Oae(You can't eat sou p with a fork.
8 One has l You ha ve to gel up ea rl}' 10 see animals in the forest.
21They 2 t h~ .3iliey 4 They 5 ~ 6 you 7 yoll r 8 you 9 you
10 they II you 12 them
ANSWERS YO EXERCISES 301

I 1 they 1 th eir 3 th eir 4 they: them 5 them 6 her 7 theirs 8 th ey

9 them 10 her
~ l 1 red woollen one I big grey leather one 3 unsweetened 4 taU on es
5 new ones 6 long sunn y one 7 Chinese 8 solid practical ones 9 sharp one
10 big grey leat her one

1 1 Due 2 on e 3 Mlne 4 some 5 on e 6 any 7 hers 8 some

~ I .... We love you because you're ours. like the car:
'You sold my what to who? '
'Could you tell me ifmy glasses are ready yet?'
'Have you seen a lady without mer
'Yes. of course It' s important enough to disturb him:
'Have you an y "Do It Herself" books?'

~ l uncountable: du st: Oour: happiness; knowledge; love: milk; meat; music; oil: rain:
snow
counta ble: book: cu p; flower: mountain: plano: river: song: table; wall
1 1 a glass 2 glass 3 wood 4 a wood 5 pity 6 a pity 7 Time 8 times
9 beers 10 Beer 11 experience 12 an experience 13 a chtcken 14 chicken
~ I accommodation - flat baggage suucase bread - loaf furniture - table
-c

tnlormauon - fact mOlley - banknote publicity - advertisemen t

traffic - cars travel - joum ey wo rk - job
1 a flash of lightnio g: a stro ke of luck: a clap of thundcr
J 'A word of advice. Arthur .... .... Our baggage has been sent ....
~ I DIY 1 By addtng -s. 2 By changing-y to -ies. 3 By addrng -s. 4 s.z.sh. ch.x
5 « hots. heroes. poUllotS. tomatoes .
1 addresses boxes brushes computers desks faces guys lists losses
messes patches peaches plays poppies replies toys trees videos
witches worries
~ l 1 crisis - crises: mea ns 2 aircra ft: sheep 3 dozen: th ousand 4 shelf: wolf
5 mou se; tooth 6 mathematics: news 7 police: scissors
~ l l a school has Ib school have 1a clu b have 2b club has 3a stafJdo
3b staffdoes 4a class Is 4b class are Sa orchestra are 5b orc hestra is
1 .... Sha ll I tell them ....
1 I have 2 have 3 is 4 Is 5 have: are 6 is 7 are 8 has 9 are
10 has 11 Is 12 are 13 are 14 has 1 5 was 16 were 17 Is 18 have
~ 1 ([ xamp/es oj possible answers'
ADn and Pat's car our dog's nose most people's health [cnathan's educauon
those women's legs Katie's fear of heights Simon and Jill's car doctors' ideas
l 1./ 2 Are youAfs da ugbter? 3 ./ 4 Here's Barry's address. 5 ./ 6 ./
7 ./ 8 ./ 9 It' s a crazy Idea of Alice's. 10 Where is that brother ofCarol'sl
~ I 19; 2b: 3h: 4a: 5j; be : 7e: 81: 9d: lOf
l 1 a music shop 1 a Birmingham man 3 a picture kam e 4 mint tea
5 the station clock 6 a space rocket 7 a biscu it factory 8 soap powder
1 an tique shop I bicycle sh op bicycle race bus station cowboy film kitchen door
grape juice road map newspaper publisher
-.:I I I a chocolate cake 3 a kitchen cupboard 4 a matchbo x 5 tooth paste
7 t he kitchen door 8 a wine bottle 9 a train time table ] I garden cha irs
~ I I a bus sta tion 2 a toy shop 3 t he teacher's office 4 computer disks
5 my rnother's chair 6 car papers 7 Tom's plan 8 a telephone box
9 the dog's toy 10 a horse race 11 vegetable soup 12 Cbjna's hlstory
13 a cowboy film 14 street lamps I S the finn 's office 16 a bath to wel
17 that cars tail 18 a teacher trainer 19 the paper's editor 20 a glass factory
1 .,.. Mother's Day card ..:
.:!Ill . Angela's leg the highest bra nc hes of the trees th e lock of m y su itcase
your dog's leg the bank' s branch in Paris the floorof your office
the leg or the ta ble my Ianuly's name th e town's atmosphere
our company 's best sales manager the police force's main problem
next week' s timetable last nigh t's party today's news
1 I Helen's story: the sto ry ofthe French revolution
2 the bed of t he stream: th e panen r's bed
3 a/t he policy of full employment: the company's policy
4 my Iavo urtte au thor's sty le: th e style of th e I930s
5 the place of la ngu age educa tion: women' s place
6 the ideas of modern physics: m y son's ideas
7 th e dub's rules: the rules of football
8 the cornm nree's views : a/t he view ofth e lak e
9 the car's head : the head of the Queue
10 th e ann ofthe ch air: JOM'S arm
I ' Fear? He doesn't know the mean in g of the word .'
'Let's go " I've got somebody else's car parked outside .'
' Righ t. Mr Wilson, I h a ve bere the resul ts of your tests:
~ I 1 calm I calmJy/ciearly/ slowly/ sofily/u nhappily 3 chea ply 4 beaunfujly
5 terri ble 6 softly 7 chea p 8 s low 9 calmly 10 beaunlul I J suft
I I clear 13 te rribl y 14 slow ly 15 unh appy I fl clearly
1 1 am azingly I sure 3 real 4 truly 5 gen tly 6 amazing 7 wonderfully
8 gentle 9 slightly 10 really I I kindly 12 badly 13 wond erful: awful
14 clever ly 1 5 surprisingly 16 un believably
~ . adjectives: cowardly: deadly; friendl y: likely; liwl y: lonely: lovely: silly: ugly
both adjectives and adverbs; da ily: " "eekJy: m onthly: yearly: early: fast.: hard: late:
lo ud: well
1 I daily/ weekJy/ mon thly/ yearly/li w ly/l ove ly/siUy
3 lively /lovelyj sillyjugly/ fast /lo ud
4 fas t/loud
5 daily/ wed Jy/ mont b lyl yearlYiea rly/i a te
6 cowa rdlyj friendly/hard/lO\'e1)' (s Wy
7 cowardly/hielldly/hard/li velYJlone IY!lo\'e1yisil ly/ ugly
8 likely
9 lovely
10 hi endlY/l onelyflo vely
11 early/ fast/ la te
I I hard
J 3 deadly
14 deadly/ fas t/h ard{UveIYflonelyjlovely l silly
15 lon ely/hard!lovely
16 yearlyj daily/ friendly/ weelJy / moot b lylearly/Ia te/loud
~ . 2 hot breezy weather 7 a quiet tense woman
3 untidy red hair 8 yellow and grey sa nd
4 The man was young and bearded. 9 The badges were red a nd blue.
5 The sea was cold and rou gh . l O a narrow brown room
6 The churc h was old and ugly.
~ I 1 the blind 2 the youn g 3 the poor 4 the young: th e old 5 the rich
6 the livin g 7 the poor: the rich 8 the dead : the living 9 the blind
~ I 1 a beautiful linle Belgian city 9 Swiss drawing ink
2 a local ja zzclu b 10 a sho rt leather jacket
3 an excellent cold dinner 11 little brick squa res
4 modem industrial buildi ngs 12 French ski 0001S
5 a red silk evening dress 13 a blue woollen tie
6 narrow colourless eyes 14 grey cotton trousers
7 a flat gold frame 1 5 black nylon swimming trunks
8 lovely old furniture

Em · (Ex(lll1ples of possible IlIlS wtrs )

I am always in tro uble.
My mothe r is n ever depressed.
Most people are usuall y friendly .
5 1 You are usually here _. _ 14 She has never done that before.
2 lIer mu m always cooks ... 15 Something is definitely burning.
J We us ually boo k ... 16 She has always been nervou s.
4 They probably th ink ... 17 I ne ver feel cold ...
S You shou ld a lway s look ... 18 They were always against me,
6 She is probably goin g t o stay ... 19 We are definitely going to win .
7 Chocolate cakes are definitely the best. 20 February is usually t he worst.
S I wiUprob ably be able ... 21 It is soruenmes very difficult.
9 I have never had ... 22 I al wa ys buy them ..,
10 We never saw sweets . 13 I ha ve often tried ...
II I definitely remember . 24 They a re a lways lighting.
12 Do you usually read . 25 She oftensa w ...
13 I can usualUy manage 26 You are probably right.
-.I . 2 I'm only dotng thls ... 7 He can't even write ...
J She even gets up ... S They even mak e you pay .;
4 He even wears a suit ... 9 I was only thinkin g .
S She only ate ... 10 You ca n even ski .
6 I can only play ...
2 (Examples of possible answers)
I work. every day, even on Sun days. Only my mo ther really understands me.
They do everything together. They even brush t h/Cir teeth together.
Hehol It's only me! Even the cat t hinks you're st upid.
She likes a Uanimals. even rats. Only the d ock broke the silence.
Only IDSwife knew t hat he was ill. Even his children hated him.
You ca n borrow it, but only for a few minutes.
~ ) 1 I work best a t night.
2 I paid the bill a t once.
1 He always moves very slowly in the morning.
4 She speaks Japanese fluently.
S I think we'd better open tbe pa rcel now.
6 She was crying quietly in her room .
7 We talked about it briefly at lunchtime.
8 I'm going 10 break the eggs carefully in to the bowl.
9 Arm works a t the villa ge shop on Saturday s.
10 I can't explain my feelings clearly.
11 The team pla yed brilliantly yesterday.
12 I always worked very hard at school.
13 She practises the piano he re eve ry eveni ng.
14 I don't tblnk she plays tennis very well.
15 lie read eve ry word slowly.
16 Put the butler in t he fridge at once.
~ 1 1 Are you snll in tbe same job?
2 lie's seventeen. but he's alread y married.
3 lias Susan arrived yet? (or ... alread y arrteedj]
4 I've alread y fimshedt
5 9 a.m.. and it's snll dark!
64p.m .. a nd it's alreadydar k!
7 Have you had breakfast yet? (or .. already h ad breakfa st?)
8 Look -it's still raining.
9 Our old ca r still runs OK.
lOis th e rice cooked yet> (or ... already cooked?)
J I She's already gone to bed.
12ls shestillinlhatlinleflal ?
13 \Vh}' are you still in bedz (orWby are you already ... ?)
14 I'm already bored with m y Dew job.
I S It's nOI time 10 sto p yet.
16 Have you written thatletter yeV (or •.. already written ... ?)
~ 1 DIY To make the comparative and su perlative of one-sylla ble a djectives ending tn .e.
you add -r. -Sl.
To make the comparative and su per lative of other one-sy llable adjecti\'es.
yo u add -er, -est.
To make the com parative and su perlative of two-syllable adiecu ves ending in -s.
yo u change y to i and add -er. -est.
To make th e com parative and su perlative of other tw o-syllable adjectives. you put morr
and most in front.
To make the comparanve and supeetenve of longer adjecti ves. you put more and most
in front .
1 DIY Before -f?t and -est. we double the last lencr of ad jeclives thai end in one vowel +
one co nsonan t.
3 more/most boring chea per/cheapest finer-finest fuller/fulles t runoer.runmest
more/most handsome harder/hardest more/most honest more/ most interesting
laacr/lanesr Iigbterlligbtesl more.mosr neI'\'OUS sadder/saddest safer/safest
siUier/silliest sorner/sornest more, most stupid more/ most uncomfortable
more/most useful more/most violent welter/wettest
~ I (ExamplesojpossiblraJlswers J
2 II wa s the best. 3 She lived farther/further a way th an the others.
4 The cold got worse. 5 The worst. 6 Her o lder/elde r siste r: his older/elder brother:
her oldest/eldest sister. 7 Further tests. 8 Thc one that ueeds (the) least water.
9 The Blacks have more money than the Browns. The Browns have less money than
the Blac ks. 10 The park is fa rther/further a way tha n t he post o ffice.
~ ] I faster 2 more beautifully .3 (the] hardest 4 earlier 5 the most sensitively
6 wore peacefuUy 7 the latest 8 the most fluently
3 1 more slowly 2 faster 3 earlier 4 harder
~ ] ( Examph'so! possiblellnswcrs)
The Great Pyramid is very much older tban the Ta] Maha!.
The Amazon is far lon ger th an the Thames.
North America is a little larger than Sou th America .
A dog is a bit bigger th an a cat.
A computer is a 101 faster than a typewriter.
Asia is even bigger th an Africa.
A parrot sings no better than a ca l.
Are yo u an y more jntelligcnllhan your boss?
~ I (Examples a/ possibleanswers)
1 ls this box stronger th an that one? Is this box the strongest you 've got}
2 Alista ir is taller th an anyo ne else in the cla ss. Alista ir is th e tall est in the cla ss.
3 The slate of Alas ka is bigger than the ot her states in t he US. The stale of Alaska is th e
biggest in t he US.
4 This wine is more expensive tha n that one. This wine is t he most expensive in th e
wor ld.
5 AI's party was better tha n Pat's party. AI's party wa s the best I've ever been to.
2 ( Examples of possibk llnSWf'rs)
Car Y is more expe ns ive th an car X. Car X is more comforta ble than t he ot her
CarZ is th e m ost expensive of t he three. two cars.
Car Y is m ore economical than car Z Car X is m uc h bette r olf-road t han ca r Y.
Car X is the mos t econ omlcal of all . Car Z is the best of a ll olf-road.
Car Y is safer th an car X. Car Z has more lu gga ge space than car X.
Car Z is th e sa fest of th e three. Car Y has t he most lugga ge space of the
Car X is the mos t comforta ble ofthe t hree. t hree.
~ I ( EXdmpksof possibleanswers)
I fas ter and faster 2 tal ler an d t aller 3 hotter and hotter
4 more and m ore difficu lt/com plica ted or ha rder and harder 5 fatt er a nd fatter
6 more e nd mo re dep ressed /unhappy 7 mo re and more expensive
Z (Examples of possibleanswers)
1 My mo ther's drivin g is getting more and more dangerous ...
2 he's getting better and better.
3 police oltcers arc getting yo un ger and youn ger .
4 My tem per is getting w orse and worse.
5 It's getti n g harde r and h arder to find time ...
6 Prolession al ten nis is getting mor e a nd more boring.
7 Rest au r an ts are getting more and more e xpens ive.
8 Her h olidays are getting lon ger and lon ger.
J 1 the fa ster th e more... 2 the lon ger the more 3 the olde r ... t he darker ...
4 the m ore th e a ngrier ... 5 th e more the more the less ...
6 th e m ore th e less ... 7 the more ... the more ... 8 the wanner ... the mo re ...
4 I The more ice cream he eats. the fatter h e gets: a nd the fatter h e gets, the more ice
cream he ea ts.
2 The mo re he reads. the more he forgets; and the more he for gets. the more he reads.
3 The more she ignores h im, the m ore he lov es her: and the mo re he loves her. t he
more she ignores him.
4 The more shoes she bu ys. the m ore shoes she wants; and t he mo re shoes she wan ts.
t he more sho es she bu ys.
5 The m ore money we spend. the m ore Irten ds we h ave: and the more friends "....e h ave ,
t he more money we spend.
6 The more I sleep. the more tired I a m: a nd th e more tired I a m, the more I sleep.
~ I (Examplesof possible QllSwt'rs )
1 in the Army 3 of the books I own 4 in the class 5 in Europe
6 in my family 7 of the four men 8 of the girls in her school 9 in t he office
10 of the paint ings in the gaUery 11 in Rome 12 in the school
2 ( Exampks of possible answers)
1 Florence is the 2 Wolves are ... j I think Stoppard is the ... 4 Bill is t he ...
S The st reets a re 6 Work ing in the country is t he ... 7 I feel
~ 1 I as: as 1 than 3 that 4 than 5 than 6 as 7 as 8 tha i 9 than
10 t hat 11 as 12 as
l .... a better place than we found i t! '
~ 1 (Examples o!possib!eQllswers)
Ja ke didn 't go to the sa me umverstry as Susie.
Susie wen t ro t he same schoo l as lake.
Su sie is not as tall as Jake.
Susie doesn 't weigh as much as jake.
Ja ke does/has the same job as Susie.
Ja ke isn't as old as Susie.
Sus ie was born in the sa me town as Jak e.
Susie earns twice as mu ch money as Jake.
Jake doesn't work for the same finn as Susie.
Susie doesn't hav e as many weeks' holiday as [a ke.
Ja ke lives in the same street as Susie.
Susie ha s t he same number of cblldren as la ke.
[ake speaks French as well as Susie, but he doesn't speak Germ an as well as her .
Jake doesn't read as much as Susie,
1 as black as night as cold as ice as fl at as a pancake as good as gold
as green as grass as hard as iron as old as the hills as pret ty as a picture
as quiet as th e grave as red as a beetroot as th tn as a rak e as warm as roast
as whil e as a sheet
~ I las 2 like 3 as 4 as 5 tike 6 Like 7 as 8 like 9 Uke lOAs
1 2 as a secreta ry f union representative 3 as an officc 4 Li ke a person
5 As you know 6 as a un ion representative 7 like cardboard 8 as he writes
9 like her mothe r 10 as a dessert
~ I r so 2 such 3so 4 such 5 such 6 so lso 8 such
2 (Exllmples of posSible anm'trs}
) It was such cold weather ... 5 Their house is so nice ...
2 The weather was so ho t .,. 6 And they've gO l such a beautiful garden!
3 It was sucb a boring book ... 7 He has su ch a plea sant voice ...
4 The film was so good 8 I don't kno w whf her voice IS so loud.
3 (EXIUllpies of possibll' tlllSY.'tI'"5)
I sodark 2 such bad 3 such a Iast 4 so heavy 5 such a boring
6 so dUlicultfhard 7 such a nice 8 so tired 9 I wish my reet weren't so big.
10 I wish I hadn't gOI such a funny nose.
~ I I very fast 2 too fast 3 10 0 hOI 4 very hot
5 too tall 6 very tall 7 too expensive 8 very expensive
9 very small 10 100 small 11 very slow 12 too slew
~ ) 1 very muc h 2 very 3 very 4 very 5 very 6 very much 7 very
8 very much 9 very much 10 very mu ch 1 ] very rnuch J2 very
13 very much 14 very 15 very
~ I 1 is bein g 2 am 3 is being 4 a re being 5 am 6 a re being 7 was bein g
8 is
-=:I I I do agree with you. I do need a job.
I do apologise for disturbing you. Pet er did en joy your party.
I do feel ill/tired. She doe s look ill/tired.
I do ha te cookin g I eggs and ba con . You do t alk a lot.
I do like cooking I eggs and bacon. I do wonder if he 's really ha ppy.
z 'You don't love me." ) do love you.'
I may not be educated. but I do know something about life.
I'll be r eady In a mi n ute. but I do ha ve to ma ke a phone call.
I'm DOt sure she'Ube there. but if you do see her give her my Jove.
It's a sma ll h ouse. Mind you , it does hav e a nice big kitchen.
My wife docs th e housework. but I do iron my ow n trou sers .
AJthough she didn't say m uch, she did give me her phone number.
She doesn't really Uke sport. She does play a bit of tennt s sometimes.
I made h er go to the doctor's. and she did h ave a brok en finger.
There's nobody a t h ome. They did say eight o'cloc k, didn' t Ihey?
1 Scott ish people don't speak Jap an ese, but they do spea k English.
In En gland it doesn't sno w a lot, bUI it does rai n a lot.
Banks don 't sell beer, but th ey do lend mo ney.
Cats don 't cat pot atoes, but they do eat mice .
Na poleo n didn't fi ght aga inst Chin a , bu l he did figh t against England.

~ I DIY 1 do 2 make 3 do 4 do
] ... to ma ke decision s ...
4 2 doing 3 doing 4 making a ph otocopy 5 mak e hts /t he bed
6 made a mi stak e 7 make a ca ke 8 makin g a fire 9 do her hair
10 do 14 0 mph 1 1 done the was hlng u p 12 to make a ph one call
Im!D 1 1 (You can) h av e a shower 2 ,.. hav e e swnn 3 ... ha ce djnner
4 hav e a ga me of cards 5 ... have a ga me of tennis 6 ... h ave a drink
7 ha ve a rest 8 ... ha ve tea 9 ... hav e a sha ve
z (Exampks of possible answers)
1 Sh e's going to have a baby. 2 They 're going t o h a ve a fight.
3 Th e pa tien t is going 10 h av e an operation.
4 This person is goin g to have a nervous breakdown.
S The person is go ing to ha ve an acc ident.

