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DEVELOPMENT
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PATTERN FOR 'CONE

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PLAN OF SPIRAL

FRONTISPIECE — Patterns for spiral inside a cone. For details see page 289
 Pattern
Layouts o|o
A PRACTICAL, ILLUSTRATED TREATISE
COVERING ALL PHASES OF SHEET METAL
WORK INCLUDING PATTERN CUTTING
PATTERN DEVELOPMENT
for all

SHEET METAL WORKERS, LAYOUT MEN

MECHANICS AND ARTISANS
Compiled by EDWIN P. ANDERSON

THEO. AUDEL & CO., PUBLISHERS

49 W. 23rd ST., NEW YORK
 Reprinted 1946

COPYRIGHT
1942
THEO. AUDEL &yCO.
New York

All Rights Reserved

Printed in the United States

 ,

Foreword
This work represents a large and valuable group of practical
Sheet Meted Pattern Layout Problems presented in a clear and
simple language.

It is intended as a Complete Shop Guide showing a step by

step solution of several hundred sheet metal problems met with
in day to day practice by the average sheet metal worker and
layout man.

Each problem has been worked out by experts in the numerous

fields represented, thus making it virtually An Encyclopedia of
Practical Sheet Metal Work. Special credit is given to William
Neubecker for his assistance in the preparation of many of the
problems presented.
It cannot be too strongly emphasized however, that
TRUE SKILL is reached only by the man who understands
that no book, no matter how
complete, will give a solution
to all problems encountered-but will merely point out the
"ROAD TO FOLLOW”.
In reality this is true, for though the exact problem may not
appear, there surely is one, the principles of which could be
adapted to the problem at hand, with a little adjusting.

Due to the fact that a certain amount of geometrical knowl*

edge is always required, especially in sheet metal patterns of a
more intricate nature, the reader is advised to study Section X,
which gives a step by step instruction in 50 problems, many of
which are actually encountered in laying out of patterns of sheet
metal work. Proficiency in the solution of these problems will
prove to be of inestimable value wherever expert workmanship
is to be attained.
The Publishers.
 LIST OF SECTIONS
Sections Pages

I Heating and Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 1-200

II Special Sheet Metal Layouts 201-342

HI Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 343-436

IV Conductors, Leaders and Leader Head Layouts . . . 437-542

V Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 543-652

VI Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 653-784

VII Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 785-900

VHI Cornice Pattern Layouts 901-1,012

IX Sheet Metal Boat Patterns 1,013-1,038

X Geometrical Problems and Mensuration 1,039-1,090

 4
7
3
5

INDEX
For Quick Reference in Answering Your Layout Problems

Acid cup, how to make

A 652 Cake cutters, patterns for
c
375
receptacle 508 Calculation of triangle 1 ,072
Adjustable scaffold bracket 649 Candle molds 378
sleeves for steam pipes 40 Canoe, sheet metal type 1,022
Air conditioning duct patterns 186-200 Canvas roofing 758
duct seams 182 Capacity of conductor pipes 505
Allowing laps on patterns 490 tanks 513
Angle, how to bisect 1 ,043 Cast copper roof drainage head 544
Apple corer, pattern for 347 Catenary, construction of 1,054
Approximate length of circle circumference 1,047 Center funnel oval to round, pattern for 429
Arc of a circle 1 ,073 of circle, how to find 1,044
Area of circle 1 ,080 Chart of pediment 951
cone 1 ,081 showing piping weight 61
cylinder 1 ,081 to find length of skylight bars 840
ellipse, how to find 1 ,081 Child’s bathtub, pattern for 406
frustum cone 1 ,083 Chimney base, short rule for 137
geometrical figures 1,088 Chord of the arc 1,073
parallelogram 1 ,075
Circle and square, comparison of 1,080
rectangle 1 ,075
area of 1,080
ring 1,081 around triangle 1,057
square 1 ,074 how
center, to find 514, 1,044
trapezium 1,077 circumference, length of 1,047
equal in area to given square 1,054
passing through three given points 1,044
B properties of
sector, area of
1,090
1,080
Bath tub patterns 399 Circular conductor head 538
Beader, home made type 598 Circumference of circle 1,047
Beading of cutters 596 Cistern, capacity of 513
Belfry, front elevation of 665 Cleat bender, how to make 777
Belgian system of zinc roofing 750 for fastening strips to roof 688
Bending, heavy plate steel to arc of a circle 13 Clamp to hold skylight curb to frame 810
operations, for skylights 794 Clothes sprinkler patterns 351
Best material for lining gutter 620 Coal hod, patterns for 415
paint for galvanized iron 759 Coffee pot pattern 401
Bisection of an angle 1,043 Colander patterns 380
straight line 1 ,039
Collar and flange for smoke stack 732
Blower connections 63 Coloring of copper roofs 758
Boat, elevations of 1 ,01 Combination measure and funnel, pattern for 434
general view of 1 ,01 scraper and tin cutter 781
hull, forming of 1 ,01 Comparison of square and circle 1,080
model 1 ,020 Compound curved offset 192
prow, forming of 1 ,01 curved reducing elbow 190
views of 1,017 curved tapering elbow Ill
Boiler breeching, pattern for 21 paneled leader elbow 480
flue connection 28 twisted elbow, pattern for 468
Boss patterns 317 with paneled face 479
Bow and stem pieces, pattern of 1 ,023 Concave furnace top, patterns 163
Brace and supports for gutters 597 Concrete base, roofing on 623
Braces for eave trough 551 Condensation troubles 773
Branch pattern, three-way piece 88 Conductor and roof gutter connection 494
Broken shaft patterns 941 head, circular type 538
Building metal boats by means of models 1 ,020 octagon type 533
Bujlt in flat skylights 817 heads, construction of 517
Burst seams, repairing of 623 how to prevent from freezing 501
 2

Conductor — (continued) Drop on face of sphere pattern 947

installation of 495 Drum elbow patterns 138
painting of. 514 top pattern 145
pipe, true angle 451 Duct patterns 1 86-200
pipes, capacity of 505 Duct seams 182
Conductors 491 Dust pan patterns 389
leaders and leader head layouts 437-542
Cone and cylinder
area of
intersection 293
1 ,081
Eave metal roofs
finish for
E 636
intersected by horizontal cylinder 294
trough, braces for 551
volume of 1 ,085
hangers 602
Conical spire, area of 1 ,082
holder 601
tower covered with sheet metal 706
Eaves trough for 30-foot radius 594
Connection between smoke stack and roof 733
Effect of exhaust steam on tin roofs 765
for boiler flue 28
Elbow and scalene cone, intersection of 1
Connections between conductor and roof gutter . 494
Conservatory front, sheet metal 898 compound twisted with paneled face 479
Constructing an oil tank 783 mitering against soffit of winding chute 244
mitering with round pipe, patterns for. 41
conductor head 517
oval to round 183
Constructing circle about triangle 1 ,057
pattern 180
ellipse by means of intersecting lines 1,066
patterns 8 , 35
metallic extension skylights 824
how to make 443
polygon 1 ,046
rectangular duct 48 irregular pieced 79
tapering type 32
skylight curb 839
with double offset 5
square on a given base 1 ,056
triangle ,051
tapering type in square pipe 124
1

Constructive details of skylights 818 Elbows, rises for 179

Elevations and sections 902
Conveyor pattern, spiral type 279, 322
system piping, patterns of 24 Elevator bins, lining of 66
Copper cornice and tin roof joining 716 roofers type 782
Ellipse, area of 1 ,081
flashing on modern fireproof building 719
general notes 1,064
roofing, remarks on 742
with wooden ribs 743 how to construct 1 ,062

758 how to draw 146

roofs, coloring of
various methods of construction 1 ,063-1 ,070
siding for pent house 728
stove reservoir pattern 368 Elliptical cones, intersection of 300
pipe and right cone intersection 298
Cornice brake, gutter forming 607
pattern layouts 901 , ,01
scalene cone intersection 296
1
Envelope of scalene cone with flat side and top. 306
return conforming to roof pitch 929 . .

Equilateral triangle on a given base 1,055

Covering conical tower with sheet metal 706
Erecting large hipped skylights 869
Cylinder and scalene cone intersection 309
,081
Erection and making of smoke stack 13
area of 1

293 of a perpendicular to a straight line 1,040

intersecting cone
volume, how to find 1 ,085
Estimating hip roofs 656
tower of any shaped base 661
Cylindrical ring, volume of 1,089
weight for rectangular and round piping 59
Exhaust steam on tin roofs, effects of
D Expansion joint for gutter lining
Extension skylights
765
603
825
Decimals of foot and inches 1,073
Design of square with given diagonal 1,052
Details in obtaining pattern for an offset boat 151 F
Developing patterns, short rules of 100 Facilities for working wrought iron 19
Diamond boss, pattern for 274 False bottom for gutters 550, 651
Discharge piping patterns 24 Fan system, iron work for 49
Dissimilar molding, pattern for 91 3 systems and elimination of noise 45
Division of a line into a number of equal parts. ... 1 ,042 Fastening down roof patch 772
Dodecahedron 1 ,087 Finding the center of a circle 514
Dome, roofing of 709 true angle in a flaring object 99
Double pitch skylights 821 blower connection 63
section of 823 Fire pots.. 512
Double seaming corner 686 Fitting standing seam roof against upright wall. . . . 702
of roof ridge 691 Flange and collar for smoke stack 732
Drainage of roofs 501 Flashing against wall 692
Drawing a circle through three given points 1,044 smoke stack and flag pole 730
of skylights 823 675
Drinking cup patterns 344 under clap boarding 685
 7