ImlID 1 1 I' ve gol ... 2 Has you r sister got ,.. 1 Does your sist er have ...
3 I haven't got ... 1 I don't hav e ... 4 Th e sc hoo l does n ot h av e ...
5 Did you h ave good t eache rs ... 6 She didn 't have ...
z ( Examples of possibleanswers)
1 If you 're ba ld, you haven't got an y hair.
2 If you 're penni less. you h aven 't gOI any money.
3 ffyou 're childless, yo u h aven't got a ny children.
4 If you 're unemployed , you ha ven 't got a job,
S If you' re toot hless . you h aven't got any tee th,
6 If you' re lonel y, you haven't got any mends.
7 If you're starv ing, you ha ven't got any food .
8 If you ' re an orpha n. you ha ven't got any paren ts.
9 If you're unmamcd. you ha ven't got a wife or husband.
314 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

1 I Have you got: I've got: I've got: I haven't got 2 h av e yo u gOI
3 ha ve gonlt's gor 4 I've got 5 have you got: I've got 6 Have I got: you 've got
7 bas got : he's got: he's gOI
4 (Exam ples of possible answers )
Thc ma n in the first advertisemen t h as gOI a Porsche.
The woman in th e second advertisement h as gOI brow n hai r / blue eyes / a good sense
of humour.
The woman in the third advertiseme nt has got a nice smile I her own apa rtm en t.
Tbe ma n in th e fourth advertisement h as got a sun tan / a nice borne / a yach t.
~ ) 2 We have ou r kni ves sharpened ,..
3 ... to have the roof repaired .,.
4 ,.. have my ja cket cleaned, .., h ave m y rain coat re proofed.
5 have the car serviced ... ha ve the oil changed.
6 had her jewellery valued ..,
7 have your tennis ra c ket re-strung
8 h a ve the kitchen redecor ated ...
9 h a ve some more electric sockets pUI in

I!'i:SI I DIY I lnfi n mve w ith o ut 10. The exception is ought. 2 It doesn' t nave -so
3 They are made without do.
2 I play 2 to be 3 to do 4 go 5 finish 6 to get 7 make 8 pass
, I Can I stay here? 2 Must you go? 3 Will he understand ? 4 Sh all we drivc?
S Could she do it? 6 Would you like to?
4 I to be ab le to 2 been a ble to 3 bee n al lowed to 4 to ha ve to S had to
6 be a ble to 7 h a ve 10 8 to ha ve to 9 been ab le 10
6 be able to

D!!!:!I 1 2 You must be crazy. 3 That can't be Janet ... 4 She must thi n k I' m stupid.
S I must look silly... 6 they m ust make a lot of money.
7 lie ca n't be a teacher 8 ... Thai must be a n in teresting job.
9 You can't be serious, You m ust be jokin g, 10 He must have an other woman ...
1 (Exnmples of ptJssibk a'lS wers)
2 lie m ust be in Scotland, 6 It may/ migh t be a ca t.
'3 He may be Spanish. '1 This person may be an artist,
4 Sh e mustbe u nha ppy. f She can't be R She must be mamed.
ha ppy. 9 II may be go ing to raui.
S She might be In love. / She m ust be 10 What can it be?
ha ppy.
~ I 1 s ho uld 2 must 3 sh ou ld 4 must 5 must 6 shou ld 7 m ust 8 must
9 should 10 should
1 2 Should I move to London? 8 Sh ou ld I go to the police?
3 Wha t shou ld I call mYithe baby? 9 Shou ld I take a t axi ?
4 w here should I p ut my /th is bicycle? 10 Should I take a h oliday?
5 w hen should I pay m y tax bill? II How lon g shou ld I wa il?
6 Should I in vite m y mother? 11 w hat shou ld I do at the weekend?
7 How should I cook th is a/thc/this c ra b?
~ 1 ] must 2 h as to 3 must 4 must ) has to 6 have Igotj to 7 have (got) to
8 m ust 9 must 10 h e ..e to
~ 1 1 m ust not 1. do not h ave to 3 must not ~ m ust nOI 5 do n ot ha ve t o
6 must n ot 7 don't h ave to 8 do n't h ave to 9 mustn't 10 don't h eve to
ANSWIERS TO EXERCISES 315

2 ( Examples of possible answers)

In rugby football. you must n ot pa ss the ba ll forwards.
In tennis. you do not n eed to h it the ball before it bo u n ces.
In tennis. yo u must DOt hit the ball after its second bounce.
in chess. yo u m ust n ot touch a piece if you aren 't going to move it.
In boxin g, you m ust not hit your op ponen t below the belt.
In athlcncs. yo u m ust not start before the gu n ,
In hockey. you must n ot lift your stick a bove your shoulder.
In hockey. you do n ot need to b it the ball before It bou nces.
In baseball. you must not throw tbe bat.
tn football. you m ust n ot tou ch the baJJ with yo u r hands.
In bridge. you must Dot look at other people's cards.
I!m!11 1 I can 2 wiU be able to 3 can 4 can 5 wiU be able to 6 could
7 will be a ble t o 8 can 9 cou ld 10 will be a ble to II can 12 can
I 3 wiU be a ble to 14 could 15 ca n
2 1 cou kl 2 managed to 3 mana ged to 4 cou ldn 't 5 ma naged to
6 could; could 7 mana ged to 8 ma naged to 9 cou ld 10 managed to
1 I can smell 2 could see 3 can/could see 4 can hear 5 ca n ta ste
6 coukl feel; couldn't see 7 can see 8 can hea r
ttt.,t!t] 1 2 Cou ld I use your ph one? 7 Could I speak to Jane, if she's there?
3 Ma y I stop work ea rly toda y? 8 Can I ha ve a beer?
4 You ca n take my bike if yo u want to. 9 Can students use this library?
l Can children go into pubs? 10 Cou ld I pay you tom orrow?
6 You can't co me into my room.
2 1 Can I take your coa t?
2 Can/Could you start cooking su pper now, please?
3 Can/Could you translate th is for me?
4 I wonder if you co uld translate ... ? / Cou ld you possibly translate ... ?
5 You could watch a video if ...
6 You can spend ... / Can you spend ... ? / Could you spend ... ?
7 I can feed the ho rses. ...
8 Could you possibly lend me f.5 ? / J wonder if you co u ld lend me £5.
9 Can/ Could you t ell me when it's time to go?
10 Cou ld you (possibly) tell me ... / 1 wonder if you could tell me ...
] ' M.iss E1Us, could you come in here and pass me my coffee?'
IU'h:J I ru wash up if you'll dry.
I'm tired. I think I'll go to bed now.
If you see An n , would yo u tell her I go t her letter?
She w on't tell us what's wrong.
The ca t won't eat.
The phone's ringing. I'll answer it.
This video won't play.
' who's going to get the tic kets?' ' I will.'
Will you deliver the fu rniture to this address. please?
Will you let me know wb en you're read y to leave?
Will you stop shou ting?
Would you pu t the mea t in the oven a t 5.30?
Z (Examples ofpossible al lSWf'rs)
1 1promise I'll write. 7 I promise I'll go to lectures.
2 I promise I won 't smoke. 8 I promise I won 't fight.
3 I promise I'll go to church. 9 I promise I'U do exercises.
4 I promise I won't sta y out late, 10 I promise rJJ get up ea rly.
S I promise I won 't drin k. II I promise I'll wash my clothes.
6 ( promise I'll study ha rd. 12 I promise I'll th ink ofyou.
~ I 1 will keep 2 wou ld make 3 will play 4 will talk 5 will listen
6 would take 7 will drive 8 will fall 9 will ring: will be 10 will tell
Z After yOIl have bought something. you will find it somewhere else cheaper.
If anything can go wrong. it will.
lr there are two good TV shows, they will both be on at th e same time.
!f you explain so dearly tha t nobody can misunderstand. somebody will .
!f you throw something away, you'll need it the next day.
No matter how much you do. you'll never do enough.
The one who sn ores will fall asleep first.
The other queue will always move faster.
~ 1 (Examples of pos.~ibJe Qnswers)
3 Shall we stay in this country or go 8 Shall we stay in one place or travel
abroad? around?
4 When shall we go? 9 Shall we take Granny?
5 How long shall we go for? 10 Sha ll we go with the Jacksons?
6 Shall we Ily, go by traln or drive? 1 1 What shall we do with the dogs?
7 Sha ll we slay in a hote l or camp ?
Emm I 2 could}might have killed 8 should have taken
3 would have phoned 9 could/ might bace died
4 could/might/ would have gone 10 could/s ho uld have hit
5 should have been 11 might/ should/ could have told
6 should/ could have put 12 might/should/could have washed
7 should/co uld have asked
Z 1 may have gone 2 should/may have finished 3 can't have forgotten
4 must h ave rained 5 must have been 6 may have been 7 ca n't have spent
8 may have found 9 must have had JO may/m ust have gene
J I can't have 2 may not haw 3 must have 4 had to
5 may not have / can't have 6 may not have
I!I!E] 1 I 1ca n't sing. 4 Could you tell me the time ?
2 I wou ld like to be able to travel more, 5 I ha d to work ...
3 He sho uld work harder.
2 I might 2 may/might 3 can' t 4 may 5 may not 6 can 't 7 must
8 should 9 have to 10 don 't have to 11 can /wiUbe ableto
12 wtllbe able tc 13 man aged to 14 could / was eblc to 15 can J6 willstop
17 may not J 8 can't 19 had to do 20 must have jeft
4 'Can this be the same man ..2' you cou ld live for another twenty minutes.'
.... I'll lake them.' , it may not be a joke.'
.... he might be Prime Minister .... . I wonder who it can be from.'
~ 1 I needn't laugh 2 needn't get 3 needn 't write 4 needn't come
5 needn 't worry 6 needn't think 7 needn 't ring 8 needn't take
9 needn't phone/ring 10 needn 't try
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 317

2 1 didn't need 10 water 2 needn't have cooked 3 needn't have do ne

4 needn't have bou gh t 5 didn't need to nil up 6 needn't have worried
7 didn 't need to go 8 didn 't need to wa it 9 needn't ha ve studled
~ 1 I '" You'd better sta rt H ' 6 We'd better invite ".
2 ... l ' d better get ... 7 I' d better do ...
3 vou'dberter cren.; 1{ You'd better not tell ...
4 ... sh e'd bette r not forget ... 9 .., You 'd better have ,..
S We'd better give ... 10 You'd better not Jet ...
2 (ExI1111ples ofJXlssibleanswers)
I You'd better see the doctor. 7 You'd better learn some Chinese and
2 You'd better go to bed. Ja panese.
3 You'd better put a sweater on, 8 You'd bet ter take a sleeping pili,
4 You 'd better go for a walk, 9 You 'd better start studyin g,
S You'd better la ke a day off. 10 You'd better sto p,
6 You 'd better tell me all about it. 11 You'd better ring the police,
~ 1 1 used to live 1 used to stand 3 used to look a fter 4 used to play
5 used to ta ke 6 used to look at 7 used to go 8 used to buy 9 used to kee p
10 used to ba ve
2 ( Examples of JXlssibleanswers)
1 People used to tra vel by horse. 6 People used to believe in ghosts and
2 People used to cook with /on wood fires, dev ils,
3 People didn't usc to live so long, 7 People didn't use to be able to vote.
4 People used to fight with spears. 8 Peop le used to t hink the earth was fl at ,
) People used to hu nt wit h bows and 9 People used to have bigger fa milies.
arrows. 10 Children used to work.
~ 1 Aspirins a re supposed 10 cure hea daches.
Catholics are su pposed to go to ch urch on Sundays.
You were so pposed to come and see me yesterda y,
It' s supposed to ha ve instructions with it. but I can't find them.
w asn't my computer magazi ne supposed to come toda y?
What am J supposed to do with a ll th is chicken sa lad?
You're not su pposed to go into t he shower wtth shoes on,
You're not supposed to smoke in food shops.
You're supposed 10 be good a t geogra phy - whcre t he hell are we?
I think you're supposed to pay a t the cash des k on the way o ut.
2 2 1t's supposcdtobe a cat. 6 It's supposed 10 be a tiger,
3 It's supposed to be a plane. 7 It's supposed to be the sun,
4 It's supposed ro bea borse. 8 lfssupposcdtobe alJower.
:; It's supposed 10 be a bus.
I:E:::!:E!I I Buy the ca t food here. It'll be chea per.
Don' t give her your keys, She'll only lose them.
Get John to have alook at the TV. He'n hx n,
'He'll grow up one day.' 'I hope you' re right .'
lI e'lI need somebody to help him,
'How's Ju ne?' 'She' ll be OK.'
I m us t get back to work , other wise I'll gel the sac k.
If he doesn't stop dnnkjng, he'll bedead in live yea rs,
u we give a shou t. sn c'H come and help.
If you pUI lemon in it. he'll drin k it.
Knowing his luck, if he plays golf he'll ge t hi t on the Dose with a ba ll,
No good send ing her a bill, is it.: She'll lust refuse 10pay,
One day yo u' ll be old, and then your kids will lau gh a t you,
She 'll be fourteen on May l j th .
She'll forget a bou t )'OU.
1. 3 will j will nol get 8 Every body I Nol everybody will hav e .
4 will i will nOI be 9 Everybody I Not everybody will have .
S will j w tll nOI be 10 will I wil l no t be
6 will i will nol disappear 11 \\<ilI , wtllnot ea t
7 will i will not be
3 (Exampleof possible answer)
Tomorrow will be mainl y d ry, bUI th ere w ill be some rain in th e n orth. Th ere will be
strong wi nds from the south-west lat er in the da y. It " ill be qune warm in the south,
bUI SCotland will be cold. and in t he north of Scotland the r ain will tum to sno w d uring
the afternoon .
~ I She is going to try 10 beco me a professio nal pianist.
But first, she Is going to spend a year learning German.
Max is goin g 10 do maim and scien ce for his final exams.
Then he is going to train as a ptlot.
Jennifer's eight , and she doesn't kn ow wh at she is goin g to do.
One day she says she is goin g to be a dancer.
And th e n ext she says she is going to start her own business.
Th is summer, Jane is going 10 sta y with her aUIlI in America.
Max is goi ng to spend the summer learning to fly.
Th eir parents are going to spend IwOwee ks wa lkin g In SCotland.
The n they are goin g to decor at e the hou se.
z (Exampk s of possible answrrs)
I She is going to ha ve a ba by. 6 They are going to hav e dinner.
2 Ileis goin glOs"im j lOd i\'{'intothe 7 1le is goin g toha vesome wUle.
water, 8 The cal is going 10 ca tch th e bird.
3 She isgoingtoknockacu poffthe table. 9 The m ugger is go ing to attack
4 lie is going 10 gel on the bus, somebody.
S She is going to open the letter, 10 Th e pia nist is goi ng 10 play.
~ I I She's playing tennis on Su nday morning.
2 She's hating lunch with Jam es a t 11 .30 on Wednesday.
3 She's (lying to Amsterdam on Thu rsday.
4 She's meetin g Mrs Parsons in th e Orlord office,
:; She's going 10 t h e m eertng with M rs Pa rsons by train.
6 She 's going to a funer al on Wednesd ay morning.
7 She's meeting the accoun tan ts a t4 p.m . on Monday.
8 She's going 10 the t hea tre on Frtday evening .
9 She 's spending Saturday at t he races.
10 Ma tt hew is comin g t o see her on Sunday afternoon,
-m ] I is going to cost 2 wdl cost 3 Is goln g to have 4 wul bace S I' m playing
6 He'llwin . 7 She'll tell 8 tsn' t gotng 10stop 9 wtll ha ve
10 She's gernng married II lts goiag to rain 12 nwlllsnow
~ ) 1 does 2 arri ves 3 will writ e 4 are golng 5 go 6 will sto p 7 do 8 are
9 have 10 does n' t II will come II do 13 a m playing 14 does
15 will post
~ 1 1 when : grow u p 2 if; rains 3 whe n: am 4 if: passes 5 if: don't find
6 if: say 7 if: does n' t we nt 8 when: co mes
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 319

1 1 get 2 am 3 will lind 4 will keep 5 stops 6 bring 7 wiu tak e

8 will make 9 will be 10 get
~ 1 (Exampll's of JXlSsibll'UIISwers)
1 w hat tim e will you be getting u p? 6 Will you be having lunch out?
2 What w ill you be wearing? 7 W hat tim e will yo u be coming bac k?
3 How will you be travelling to w or k? 8 Where will you be sleeping?
4 How soon w ill you be lcavin g? 9 How w ill you be paying?
5 Will you be t ak ing the car? 10 When w ill you be going back home?
2 ... I'll be teach ing you English literat ure ...
~ ) I won 't have Oni shed the repo rt by Monda y. and irs needed for Monday m omlng.
In a couple of years the children will ha ve left h ome and we 'll be a ble to get a sma ller
house.
On ou r next wedding anni versary we will h ave been m arried for tw enty-five years.
w hen I get home toni ght I will ha ve been drtvlng for fou rt een h ou rs non-stop.
When I ret ire I will h ave been workin g for fort y years.
1 (Examples of JXls.~ibll' arlswers)
I After ten da ys she will ha ve written 100 pa ges: after a mont h she will have writ te n
300 pa ges; after a year she will h a ve written 3. 6 50 pa ges; a fter ten years she will
hav e written 36,500 pages.
2 She will h ave finished her first boo k in /after a m onth. A year fro m n ow she will have
written t welve books.
3 She will h ave been wri ting for ten years.
4 She will have made £ 12 mtlljon.
~ ) (Examples of poSSible answersJ
After a rriving a t Star City AIrport. the president is to inspect a guard of honour.
At 0 9.00. he is to h ave a working breakfast wit h President Jensen .
From 1 1.ooto 13 .00. he is to to ur Star City and mcct the mayor a nd civic lea ders .
At 13.00 he is to have lun ch with Forei gn Ministe r Svendse n and guests.
At 14.00 he is to visit inner city sch ools; then he is to open a new eye hospita l.
At 16.00 h e is to meet business leaders : then h e is free until 20.00, wh en he is to attend
a Sta te Dinner as the guest of President a nd Mrs Jen sen.
2 ( Examples of possible answers)
You're to do your piano pra ctice .
You're not to give chocolate t o the cat .
You're to go to bed at nr oc c'ciock.
You 'r e to learn how to use the washing machine.
You 're no t to leave dirty socks on the floor.
You' re n ot to leave empty crisp-packets lyin g aro u nd .
You' re not to make hour-lon g p hone calls.
You ' re to make your own bed.
You 're n ot to open the do or to stra ngers .
You're to write you r Chr istmas tha n k-you letters.
~ ) Carola a nd I hardly noticed each other that first evening. Two weeks later we would be
married.
He was to regret th at conversation for many years t o come.
I was goin g to ring you yesterday. but I forgot.
She was leavin g in t wo h ours. and she still ha dn't started pa cking .
So th is was the school w he re I wou ld spend the n ext five years. I didn 't like il.
The letter t hat wa s to change my life arrived one Friday morning.
1 1 wa s go ing to say 2 wa s marrying 3 was going 10 be 4 wer e to lose
5 wer e to find 6 would return: woul d stand: wou ld make
Im!!!J I DIY simple prest"nt: permanent : ha bit: always: usua lly
present progres"i\'e: temporary; just around now : just at t h is mo ment: these da ys but
not for very long
I I read: make 2 am making 3 do you spea k 4 a re doing ): pla ys
6 is playin g 7 is she playin g 8 Does she play 9 plays 10 is playing
II is cookin g 11 shop: coo ks 11 does n't work 14 isn 't working
4 '" . He collects du st: 'So how's everything go ing!'

E!!m I A woman is sitting in a railwa y carria ge when she notices that the man op posite her is
holding an orange in his hand and loo lJng out of the window . Suddenly th e man opens
th e window , throws ou t th e orange and d oses th e window again. 'Excuse me,' the
woman as ks. 'bu t wh y did you do th at >' The man ta kes another orange out ofbis bag
and starts opening the window. 'Beca use we are go ing through the mo untains .
Oranges keep the eleph a nts away.' 'Bu t there are no elephants in th ese m ounta ins.'
says the wom an. 'You see?' say s the man. ' 11 works.'
I Th e police statio n,
6 l Example of p(/ssible onswer)
You fill a saucepan with wat er and pu t n on th e cooker. wbec it boils yo u put the egg
in . You leave it for tour and a h al f minutes and then you la ke it out.