Flashings for slate or shingle roof 720 Heating and air conditioning duct patterns 1-200
remarks on 717 drum baffle plate 143
Flat skylight, layout of 792 drums 142
sk /lights 785 Helical curve on cylinder 103
built-in type 81 tapering pipe patterns 204
how to make 791 Hexahedron 1 ,087
Flaring articles, patterns for 384 Hexagon, how to construct 1,060
measure with lip 397 in a circle 1 ,061
Flour sifter patterns 358 Hip bar pattern 851
Forge hood patterns 84 roof with wing attached 660
Forming gutters on cornice brake 607 roofs, estimation of 656
Foot and inches conversion 1,073 Hipped skylights, erection of 869
Four pronged fork pattern 21 5 Holder eave trough
for 601
Freezing prevention of conductors 501 Home made header 598
French system of zinc roofing 750 Hopper and pieced elbow, intersection of 234
Front elevation of belfry 665 register box 147
Frozen conductors, thawing of 503 Horizontal cylinder and cone intersection 294
Frustum cone, area of 1 ,083 molding and curved wash 1,005
Funnel perpendicular at one end, pattern fo* 430 How to eliminate noise in fan systems 45
rectangular type 432 square tin 425
Furnace boot patterns 167
hood and deflector patterns 164
pipe fitting, pattern fo* 157
top pipe intersection 158 i
Ice cream mold patterns 369

G Icosahedron
Inches and foot, conversion
Ink for tinware markings
1,087
1,073
367
Gable molding, pattern for 985 Inside drain pipe, roof outlets for 543
Galvanic action 511
miter of gutter 548
Galvanized iron work for fan system 49 Installation of conductor pipes 495
Garbage chute, pattern for 276 tangent to two unequal circles
Interior 1,049
Gearing assembly 829 Intersecting pipe patterns 121
skylight type 828 scalene cone and transition piece patterns 115
General scheme on zinc roofing work 748 tapering elbows 126
Geometrical drawing, importance of 330 Intersection between cylinder and cone 293
problems 1 ,039-1 ,070
transition piece . . . 251
German system of zinc roofing 750 of elliptical pipe and scalene cone 296
Glass, crating of 811 hopper and pieced elbow 234
cornice 896 horizontal with inclined dissimilar molding 939
handling of 810 irregular scalenecone with cylinder 31 3
hoisting of 812 cone and elliptical pipe
right 298
how to place 816 scalene cone and cylinder 309
moving of 811 work for fan system
Iron 49
Gravel roofers kettle and fire place 72 Irregular boss patterns 317
Gusset sheet, pattern for 437 pieced elbows 79
Gutter around circular corner 595 polygon, area of 1,078
bottom, false type 550 scalene cone and cylinder intersection 313
construction, essential features of 548 volume of
solid, 1,086
various forms of 577 T-joint patterns 134
lined with copper 621 Isometric projection 901
lining material 620
Gutters and roof outlet layouts 543-652
beading of 596
in wood work 606
pitch of. . 564 J
support and brace 597 Joining copper cornice with tin roofs 716
roofing to gutter 696

H L
Half round bracket stand pattern 942
Hand made tinware, schedule of 343 Ladder bracket 779
scoop patterns. 348 and bail 779
Handling glass and glazing skylights 810 roofing type 778
Hanger for eave trough 597 Ladders and scaffolds, storing of 639
Hanging long eave trough 600 Laps on patterns. 490
 2 3

Large dome, roofing of 709 Obviating noises in fan systems 45

Laying a valley on a pitched roof 721 Octagon base over circular windows 1,006
of tar and gravel roofs 755 conductor head 533
out of elbow patterns 443 conductor, patterns for 452
patterns direct on metal 908 tower with square base 662
slate roofing 641 Octagonal cornucopia, patterns for 932
standing seam around a pipe 701 Octahedron 1 ,087
roof around chimney 699 Offset boot patterns 150
Layout of flat skylight 792 transition, rectangular to square 196
Layouts for various sheet metal shapes 343-436 Offsetting conductor head pattern 515
Lead for roof flashings 724 Oil tank construction 783
Leader elbow, compound paneled 480 Orthographic projection 901
head pattern 516 Oval and rectangular pipe fork 95
plain type 522 funnel, pattern for 423
Leaders, galvanic action in 511 pudding pan pattern 409
making of 496 to roundelbow 183
Lightning protection of tin roofs 508 offset boot 170
Lining elevator bins 66
large gutter with copper 621
Locomotive cab
Long eave trough,
rain shield pattern
how to hang
11
600 p
Louvre, reinforced type 880
881
Paint for galvanized iron 759
ventilator, details of
Painting conductor pipes 514
of roofs 762
Paints for roofs 760
sheet zinc 760
Pan, pattern for 372
Making and erection of smoke stack 13 Paneled leader elbow, double offset type 489
conductor heads square in plan 524 Parallelogram, area of 1,077
flat skylights 791
Pattern, at any angle for ogee gutter 617
octagon conductor head 533 development, short rules for 100
roof flanges 732 for air conditioning ducts 186-200
square leaders 496 apple corer 347
Mansard roof, how to estimate 658 bath tub 399 411
,
Measuring roofs 653 branch intersecting scalene cone and tran-
rough framing for sheet metal construction 664 sition piece 115
Measurement of lines 1 ,071 ,074
-1
bottom on bay window 1,009
solids 1,084-1,090 broken shaft 941
surfaces 1 ,074-1 ,084
canopy in parabolic reflector 282
Mensuration 1 ,071 -1 ,090
center funnel oval to round 429
Metal bending of skylight bars 794-807
child's bath tub 406
boat patterns 1 ,01 3-1 ,038 clothes sprinkler 351
pan for tin bath 739 coffee pot 401
Metallic extension skylights 824 colander 380
Method of building skylights 821 combination measure and funnel 434
supporting sheet metal flues 34 compound curved reducing elbow 190
Milk bucket, pattern for 41
tapering elbow Ill
strainer, pattern for 388 twisted elbow 468
Miter at different angles, pattern for 949 concave furnace top 163
Mitering a dormer against a dome 1 ,000 spiral conveyor 279
Miters of moldings of different projection 945 copper stove reservoir 368
Molded conductor heads, square type 531 diamond boss 274
gutteron brick wall 565 dissimilar molding 913
Moldings mitering against concave conical tower. 1,003 double elbow 333
Mortar saw 780 offset in square leader 475
drinking cup 344
drum elbow 138
fop 145
dustpan 389
Notcher, roofing type 638 eave trough miter at any angle 61
Notching collar 139 elbow 180
mitering against soffit of winding chute 244

Oblong to round Y>pattern

o with round pipe
double
flaring articles
offset
41
5
384
38 measure with lip 396
Observations on roofs 670 flour sifter 353
 4

Pattern for — (continued) Pattern for — (continued)

forge hood 84 strainer 352
four pronged fork 215 sun panels 924
funnel, perpendicular at one end 430 sunburst 919
furnace boot 167 tapering elbow 32
pipe fitting 155 fork 92
garbage chute 276 panel 916
gusset sheet 437 pipe intersecting two cylinders 201
gutter miter on hipped roof 616 three pieced transition elbow having an offset . 8
miters on roof of different pitch 610 way branch 88, 119
hand scoop 348 tin basins . 381
helical curve about cylinder 103 churn 395
tapering pipe 204 transition piece intersecting cone 231
horizontal molding intersecting a tapering post 927 of peculiar form 259
ice cream mold 369 elbow
twisted transition 107
intersecting elliptical cones 300 two-pieced coal hod 415
pipes 121 tumbler drainer 371
tapering elbows 126 valley bar 858
intersection between cylinder and transition wash boiler 419
piece 251 cover 420
irregular boss 317 watering pot 361
pieced elbows 79 Y-oblong to round 38
tee joint 320 Peanut heater, patterns for 376
leader head 516 Pediment chart 951
locomotive cab rain shield 11 elevation of 955
milk bucket 413 on horizontal molding 954
strainer 388 Peening edge into gutter flange 696
miters of gutter molding 61 3 Pent house, copper siding for 728
oblique elbow in square pipe 465 Pentagon, construction of 1,046
octagonal cornucopia 932 Perfect elbow pattern 180
octagon conductor 452 Perpendicular to straight line 1,039
offset boot 150 Perspective view 901
round to oval 170 Pieced elbow patterns 35
oval funnel 423 Pipe branch patterns 22
pudding pan 408 fork, oval and rectangular 95
pan 372 inserting furnace top 157
pieced elbows 35 work, reducing offset 93
pipe branch with its two parts joined 22 Pitch of gutters 564
rain water cut-off 449 roof, definition of 664
raised basin 404 Pitched roof, simple form of 656
raking eave trough 618 with four hips 656
range canopy 140 Plan and elevation of conical spire 662
rectangular duct 48 mansard roof 658
funnel 432 of square roof 654
furnace hood and deflector 164 Points on conductors 491
offset 186 roof connections 491
refrigerator pan 345 Pole hook 828
reinforced boss 442 Polygon, area of 1,078
731 construction of 1,046
roof flange
room air diffuser 113 Projections 901
sand sprinkler 356 kinds of 901
Properties of the circle 1,090
scale scoop 347
and stand 354 Protection of tin roofs against lightning 508
sheet iron forge hood 86 Prow piece of boat 1 ,01