~ I ( Examl,les of poSsibleanswers)
Milk is getting much m or e expensive. Newspa pers a re getting m or e expensive. Haircuts
are getting ch ea per.
2 ( Examples of possible answers)
The world 's population is growing. The political sit ua tio n is getting worse.
I'm getting older . Children are get ting taller.
M y English is getting much better. Cities are getting dirtier.
Prices arc going up. It is becoming m or e dlf6cult to provide
Th e day s are getting sh orter. medical care for everybody.
Pollunon is getting wo rse. Tee nagers are getting more moleut.
Road s are get ting bus ier. Unemployment is becoming vcry serious .
Trains a re get ting dirtier. Sprinters are getting faster.
Cars are getting faster and more Men are livin g longer.
comfortable. Women a re living lon ger too.
Air travel is get ti ng cheaper. Older people are becoming more isolated.
People are destroying the world's forests. People's h olida ys are getting longer.
\vildJire is disa ppearing.
I .... How 's your Englis h getting on >' T ha t runn y noise is getting loud er.'

~ I DIY I By adding - $ . 2 You add - $. 3 YOIl change -y 10 -ies. 4 s. x. ell. sh

5 do. go
2 boxes: brushes: bu ys: com pletes: cri es: defends: denies: destroys: excites: expects: rrtes:
gu esses: look s: prays: reaches: receives; rushes: spends: wants: wat ches.
1 J does: teach es 2 happens 3 ta kes: washes 4 gets. sings 5 ha tes
6 starts: does 7 loves: hales 8 makes 9 comes: wait s
~ I 1 belongs
1 believe/realise /su ppose
3 Do ... hate/li ke(love(prefer Jrca1 embe-r!uoderstand
4 owns
ANSWERS TQ EXERCISES 321

5 hales/likes/needs/ prefers/wants
6 need/want
7 beueve/reatlse/suppose: likejlove/need/remember/ undersland/ wanl
8 forget/ remem ber
9 believes{hates/llkes/lo ves/ needs/remembers/ u nde rstanc!.<;/wa nts; believe/ hate/etc.
10 ma tter
II prefer /wa nl
12 remember
13 comams
2 1 am having 2 has 3 Is a ppearing 4 appears 5 are you looking 6 looks
7 see 8 am seeing 9 thln k 10 are you thinking I I am feeling j feel 12 feel
~ I Dad is al ways teasing me about my clo thes.
He's always arguing or fighttng.
He's al ways giving people small presen ts.
Her best friend is always dropping in to criticise the way she lives her life.
I hale those cartoons where Tom is always chasing Jerry .
Jami e Is al ways having co lds and chest problems.
My wile's a lways buying new prod ucts.
She 's a lways cr iticising he r Iamlly.
She 's a lways saying she wishes she was prettier.
Someone is always giving a party in one of t he houses.
Tha t old bitch is a lways making u p stories about people.
2 DIY Criticism.
~ I 1 don't ea r 2 iscoming 3 goes 4 play 5 's sttung 6 ha ppens 7 dri nks
8 She's wearing 9 are you looking 10 'm stayln g I I usually stay 12 runs
13 are you doing 14 gets 1 5 fly
2 Id ; Zc: 3f; 4e ; 5j; 6a; 7b; 8g; 9i; IOh
3 I think 2 know: mea n 3 is always complain ing 4 always start
5 Is melting; ta ke: brea k 6 am thinking 7 believe; Is cha nging 8 don't see
9 are you lookin g 10 understand
-.m I (Examplesojpossibleanswrrs)
I The For eign Ministe r is dead, 7 All the plat es. knives etc are d ean.
2 Lucy has got a new baby. 8 She has a new job with the RBC.
3 Your coa l is torn. 9 We still don 't know where he ts.
4 My leg Is broken, 10 It's qu jet .
5 He can't lind his address book. 11 I don' t remember your name.
6 Is lea read y? 12 She speaks French.
2 "... His tem peratu re has gone do wn. "
He's dead.
I!I!!II 1 I Polly and Simo n ha ve just go t married.
2 The firm has lost £30 millio n this year.
3 United have won the cup again.
4 My poor old father has gone in to hospital agai n.
5 Somebody ba s just crashed into ou r garden gate.
6 Lucy has had a baby girl.
7 A parachutist has just la nded on the roof.
S Some peop le have bought the house next door.
2 Ana Gomez. of Peru. has set a new record for the marathon. She covered th e 42 krn in
just OH,'r 2 hou rs a nd 16 min utes.
Novelist Mari a ga n uago has roamed actor Tony Delaney , They met while working ou
the screen play for tbe film Sun in tbe Morning.
Peter has just offered me a new Job! He sai d I was just the perso n he needed,
Police have found mi ssin g schoolgirl Karen Allen . She was at a friend's h ouse in
Birmingh am.
Th e Wor ld Cup tearo h ave arrived home. Five th ous a nd fa ns were at t he a irport
Three cljmbers have d ied in the Alps . They feU just before rea ching the summit of Mon t
Blan c (4.80 7 m l.
Two prisoners h ave esca ped (row Caemarvon high security prison. They stole
du strnen's uniforms and wa lked ou t th rou gh th e main gate ,
I!!!I!I I finis hed time : a long time ago : before I wa s born: in 1991; just after 1 got u p: last year.
when I wa s nine
unfin ishe d time: in my life: lat ely: tbis year: tod ay
1 1 ha ven't seen 1 've ncver seen 3 ' ve doue 4 left 5 did you get
6 haven't finished 7 've often wondered 8 caught 9 read 10 Ha ve you seen
J I were 2 haven't read 3 Have you visited 4 lived ') didn't discover: knew
6 hav e discovered 7 gave 8 haw you bee n 9 h av e never enjoyed
10 Did you hea r
'; 'Oh yes! I' ve mel ...· 'W hen didyou la st feed ... "
I!!!!II I 1 Yes. 2 1':0. 3 No . 4 Yes . 5 Yes. 6 1':0,
2 2 ... She has had bad lu ck all her life.
3 I wanted to bea doctor until I was fifteen.
4 He has been unemp loyed ever since he left schoo l.
') Ho w lo ng have you lived in t his to wn ?
6 I didn 't work very ha rd wh en I was a t universtry.
7 ... bUI he has been fine since th e n .
8 I ha ve had trou ble sleeping all thi s week.
9 I had tr oub le sleeping all las t week.
10 I have learnt a lot in this job.
11 I did n ot lea rn much in thai job.
12 My boyfriend and I have kno wn each other for ages,
I 3 He lived in Durban for a rear before he gOI marrted.
14 I spent three days in hospital last m onth.
1 1 h ave played 1 ha s bad J ran 4 hav e you drunk :; came 6 wrote
7 has written 8 cooked: have cooked 9 have made 10 have just lost
Ii I've spen t ...
I!I:!II I 1 has been raining 2 h ave been lea rn ing 3 has bee n play ing
4 have ... been living 5 bas been walking 6 have been working
7 ha s been crying 8 has been pla)ing 9 Ha ve ... been wai ting (caHoon B)
10 've been w anin g (cartoon AI
2 Aren 't you hungry ?' 'No. I've been eating all da y:
' Is u true thai Philip's been arrested! ' 'Yes. he's been stealing things from shops.'
'Janet seems very c heerful.' 'She's been ~kiing wnb Roger for the last week,'
'She's very dirty : 'She 's been cleaning th e cella r:
'why are my books all e ver th e Door,' 'Helen's been lookin g a t the m.'
'wb y's your hair wet!" 'I've been swimming:
'You all look very m isera ble: 'Yes . we've been telling each ot her our life st ories :
ANSWERS TO EKERCISES 323

' You look tired.' 'I've been gardening all afternoon :

' Yo u're very late: 'I've been talking to Hen ry, and he just goeson and on.'
' Your he ir's all white.' 'Yes. I've been painting the cclllng.'
3 (Examples of possible answt'rs)
I It's been raining. 4 They've been ru nning.
2 She's beec playing tennis. 5 She's been writing lon ers.
3 He 's been playing the guitar. 6 He's/They've been fighting.
~ 1 I bas been sta nding 2 ha c: stood 3 has been gardening: has pla nted
4 has go ne 5 ha s been seein g 6 ha ve you been wa iting 7 ha ve waited
8 has fa nned 9 has o nly been fa nning 10 have been learning 11 have lea rnt
12 has do ne 1 3 hav e been doing 14 ha ve clea ned 15 hav e been washing
~ ) DIY siner + slarting 1'0101:/0,. + period, (We use sillce if we say when something
started: we use for if we sa y how long it has lasred.)
3 1 for 2 since 3 for 4 for 5 since 6 for 7 for
4 I Jake has been ru nning / has run a sma ll business for five years,
1 Andy has been th.i ng / has lived in DubUn for a year / since last year.
3 Helen has been playing / has played th e piano for two years.
4 Rob has had a Mercedes for five years,
5 Jan has been living / has Lived with Pete since 1994 .
6 Sammy ha s been learni ng Turkish for four yea rs.
~ 1 1 has been (snowing) : got up 4 ha s been: got
2 have been: lost 5 went: haven't hea rd
3 took u p: bas had 6 has been : had
2 ( Examples oj possibletlltsWfrs)
He looks much yo unger since he shaved oIT his beard.
It's nearly th ree yea rs since he bad a job.
It's only a week since I met her, but it seems like yea rs.
It's too long since we last had a proper talk.
She's a lot happier since she stopped going ou t with Pete.
Things are better since we got our own flat.
~ I DIY Rule 3 is true.
2 1 carne 2 didn't like 3 'vc been Iylng 4 ' ve never been 5's been ra lnm g
6 didn 't come 7 (ve j peld 8 got 9 haveleft 10 's/ has movcd 11 died
11 's been 13 was 14 's go ne 15 've been 16 for 17 's always been
18 'slea 19 wasn't 20 haven't trusted 21 broke 22 said 13 was
24 hasn't been 25 ha ve taken
~ 1 1 was havin g: went 2 was lying 3 were all ta lking
4 wa s coming; was shopping 5 met: wa s travelling 6 was talking; walked; stole
7 came; stop ped 8 looked: saw: were Dyi ng 9 woke: was pouring
10 broke; wa s pla ying 11 went: was: was crying 1 2 told: was ha ving
2 ( Examples of possible aJlSWfrs)
While she was wat cbj ug TV the ceiling fell in.
Whi le he was talking to a friend somebod y stole his wallet.
He took her photo w hile she was playi ng tcnms.
1 I were throwing 2 were da ncing 3 was/were not dancing 4 was grinning
5 was holding 6 came 7 orde red 8 as ked
Im!II I DIY Rule 3 gives the best expla na tion,

,
"4 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

2 1 was sorry; had not been 6 ha d invited: ha d no t Invited

2 came: had forgotten 7 found; had hidden
3 had seen: knew 8 had never heard
4 ha d not checked: broke 9 came: had been
5 had lent 10 had already start ed: arrived
I I went 1 had not been 3 arrived 4 spent 5 had had 6 sa w
7 had shared 8 ba d IOSf 9 had no r seen 10 catted 11 looked 11 rumed
13 rea lised 14 had 1 5 saw 16 went 17 explained 18 bad got
19 was not 20 fell 1 1 had nor passed 11 had said 1 3 had am ved
14 had 2:; th ought 26 had 17 gOI 28 began 1 9 had happened
4 After he had tried on six pairs of shoes h e decided h e liked the firs! ones best .
Arter Mary had done all the shopping she took a short wa lk round the park.
Wh en I h ad washed and dried th e last plate Paul came in and offered to help.
",'hen Ma rk had looked t hrough aU til t> drawers in hi s room be started going through
the cupboards downsra lrs.
When he had finished eating lu nch he went to th e ca fe in th e square for a cup of coffee.
5 When/ After I ha d wrttten 10 m y boyfriend. r wa tched tele vision ...
When / After every body h ad h ad a chan ce 10 say what they th ou gh t we ...
When/ After I had posted the leit er I fell ...
After she had st opped trying to lose weight she looked ...
When/ Afler he h ad bought presen ts for everyone in h is family he bought ...
ImlIIJ 2 DIY Sim ple past perfect: diagram B: past perfect progressive: dia gram C.
I I ha d been re pairi ng 2 bad bee n working 3 had bee n lyin g 4 h ad been drtvtng
4 .2 Kate. beca use she had been (doing some) ga rde ning.
3 Step hanie. beca u se she had been playing tennis.
4 John. because he had been pra ctising (his) kerar e.
5 Pa m. bec ause she had bee n [horse-jn djng .
(, Philip. beca use he had been painting (the ceiling in h is room).
7 Roger. beca use h e ha d been swimming.
5 r-,ir Luca s said he had been watching TV, bUI actually he ba d been stealing CaTS.
Mrs Alle n said she had been talking on the phone. but actually she b a d been ma kin g a
bom b.
Mr Nash said be had been wa shing clothes. but actually he had bee n forging £ 5 notes.
Alice said she h ad been playing cards, bUI actually she bad been selling drugs.
Pete said b e h ad been studytng chemistry. bUI actuall y he bad been fighting .
AWl! Jane said she h ad been writing lett ers. but act u ally she b ad been pla nning a bank
robbery .
Miss Fry sa id she had been washing her hair. but actually she had bee n ou t danc ing
wi th her sister' s boyfriend.
Rob said he bad been paintin g his flat . but actually he had been playing roulette.
~ 1 I I've seen this film 7 all the family has been t ogether ...
2 you've sung that soeg c. , 8 l'v e ee ten thls year
3 I' ve (e1t h appy 9 the first thing you 've said to me ...
4 yo u've made... 10 the first cloth es I've bought
5 I'v e eve r seen her en' m}"SC1f ...
6 you've drunk ...
2 It was the first time he had worn ucnorm.
It was the first time he bad b ad 10 make his own bed.
It was tbe first lime he had cleaned h is own boots ,
II wa s the first time he ha d hred a gun.
II was the first time he had walked more th an a mile.
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES ..&

~ I 1 How many days did you intend to stay}

2 I was hoping you cou ld lend me £1 0.
3 I was wondertDg Hyou had two single rooms.
4 Were you looking for anyt hing special?
5 Could you give me a ha nd?
6 I'm looking forward to seeing you again.
7 I was thinking I woul d borrow your bike ...
8 We could ask Peter to help us.
9 I w;,,, wnnrl ..ri ng if l r-OLlkl ..d :: you a "nu ,1I favour.
10 I thought it would be a good idea to invite Simon.

IIlZ!m I I bas cras hed: hit; had put 2 tu rned: went : had forgotten
3 haw been doing: have d eaned 4 was lying: rang
5 started: ha d not been/gone 6 have been playing 7 got: was wat ching
8 haven't seen 9 have you been learn ing 10 has changed: came
I I have you seen: 've seen 12 ha ve never I;CCII 13 got
14 have onen wond ered: got ] 5 Have you read ] 6 have just discovered
17 Did you hear 18 has been 19 was talking; started: broke 20 haddone
21 has been stan ding 22 ba s stood 23 have spent I have been spending: got
24 was: studied 25 had finished: sat 26 met: had been working
27 have never jeamt 28 Have yo u6nished 29 lived: was 30 has had
2 I got 2 gOI 3 was 4 were 5 got 6 had alrea dy sta rted 7 fell
8 were silting 9 hit 10 turned II was sitting Il waited/w as waiti ng
] 3 was carrying ] 4 asked 15 told 16 disappeared 17 opened ] 8 saw
19 had approached 20 saw 21 took 22 shot 23 has seen
24 {ha\'e lfought 25 has/h ad been 26 were 27 began 28 was
1 A Look. Mary . I must go; I started leaving my husband an hour ago.
B How lon g have you had this fea r of heights. Mr Winthrop?
C You booked us a holiday a broad dur ing the summer. Couk! you tell us. please,
where we weutz
D I've found another bit of metal. Maureen .
E Good Lord, Fenton, I had no idea you had died.
F First time you've done th is job, is itt
G Perh a ps 1could hclp you choose, sir - what, exactly. ha ve you don e?
If He has nothing to do. All his batteries have ru n down .

I!IIDJ I were left: simple past were stranded; simple pas t

had been ... locked in: past perfect were b>iven: simple past
2 ] is spoken 2 was buill 3 will be opened 4 is being ime rvicwed
5 was being followed b Have you been tnvlred 7 had been stolen 8 are ma de
9 are asked l O is being mend ed I] was burnt down 12 has just been found
3 I Haml et was written by Shakespeare. ]0 Manche ster were beaten 3 - 0 by
2 She has been arrested for shoplifting, Liverpool yest erday.
3 Your car is being rep aired now. ] 1 Paper was invented by th e Chluese.
4 Spanish is spoken in Chne. 12 Hops are needed to make beer,
S Has Peter been asked? ] 3 Stam ps are n't sold in bookshops.
6 This ring was made by my mother . 14 Your a pplication is still being
7 Th is car is driven by electricity. considered by the dire ctors.
8 You will be told wh ere 10 go.
9 She was knocked down by a drunken
motorist ,
4 ... you' re being replaced ...
326 ANSWERS TO £)1£RCISES

III!IIlJ I DIV It would be difficult to rewrite th e text sensibly with active verbs.
The best rules are 2 and 3.
2 ]b l b 3a 4a 5b
1 l a: 2 b: Ja . -tb: Sa: 6b: Za: Sa: 9b
'I DIY 2 We were shocked that no body was prepared to ta ke him 10 hospital.
3 I was an noyed th at Ma ry wanted 10 tell everybody whet to do.
-1 I wan't pleased th ai Geoq;;e rang m" Up a t lhr.:-.> in Ihe morning 10 teU me he w as in
love again .
5 I wa s confused by the ract tb at he looked completely different from the last time I bad
mel him .
A passive can make it easier 10 move a very heavy subjn1 to the end of a sentence.
~ I 2 We were brought papers 10 sign. 7 We are ta ught Frenc h by Mrs lee.
3 Henry was given a d ock ... S I have been lent a car for a week.
4 The children were read stories. 9 We were promised a full explan ation.
5 I am owed ( 5.000. 10 I was told a 101 of hes by the secretary.
6 I have been offered a new job.
1 1 ha d been told 1 had been given 3 was shown 4 was given :; was given
6 had never been taught 7 was sent l:: was offered 9 was pro mised
]0 wasn 't betng patd

.-nJ ' (Examplesof pos.~ible answers)

Bills are being prepared/p aid. Money is bemg changed/pajdda ken .
Coffee is being made/ordered /prepa red/ New guests are being welcomed.
served gesercaeons are being mede /zaken .
Drinks are being ordered/se rved. Rooms are being cleaned/ prepared.
Food is being ordered/prepared/served. Tables are being laid.
Luggage is being brought down.
1 (Examples of possible answersJ
The houseboa ts have been turned int o floating resta uran ts.
A new car park bas been buill.
New schools have been buill.
Tbe opera house has been rebuilt .
The old tire stalion bas been turned Into a theatre.
A ring road bas been buill.
The station bas been modernised,
Some streets have been wtdened.
TIle tow n centre bas been tu rned tore a pedestrian precinct .
A statue of you has been put up in the park.
TIle Super Cinema has been turned into a su permark et.
Your house has been turned iow a museum.
~ I ] II is thought that rbc government will fail.
2 Me Evans wasappointed secretary .
3 She was called a witch by the villagers.
4 It was benevcd thai fresh air was bad for sick people.
S There are said to be wolves in the mountains.
6 The man holding th e hostages is th ought to be heavily armed .
7 He is said to be in an agitated slate.
8 She was considered strange (by everybody).
9 The ra te of inllatio n is expected 10 rise .
10 lie is said to be somewhere in Germany.
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 327