ship ventilating cowl 130 Pudding pan, pattern for 408

ship's ventilator 269 Punching sheet iron 64
side of boiler breeching 21 Puttyless skylights 849
side of elbow 241
sink drainer
soil pipe connection
sponge bath
407
438
392 Quantity of tin for roofs
Q 710-712
spiral conveyor 322
inside of cone 289
spout
hopper
448
265
R
sprinkling can 364 Rain shield pattern for locomotive 11
stove oioe connection 173 water cut-off 449. 512
Raised basin, pattern For 404 Round and rectangular piping, weight of 59
Raising oF skylights 829 to oval elbow 183
Raking baluster, pattern For 991 offset boot 170
eave troughs, pattern for 618 square twisted elbow pattern 222
moldings 956-985 Rules for making elbow patterns 443
Range canopy patterns 140 Running a tin roof over a fire wall 715
Receptacle For acid 508
Rectangle, construction oF 1 ,052
how to construct
Rectangular and oval pipe Fork
1 ,057
95
s
round piping, weight of 59 Sand sprinkler patterns 356
double offset 194 Sash gearing 828
duct construction 48 Scale scoop and stand patterns 354
patterns, twisted type 187 pattern 347
Funnel, pattern for 432 with funnel end 379
Furnace hood and deflector patterns 164 Scalene cone and cylinder intersection 309
offset in air conditioning duct 186 elbow intersection 1
vedge, volume of 1 ,084 elliptical pipe, intersection of 296
Reducing offset in pipe work 93 transition piece patterns 115
Refrigerator pan, patterns for 345 Scaffolds and ladders, storing of 639
Register box, hopper type 147 Scaffold bracket, adjustable type 649
Regular polygon, construction of 1,046 Seam caps 771
Reinforced boss, pattern for 442 Seams, how to repair 623
Remarks on roof leaks 767 in air ducts 182
Repairing burst seams 623 strength of 510
tin roofs 769 Section of double pitch skylights 823
Revolving bench for tinner's machines 424 typical skylights 791
Ring, area of 1,081 Sector, area of 1,080
Rise of the arc 1 ,073 Segment of sphere, volume of 1,086
Rises for elbows 179 Single pitch skylights 789
Roof cleats for flat seam 705 Sheet iron, punching of 64
condensation trouble 773 work 74
connections 491 Sheet lead for roof flashings 724
drainage 501 metal boat development by tri angulation 1,027
flange for tall stacks 736 patterns 1,013-1,038
pattern of 731 canoe 1,022
flanges for soil pipes 735 conservatory front 898
making of 732 flue support 34
leaks, remarks on 767 mortar saw 780
mansard type, how to estimate 658 roofing patterns 653-784
outlet for inside drain pipe 543 line, paint for 764
painting 762 Short rule for chimney base 137
patch, fastening of 772 developing patterns 100
pitch 664 Simple form of pitched roof 656
scraper 771 Single leader roof 547
with single leader 547 Sink drainer, pattern for 407
Roofer's elevator 782 Ship ventilating cowl patterns 130
Roofing, canvas type 758 Skeg, pattern of 1,023
cleat bender 777 Skylight and louvres pattern layouts 785-900
copper, square end type 680 built-in type 817
ladder 778 calculation 845-849
notcher 638 chart 841
of large dome 709 condensation outlet tubes 822
on concrete base 623 construction details 818
slate type, how to lay 641 cross bar construction 830
tin type 666 details at side curb 819
tools. 771-784 top curb 820
Roofs, amount of tin required 710 of bottom curb 819
hip type, how to estimate 656 cross clip 820
measurement of 653 terrace curb 820
observations on 670 double pitch type 821
paints foiv 760 erection of 821
Room air diffuser pattern 113 extension type 825
Rosin roof sedms 639 Bat type
scraper —*

spreader for seams

780
675
gable end type
gearing
785, 791
821
828
Skylight — (continued) Sun panel patterns
Sunburst pattern
924
919
gloss, cleaning of 891
expansion of 892 Support and brace for gutters 597
replacement of 891 Supports for sheet metal flues 34
irregular shaped 831
layout of ^92
opening of 829
operating gearing
plans of
829, 878
843
T
pointers on 860
T-joint patterns 134
section of 791
Table giving relation of foot and inches 1,073
single pitch 789
showing capacity of tanks 513
sloping type 834
Tables, giving quantity of tin for roofs 710-712
valley 857
Tangent to a given circle from any given point. ... 1 ,048
vent neck 850
circle from a given point in the circumference. . .1,045
work, details of 839
Tangents to a circle from a given point without.. . .1,050
Slant height *1
/082
Tanks, capacity of 51 3
Slate roofing, laying of 641
Tapering elbow in square pipe 124
Slaters adjustable scaffold bracket 649
patterns 32
Sleeves for steam pipes 40
fork patterns 92
Sloping type skylight 834
panel, pattern for 916
Smoke stack, collar and flange tor 732
pipe intersecting two cylinders 201
flashing for 730
Tar and gravel roofs, laying of 755
making and erection of 13
Tee-joint, irregular type 320
Snow guard gutter. 552
Temporary patch on tin roof 768
Soil pipe connection, pattern for 438
Tetrahedron 1 ,087
Soil pipes, roof flanges for 735
Thawing, frozen conductors 503
Soldered seams in copper roofing 743
Three-piece elbow oval to round 183
Soldering trough 511
patterns 8
upright seam 687
Three way branch pattern 88
Solid irregular 1 ,086
Tin basins, patterns for 381
Special sheet metal layouts 201-342
bath burner 739
Specification for tin roof 667
churn patterns 395
Spiral conveyor pattern 279, 322
how to square 425
how to construct 1 ,064
requirement for roofs 710
inside of cone, patterns for 289
roof repairing 769
Sponge bath, patterns for 392
specification 667
Spout hopper, pattern of 265
roofing 666
pattern 448
Tinner's machines 424
Sprinkling can patterns 364
Tinning edges of copper sheets for roofing 739
Square and circle, comparison of 1,080
To circumscribe a square around a circle 1,059
end roofing copper 680 a square on a given base
construct 1 ,056
equal in area to any number of given squares.. .
1 ,053 an ellipse when two axes are given 1,062
parallelogram 1 ,053 describe a circle passing through three given
how to calculate 1 ,074 points 1,045
construct 1 ,056 divide a line into a number of equal parts 1,042
leader, double offset pattern 475 draw a square around a circle 1 ,057
leaders, making of *. 496 tangent to a given circle from any given point ,048
. 1
molded conductor heads 531 draw an oval 146
roof, plan of 654 find circular area of cylinder 1,081
calculation 845-849 area of circle sector 1,080
shaft, mitering on cone 914 rise of an arc ,074
1
to round twisted elbow patterns 222 slant area of cone ,081
1
square taper 188 volume of cone 1,085
with given diagonal, how to construct 1,052 cylinder 1,085
Squaring tin 425 inscribe a circle in a square 1,057
Standing seam roof around smoke stack 703 triangle 1,059
Star, six pointed 902 an octagon in a circle 1,062
Steam pipe sleeves 40 pentagon in a circle 1,059
Storing of scaffolds and ladders 639 polygon in a circle 1,058
Stove pipe connection, patterns for 173 Torch pad for paint burning 771
radiators 142 Tower skylights 870
Strength of seams 510 Transition elbow patterns 107
Straight boot from oblong to round 153 Transitional elbow, rectangle to rectangle 199
patterns 153 piece and scalene cone intersection 115
Strainer pattern 352 intersecting cone, patterns of 231
Suggestions for laying slate roofing 641 Trapezium, area of 1.077
 3