11 Harris was seen to leave the plane in Ontario.

12 She is thought to ha ve died in a plane crash,
13 The earth was believed to be t he centre of the univ erse.
14 There is thought to be oil un der Windso r Castle.
15 I was made to give them details of my bank accounts.
~ 1 ] Co uld you send t he bill to me? 6 Read me the letter. will yOll?
2 I've bought you a present. 7 She teaches Fren ch to ad ults.
3 Leave some pot atoes for me. 8 I took Mrs Sam uels t he report.
4 lien! £ 5 to Bill yesterda y. 9 Wou ld you gel a beer for me?
5 Show your picture to Grann y, 10 We owe the bank £20,000.
~ I blow up - explode breakup -disintegrate getu p - rise give up-aband on
go ew ay leavc gointo -enter look for - seek put off- postpon e send bac k -.
c

ret urn talk a bout - discuss think over -consider tu rn up - arrt ve

2 PlY Rules 1. 4 and 6 are correct.
3 I wetalked a boutn. 2 I put it off. 3 Could yo u look after them?
4 We broke it off. 5 Can you dean il u p? 6 She put it on . 7 I'm looking for it.
8 I wro te it down. 9 l sent itback. 10 I stood on it.
4 I a way 2 on paper 3 not working 4 q uieter 5 into pieces
6 to various people 7 further 8 higher 9 wor king 10 louder
• i :~ _' HI I DIY gel + direc t o bject : receive, obtain. fetch . buy ...
grt + adjective: become
9f t + adver b particle/ preposition: move. change position
2 get across- cross get better - improve get bigger - increase, grow
get off- a light from. leave (pu blic tra nsport) get o n - board (public tra nsport)
gel out of-lea ve get OW f - recover from gel sma ller < decrease, sh rink
gel 10 - re ach get u p - rise (from bed)
3 I getting better 2 gOI into 3 Get on : gel oIT 4 Gel out S get wet 6 get cold
7 get old 8 get really hungry 9 gcnlng tired/sleepy 10 gets da rk
4 'Sha ll we go swun mlng?' 'OK. I'll just go a nd get changed.'
'Wha l lime do th e animals get fedr 'Eight o'clock.'
Every time he goes walking in the country he gets lost.
His glasses got broke n in the fight.
I was talki ng to her on the phone but we got cut 01I.
I'm going to gel und ressed a nd go to bed.
If you leave your bag th ere , it'll gel stolen.
Th at child takes an hour to get dressed in the morning.
They're going to get married next April.
~ 1 1 to be working 2 be repaired 3 to go 4 to have seen 5 be ha ving
6 to listen 7 to be chosen 8 not to be 9 have told 10 to be inter rupted
2 (Examples ofpossihleIIf1S wt'rs)
2 She seems to be drinking, (, She seems to be talk ing on the phone.
3 She must be driving. 7 She could be brushing her ha ir.
4 Site may be playing ten nis. 8 She may be reading.
5 She could be washin g.
~ I 1 I'm glad to have met you . 5 I'm h a ppy to have h ad a chance ...
1 I was sorry to h a ve disturbed h im. 6 I was disappointed to have missed
3 f expect to have passed ".. 7 She seems 10 h a ve got lost .
4 You seem 10 ha ve ma de ... 8 She W<'I S pleased 10 have rou nd.
l 2 I wo u ld like 10 have see n h is fa ce 5 It was to ha ve been t he h ap plesr .
wh en ... b She meant to have sa id goodbye ...
J He mea nt 10 have finished a ll h is 7 I would Like to have Lived ...
work ... 8 He was to have pla yed ...
4 We were 10 ha ve spent a week skiing .
~ 1 2 You should eat enough. 10 You needn' t apo logise.
3 I might go sailin g ... I I They have dec jded to ope n
4 Sh e expects 10 ge l married ... I 2I promlse to payyou ...
S I agreed to help her. 13 Ididn 'tmana ge lolind ...
6 We must mak e ... 14 I wou ld rather go .
7 He seems to be ill. 1 5 She refu sed to see .
S I wish I could change ... 16 I' ve learnt to play c hess.
9 I hope to com e "..
~ I ( Examplts of possible mlSwersJ
.An n rea lly upset Gra n ny .' 'I'm sure she dldu't me an 10.'
' Are you enjoying your new jobt ·WeU. I'm starting 10 .'
'Ca n I see you home r 'If you'd like 10.'
'Can you me nd this by 'Tuesda y?"T tl try 10. but I can 't promise:
'Did yo u gel my coal from the cleaner's>' 'Sorry. I forg ot to .'
'Do you collect stam ps!" '1\0 . but l used to.'
'00 you t hink he kn ows w h at he's do ing ?' ' li e seems to.'
' 00 you want to come ou t wit h us lonightr"l'd like t o. but r IO wo rking late:
'Does she think she'll wtn! ' ' Yes. she expects 10.'
' How w oul d you and Sue like to spen d th e week end wi th us ?' ' We'd love t o.'
'1think. you o ugh t to see t he police a bou t th e people next doo r.' '1 intend 10. They can't
go on keeping the wh ole street a wake every n igh t.'
'Sh all we go swimming?' 'I don't really want to - its 100 cold:
'Shou ld we boo k seats in ad vance >' ' w e ooc't need 10 - there's a lways plenty o f room.'
We'd like to m ove to a bigger house bUI we can't affo rd to.
~ I ( Examples of possibleanswers}
2 You go to a boo ksh op lo bu y boo ks. 3 " . to see a film, 4 ... to see a play .
5 to swim . I) " . 10 exercise . 7 .., to learn t o driv e, 8 ". 10 ca leb a t rain.
9 to ca tcb a pla ne. 10 ... to boo k a holld ay. II ... t o pray.
12 " . to watch a football match . 13 ... to get money . 14 .,. tobu y stamps.
15 ... t o h ave a meal. I 6 ... to buy food. 17 .i. to get petrol.
18 " . 10 buy a newspa per.
~ I 1 surprised 1 su rprising 3 tirin g 4 tired 5 disappointin g 6 dlsappolnt ed
7 excited 8 excitin g 9 shocked 10 shockin g I I confusing 12 co nfused
11 a nn oyed 14 annoying
2 Th e visitors are boring land the host is bor ed) .
3 A boramst is Inter ested in plan ts. A his tori an is unesested ill the past.
A coo k is interested in food . A lin guist is interested in langua ges .
A doctor is in terested in medicine . A ma th em atician is In terested in
An exp lore r is Int erested in tra vel. numbers,
A fashion desig ner is interested in clothes . A zoo logist is in terested in an imals.
A geograp he r is in terest ed in places .
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

I::C:III I I Drinki ng 2 paying 3 hearin g 4 lyin g 5 skiin g: climbing 6 Lea rn ing

7 say ing 8 Forget tin g 9 " 'atch in g 10 Answering: typing
3 1 Do you m ind me aski ng ", ? 5 ." by Pet er needing to see ,.,
2 I do n 't a pprec ia te you shou tin g ... 6 I was astonishe d at you expec ting ",
3 I couldn't understand Pat wa ntin g " . 7" , byAnn ha vin gto go ",
4 Wha t's the use of them asking ,.. ? 8 She can't stand mc tellln g her .
...m I (Examples o! possible allsu't'rs)
Do you feel like helping m e?
Do yo u h a ve time to do anything else besides loo king encr the ch ildre n?
He insisted 0 0 pa yin g for everything.
He passed h is exams in spite of n ot doing any work ,
How a bou t going out to a resta u r ant toni ght?
I apologise for dist urbi ng you,
Ilike walking as well as playin g foot ball,
I sometimes dream of ha ving time to rea d a ll my books.
I'm fed u p of/ w ith seiling things ,
I'm not ca pa ble or understa ndin g t his - it's too difficult,
I'm tired of answeri ng th at ch ild's questions.
She succeeded in convincing tbe police th at she wa s n ot a burglar.
She ta lked about/ of ch anging her job , bu t I don' t thi n k she will,
Sh e's keen on coo king.
She 's very good a t swimmi ng and dancing.
Tha n k you for te lling me th e trut h,
We' re excit ed about mo ving to Canada .
We're t hinking of secing George next week.
Wh y don ' t you co me out with us instead of staying at home?
You can't live without ea ting.
~ I 1 By pla yin g loud music. 6 By taking a n aspirin .
3 By robbing a ba nk, 7 By using a n extin guis her.
4 By oiling it. 8 By swi tchi ng on the ignit ion.
S By looking in a dictio nary.
.z (Exomplrs ofpossibkallswers)
A paperclip is for holding papers togeth er, Mo ney is for bu ying t hings,
Soa p is for washi ng. A knife is for cu ttlng thin gs,
A sa uce pan Is for cooking, A bag is for carryi ng th ings,
A pen is for Writing. A hairbr ush is for brushing h air,
...m I DIY fA 2C 3B
.z Are n' t you used to wa lkin g th is fa r?
Starting a t hallfour's no pro blem - I' m used to getting u p ea rly,
I look for wa rd to receiving you r com me nts,
I look forward to seein g you again in six months' time,
I o bject to pay ing for it. II should be free,
t'll n ever get used to sleeping on the floor,
l'rn not loo king forward to going back to sc hool.
I'm no t sure where to tu rn. I'm n ot used to com ing this wa y.
Uyou're used 10h avtn g money, u's h ard to be wit h out it.
Sean's used 10 dea lin g with difficult kids.
-.m 1 DIY cerb + infinIU"e: agree: dare: decide: ex pect: fail: h appen: hope: manage: mea n:
oITer: prepare: pretend: promise: refuse; seem; wish
verb + -;119 rorm: av oid: ca n' t hel p: deny; (can't ) face: fa ncy: feci like: finish: give u p:
imagine: keep (on); m ind: miss: postpone: practise: pu t ofT: ris k: spend time:
(can't ) stand: suggest
2 1 liking 2 to slay 3 to hea r 4 going 5 cooking 6 stu dying 7 smoking
8 being 9 10 find lO passing 11 seeing 12 to be l3 seeing l4 talking
15 to see 16 watching
~ I I You ca n go fishin g 2 ... go riding 3 go sailing 4 ... go shopping
5 ... go skating 6 ... go swimming 7 go skiing
~ I 1 The shoes need cleaning. 5 The chicken needs cooking.
2 The window needs mending. 6 The car needs servicin g.
3 The racket needs re-stringing. 7 The wall needs pain ting.
4 The bed needs making. 8 The roan 's ha ir needs cu tung.
ItHSm 1 (Examples 0/ possible onswers' Her so n wa nts her t o buy him some new
Her boss wants her to work har der. clothes.
Her daughter wants her to buy her a car . The butc her wan ts her 10 pay his bill.
Her husband wan ts her 10 cook supper. The dog wants her to ta ke biro for a walk.
Her mother wants her 10 lea ve her The governmen t wan ts her to pay taxes.
hu sband. The vicar wants he r to go to church.
2 1 They didn't allow us to look at tbe 6 Did you mean me to pay?
house. 7 The captain orde red tbe men to a ttack.
2 I <lsked )<lke to be more card u l. S I reminded Sue to buy coffee.
3 She encoura ged me to try the ex am. 9 She taught me to coo k .
4 I expect him to come soon. ] 0 I don't want her to tell anybod y.
S I Iel't biro to solve the problem .
4 T m not a skin g you to serve me ...'
Ii I Her parents let her stay up late .
2 Her parents made her do the wa shin g u p.
3 Her parents let ber read what she liked .
4 Her pa rents made he r iro o her o wn clot hes.
S Her parents made her do her h omework.
6 He r parents let her drink beer.
7 Her parents made her clean up her room.
S Her parents made her go to c hu rc h .
9 Her parents let her have pa rties.
10 Her parents let her choose her own school.
• H5HI I DIY Things people did: remember ...ing. Th in gs people have /ha d to do; remember +
infinitive.
2 D~l' Change: 90 on + infin itive. Con tin ua tion: goon ...illg.
1 DIY Infinitive after object; -il/g form Il tbere is n o object.
4 DIl' Activity stops: -mg form . Reason for stopping: Inflmtlve.
Ii DIl' Onl y jnfirutjve a fter would like. would pre/a etc.
b OIl' Bot h structures for t h ings tha t are diffic u lt; try ...illg for experiments.
7 DIY Acti on going on ; object + -;' lg fonn. Completed action ; object + infinitive
witho ut eo.
8 ] meeting 2 to post 3 nOI visitin g 4 to ta tk S learnin g 6 10 make
7 vlstun g 8 wa tchjn g yto watch 9 to spend 10 to come Jl readin g
12 to re pair / repairing 13 waiting 14 break 1 5 crawling 16 10 get
17 workin g 18 to teU
IIIII::I lOll' The five which cannot ere fine. illUlligml . lazy , ul/usual. well.
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

2 (Examples of possible answers)

r ID bad a t getting up earl y.
I'm bored wit h seeing the sam e faces every day .
I'm ca pable of goin g for a lon g lime without sleep.
I'm excited a bout seeing my fa mily n ext weekend.
I'm fed up with (or 00 studying.
I'm fo nd or de nctng.
I'm good a t r epa irin g ca rs .
I'm gu ilty of breaking t he speed limit.
I'm tired of listen ing to th e children.
~ I DIY Followed by infioili"e: decision. need. plan. time. wish
Followed by prepo!'iltion + ••. i"g: difficulty. h ope. tdea. thou ght
2 I to go 2 in rea din g 3 of arriving 4 of lea vtng S to tel l 6 to spend
1 onosmg 8 to go 9 to meet
3 Ha s he got any hope of passing the exam?
He mad e a decision to start a new life.
Does yo ur fear clflymg sto p you tra vellin g?
Lucy ha s difficulty in keep ing her temper.
She bat ed the thou ght of dyin g w ithout seeing the world.
She w a s a fool to buy t hai car.
The re's no need to get a ngry.
The y ha ve a pla n to st art a busin ess.
Time to get up!
mmJ I I There's no need for t he meetin g to start before eigh t.
2 It's t ime for tbe postma n to come.
3 It's u nusual for him to be late.
4 I'm anxious for tbe childre n to go to <l good school.
S It 's a bad tdea for [ohn to go to Australia ,
6 It would be a mis take for Sue to c hange her job just now.
1 Is it possible for Pa ul to come to the meeti ng?
8 It's impo rtant for the ca r 10 h ave regul ar serv ices.
9 It's normal for him to slay u p late on Saturda ys.
10 I'd be happy for you to take a holiday.
2 1 It's Import an t for there to be pu blic libraries.
2 It 's vit a l for there to be <l good public transport system.
3 II's importan t for there to he plenty of open spaces.
4 It's esse ntial for there to be en ou gh car pa rks.
3 ( Examples ofpossible answers)
EngliSh is easy 10 understand . Boiled eggs a re good to eat.
Chinese is hard 10 learn. Lobster Is hard to ea t.
Small ctuldren are in terest ing to wa tch . Some modem mu sic is boring to liste n 10.
Silver is h ard to clean.
11!"1i~ I Wasthetrainvery crowded, dear?
332 ANSWERS 1'0 EkEACISES

Z t Excmpics of possible anslI'ers)

1 Where is the small \'ilI<1ge? 9 Wha t does Joe design?
2 Where do the three famil ies live: 10 Wha t does Pam do? I w bat is Pam 's
3 How ma ny children ha ve Alice a nd job?
George gOI? I I How many of thc chi ldren go to
4 Who has got a baby daughter? school in the vi.llage?
5 w ha t does George do? 12 How do t he ot her children go to
6 wha t do Joe and s lic do? sc hool?
7 Wha t does Alice ta ke care of? 13 wher e is the seco ndary schoo l?
8 Where does Ilk v.wk? )4 How far away is it?
3 (Examples of possible answers'
1 Who does the rooking? 5 Wha t is their bjggest worry ?
I Who does the housework , (, wha t needs replacing?
3 Who does the repairs? 7 what needs repairing?
4 Who takes care of the garden?
~ I 1 'What's your (Jat like?" 4 'How's busin ess; '
2 '1I0"'S your moth err :> ' w ha r's Ann e's boytnend hke -'
3 'How's work goin g?' 6 'How's school?"
1 (Examples of possIble answers)
1 what size 1 What colour 3 What sort or 4 wh at make 5 what time
6 whet nme 7 What sort of 8 what size 9 w hat make or 10 Where ever
11 Who ever 12 Wh at ever
~ 1 2 Austrians don 't speak Ja panese. 7 The SWl doesn't go round the ea rth.
3 Roses aren't green, 8 'Telescopes don't mak e things smaller.
4 Cats can't Ily. 9 There aren't seven teen players in a
5 Shak espeare wasn't French. ru gby learn.
6 Fridges don' . run on petrol. 10 Bananas don ' t grow in Scotland.
IIt!DII 1 I Are nt you cold: 4 Aren't the shops r josed >
2 Why a ren't you eating;: 5 Hasn't the postma n come?
3 Duo'. you speak Frencb ? 6 [sO'1 your morner <I I home ?
Z 2 Don' t you spea k German? 7 tvasn't Tony gomgto come ... :
3 Isn't that Pamela ... .: 8 Won 't you bein Edmburgh next week?
4 Didn't you stud y .., : 9 Aren't you making a mistake?
5Isn'l lhisyour CO<lI? I II w ouldn't n be better to stop now ?
6 Isn't your rat her a doctor?
1 2 Didn ' t she pass the exam: 7 Didn't you get Ihe Idler I sent>
3 Ha ven't you paid for you r licket ? 8 Didn' t you en joy the film?
4 Didn't you lock the door? 9 Aren't you and John going to gel
5 Can 't you understand EngUsh? '.. married?
6 Do n't you like roy cooking? 10 Don't you want any more pota toes?
4 2 No. I dan'!. 3 No. f ca n't. 4 Yes. nrs. ') Ye". I ha ve. 6 Yes. she was.
7 No. I'm not. 8 No, I didn 't.
~ I t nor 2 not 3 00 4 not ') no 6 not 7 no' 8 NOI 9 no 10 nOI no
.-m l I I don't think you' re right.
1 I don ', believe you' ve mel my sister.
:>I don't thln k they know whar they're
doin g.
3 I don 't su ppose yo u know where 6 I don' l think I made myself clea r.
Ruth is. 7 I don't suppose yo u remembered to
4 I don't imagine we'll arrive before bring roy book back.
mjdmgju . 8 I don't beheve I've got enough money.
ANSWERS '0 EXERCISES 333

2 1 He doesn't see m to be well. 4 It doesn't seem to be raining.

1 r don'r e xpect to be home late. 5 I don't expect to pess the exa m,
3 I ne ver want to climb another 6 He never wa nts to get ma rried .
moun tain,
1 Don' t use 2 Add 3 Mix 4 oil 5 put in 6 Sha pe 7 bake
1 Always add sa lt ... 6 Always count your c ha nge ...
2 Always chec k the ryres ... 7 Never/A lways put oil ...
J Never cook chicken .., 8 Never /Alwa ys say " ,
4 Never wait more ." 9 Always/f',;e ver pay ..
) Always un plug ,.. 10 Never apologise .
4 (Examples ofpossiblrW/Slvers)
I Don' t be (so! greedy. 6 Don' t be (so )stu pid,
1 Do be careful, 7 Do be on time.
3 Don't be angry. 8 Don't be (so) rud e,
4 Do be rock by midnight. I) Don' t be (so) jealous,
5 Don't be frightened.
.-m I (Examples of possiblem15wers)
J Let's play ten nis, 4 Let's go jor a walk. 5 Let's not play cards.
6 Let's play chess. 7 Let's go to Paris, 8 Let's go a nd see a fil m.
9 Let's not go denctng . 10 Let's go skjlng. 11 Let's do the washm g up.
12 Let's go to a restaura nt.
~ I DIY The sub ject and verb come a t t he end of the exclamauon.
Z 2 flow interesting! 7 How well he cooks!
J w hat a nuisa nce! 8 How wrong we were!
4 whet big eyes you've got, I) Wh at a lot of nonsense he talks!
grandmother! 10 what funny clothes she wears!
5 How disgust ing! II How badly she plays!
6 How noisy th ose chi ldren are! 12 what a fool J was!
1 2 Isn 't t hat interesting! 8 weren't wew ron gl
J Isn 't tha t a nuisance! I)Doesn't he talk a lot of non sense!
4 Haven't you got big eyes, grand mother! 10 Doesn't she wea r funny clothes!
5 Isn 't tha t disgusti ng! 11 Doesn 't she play badly!
6 Aren't th ose chi ldren noisy! 12 Wasn't I a fool!
j Doesn 't he cook well!

IHa.. n I 1 There is 2 There were 3 t here was 4 there will be 5 There 's
6 Are there 7 There ha ve been 8 There are not 9 There's been 10 there isn ' t
Z I There's 2 It's J It' s 4 There's 5 It's 6 There's 7 There's 8 It's
9 There' s 10 It's
1 According to the forecast . there 's likely to be more snow tonight.
I can't see how to open the door. There mus t be a keyhole somewhere.
I'm looking forward to the party, There are sure to be some nice people there.
OK. children, now I don't want there to be a ny noise while I'm on the phone,
That must be ' eIT. There can't be two people who look like that,
There are too many people looking for too few jobs in this country,
There aren ' t any tickets now, but there may be so me tomorrow ,
TIll-Te'S no need to h urry, We'v e got plenty of time,
There's no point In going ou t if you' ve got a headache - you won 't enjoy it ,
There's something the matter wit h the car - it won 't start,
'What did the docto r say?' TIe says there's nothing wron g with me,'
' Why have we stopped ?' 'There seems to be something lyin g in the road.'
~ I 1 My wtfe's on hollday.2 Ieouldn 'I ... l Hav e \IOU seen Joe? 4 He careful .
5 There's nobody... 6 I don't think so. 7 The tra in's late again.
B De you know ..", I) Have you got ... : to I've lost ...
2 I Changed my job. 2 Doesn't know .. 3 Cost you 0 0. -t Careful of...
5 N o ume . .. 6 Bu s is coming. 7 S p ea k Eng hsh ? 8 Ha v en't been there.