Triangle, calculations 845-849 Vedge, volume of 1,084

construction 1 ,051 Vent pipes, roof flanges for 735
equilateral, how to construct 1,055 Ventilating cowl pattern 130
how to find sides of 1 ,072
Ventilator 880
True angle in conductor pipe 451
for ship, patterns of 269
flaring object, how to find 99
Volume of cone 1,085
angles in blower connections 63
cylinder 1,085
Tumbler drainer pattern 371
cylindrical ring 1,089
Turret part of skylight 874
geometrical figures 1,089
skylight 875
irregular solid 1 ,086
corner view 876
rectangular vedge 1 ,084
sectional view 876
segment of sphere 1,086
Twisted rectangular duct patterns 187
transition elbow pattern 107 Volute, how to construct 1,064
offset for rectangular pipe 197
Two-parts pipe branch patterns 22
Two-piece sheet metal boat
Two-way offset twisted duct
Typical skylight, section of
1 ,01
198
791

Wash boiler cover, pattern for

w 419, 420
u Water spreader
Watering pot, patterns
for steep roof 545
361
Universal joint 828
Use of paper under tin roofs 705 Weight of piping 59
Wells, capacity of 513

v
Valleys in skylight construction 857
Wire
Wood
cutter
frame for assembling of skylights
Working heavy sheet iron
427
810
74
Various forms of autter construction 577 Wrought iron, how to work 19
 SECTION I

(Pages 1 -200)

HEATING AND AIR CONDITIONING

DUCT PATTERNS
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns i

PATTERNS OF INTERSECTION BETWEEN ELBOW

AND SCALENE CONE
In Fig. 1 is shown a piece of pipe work, the patterns for which are here

developed. This illustration shows two 20-inch elbows connected to two boilers.
The elbow A connects to a 20-inch smoke pipe. By means of a transition or

scalene cone B the smoke pipe is enlarged to 28 inches in diameter. Into this
scalene cone B elbow C connects. For the pattern for the intersection between
the elbow and the pipe A, see “Pattern
Smoke Pipe
for Elbow Mitering with Round Pipe’
’

'S
on page 41 of this book.
For the pattern for the elbow join-
ing the scalene cone B, proceed as is

shown in Fig. 2, in which first draw

the elevation of the pieced elbow, as is
Sketch of the Problem
shown by A B C D, and the profile M.
Draw the scalene cone W V J S and the cylinder T W V U as shown. As only
one section of the elbow H I J K miters with the cone, the problem merely con-
sists of the intersection of a cylinder with a scalene cone. Should, however, two
sections of the elbow miter with the cone, which would occur if the elbow had more
pieces, the same principles as those which would follow would be employed.
Directly below the side elevation draw the plan. Extend J V in elevation
until it intersects S T to T. Then will T be the apex of the scalene cone shown
in plan by X. Divide the half plan A C X into an equal number of spaces,
1 1

as shown by the small figures 6 to 12. From these draw lines to the apex X.
The elbow will not cut any deeper into the cone than between 7 and 8 in plan,
therefore at right angles to X A1 and from points 7 and 8, erect lines intersecting
,

S J in elevation at 7 and 8. From these draw lines to T.

Now divide the profile M into an equal number of parts by the small figures,
from which at right angles to A B draw lines intersecting the miter line G F at
2, Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

2, 3 and 4. Parallel to G H and from these points draw lines intersecting the

miter line H I. Then again parallel to H K draw lines crossing the miter line

K J and the radial lines T 6, T 7 and T 8 of the cone, as shown.

The next step is to obtain horizontal sections through the scalene cone on the
lines 2 2', 3 3' and 4 4', which proceed as follows
for : From the intersections,
where the line 2 2' of Jie elbow crosses the radial lines T 6, T 7 and T 8 of the
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 3

cone, drop lines parallel to W S, intersecting X 6, X 7, X 8, which are similar

radial lines in plan. Trace a line through the points thus obtained shown by 2"
2”, which will represent the half horizontal section on 2 2' in elevation. In
similar manner obtain the section line 3" 3" in plan, representing the horizontal
section on 3 3' in elevation :
1" 4" represents the horizontal section on 4 4'.

As the center line of the elbow comes directly in the center of the cone, as
shown in plan, one half plan is all that is necessary in practice. Extend the center
line of the cone X A as shown by X Y upon which place the half profile of M
1

shown by M ldvide M into the same number of spaces as contained in one half
1
.
1

of M. As 1 and 5 in elevation represent the top and bottom of the elbow re-
spectively, the figures 1 and 5 are placed in the position shown in plan in M 1

and still represent the top and bottom. As the 1 and 5 in M intersect the cone
at top and bottom respectively, then must the points 1 and 5 in plan intersect
the top and bottom respectively of the cone in plan, as shown by 1° and 5°.