9 Th inks he's clever. 10 Col a light?

~ I I b UI I can tom orrow . 6 Yes. it is.
2 a nd Sue has too . 1 bu tl ca n.
3 Yes. I would (have ). 8 and Celia doesn' t esther.
4 II certainly does. 9 bu tl do.
5 I have.
2 ( Examples of possiblrtlnswers)
I think the whole thing is too absurd I 5 com e round
think so 6 ready to take offence
1 thought tha t-so ., ready 10 take offence
3 think that/so 8 w ant 10 quarrel
4 come rou nd 9 want to say another thing about it
~ ) I a ren't I 2 aren't we 3 a re they 4 am I 5 were they 6 ts she 7 isn 't it
8 isn 't he 9 ca n't he 10 mustn'ttt 11 wou'tn 11 oon 't rhey 13 wlll rhey
14 Isn't th ere 15 hasn 't she 16 does she 17 ha ven't they 18 wasn 't I
IIII!D 1 I they 1 a re you 3 is there -I does it 5 they 6 did she 7 haven't they
8 is there 9 did you
1 Do have some more lea , won 't you ; Pass me t he newspaper. coukl/ willl
Don ', drive 100 fast. will you> wouk! you>
Let's start again. sha ll wet You couldn' t tell IDe the time, could you;
~ 1 (E::xl7mplt's ofpossibk ml~U/('n )
1 Yes, I am, / :\'0, I' m not. 6 Yes. I have, / No, I haven't.
2 Yes, I do, ,' No, I don't . 7 No, I can't" Yes, I can.
3 It certainly is, S He certainly docs.
4 I won't . q Yes, she did,
) Lwill. HJ I will.
2 (Erompleofpo5.\iblet11lSWf'r)
'It was a lovely wedding.'
'Was il!'
'Yes. Though I didn 't think much of .\taggie 's dr ess.'
'Didn't your
'No, that colour doesn't suit her at all.'
'Doesn't it?'
'No. it doesn't. Anyway. I don'( really go for church wed din gs.'
'Don't you ?'
' No , And the service went on for ages,'
'Did it really:'
' Yes , And I was sitting right at tbe back. so I couldn 't hear th e vicar,'
'Couldn't you?'
'r-io, The music was nice, th ou gh .'
' W as it!'
'Yes. Tbey played th at hymn about sheep. u)\'eI~' .1 must say I didn 't enjoy the
reception muc h:
' Didn't YOUt '
'r-io. The rood wasn't very good:
AN S W ER S TO EXERCISES 33'

'Oh. dea r. Wasn't it?"

'No. And th e bride's father made such a stu pid speech.'
'Did h e, dear! '
'Yes. And I got one of my headach es.'
'Did you? I am sorry.'
' Yes, Champagne a lwa ys gives me il headache.'
'Does it.!'
'Yes, it real ly does, And I was sitting next to that Mrs foster fmm dow n the road. I can't
stand that w om an .'
'Can't you?'
' No, sh e's al ways cnnosmg.'
'Is she really?'
'Yes. Anyway, I must go:
'Dh. m us t lOU ?'
' Yes. Nice to talk to you. It really was a lovely weddin g,'

IIIIE] I (Tllese are Ille St'I1WlC es thal the peoplesaid, bUl ot/ler enswers are poss Ible.)
1 I think so 2 I' m afraid so 3 [ suppose so 4 I th ink so 5 I hope so
6 1lhinkso 7 1thinkso 8 I'm a fraid so 9 I hope so 10 l su ppose so
2 1 I'm afra id not 2 I don't th in k so ) I ho pe not 4 I su ppose not
5 I' m afra id not 6 I h ope not 7 l suppose not 8 I don 't think so
~ I 1 so ts 2 t\eitber/Nor h<we 3 ne ither /Dorcan 4 Sodo 5 Sodid
6 nei ther/nor do 7 so was 8 neither/ nor will 9 Sodo 10 Neither/Nor wa s
J (f.'xamples of possible arlS'Wers)
Th e ca r is blac k. and so is the hand ba g. The pa r rot tsn't green, and neither is the
The car does n't cost much, and nor does butterfly,
the motorbike, The sh oes are w hite. a nd so is th e fish .
The car is green , and so is the frog,

~ I 2 It a n noys me to hea r her talk like tha t. 6 It makes me tired to wat ch hi m,

3 It ta kes jou r hours 10get ,.. 7 It upsets me to hear her compla ining,
-t tt's stlly to get opset .., 8 It's ha rd to say n o 10 people ,
5 Irs nice to get up in the morning, bu t
irs n icer to stay in bed.
2 ) It's a good t hlng t ha t she's got some money sa ved,
J It does n't bot her me that he's gotlong ha ir.
4 II worried he r th at [ohn never ta lked 10 her.
S II is esse nt ial tha t she should be told immediately,
6 It was stra nge that he didn 't re member my name.
7 It's a pity tha i he ca n't come.
8 II is Importan t th at tbe cbudren should get to bed earl y.
9 It is not t rue that wolves attac k people,
10 It shocked me th at she sto le money ,
1 (Examples of posstble 1II1SWi'rs)
It doesn' t in terest me wha t you thi nk .
It looks as if we 're go ing 10 ha ve trouble with An n again ,
II seems Ih at he forgot to buy the tic kets.
It will be a pity if we ha ve to ask her 10 leave.
It's e xcitin g w hen a baby starts talk in g,
It's jmportant that everybody should have a chance to spea k,
II's proba ble th ai we'll be a nrue lat e.
It's su rprisin g how ma ny u n ha ppy marriages t he re are.
ANS W E R S TO ~)(~ACIS~S

S He made it difficult to like him. He made il clea r what he wanted.

His bad leg made it a problem 10 walk . I find it interes ting to hea r her stories.
I though t it strange that she hadn' t
written.
Em!] I I It was the baby tha t/who put marmalade ,..
It was marmalade tha t the rob}" put ...
It was Dad's trou sers tha t the baby pu t marma lade on ...
It was this morning that the baby put ...
2 It was M<lria that/w ho gave ...
It was her old bicycle t hat Mari a ga ve ...
It was Pa r rha r Mana gave her old bicycle to ...
II was las t week thai Maria gave ,.,
3 II was Carl rhar /w ho broke ..
It was the kitchen window that carl broke .
II was a ladder that Carl broke the kitch en window wit h today.
It was today that ,..
4 II was Mark thai/who mel Cathy ...
It was Cathy tha t Mark met '"
It was in German)' th a i Mark met ,..
It was in J 992 th at Ma rk met ,..
2 2 It's ncr you I love. n's Peter.
3 It's not Caro l thatsswh o's the boss. n's Sandra,
4 It's not the mus ic I ha le, it' s the words.
5 It wasn't my glasses 11051, it was my keys.
6 It isn' t Bob that's/ who·s getting married. n's Clive.
7 II wasn' t Judy I S<!W, it was IiIL
8 II's not marhs he's studying. it's physics.
9 II's not Max tha t's who's crazy. It'S you .
10 II's not a nail you need. n's a screw.
] 2 w hat I need is <I drin k,
3 what Illke is her sense of humour.
4 w hat I ha te is his jealousy.
5 What kee ps me lit is cycling,
6 What mak es the job interesting is the tra velling.
7 Ali i want is fi ve minutes' rest.
B What I fo und was something very strange.
9 What S10Pped us was th e weather.
10 w ha t I don' t u nderst and is why she stays with him.
-.Em I DIY all; at: by: this; under; with
2 Alt hough he was w ry bad-tempered . he had lots of friends.
Always brush you r teeth after you have ameal.
Always was h your ha nds before you have a meal.
As Ijz told you . her mother lef for Berlin last Friday.
Because I knew her Iamlly. I did wh at I could for her.
Ta lk to roe like that again and I'Uhit you .
Don't do t hai again or I'll hlt you.
He had a terrible temper. but everybody liked him .
ill explained to you tba r her mother wen t bad home last week,
I was sorry for her. so I tried co belp her,
If you do tha t agai n, you'Il be sony.
There'll be t rou ble unless you step th a t.
ANSWERS TO £X[RCISES 331

~ I 1 After I've fin ished work. I'll come round to your place,
2 Whe n the weat her gets better, let' s have a weekend in the country .
3 Before you go back to Canada , you ought to see Paula.
4 Although I didn 't understand everything. I enjoyed tile lect ure.
6 Until Sean phones. we won't know what's happening.
7 As we're goiog ou tlonig ht. I'm going to buy some new jeans,
8 While they were asleep, somebody broke into the bouse.
9 Since he met [ulle. be hasn't looked at another woman ,
11 Because he was deaf, he didn't unders tand the policeman.
Tbe order canno l becbanged in 5.10. or 11 .
2 I did 2 spoke 3 went 4 gave up 5 felt 6 left
Ii. 'f. -~ I ] aslong as r provided 2 unti l 3 so th at 4 white 5 as iI/ as though
6 unt il 7 as if ! as though 8 as lon g as ! provtded 9 so th at 10 While
2 l ie went to Switzerland so that he could learn French.
I don't mind you singing as lon g as you do it qu ietly.
We moved the piano so that there wou ld be room for the Christmas tree,
We took some blankets so tha t we would be warm en ough.
We'll come back this afternoo n as long as th at' s OK with you .
we'll play tennis as lon g as it doesn't ra in.
1 2 While she's very clever, she's got no common sense at all.
3 While I know how you feel. I thi nk you're making a mistake.
4 While the job's well paid. it's deadly boring.
5 While I'm interested in economics, I wouldn 't want to work in a ban k.
6 While the hotel was nice. it wa s a lon g way from the beach.
4 1 She looks as Hshe's going swimmin g. 5 She looks as u she's had bad new s,
2 He looks as u be's lost something. 6 He looks as uhe's seen a ghost.
3 She looks as if she's been painting. 7 It looks as if it's going to rain,
4 He looks as if be's got a cold. 8 He looks as Hhe's had good new s.
-.m , I before 2 while 3 After 4 when 5 since 6 before 7 after 8 since
9 while 10 when/while
2 Don 't go swimming immediately after eating,
Have a rest every hour or so when dri ving lon g distances.
He has been teni bly depressed since failing the exam.
I had a word with Ianet before talking to Eric.
I often solve problems in my head while running.
She always gets nervous before going on stage.
Since comlng back from America we ha ven', even had time to unpac k.
A few days after returnin g from holiday he began to feel ill .
.-III I 1 Having left school at twelve. he had ... 7 A lorry bro ke down in High Street,
2 It tas tes delicious fri ed in butter ... causi ng a ...
3 Walking over to her desk. she picked ... 8 Not wan ting to fri ghten he r, Iphoned ..,
4 The wat er s-ame into the houses. 9 Sent first class. it shou ld .,'
flooding tbe .; 10 At 3 a.m. Simon came in, wak ing
5 Knowing his tastes. I took ... everybody ...
6 Putting on his coal. he went OUl.
2 I th inking 2 stari ng 3 gett ing 4 sacnflctng 5 th rown 6 dreamin g
338 AN SW E RS TO EXERCISES

.-:III 1 1 He repairs both ce es and motorbikes.

.2 lIe speaks neither English nor Fren ch ,
3 I nei th er like n or dislike her.
4 j both admire (him ) and distrust h im.
5 Both Paul and Sally are Oil holid ay.
f, Neit her th e sec.... ti'l ry nor t he accounta nt h~rlt hr- fli..
7 The play W<iS both funn y and shockin g .
}I He co llects bot h paintin gs an d jewellery.
9 You're neither righ l n OJ" wr ong.
10 She neither looked at me n or sa id an ythi n g.
~ I Did yo u know ther e were m ice in I thou ght you 'd get lost,
the cellar> I was surprised she wasn't angry with me .
He suggested we migh t like to go ski in g I'm gla d we've had this tal k.
with him , It' s fu n ny he d idn't say hello to you .
I beltevc this is your coa l. TeU me you love me .
I expect you 've seen this already. Were you su rprised I ph on ed yo u ?
I h eard you 'd got a new job. You kn ew I wouldn 't forget your birthday.
2 1 pro vided th at 2 so 3 Now 4 su ch ... that 5 so that 6 provi ded
7 Ne w that
II::!III I will find; go .2 have : will w rite j Will you sta y; takes 4 will be ; recognises
5 will go: go 6 will give: finds 7 will a<;J;;: want 8 " ill find: are
9 win : will h av e 10 arri ve: will ph one
2 I wou ld be able; thought 6 would tell: thought
2 woul d a lway s; was ; kn ew 7 would be; cou ld: liked
3 would never do : went }I woukl nor grve: asked
4 would be; hnd; wanted 9 would mean: spent
5 would hit: talked
3 I wa s: had DOl: helped: needed 4 had done: needed
1 ha s been ; last ed ") talks: is thinkin g
3 have usual ly liked: worked
-.:%!II 2 DIY .2 is th e best exp lan atio n.
3 You 're; tod ay; On. th anks- You are: OK: you (sit t: I'l l tgert you: (Theret's:
Yes (there) is: there: I don't twanu: tu rs. ru lSit!: here; you can' t; these:
are (taken ): et c.
~ I DIY a neither ha s to be changed c the first 'this' has to be ch a nged
b th e second 't his' has 10 be changed d both have to be ch anged
2 la st week - tbe week before nex t week - the n ext week' th e weej, after
now - then/ tha t da y/right ~ Wd }' this - th al ilhe/l ast t his morning - thar ruorning
t oda y -that day tom orrow - tbe next day tonight -that nigh t
yest erd a y-the da y before
3 2 that e vening 3 there 4 the week t..Jere 5 the 6 rigbt away /then
7 that moming 8 that night 9 th e da y before 10 tbar da y
I1!!IlII 1 DIY
,------- ----r--- - ---;
DIRE CT S P [ ECII 1~IJ I UCT SP l ECH I
sim ple present I simple past '
present progressive past progressive
present per fec t pa st perfect
simple pas t past perfect
will ,.. would ...
A N S W E R S 1 0 EXERCISES

2 I was 1 played 3 cou ld 4 were leavin g 5 hadn't brushed 6 had had

7 h adlert 8 wou ldn 't say 9 would know 10 ha d been ope ned
1 I fanc ied 1 h ad never met 3 had 4 wanted 5 was 6 did 7 W<lSdoing
8 cou ld not 9 mo ved y was moving 10 thought II wanted 11 cou ld
13 would cal l 14 wanted I S th ou gh t 16 was fall ing 17 was lying
18 had I Y didn 't matter 20 were 21 wa s gom g 22 were 23 had left
.-:m I 1 I asked what the dark-haired ch ild's n ame is/ was.
3 Are you deal? I said I'm/I was utterly fed up.
4 I told you it's/it was raining,
5 I said you'Hryou'd get your money.
6 This article ... sa id the weather is/wa s changing.
7 AI told me the repa irs will/ wou ld 00:4 t:5,VOO,
8 I asked if Jane is/ was comin g 10see us.
Y Pa t told me that you' re/you we re going to the north,
J 0 I bet ... th at you won' t/wouldn ' t pass your exam.
II See - I to ld you he hasn't/hadn't got much sense of humo ur.
12 Sue ... sa id they're/they were getti n g ma rried nex t week.
~ I I r asked what Peter's address was, 6 where they kept the money.
2 when the n ew manager wa s coming. 7 wh at time the meeting was.
3 how she knew my name . 8 w he n the la st train lefl.
4 why a ll t he win dows were open. Y how th e photocopter work ed.
5 how many books he wanted. 10 how ollenAnn went shopping.

2 I I wo ndered if they liked me. 6 if/ wht,ther my hair looked funny.

2 if/ wh<.1- :her I would be re ady in time . 7 if/ whet her the postman had been.
3 if/v.·hether t here was any food in H if/ wh l1her t hey spo ke English.
the h ouse. 9 if/ whe the r I was do lng the rtght th ing.
4 w heth er/ifservicew<lsincludedor no t. 10 whet her/if the mee tin g wa s on
:; If/ w hether I could pay by cheque. Tu esday or Wednesday.

.-nI I 1 She offered to coo k su pper. Y He ag reed to pay half.

3 He advised me to lea ve earl y. 10 She told me to park round the com er.
4 She asked me to d ose th e doo r. 11 I asked him h ow to find th e house .
5 She promised to stop smoking. 12 She told me when to phone.
6 li e offered to do the shopping. 13 I to ld him what to say.
7 She advised me to tell the police. 14 We offered to pay for the tickets.
8 I told her to wa it outside.
.-nI I DIY I After u ll.wenonnallys<lyw h o isspokento. wedo not pu t 'to'before the objecL
2 Ane r say. we don't have 10 sa y who Is spoken 10 . If we do. we purto' before the
object.
3 Td J means 'tnto rm' or 'instruct' . It ca n' t in tr oduce qu estio ns.
4 :say can' t norma lly be used reiore a n inn nmve.
Z I said 2 TeU 3 told 4 say 5 tell 6 told 7 say 8 tell 9 sa id 10 Say
-.I!!J I 1 I knew Irha t] I had seen h im o nce before in London.
2 The professor sa id (th" t )Shakespeare did n't speak Fren ch.
3 When I got ther e. I fou nd ou t (that) he ha d died two yea rs before.
4 It said on this TV progra mme that th ree th ou sand yea rs ag o t he re were ngers in
England.
5 It sa id on t h ts morrung's news that som ebody had th ro wn a bomb a t the Prime
Minister.
6 I read in a magazine that the ancient Roma ns sunered fro m lead poison ing.
2 ] She as ked me if I would like a drink.
2 I sa id [that ! I couldn 't help it.
3 Thev thou ght [th at ] the y should be hom e abo ut six.
4 The forec ast sa id (t ha i ' it mig h t rain .
S Everybody said (that) she m ust be jokin g.
6 1 explained that 1 h adn't seen the n otice .
-.nJ I 1 Sh e t hou ght (t hCl t) he w as ill.
1 He sa id (thatl he would be bac k the next da y.
3 She sa id (th at) she didn't like the music.
4 She asked me wh ere the bus sta tion wa s.
5 I asked h im if/ whether he had flnlshed.
6 I felt (that) nobody lo ved me.
7 li e as ked her w hether/if she wanted tea or coffee.
8 She offered to clean the Ilar.
9 I a sked when the car was going to be ready .
] 0 I wo ndered w ha t I was doing th er e.
] 1 l ie proved that th e earth is/wa s not nat .
11 I knew (t hat ) those ligu res co u ldn 't be righ t.
13 She thought (that) he r cat unders tood everything she said.
14 I as ked what th e boss wan ted.
1 5 t wond cred if/whethe.-Ma ry had phoned bad .
16 I wondered if/whet her dinosaurs la id eggs.
17 li e ad vised me to see th e doct or.
18 She as ked him if/ whet her he would like a drink.
2 .... f thou gh t they were yours:
.... no doubt you're wonderin g why I sent for you.'
ESlJ I If a nybody asks yo u wh ar you 're doin g. say you're wit h me .
1I0w can yo u make dcclslons if you don't knew wh at's go ing OIl?
If I bu y t hree kilos. that'u do for a few weeks.
ITI don 't get up till n ine. 1 ne ver gel an ything done.
If l can't fix the video. I'll take it back to the shop.
I'll go wtth you if you Like.
Th e sh ops are easy (0 get to if you park ncar the st ation.
We do n 't ha ve to go out if yo u 're not feeling u p to it .
II yo u 're rea dy before eigh t, we can catch the early train.
You ha ve to practise if you wa nt to lea rn a musical instrument.
2 I if 2 wh en 3 when 4 if 5 if 6 when 7 if 8 when 9 when 10 if
3 ] sa y: will scream 1 will be: manages 3 come; wiU coo k 4 will need; go
5 wiu nnsst rcove 6 wash; will dry 7 wtll be. doesn't come 8 get . wdl ph on e
9 look ; willliIJd 10 will be; gets
5 Pet e.
II!:!1!I I 1 wo uld look; had 10 would help: as ked
1 would be: didn 't sec II was /wen" not: woul d tidy
3 wo u ld be; didn't gel 12 b ad ; would show
4 knew; wo uld go 13 b ad: woul d send
<; would yOIl do: won 14 would you go; needed
6 would be: used 15 Would you rolnd: went
7 were not; wou ld sho w 16 came: wou ld yo u ha ve
8 had: would make 17 woul d be; spent
9 loved ; would bu y 1g would nor do; d id not ha ve
ANSWERS TO EXERCiSES 341

Z (ExQmpks of possibk answers)

2 If I had a big house. I would invite lots of people .
3 If I had a yacht . I wo uld go round the wor ld.
4 If l had plenty of money. I would buy a horse.
S UI didn't have a job. I'd be happier.
6 UI had more time, I'd stu dy biology,
4 1 cou ld/might play 2 might fed 3 might go 4 could/ migh t gel
5 cou ld/might understand 6 migh t taste
~ 1 J comes 2 find 3 lived 4 arrived S \ Ve'lI 6 would 7 would 8 will
9 will 10 stop
Z ( The most probabletmSWfrs)
I live 2 lived 3 were 4 wa ke S declared 6 ha ve 7 gave 8 tho ugh t
9 is 10 is 11 banned 12 have
.-:II 1 If I were a r'dbbit. I'd he in a hole.
UI were forty years younger. I'd go dancing a ll night.
1fI were Moroccan. I'd speak Arabic.
HI were the manager, I'd give every body ten wee ks' holiday.
If it weren 't so co ld, I'd go for a walk.
If it were Sund ay, I wouldn't be workin g.
If my nose were shorter , I'd be qu ite pretty.
If people were more sensible, t here wouldn't be any wars.
Hsbe were better-tempered, life in the office would be ea sier.
Il·fSJEI 1 1 had known; wo uld have invited 9 hadn' t been: wouldn't hav e become
2 would have gone: hadn't been l O had had: would have sold
3 had sa id: wouldn' t ha ve coo ked J 1 hadn't spen t: wo uld have had
4 would have won : had played 12 wouldn't have caught; had taken
S had n 't cut; would have finished 13 would ha ve won: had run
6 hadn ' t Invented: would have done 14 would have got: had booked
7 hadn't spent: wo uld n't have been 15 would ha ve been: had asked
8 wouldn' t ha ve got: had remembered 16 ha d been: would have been
Z I Uhe hadn't worked so hard, he wouldn't have passed his exa ms.
Ifhe hadn't pa ssed his exams. he wouldn 't ha ve go ne to uni vers ity,
If he hadn 't gone to uruvcrslty. he wouldn't ha ve studied la nguages,
If he hadn't studied languages, he wouldn't have learnt Chinese,
If he hadn't learnt Chinese, he wouldn't ha ve gone to China ,
If he hadn't gone to China, he wo uldn 't have gone climbing in Tibet.
If he hadn't go ne clim bing in Tibet, he wouldn't have tried to climb Everest.
If he hadn' t tried to climb Everest. he woul dn't have disappeared ..,
2 Ifhe hadn' t bou ght a bicycle, he wouldn't have gone for a ride in the country.
If he hadn't go ne for a ride in the cou n try , he wouldn't have fa llen off.
Ifhe hadn't fallen off he wouldn' r ha ve woken up in hospital.
If he hadn't woken up in hospital. he wo uldn't have mel a beautiful nurse.
If he hadn't met t he beautiful nurse. he wo uldn 't haw w ritt en a bc:stselUng novel
about her.
If he hadn't w ritten t he bestselling novel. he wouldn 't have got rich.
If he hadn't got rich, he wouldn't have married the nurse and had t hree channing
ch ildren.
U he hadn't married the nurse and had the three childre n, he wo uldn't have lived
ha ppily ever after.
342 A N SWEttS to El(ERCISES

3 lf Mary's mother hadn't gone out that evening. Ala ry would n 'I ha ve cooked for
herself
Ifshe hadn 't cooked ror herself. she woul dn't have got Interested in cooking.
Ir she hadn't got interested in cooking. she wou ldn't have opened a very sucemul
restaurant.
Ifshe hadn't opened the rest aurant. she wou ldn' t have had the Prime M..i!1ister as a
customer.
If she hadn't had t he PM as a customer , he wo uldn't ha ve o rdered musse ls.
jf he hadn't ordered mussels, the m ussels wouldn 't ha ve po isoned biro ,
rnhe m ussels hadn't poiso ned him. he wou ldn 't have died,
Uhe hadn't died, Mary wouldn 'I have go ne 10 prison for lire.
~ I He'lIget throw n out ofschool unless h e starts working,
I a lways watch TV in t he evenings unless I go out,
Let's have dinner out - unless you're 100 tired.
I'll see you at ten unless I phon e to sa y I can'( come.
I'll tell you a good joke - unless you've heard it before.
Things will go on getting worse unless t he re's a change or governmen t.
we're going to have a plcnlc unless it rai ns.
You can ha ve the last sa usa ge un jess t he children want ii ,
You can't open the door unless you kno w the code .
1 j Youcanhave the cartonigh lunlessHarrkt need.s lt.
5 I'm going to dig t he garden this afternoon unless il rains.
~ J She's packin g a German phrase book in case the ho tel stall don't speak English.
She's packing a pack of cards in case she meets people who play bridge,
She's packing a racket in case there is a tennis court.
She's packing a thic k sweater in case the weather is cold,
She's packing a swtmsu nin case t he hotel has a heated pool,
She's packing aspirins in case the sun gives her a headache,
She's packing binoculars in case she wan ts 10 go btrd-wa tchlng.
She's packing her address book in case she decides to se nd postcards.
She's packing some books in case she has time to rea d,
She 's packing walkin g boots in case s he wants to go walking.
2 I in case 2 if 1 if 4 in case '> incase 6 if 7 if 8 tn casc
m!IiI I 'It's time to d ean the car. ' 'I'd rather 110t clea n n today.'
'It's time to cook s upper: 'I'd rather have something cojd.:
'It's lime 10 get a new fridge.' 'I'd ra ther go on using the ok! one ..:
'It's time to get j-our hair cut.' 'I'd rather keep it long:
'II's lime 10 go home,' 'I'd rat her stay here for a bn longer."
'It's lime to invite t he Herrtses.' 'I'd rat her tnvne t he [e hnsons.'
'It's time to plan our tnp to Scotland.' 'I'd rat her go ro Wa les.'
'It's tim e to see the dentist.' 'I'd rather see her next yea r:
'It's time to sta rt work on t he garden: 'I'd rat he r start next week:
1 1 It's lime she got her hair cur, ;- h's tlme he grcw up.
l It's time we had a holiday, 8 II's time we painted th e t nchen.
4 Irs lime you cui the grass. 9 It's time he gOl/bough t a new car.
5 It's lime you washed th a i sweater. 10 It's lime that rea m wo n a match ,
6 It's time you stopped smoking ,
] 1 No. I'd ra ther we talked tomorrow. 7 I'd rather you as ked him,
3 I'd rather you came at len, 8 I'd ra ther he stayed in,
4 I'd rathe r you dtdn't. 9 I'd rather they brou ght their own,
5 I'd rat her she worked with Maggie. 10 I'd rat her they did somet hing abou t
6 I'd ra ther you cooked tonight. the homeless.
AhSWERS TO EXERCISES

IE::!!III I 2 I wish I spoke Russian. 7 I wish it didn't rain all t he time,

3 I wish I had a car. 8 I wish she didn 't work on Sundays.
1 I wish I wa s/ were hard-working. 9 I wish I could eat eggs.
') I wis h I wa s/ were good at.sport . 10 I wish t he rad io wo rked,
6 I wish I liked dancing.
Z 2 I wish it wou ld snow. 6 I wish the tra ffic lights wo uld go green.
3 I wish the phone wo uldn't keep 7 I wish your mother would wr ite .
rin ging. 8 r wish Pat wou ld find a job.
4 I wtsh the baby wuuld Slop crytug. 9 I wish the exa m resul ts wuuld corue.
5 I wish the kettle would boil. 10 I wish spring would come .
4 I wish I'd chosen a different ca reer. I wish I had n't told him the truth,
I wish I'd done more tra velling when I I wish I'd saved money when I wa s
had the chance, earning a good salary.
I wish I'd gone to a better schoo l. I wish I'd studied harder a t uni versity,
I wish I'd gone to bed ea rlier last night. I wisb I'd taken better care of my teeth.
I wish I hadn't got married when I W Cl S
eight een.
III2III I [Examples o!possibk answers)
Do yo u know a shop wh ich sells good correct
I kno w somebod y wh o could mend tha t cha ir,
I wa nt some plates wh ich can go in t he microwa ve,
I was a t school with the ma n who is driv ing that ta xi,
I'd like to spea k to the person who dea ls with exports .
She's got friendly with a boy who lives next door,
The police ha ven't foun d the man who stole my car.
There's some cheese in the fridge whi ch needs to be eaten.
We'v e got some light bulbs which last roc yea rs.
This is the switch wh ich isn't wo rking,
lIThe people who nve in Greece speak Greek ,
2 The la nguage that people speak in Hungary is called Hunga rian.
3 The la nguage that people spea k in Chlna is called Chinese.
4 The people wh o uvc in Italy speak Italian.
5 The people wbo live in Tu rkey spea k Turkish .
6 The la nguage th at people speak in Algeria is called Arable.
7 The la nguage t hat (some) people speak in Scotla nd is called Scots Cache.
S The people who Jive in Holla nd speak Dutch,
9 The la nguage [hat (some ) people speak in Ireland is called Irish .
10 The people who live in Portu gal speak Port uguese.
11 The lan guage that (some ) people speak in Wa les is called Welsh.
12 The language t hat people speak in Ja pan is called Japanese.
5: All the poetry tha t he wr ote was destroyed in a fire.
At schcollleamt nothing th at was useful to me.
I'v e wid you everyt hing thai happened .
Nothing tha t she said made any difference.
It's t he best western fi lm tha t wa s eve..r ma dc.
The most useful thing tha t yo u can do is leave now.
Th is is the on ly hire car t hat I could get .
You can ha ve everything t hai you wan t.
E:EmII 1 DIY The rela tive pron oun can be left out in sentences I. 2 and 6,
Rule 4 is correct.
Z I S 20 3 S 40 5 0 6 S 7 0 8 S 9 0 100
A N S W ER S TO EXERCISES

I 2 Our doctor is a perso n I rea lly respect.

4 I've los t tnCi t nice ring Bill gave me,
5 II's (1 book everybody talks abou t a nd nobod y read s,
7 Th(1I 's the m an I wanted to see.
~ lie keeps tellin g yo u things you already know.
10 They never th a nked me for the m oney I sent them.
4 1 Here's the pa per you asked me to get you,
2 We went to see the film you recommended. but we didn't think much of it.
l The car my sister bought last mon th has broken do wn fou r times already.
4 The a ctor you didn 't recognise on televi sion last n igh t was Kieft>r Su therla nd .
5 On ly (1 very few o rthe mends lane had Ci t school wen t o n to uni versity.
(,The ope ration my fat her had for his heart problem was on ly a partial success.
7 The essay Marl w rote while we were on holiday has wo n a prize tn t he school
competition.
8 Some of the friends my da ugh ter brin gs home look as thou gh they ne ver wash.
-.rI%J I Old you read 'loo m wh at ha ppened to poo r Harry':
He just teaches you wha t you already know.
Wh at I wan t to know is whore's my car gone?
The dog can have wha t I don't ea t.
The h oliday wasn' t a t all wha t I expected.
They h adn 't got w h at she asked for.
Yo u mi sunderstood - th a t isn't whal l mean t.
What you sa id m ade m e very happy.
IIIIm I ( Exam pks of possible all~",f~rs)
2 A good parent is one w hose chi ldr en are happy.
3 A good gardener is on e whose plants are hea lthy.
4 A good doc tor is on e whose patients gel bet ter.
S A good writer is on e w hose books are successful.
6 A good teach er is one whose students learn thi ngs.
7 A good tourist guide is one whore tourists see interesting places.
8 A good coo k is one whose food tastes n ice .
l I Anton, whose brother fritz hel ps him run the sports shop, hves with Marika , whose
sister Ann eljcse also h elps out in the sports shop,
2 Anneliese has a youn ger brot her Max , whose wi.fe Pa ula works in the restau rant run
by An ton's other brother Tow , whose g.irlfiiend Hetdrun is an instructor at the ski
school.
3 Th e person in charge o f the ski school at th e mom ent is Klaus, w hose wife M<Joika
wor ks part-time for the baker do wn the roa d. Karsten, whose daughter Ijesl runs the
pteena.
4 Monf ka also helps in th e bar, the ' Ha ppy Skier', wbjr h is run by Erwin, whose uncle
£ricb runs a horcl, in parmershjp with Klaus's brother Paul. whose n ife Christiane
was na tional fce-dancln g champion to her younger days.
IEIZ:mD I DIY The one; in the 'a' sentences.
Z DIY I The 't!' sentences.
1 To sh ow tha t they a re not a n esse n nal part oftbe senten ces - they can be separated,
3 Identifying clauses tthe (JIles in the ' a' sentences ).
4 Iden tifying cla uses.
5 In (1 formal style.
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES ...
1 I No change possible. 7 I like a fllm that h as ,..
2 People m at don't an...w er leiters 8 ","0 change possible .
annoy me. 9 Do you re member those peop le we
1 What happened to the oranges met in Corfu?
I bought yesterday? 10 ","0 change possible.
4 No change possible. 11 ","0 chang e poss ible.
S No ch ange poSSible . 12 No cha ng e poss ible.
6 No ch ange poss ible.
4 I which 2 wh at 3 wh at 4 which 5 wh at 6 which 7 whi ch 8 what
9 which I (I whi ch
~ 1 I Wh o's tha t good- looking m a n ta lkin g to Alison?
1 Luggage left unatt ended will betak en away by police.
} Left-handed children forced t o write wit h their right hands often develop
psych ological problem s.
4 The nu rse looking after my a u nt is very kind to her.
5 All the ru bbish floating in th e sea is a rea l da n ger to health.
6 Ham ma de in the tr ad ition a l wa y costs mo re, but ta stes bett er.
7 Women tourists w earing trousers are not a llowed in the templ e.
S Ja mes t hought that th e man wit h h is gir lfriend was her brother.
9 The ma n bit ten by my neighbour's dog wa s her h usba nd's boss .
1 1 I keep ha vin g a drea m in w hich there 's a woman standing with her ba ck to me .
2 James said he hea rd a shot fired in the srrcet .
3 Are those your tro users ha n ging o ver th e l1alcony?
4 Th ey live in a beautiful old house built l OO yea rs ag o.
S The Na vajo are famous for beautlful jew ellery made of silver a nd turq uo ise.
6 Passen gers standin g 0 11 Pla tform 2 are as ked to keep behind t he yellow line.
7 Pa uli ne h a s a very strange old painting of a woman holding CI sma ll dog.
.-:III 1 I which 2 what 1 t hat 4 what 5 t hat 6 whi ch 7 which 8 tha t
9 what 10 that
2 I w ho 2 - 3 that 4 th allin/ orma/) orwho 5 wh ich 6 - 7 who 8 -
9 th at 10 which
J 'I'll discuss it wit h you. ' she said, in a voice that could hav e been used ...
A politicia n is a sta tesman who approaches every question ...
Any man who h ates dogs and ba bies can't be all ba d.
Anyone who h as been to an English public sc hoo l will fed
Consuhan ts a re people wh o borrow your watch
No man can lose what he never h ad.
Norhlng that is worth knowin g ( a n be t au ght.

td'~-~ I DIY 2
l I The earrin gs w hich / tha t he gave h er for Christmas ...
2 Th e fax which /t hat he got t hai morn ing .
J The sofa whi ch /t hat we bou ght la st ye ar .
4 The peop le w ho m/ tha t he had hoped to int rod uce Lee to
5 The lIill whlchrt hat the terrorists h id the gu ns in ...
6 The son g which/that she could not remembe r th e n a me of ...
J 1 The rosebus h.
2 The tall men a re t he nephew s: Dun can an d Jack a re th e u ncles.
3 The man my mother w as workin g for .
4 No.
S (People from) the n ewspa per.
6 Police .
4 1 A man I met c.. 2 The dress ... J The nrue nat ... 4 A very ordlnary-looklng
woman ... 5 Some Polish people ...
I!EI!II I 1 Whoever 2 wh at ever 3 whatever whic hever 4 wher ever 5 whenever
6 Hoe-ever 7 whoever 8 However, Wh enever 9 whoev er 10 Whenever
1 1 Send it to whoeve r pa ys t he bills.
2 w ha tever is in tha t box is ma king ...
J People always want more. however rich t hey are.
4 However you tra wl. u'H take ...
') what ever you S<lY , I do n't t runk ...
f! \Vhi<"hever room you use. make sure ..'
7 wha te ver problems you have. you can always come,
8 Whoeve r phoned just now was very polite.
9 Whenever I see you I fed nervous.
10 whatever you do. I'll love yo u.
3 1 1\0 matter w ha t 2 No matte r w here J No matter how 4 No mailer what
5 No matter w hen 6 No matter how
4 Whether he's lying or telling the truth, n's a wonderfu l story .
Wh ether we tell her now or lat er, she's not going 10 be pleesed
Wheth er you 're a beginner or an expert. you'll learn somethlng ...
Whet her you ski downhill or cross-country , t he equipment costs a 101,
Whether you like her or dishke her , you ha ve 10 admire her.
-.:I!I I 1- 2 at 3 - 4 a t 5 on 6 1n10 7 on I) of 9 - 10 into 11 in
12 - 13 of 14 in 15 in 16 to 17 - 18 for 19 after 20 to 21 -
22 to 13 (or 14 ol 2 5 for 26 of 27 for 18 in 29 into 30 or
31 by 32 In H in 34 in 55 in ~b on

I r. I-..:Y-=- ---;
Rule
a t + d ock lime
in + part of a day
on + part of a particular day
on + particular day
a t + weekend, publiC holida y
in + longer period

3 4 on
4 l at 20D 3in 'lin ')OD bin /- 8 - (or<ltl 9 a l I(J - 11 -
12 on
.-:m I DIY At and in are used (or poslUon.
To is used (or reovemeot .
l la ugh: look; point: s hoot: seine wa ve
ShOII! ing tlI and rl lfO" 'i' 1D at ace aggressive.

3 1 in 2 to 3 at 4 at -In 5 to 6 10 f at 810 9 at 10 10 11 at
11 10 IJ 10 14 in
.-m I DIY By is used : 3 to sa y t hl1l SOIJIethinSwill ha ppen at OT before a cer tain
momen t.
Urllil is used: I to say t hat a siluation ",in continue up 10 a certa in momen t.
2 1 u ntil 2 by J by 4 u ntil 5 by h by 7 Ln ul 8 by 9 by 10 until
ANSWERS TO EXERCiSES 341

~ I (/0,. an d du,.Jng) DIY "'or tells you how long.lJu,.Jng tells you when.
l I during 2 for; during 3 during 4 for 5 during 6 for
I (OPJHJ.d k and infron' of) DIY The bus stop is oppo.d'e th e house; the car is In
front o/the house.
l 1 opposite 2 In front of 3 in front of 4 opposite 5 In front of 6 opposite

~ I DIY We say among a grou p, crowd or mass of things that are not seen separately.
We say bn__n two or more dearly separate peop le or things.
we say Mtwt\On thing s on two sides.
1 1 between 2 between 3 between 4 among
J J between 2 among 3 between 4 amo ng 5 among 6 between
7 among 8 between 9 between 10 among
.-:!II I 1 'What ar e you think ing about?' 6 'Wha t did she hit him with?'
2 'who did you buy it from?' 7 'Who does your father work for?'
3 'Who did she send it tot 8 'who did you make it for?'
4 'What will you carry it in?' 9 'w hat's the book about?'
5 'What can I eat it with ?' 10 'Who were you talkin g tot
1 ( F.xomples of possibleunswers)
I '\\ 'ha t are you waiting for ?' 6 'Wha t are you looking at?'
2 'Wha t are you worried about" 7 'What are you looking for?'
J 'w ha t were you tal king about ?' 8 'What are you interested in?'
4 'w ho were you speaking tot 9 'Who are you writing tot
5 'Who do you work for?' 10 'What are you Ihlnklng about"
} ( fxamp les of pos.~ib/e answers'
What is she wait ing for? Who did you have lunch with?
What were you listening to? Who did you buy th at car from}
Who do you usually play tennis with? \....ho is Anne in love with?
What country do you come from? Wha t did you change your job for ?
Who is that lctter from? w het are you studying English for?
Who did you get it from?
I;':";" I I A cup is somet hing that you dr ink ou t of.
A pictur e is something that you can look at.
A tap is something tha t water comes out of.
A loy is somethi ng tha t a child plays with.
A vase is something th at you pul (lowers in.
A window is something that you can look through.
1 I th ings th at you bite with (B) 6 a th ing th at you hang clothes on (D)
2 something th at you sleep in (C) 7 llqujd that you wash dishes with (H)
3 something that you put thi ngs on (E) 8 something th at you can start a fire
4 something that rou putvaluables in (G) with (AI
5 iI thing that you d ean your teeth with (F)

4 J somebody (thM) I have great respect for 5 the problem (th at) I was worried about
4 the glrf Irhatj Lwas wrinn g to 6 a Cl1r(thiltj I paid too much for
5 [oh n is the man (that) Bill plays chess with I Sally is married to.
Anne is the woman (that, Ron plays chess with / Peter is married to / Bill works with.
Alice is the woman (th <ll) Peter pial'S chess wn h / BJll is married to I Sally works with ,
Ma ry is the woman (th at) Sally plays chess with / Ron works with .
Sue is the woman (that) Ron is ma rried 10 I Peter works with.
ANSWERS '0 EXERCISES

Bill is th e man uhar ] John pla ys ches s widl l Alice is ma rried to I Anne works with.
Ron is th e roan (thCi t) Anne plays chess with I Sue is married to I Mary works wit h .
Peter is th e man (that) Alice plays chess with I Ann e is ma rri ed 10 I Sue works wn b.
Sally is the WOI11CiI\ uhat ] Mil l)' plays d L~S with / John is ma rr ied 10 1 Alice works wlth .
11II3 I 1 operated on 2 talk ed/ spoken a bou t 3 spo ken/rajked to 4 slept in
5 sa t on/ in 6 pa id fo r 7 heard of/from 8 played with or spoken/talk ed to
') looked ar or spoken / tal ked to
2 ( £xtlmp/fS of possibleanswers)
who wa s America/ Aus tralia/penicillin/electricity d iscovered by;
\\lh o wa s th e novel AIlrItl Korr rlirlfl / Hamlet I Happy Birfhday 10 You written by;
Wh o was radlo/televtston Invented by ?
Who was the film Thf> Bird!; directed by:
\.. . bo was the Eitlel Tower / the Taj Maha l built by;
Who wa s the Mona Usa painted by:
~ I I She's nj ce to tal k ro. 6 The river was tlillkulilo s wim a cross.
2 He's dJfficult to live w ith. 7 Her village is h ard to get to.
3 My brother's impossible to argue with . 8 He's very easy to gel on wnh.
4 Those old trains aren't very pleasant 9 w arer-coloursare d rmcult to paint with.
to tr a vel in . 10 She's tnt eresnng 10 work wit h .
S Ice tsn't easy to dnve on .
2 (l-;xamplesof poss ibleansU'frsJ
A broken c up is hard to drink OUI of.
A broken fork is difticulllO ca l wit h.
A cushion is comfort able to sit on.
A sma ll bard c hair is uncomfortable to sit on.
A warm bath is nice to lie in .
Bab y animals are nice to play wit h.
Ctasstca l m usic is Interesting to listen 10.
Fam ily problems can be difficult to talk a bout.
Lectures are often hard to listen to.
People who travel a 101 can be in teresting to talk 10.
I (EXlllllplfS of possiblf answf rs ,
A very sroaU spoo n is hard 10 ea t wt th.
Shoes that are 100 small are un comfortable to walk in .
A hard bed is uncomfoctable 10 lie on.
A noisy hotel room is difficult to sleep in .
A broken pencil is ha rd 10 write wuh.
• BSH -;'~ I I a hu ndred 2 onethousalld.fou rhundred andfifiypounds 3 a th ousand
4 three thousand. one h undred and jort y-four 5 on e dolJar (and ) eight y-five tcemst
6 one th ousand pounds
2 I hundred 1 million 3 hundred 4 millions of ::; Tho usands of 6 dozen
1 secon d: third: fourth: fifth: sixth: seventh: eigh th; n inth: tenth; twclnb: sixteenth:
twentieth: twent y-first: thirtieth: hundredth: th o usandth
4 1 10 April 19'::l6
2 I 7 September 1911
3 16 June 19 79
4 the stxteer uh of May J May th e sixteenth . n inet een seven ty
5 the twelfth of March I March the tw clnh. n ineteen ninety-three
6 the fourteenth of January I lanuary the fou rtee nth. nine teen eighty-six
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 349

E::!ml l 1 I'm tired. 10 My car's bro ken down.

2 She's French . II You nee dn' t worry,
3 She's forgott en. 12 I can't swim ,
4 They've flnjshed. 13 The door wo n't dose.
5 I thought you'd left. 14 It doesn't ma tter.
6 We'll tell you tomorrow. 15 I haven 't forgotten.
7 I wish he'd stop. 16 I'm not sorry.
8 How's your mother? 17 Why aren't you in bct!?
9 Nobody's perfect. 18 Don't you like th ist
l 1 where she's stayi ng. 8 I don't believe th ey're fresh.
4 No. I haven't. 9 ... if you can't come,
S II isn 't tru e. j It' s not true. 10 ...rcc. r can'r ...
Contraclion not possible In 2,3, 6 and 7.
] 1 th ere's 2 you 've 3 he's 4 ca n' t 5 he'd n I'll 7 that 's 8 we've
Ifi5:,Ej I nouns: unc-ountabie soup, petro\. wood ; sintl.ular countable suggestion , su it, book,
brother. problem; plural counla ble potatoes. buildings. people, rules
adjecllves: ordinary small. cold. stupid. high, new. dry; compand"e more
interesting. older. youn ger: superlallve best. c heapes t, worst
delrl'"l'lllnen;: articles a. the; possessives my, tus. our: demonserattses this, those,
these: quantifiers (a) few, some. many. no
z oaber personal pronouns: me, he, him, her, w e, they. them
other possessive pronouns: his. hers, ours, the irs
other rellexi"e pronoUDS: yourself. himself. hcrseff ourselves. yourselves. themselves
] lost. rains, open . tastes. won, got
4 I future simple (aux. will) 6 fut ure prog ressive (aux. will be )
1 present progressive (am:. is) 7 past progressjve (Il UA·. was )
3 past perfect (aux. had) 8 future perfect (Il UX. will ha ve]
4 simple presen t 9 presen t perfect (aux. hCiS)
5 simple pa st 10 simple past (aux. did)
S conditional wou ld ... stop ·in" rosm smoking InOnlth'e stop
perfect Infinill\'e hav e started pa,,"t participle ordered. sta rted
Imperative shut (up), leave acuve n'm smoke, wou ld ... stop, cou ld, talk, say .
sh ut tupj.lcav e. don 't ... think. '11 slop, suppose; should ... have sta rted
pas..s tve "erb 'm ordered
6 p«posilious: at, with. by, for. in
adverbs: usually. yesterday . suddenly. terribly. loud
Out is an ad verb particle.
7 1 subject Jake dlreclobjecl songs
2 subjecl I direct cbtect my address Indireclobjecl Monica
3 subjecl you direclobject the time Indired objeci me
4 subject you dired obj~rt what sort of books
5 subject you direct obj~et a postcard. time indireclobjecl me
8 I pretty 2 tired 3 a stu dent 4 sorry
9 conju n ctions: 1 while 2 is 3 where 4 when 5 before 6 although
subordinale clauses: 1 while I'm trying ... 2 if you sray .; 3 where you were
staying 4 Wh en I get back 5 Before you wen t out 6 Although it was snowing
Inteerogense maln clauses: 3. 5 affirmali\'e main clauses: 1, 4
Degall"e main clauses: 2. 6
351

Index
(Fo r explan ations of th e words th at we u se 10 ta lk a/w(lys: is (lllI'oys ImplJellillg 149
abou t grammar. set' pages 198 - l01 .1 a/ways: position 74
(Ifways: position wnh imperatives 219
(ljan and olte 17 among and fJeIWf'I'n 288
alan: th e difference 17 all and a: the difference 17
a/an : uses 18-10 (lim with adjecti ves 7 J
a. not n and no H 1II1Olllfr and oilIer 4 3
a bil with comparatives 81 any (of) 4h
a coupte of with plural verb 61 ony and no 36
(/ iew.jel\' and ( Ill little' 4 1 Oil!! and some 32
II group of w ith plural verb h I allY meaning 'it doesn't matter which' 36
a litlle with comparatives 82 ouy: /10/ (lily a nd 110 3 5
a Jill k. little a nd I a) fell' 4 1 allY or no article 34
a lor (O/)./OIS(of) and ¥Il l/chlnrallY 40 OilY with com para tives 82
a lor wtth compara tives 82 olly/l(I(ly. anyolle, (myOlill!l a nd somebody. someone.
a number of with plura l verb 6 1 somflll;lIg 32
a"'l': 11m able to and (ould 114 appror: not alwa ys used in progress ive forms 14 8
able: will be able 10 and call 1 14 aprJear: I"frl! a/'Pt'ilrS t o be 223
able: would be able to and could 114 aplwar with ad jective or adve rb 6 9
aC((IfllIJ lQl.lm ioll (u ncou nta ble ) 57 arm ',. dOIl't etc (con tractions) 29 6
acuve and passive 17 6- 182 art icles 17- 27
edrecuve + jor ... 10 208 articles dropped after prepositions 24
edjccuve + infinitive or -i1l9 form 206 art icles: no a rncle or some/allY 34
adjec tives and adv erbs 68-70 articles with place names 2 5
ad jectives: rompara n ve and superlative 79-8 6 /IS and ii/.:{, 90
adjectives: order before nouns 7 3 (IS ••• as 88

ediecnves with mNf 71 as: conjunction 1 36

adjectives without nouns 72 os if 231-;
adverb particles with verbs 184 as /0111/ as 238
a dverbs a nd adiecnves 6 R- 70 as me etc 48
ad verbs: comparative an d superla tive 79- 8 6 as 11ll1d' /III(l1IY 40
ad verbs: position with the verb 74 as. l1rml and I1ml 87
M\'jff' {uncountabIe15 7 as 1I101ln" 2 38
nJr(lid: "m nJr(lid so et c 22 9 !/oldikl! 191
(I S
a{rtlid with hi' 95 ashamed with be 9 5
afur. conjunction 23f> at church, schoot et c 24
afff'r .. .ing 140 at . ill and 0/1 (rime] 284
eiter: order of cla uses 137 al.;llandto(plal·eI285
aller with past perfect 16 7 a tten tion signa ls 228
090 I 54 auxiliaries: short questions and a nswers with
all /of) 46 auxiliaries 126-23 1
all and whote 39
all. ewrybody a nd f l'erut hillg 38 M ggagf' (uncou n ta ble) :;7
all: position 74 be aN e and alii ] 14
alilhat ... 17 1 /Je: age. colou r et c 9 5
(1110 \1' + infinit ive or -i119 form 104 l'l':do lit' 94
a/read!J wtrh present perfect 154 te: 1am to ••. 1-10
a/ready. WI and stiff 78 he: progressive forms 94
alrhouyll 13 6 1/(("llIlSf' 2 3f>
all /mugh and il l spill' of 2 3<.1 //('fa USI' and !J<>flllISI' of 239
be/orr: conjunction 236 (ou/d in ind irect speech 1 '3 4
before ...illY 240 ( ould in polite requests etc 1-;1
II('/ore:orderofdausl"S 137 (ould in structures with iJ 2 '39
'- fore with present perfect I 54 cou ntable and uncou nta ble nouns 56
f~gi" + infinitive or -illg form 105 roup/I': a (oupleoJ wuh plu ral verb f> I
1~1i/'1'e; negative struc tures 2 17 l'Oll'ordly: edtecuve ending in -Iy -;0
II('/j/,w: nOI used in progressiv e forms 148
IIt'/olly; not used in progressive forms 148 daily: adjecti ve or adverb 70
better. f)/,sl 80.8 1 dal es 29')
brtlw'l'It a nd Olllong 1 88 dead: Ihe dead 72
Mimi: Ihe blilld 72 dft/dly: adjective endin g in -Iy 70
bolh (oj} 46 d/'af Ihe dm J 71
IlOlh ... alld 141 d./itlitely: position 74
110111: position 74 difficull + inftntnve 10 9
brm k/osl; fit break/osl etc 24 diS<lb/t1I: tlll'disab led 71
bus; Ilyllus 24 distancing: past. progressive a nd futu re verb forms
hy an d " IIIi/ 286 in polite requests etc 1 n
by cer, p/olteetc 14 do and ,mike 98
f)y " .illg I 9 7 do be 94-
fly onesfl/ 5 1 do: emphat ic au xiliary 9-1. 9 6. 11 8
I)y rhe lilll/' 286 do in nega tives 11 j
do in questions 2 10
roll (ab ility): special problems 114 do not used in indirect ques tions 1 51
am an d will be able to 114 do nOl llOve.'IIffd to . /IIUS f JJ(l I et c 1 13
am Iwor.j('('l etc 1 15 dem·l. iSI/'1etc tcontracnons t 196
ron. cOllld and fIIa y; perm ission e re 116 dou ble com parettves 84
am. musl, moyand miyhl: how cer ta in. 10 8 do:enl s/ 194
roll; there roll be 223 dropping relative pronouns 1 71
ron't bmr + infinitive or -iu[I fonn 105 dropping senrence-begmmngs 114
can't hoW' ...ed a nd may not have ...ed 111 dropping IIW I 14 3
car: I)ywr 14 dro pping words after auxiliari es 22 4
ff rlllill; Ihere is u rWin to be 1 13 durillg and for 18 7
Christmas. 01 Chrislmas 14 f)lltrh: Ihr Dlllfh -;2
rhurclt; 11l rhurchetc 14
dass wit h plura l verb 60 rot. h rofl 46
dub with plura l ver b 60 fad l: posilion 7-.1
(old with be 9 5 fi/rh ollwr and -S<'h'fS 51
(olle[le: at (ollege etc 14 rarly: adjectin' or a~:h'erb -;0
compara tives and su perlatives 79 -8 6 f llSll'r. 01 f ailer 14
com para t ives an d superlatives: the dtnerence 84 eas.lj + inflllitit'c 109
com panson of edlecuves a nd ad verbs 79 -86 elder and older. eldest a nd oldest xu
co mpound verbs 184 eI.lipsis after e unhanes .224
condition al; see would elllpels a t the beginning of a sen te nce 21 4
conditio nal struct ures; see if ellipsis: rela tive pronouns 271
conjunc tions 136-14 5 ellipsis: 111m 2-13
contain; nor used in progressive forms 14 8 emphasis wit h do 94. 96, 2 1l::
(ontinue + infinitive or -il/y fonn 20 4 em phasis \\11h it. whal etc 1 34
conti n uous; see pr ogressive Eng/ish;a an not used 56
contract ions 29 fl English: IItt ErlY /ish 71
could an d was aMI' roo mmwyt'd ro etc 11 4 rr wl;gh ·H
could a nd would be aM/' to 114 erlOtlgh {.lf l 4 6
could. ran and may: permiss ion etc 11 6 JX"Sltinn 76
4:'1'1'' ';
((I111d hlll'l' ...ed etc 11 2 even wtth co mparatives 81
I NDE X

t l't'r with presen t pc.rlt'CI: I 54 Ilad teuer 12 7

ever: ",110 /11'''(1/ tl't' r 1 11 had brUer in in direct speech 2 ')4
t l'fry OrE, 0/ 4 b lutA to ... and musl lltll'f' ..Ld 122
r l'('rybody a nd tl/l 38 handi(opP('d: thr IIOM j(apfJfd 71
r l'frythillg and all 38 hard ... infinitive 109
rvrry rhi"g l"'lf ... 27 1 hard: ad)ecti\'t' or ach 'nb 70
exclamanons 11 1 hardly not used wu h do 2 1 ]
rx pnt: negative structu res 1 17 hardly wu h any ]2
halt + infi nitil1." or -i/lg form 104
1m,e: not used in progressive form s 14 8
lami/y wu b plura l ver b f>O
have 1000IOS
fnr with coenper atives Sl
ital Y': nor always used in progressive lOrms 148
/arthn and /urlht r.lal1hesl and/ur.#WSt SO
havd goO 102
l ast : adjecti\ie Of adverb 70
haW' 19C'11to and "'ltSt: obligation 11 2
ltd + infm ili\'t' Of -iug form 10 5
hal'\" to: do not how to an d "'usl nol 113
Iff': nol al w ay s used in Pf01tft'S.-\i \·c form s 148
he and slit used foe animals 49
1m with ad;eeti\'t' f,S hror ... infinith 'e or -1119 form 20 S
Iff! wt th con 11 5
hear wuh can 11 5
In l' lcf) 46 holiday: 0 11 hc>liday 14
Inl'. 011"1\' a nd (llJlill lr 41
Inl~ arJ(lthrr jn" 4 j
homr. til """Ir etc 24
honlf'kss: Iht lK>mrless 7 2
Inl't'r. jfunl. Ins and /roSl 4 1
1Iopt: , ~ soetc 229
first : this Is the /ir11 E1C " 'ilh ~rfect tense 170
~ negetne structures 2 17
Jir1t. $«(II d etc 19 '5
IlC'SJ'i fQ/: in hospital ere l-4
fi rst : wo rd-order wuh n umbers 7 3
hot wit h Ilf' 9 5
fr'randdllring 18 7
how .. .! 11 1
lor an d si,.-,. If, 1. 161
how a nd w1lol .. Jikr 2 J 2
for ... Ing 19 7
fr'r '" to after adjt"clivr/noun 108 ""''' '0... 25 2
h {l\\T\'t"r 181
lorgtl ... inf initive or -i1l9 form 104
nu,wfrtd(sJ 294
!orgrr: not used in progr essive forms ) 48
hUllgry with fir 95
Frrnch: tht' Frn Kh 71
Irirmlly : adjecttve end ing in -III iO
I an d ",t'. hr and him etc 4 8
jurnilur(" !u ncounlahle) ')7
".1 raOwr 266
lurtht'r andjartllfr .furllwSI a ndjarlhrst 80
1'111. you 'w . slw'f1 CI C (contraction s) 19 6
futu re 13 0- 14 1
J sllOuld(n'O ... if 1wrTl" you 26 1
futu re con tinuous: see future prog resslce
J wish: stru ct ures and te nse s 268
future in the past ] 4 1
ij and wIJm 15h
future perfect 139
if ...t d 240
future progressive 138
if: followed by fut u re ] 37
fut ure ver b forms in polite requ ests etc 170
ij I were you 2(,I
if in indirect question s 25 1
genera hsnno ns wuhout tilt 12 if I/ot a nd unless 264
gel : hm'f' got 10 2 if orr/y 168
gf t: stru ct ures and mea nings 18 6 if; structures 156-2(, 3
9"1 w;rtf 10 .. •lIt!1 19 8 if you like/ want 191
go ...illg 200 imogine: negativ e struct ures 2 17
go 0 11 + infinitive Of -;"g form 104 imperat ive s 118
going '0: future a uxiliilry J H impossi/llf' + Infinttfve 209
gtJIng to:fulurei nlhcpast 141 in. al and Qf' ltime ) 184
gt'll(1 ... mftmnve 109 in. til and 10 (place ) 285
grammar: useful wor ds 198 in or of after supertartves 8 6
group: a qroup of with plural verb f, 1 mmse 265
354

ill/rOil( of and opposil< 187 my: I if fik t' 10. if !fOil likt' et c: I 9 I
ili spih' ojandaltl!ollgll13Y Ilk,': not use d in progressi ve forms 148
ind irec t speech 246-253 lik flil is IIrllt 9 1
in fin i ti ve 18 8-1 9 2. 19 9. 101-20 9 li kfly: (l (J j('('l i\' (' end in g in -Iy 70
tn timnve ener ad jective / no un + jor ... 108 likdy: /nert' IS likely to be 113
in fi nitive in indi rect speech 2 52 llI11t' (o/ 1 -I f,
infinitive of purpose 192 Imlt'. alinlt' an d ( /I ) Jell' 41
in fi nitive or -i119 form a fter adi ecnv e 106 Imlt' with com para nves 8 2
inllniti\·'c or -illfl form a fter noun 10 7 li l'fly : adjecth'e ending in -1'1 ,0
Inlin lllv(' or -iug fo rm nrrer verb 19 9 . 10.J I"'wl!!: adrectrve endin g in -Iy 70
ill/onl/fllio/l [uncounta ble ! 5;- IQDk at 185
- il1g form 194 - 20 1. 204-20 , /o"k{onl'flrd 10 ...iug I ':J~
-IlIg form after conjunction 240 lwl:; n ot a lways used in progressive forms 14 8
-i1l9 form or Inlini rive afte r adjective 106 look wit h adjec tlre or adverb f,9
-i//9 form or in finitive a fte r noun 20 7 1,,(: a 101 / of!. 1015 / af l and wlldr IIUlIl!J -1 0
-I,¥/ for m or infinitive a fter ver t> 19 9 . 10 -1 I,,(s with com par a uves 81
illLellC1 + in finitive or -illy form 104 l(l/jjf: adjecth'e or adverb , 0
j"'eresu d and intereSling etc 19 ~ low' + tnnnnrve or -ill g fonn 204
frisk the Irish 72 low: nOI usee in progressive forms 148
irregular com paranves and superla tives S I I" l" i!l: adjecnve en ding in -/y ;-0
irregula r plu ra ls 59 1111k runcou nt a bte r 5,
is/I'/. lInn"( etc tcontracrton sl 296 Iwky wit h lII' 9 ~
rsnru etc 216-21 7 hmch: a( lunch etc 24
it a fter IJ(lI/Ii ll{J etc 4 9
it; em ph ati c struct ures 134 Ilw j(' r if!!: I" l' I//ajom y t>( with plu ra l verb 6 1
it: preparat ory sub ject/object 1 31 "!IIk" and do YS
it used for co untries 49 lIJ'IJIt'll''d to and WII/d 11 4
it used for identifying peop le 49 II/'II/!J '''l ' ~f,
it was the first etc wuh perfect tense 1,0 mllll!I, /l 1l1t h and alaI (l'.fJ 4 0
it's time 1 M.. /Il./lta: nOI used in progressive forms 148
1Il,1Ilfr; t1r<rt' is svmrcllilr!l till' maurr
just ally in nega nve sen ten ces 3h wit/ I ... 1. .2 ~
ju st I/O\\' w ith sim ple pa st 154 nliIY. ...urr a nd ""Illd: pe rrmsnon ere 11 6
/lillY !laW' .. ,((1ere I 21
kind (1/ w ithou t art icle 19 may, //ligllt. rail a nd muSt: how certam: I O~
nor used in prog ressive forms l ·H;
k ll Ow : may ,It'! 'loll'( .,.nl and m il " Irlll\ ' ...•·,1 12 .2
knowledge Iuncounta ble! :;; /fW!/: thert lIlall be 123
111,' a n d [, /It' and him ere -IS
last: wo rd-order with n u mbers ,. 3 me etc wuh -il1g rorms I'}5
1mI': adiecuve o r adve rb 70 '''''tI llll,' hilIOf' cd 1 ~ 9
lauglHlt 18 5 m ig/rillaw' .. ,fd e re 11. 2
leas/ 42 mig/rl in in direct ~p<......' h 154
leaving OUt relauve pronouns 1;2 migJrI in polite reques t s etc I , I
lea vin g ou t IllIIt 143 II/ighl in struct ures wi th if 259
lea ving OU I words a fter auxiliari es 1.1.4 migflt , I/WIj . can a nd n1US1: ho w certain , 1(I~
lea vin g out words at the beg tnn tng of a sen tence million/SI 1'1-'
12 7 mlllt'. y" llfS et c 1.S
less (ofJ 4 6 modal auxilia ry verbs I l)('t- J 19
less, 11'I1Sl, /e\\'er and fewfst 4 1. .\ I"ntL,!/: .'" .\ ' OI /d;lY et c 1 4
leI /III' salt/rillk 120 " w/lIlrly: ad jt'Cti\'e or ad verb ;-0
let's 12 0 more / ,-.j J 4 h
like + infin itive or -1119 form 11)..J III N I' f// ld m•.,.e 1'1~

like and as 90 //l,.,t' a nd (lllla 43

•• O[)O'
35'

mOTf used to ma ke compara tives 79-8 1 no un + noun 6 3- 71

mOSI tof ) 4 7 no un + no un and possessive 's 6 5
"WSI used to make superla tives 79- 8 1 nou n + noun or structure with of 66
mudl loli 4fi nou ns dropped a fter adjecti ves n
IF!lIfh. 17Imry a nd a 101 ( of) 411 nou ns: plura ls 58-59
muell with comparanves 81 numller: « /lumber of with plu ral verb 6 1
mUSI and hal¥' (goO to: obliga tion I I I n u mbe rs 294
mils!. COli . may an d might : how certain ? 108
musl llal'e ...ed and hnd to " . I I I ollifft to ...illg 1 9~
must in ind irect speech 2 54 of a ncr SOllie. a/lY a nd other dere rmfners 46
//lusr »or. do nol hove 10 etc 113 of or ill afte r su per lati ves 86
/IIusr. S/l(!l lid etc: obnga uon 110 of: structu res with of or nou n + no un 66
musr : Ihae musr II<' 22 3 offell: position 74
my etc w ith -in9 fo rm s 19 3 Offffl w ith prese n t pe rfect 154
my . yOllr etc 18 old: till' old 71
myself. yourself etc 50 older and elder. oldest a nd eldest 80
on. 01 and ill (time! 1 8 4
need 12 (, .ing 1") 7
(111 ••

lIerd /101. mustnol etc 11 3 one and a/(fll 17

need ...iny 201 one allother 5 J
/leed: not us ed in prog ressive forms 14 8 olle me a ning 'people in general" 52
need: there is /I(! Ilnll 10 21 3 Ollt' of .., with singula r verb fi I
negetuc quest ion s 2 14 onets I: a big Me et c 54
negative quesno ns as exclama t ions 21 1 ol/I!!: if oll ly :!68
negative st ru ctures 113- 11 7 on l!!: positio n 76
neirlll!r am 1etc 230 01/ /,11: IIJe ollly II lillfl thot ,.. 2 7]
rn:ilhcr ... nor 241 of!/J(I$iU a nd ill from of 187
never not used with do 2 13 otller(s) 4 3
111'1'('1": position 74 . 1 19 ollg llt in indirect speech 254
IH.'I'er with fl11~1 31 ollg llt . should and /llI/SI: obliga tion 11 0
nel'('f with prese n t per fect 1:;4 OWII: my OW II et c 5 ]
nice + Infimnve 109 011'11 : not use d in progressive forms 14 8
night: at niqht 14
110 a nd OIl!! 36 parttcfpk-s: present and past participles 19 3
no and 1101 2 1fi pa rticles: ver bs ....-lrh pa rticles 184
no an d!Jl's in answers to negative qu estions 2 1 5 pa ssive structures] 76-182
no ...ing 19 :; pass ives: position of prepositio ns 292
no mancr who/lI'hm ere 28 3 past a nd prese nt parncfples 19 3
no meaning ' not a/any' 35 past and progressive tenses in polite req uest s etc
110 wuh comparatives 82 17l
f/ob.>dy 3:; past co ntinuo us: see past prog ressive
non -progressive verbs 14 8 past per fect 166-] 69
nOlle of 33. 4 3 pas t pr ogressive] h4
nor (fill I etc 130 past slrnple: see simp le past
'lot 216.1 17 past ten ses instead of \\lOllld . . . a fter
not a/m ig and no 35 conjunction s 1 4 5
/lot and no 2 16 people: //IOS I (of Ill() people 4 7
not: l hope not etc 21 9 perfect infinitives 18 9
nor so... as88 perfect len ses with t/lis is Illejirs f ... etc 170
nO/hing 35 pt'rmit + in finitive or -illg fo rm 204
not/ ling rhal 17 1 persona l pro nou ns : I and me et c 48
noun + for 10 208 ph rasa l verbs 18 4
noun + in finitive or -iny form 207 place names: a rt icles 2 S
-
phlne: by plmle 14 rether a 19
plmlY (0/140 ramer: w(luld ratlter 166
plur al expression with singular verb 6 1 rrady T infinitive l Oll
pturat verb with singu la r noun /)0 rMUse: not used in progressive forms 148
plurals of nouns 58- 59 recenl1!J with present perfect 1 54
poinl a/ 185 reflextvc pronou ns 50
point: illerI' is /to point in ...illY 11 ~ n 'yret + mfinlnve or -ing form 10 4
polite req uests: past. progressive and fut ure verb rctanv e cla uses an d pronou ns 270-18 3
forms 17 1 relcnve cla uses: position of prepositions 190
poor: IIII' poor 72 remember + lntimtlvc or -ing fOnTI 204
possessive 's (>1 remcmber. not used in progressive fOnTIS 14 8
rcssessves and noun + no un 65 reported speech: see indirect speech
possessives 28 rich: Ihe rich 71
pufer + inftntuve or -illg fonn 104 ri ghl with bt' 9 5
prefer. not used in progressive forms 148
prepositions 1 84-19 3 's f>1
prepositions: st ructu res with preposition or nou n same: the same .._as 88
+ noun 64 say and lell 1 5 3
prepcsmons: verbs with preposit ions 184 Sfhool: af s< hooJere 24
prepositions wn h -illy forms 19 6-198 Sfl100l with plu ral verb 60
present and past participles 193 .scouisll: rhe Sw rtish 7 1
presen t a nd present perfect 1';6. 158 SRI' + mfinmve or ·illy form 20 5
presen t continuous; sec present progressive SRe with can 11 5
presen t perfect and present 15/). 158 S<'em: negative struct ures 2 17
presen t perfect and sim ple past I 51- 16 3 seem: not used in progressive forms 148
presen t perfect contin uous: sec present perfect 5t'em: there SUlII S I II be 11 3
progressiVI' .<.elf m!J.....lf etc 50
present perfect progressive 15 8 S<'llse: there is 00 St'TISt' 111 ...i1l9 1 23
present perfect progressive or strnpk- 160 slrall: future auxiliary 130
present progressive 14 2-1 50 sllall in questions I I I
present progressive and sim ple present 142 sill' used fo r cars. boa ts et c 49
present progressive used for fut ure I 34 .d IM! at 1N5
present progressive with always 149 short answers 218
present Simple: see simple presen t short forms ldoll·' . Fm erc t 196
present tense sto ries etc 144 SJWlIltl: I Sh014!dt nt I ... If 1 ",t'ft' y(lll 161
presen t tenses inst ead of will a rter con ju nctions s/loll1d M I'l' ...ed etc II I
2" sll(luld In indirect speech 154
pri soll : ill pns on etc 24 sfwll1d. musl I'll': obljga non 110
proooMy: position 74 ~houf at ,'W 185
progressive and past te nses in polite requests etc sick: rlwsid : "11
170 silly : ad)ffti \'E' endin g in -Iy 70
progressive: verbs not used in progressive sim ple or progressive present perfect 160
forms 148 simrlc pa st and present perfect 15 1-1 6 3
pronouns: 1 a nd meetc 48 simp le present 1'11-1 50
prflpose + infinitive or -illy form 104 sim ple present and presen t progress tce 14 2
provided 238 simple presen t u sed fo r fut ure 136
silla' and io 161 . 11'> 1
question ta gs 216-12 7 sioguiar noun with plural verb 6U
quest ions 2 ]0-21 2. 2 14 singular verb with plural expression 6 1
questions in indirect speech 151 slo p!/ with be 9 5
quest ions: negative qu estions 214 smell wi th adjective 68
questions: position of prepositions 28 9 smell wuh can 11 5
qui/ea 19 smi le 111 1~ 5
so am I etc 230 the ... the with comparatives 85
so and such 91 t he used instead of my etc 29
so ,_. as 88 the with place names 25
so: conjunction 236 the with superlatives 86
so: I (don'l) think so etc 229 the with whole and all 39
so much/many 40 the with -ing forms 195
so thar 238 then after if 257
some (oj) 46 there is 222
some and allY 3.2 these and those 30
some or no article 34 they meaning 'people in general' 52
somebody. someone. something and anybody. anyone. they: singular indefinite use. meaning 'he or she'
anything 32 etc f 3
son Q( without article 19 think: I (don't) think so etc 229
sound with adjective 68 iiunk: negative structures 217
Spanish: the Spanish 72 think: not always used in progressive forms
spelling: plurals 58-59 148
spelling: simple present 147 thirsty with be 95
spring: ill (the) spring etc 24 this is the first ... etc with perfect tense 170
staff with plural verb 60 this. that etc 30
start + infinitive or -ing form 204 this. that etc with -inq forms 195
scill. !Jec and already 78 those and these 30
stop + infiniti ve or -inq form 204 thousandis) 294
succeeded in '" and could 114 throw ... at/to 285
such n 19 till 286
such and so 91 Ume: it's lime 266
suggest: structures 252 to. at and ill (place) 285
summer: ill (the) slimmer etc 24 to: lnfinttive with and without to 190
suppose: I suppose so etc 229 to ... ing 198
suppose: negative structures 217 to used for whole infinitive 191
suppose: not used in progressive forms 148 too and too much/many 44
supposed to 129 too and very 92
sure: tllere is sure to be 223 LOa much/many 40
lown: to tOWII etc 24
rasU' with adjective 68 travel (uncountable) 57
taste wit h can 11 S tT!J + infinitive or -in.lJ form 205
team with plural verb 60 two-word verbs 184
tell and say 253
tenses after conjunctions 244 ugly: adjective ending in -ly 70
tenses in indirect speech 248. 254 uncountable and countable nouns 56
tenses: see the names of the different tenses understand: not used in progressive forms 148
tenses with if .2 5fl-263 unemploued: the 1l1lel1lployed 72
terminology 298 university: at university etc 24
{han. as and that 87 unless and ({ not 264
than me etc 48 ulltil + past participle 240
that: left out 243 until and by 286
char (relative pronoun) 270 until (conjunction) 238
that. than and as 87 until ...ed 240
[hat. this etc 3U use: lhere is no lise ...ing 223
[hI" 21-23 used to + infinitive 128
the blind. the Dutch etc 72 used to: be/getllsed /0 ,.. illg 198
rhe dropped in at school etc 24 usually: position 74
the majority or with plural verb (,1
[he not used in generalisations 22 verb + infinitive or -inq Conn 199.204
tiie same _.. as 88 verb + object + infinitive 202
verbs n ot used in progressive Iorms 14 8 \\'hil~ « omrasu 1 HI
verbs with prepositions and particles 184- \I'll/Ie ..';ug 14-0
verbs with two objects 183 w!w a nd \I'!WI!1 -19
verbs with two objects: passive 180 Ll"/1O ever 21 2
l'l'ry and too 9 2 \\'110 rrelanve pronoun I 2 , 0
\'l'fY m ud'/llu!IIy 40 \\,I IOf'l'fr 282
l'l'fy ( UUIl /I) with pa st partlclplee '13 II'lll, II' and 1111 3 9
whose trelauver 2,5
if y OIlIl'II//{ e IC 19 1
\\'ClIII : 1 dCllI't It'll/II 10 . II'hy llwtJ ..) 1'10
walll : negative str uct ures 1 1 7 will a nd ll'OIIM; typ ica l behaviour 12 0
"'{lIII : no t used In progressive forms l-1l' lI'iII be able 10 an d WII 1 J 4
waltl soltlfboll!J 10 do sOlllel/lill!, 202 will: future auxiliary I W
warm with he 9 5 lI'i/l in structures wit h If 1 ~ 7. 15 ,
was able to and (o uld 114 will no t used after conjunctio ns 24 4-
II'as to llave ,.,e4 18 9 \,'iIl: willingnes s. int en tions . requests et c li S
lI'lls/lI'fn;' to
... 141 I\'is": stru ctures and tenses 168
l\'aldl + m tininve or- um form 10 5 without with any 31
\I'm/her: a/(m not used 56 word-order: adrecnves before nou ns , J
weekly: adjective or ad verb 70 wo rd-order: ad verb s a t the end of a sent ence 7,
we/I: adject ive or adv erb 70 word -order: adverbs wnh the verb 74-76
Welsll : tile I\'elsh 71 wo rd-order: alllY/Ys and Ilfl 't'r with
were arter if 161 impera tives 1 ]9
\\'1111/ ! 211 wo rd-o rder- con ju nct ions and cla uses 2 37
Will/ I (I ! 19.2 21 wo rd order: mllilql1 -1-1
It'11I/1 a nd Whlf11 31 word-order: _firsl and lasl wnh numbers 7 3
\I'll/II ('% ur/si: e/mak e 212 wo rd-ord er in quest ions 2] 0
\l'llal ew r 2 ] 2 word order: posmon of prepo sition s 1 89- 293
whm ... /ikf and I/{Iw 111 work: 1lI Will'/; ell' 2-1
\\Ilwt {relative] mea nin g 't he thmgt st that ' 27 4 II....rk tu nco u nta ble I 57
what SOI'l of 1 11 11'{If'V. \l '(l rst so. X I
wl'al lime 2 12 lI'ollld an d \l'iIl: typical behaviour 120
Il'ha t to ... 151 1I'(lIIJd : futu re in the pa:;1 1-1 ]
what: empha tic structu res 135 I"ililld h«w ...rt! etc 122
II'halel'fr18 2 would in in dir ect speech 2 54
\Vh('/! a nd if 150 would in polit e req uests ere J 7 1
",hm ... cd 140 would in structures Wit h if 158 -26 3
wit(/]: followed by fu tu re 13 7 wou ld ld:1.' 10 haw ...r,' ] ~ 9
wnen ...ing 140 ll'ould not used aner conjuncti ons 14-1
II'hl'n(reiativell i l l\'ould cal/lfr 266
wlletl with pa st periect ] 6 7 w eNig: thert;$ SOIIIfl hill9 wrong 111111... 2 23
tvllell y ou likf/v.-Y/1l1 191 11'I'{>/I9 with be 9 5
II'hfm'l'fr 181
where (relat ive 1 1 71 yearly: acrecuve ( If adverb , 0
II'herel'er 281 yes and no in a nswers to nega tive questions 1 14
whfl/rer in Indirect q uestions 15 1 'WI. ~l iIl and already ; 8
1I'/wllwr ... or 28 3 W f wtt h present perfect I 54
II'/liclr a nd WIUlI 3 1 you mean in g ' pt'(>ple in gene ral" 51
wllirh (relauve pronoun ) 270 yo ully: Ih,· yOllllg 72
\l'1.ir/lel't'r 181
,- --..,-,

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How English Works - A Grammar Practice Book

Uploaded by

How English Works - A Grammar Practice Book

Uploaded by

· Michael Swan

A GRAMMAR PRACTICE BOOK

Michael Swan & Catherine Walter

Oxford University Press

Oxford New York

How to use the book

What kind of English does the book teach?

How important is grammar?

Choose the correct answeris), One or more answers may be correct.

1 She's ... university teacher.

16 She's much taller ... me.

Test yourself: intermediate points

3 1 I we nt out without ... money.

32 He's got ... mo ney.

37 You look ... a teacher.

42 Alice .., have a baby .

46 Wernet when we ... in France.

47 As soon as she came in I knew I ... her before.

Choose the correct answer(s). Olle or more answersmay be correct.

61 My family .•. thinking of moving to Binningham.

76 I look forward ... you soon.

detennlnen: articles., posMUlvH and 57 uncountable nouns: special cases

201 need ...ing 252 Indlttct speech: infinitives

VOWels .... dIpIIU...... (double YO. . . .)

i: seat /si:t/. feel /fi:I/ er take /ted:/. wait /welt!

The sign (') shows stress.

alan and one

a/ail: main uses

builder butcher conductor cook doctor electrician

Alan can mean 'any example or something'.

curtain person that water comes out of

3 Complete these sentences in any way you like.

We don't use 1I1an with uncountable nouns. (NOT~)

1 Make sentences like those above to describe the people in the

long/small nose long neck round /square/oval face

Notethat hair Is tlnglltar. ar:d has DO 1lI'tk:Ie.

the = 'you know which one(s)'

the teacher the wtndow tbe light the ligh ts

generalisations without the

1 Put the or-( = no article) in each blank.

We do not normally use tJrtt In generalisations with plural and

Z Use some adjectives from the box. or other adjectives. to write

cas ual classical detective foggy formal historical

1 I like eating _ _ food.

I Before people invented they couldn't transport heavy loads easily.

the and no article: special cases

] Ch oose a word or expression for each blank. and add a preposition.

bed bus car Christmas Easter the evening fool home

2 Which ven.iOD ofthe cartoon cap tion do you think h. coereetz

'He's from Texas I the Texas.'

A 1 Make sentences using words a n d expressions from the box.

I Anna 7 to college 13 by train 19 the Pacific 25 Oxford 31 Prison

If you are in a groop. write so m e 'n umber sentences' for other

Other expressions with no article:

2 Put in the right possessives.

You can't put possessivesimmediately..after articles or after this/that etc.

J toln up the Ideas to make expressions.

Icoats foot jacket mouth taU raincoat

1 Martin stood up and put __ on .

5 Complete the cartoon caption with a suitable possessive.

'No, lie's Dot-------1 We thought you 'd brought him:

We often use dIi insteaa of a possessive in expressions with prepositions.

this and that

2 Look at the examples again. Which words a nd expressions in the

finished ha ppening now said before just abou t to start

3 Put In thislthatldwselfhose. 4 TlUs or t.hat?

which? and what?

Whidr sae do HOu want- WhAt is your shoe size?

Sometimes both are possible.

some and any

We use IIJIfIlnstead or some in nepdve sentences, in most questions, JC JC JC ~ JC ~

2 Affinnative/negative: choose the right word.

3 Questions: Choose somelany/SlJllVhody/onyhodyl5OmdhJnglanything"

4 Choose the right word.

5 Complete the cartoon caption.

'Oh . he's right here beside memaklng h ls "I don't want