As the points 2, 3 and 4 of the profile M intersect the section lines in ele-

vation 2 2', 3 3' and 4 4' respectively, then must the lines drawn from the points
2, 3 and 4 in the profile M 1
in plan parallel to X Y, intersect the section lines
2" 2", 3" 3" and 4" 4", respectively at points 2°, 3° and 4°. Trace a line through
intersections thus obtained, as shown by 1° 2° 3° 4° and 5°, which will represent

the line of joint in plan between the elbow and the cone. For the miter line, or
line of joint in elevation, draw lines at right angles to X Y in plan, from the in-

tersections 1° to 5° intersecting similar numbered lines in the elbow in elevation

x r X X
as shown by points of intersections, l ,
2 ,
3 ,
4* and 5 . Through these points
draw the miter line V J.

The patterns for the two upper sections of the elbow are drawn in the usual
manner. For that of the lower section take a tracing of H I J V and place it in
Fig. 3 as shown by 1 l
1
5 1
5. Draw the stretchout line A B and obtain the
pattern C I) E F in the usual manner. For the pattern for the scalene cone
proceed as follows : Take a tracing shown by J S of J S W V and place it as W
V in Fig. 4. Also take a tracing of the half plan in Fig. 2 and place it as shown
by similar figures in Fig. 4, reversing it, as shown. Parallel to J S in Fig. 2 and
from the intersections 1* to 5 X draw lines intersecting the vertical line W S at 1, 2,

3, 4 and Take these various hights on

6. S and place them on S in Fig. 4, W W
as shown. Extend S W
and J V until they intersect at T, which is the apex in
elevation; 12 represents the apex in plan. Then using 12 as center draw arcs in-
tersecting 12 6 in plan, as shown. From these points at right angles to 12 6 draw
lines intersecting S J at 6', 7', 8', 9', 10', IT and 12'. Draw lines to the apex T.
4 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

Fig, 4. Developing Pattern and Opening of Scalene Part

 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 5

Next using the apex T as a center draw the arcs 6' 6 7' 7", 8' ", 8", 9' 9", 10'

10", 11' 11" and 12' 12", as shown. Set the dividers equal to one of the spaces

into which the half plan is divided, and starting from 12 on the arc 12' 12", step
from one arc to another, having similar numbers, thus obtaining the points 12 to
6 to 12, through which draw the curve shown. From 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 7, 8,

9, 10, 11 and 12, draw lines to the center T. Using T as a center, and radii
equal to the various intersections on WV draw arcs, intersecting similarly num-
bered radial lines in the pattern, as shown, through which draw the curved line
A D. Then will A B C D be the pattern for the scalene cone.

For the opening to be cut in the cone proceed as follows : Through the inter-
sections 2°, 3° and 4° in the plan in the miter line, draw lines to the apex 12,

extending them until they intersect the semicircle at 2, 3 and 4 respectively.

Then using 12 as a center, describe arcs intersecting the center line 12 6 as shown.
At right angles to 12 6, and from these intersections draw lines intersecting S J
at 2', 3' and 4'. From these points draw lines to T. It will be noticed that the
points 1° and 5° in plan intersect the line W V at l x , and the line S J at 5 X ,
respectively.
At right angles to S T and from the intersections 2, 3 and 4 on W S, draw
lines intersecting the radial lines T 2', T 3' and T 4', as shown at 2
X
,
3 X
and 4X .

Take the distance from 7 to 4 in plan and place it on the curved line B C in
pattern, as shown from 7 to 4 on both sides. In similar manner take the dis-
tances from 7 to 2 and 8 to 3 in plan, and place them on the curved line B C of
the pattern, as shown from 7 to 2 and 8 to 3 respectively on both sides. From
the points 3, 2, 4 and 4, 2, 3 on the curved line B C, draw lines to the apex T,
which intersect with arcs drawn from 2 X 3 X and 4 X using T as center, thus ob-
, ,

taining the intersections in the pattern 2T 3 T 4T on either side. ,

Trace a line
, ,

through points thus obtained as shown by the shaded portion, which will be the
required opening.

PATTERNS FOR ELBOW WITH DOUBLE OFFSET

To obtain patterns for a double elbow, as shown in elevation in Fig. 5, the
vertical hight of which is equal to a b and the offset equal to c d, the profiles of
the pipes being oblong with semicircular ends, proceed as follows:
In work of this kind it is not necessary to draw the foreshortened elevation
shown by e a. All that is required is the plan view, from which an oblique
 6 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

elevation is drawn, as shown in Fig. 6, in which C represents the profile of the

upper elbow and D a similar profile for the lower elbow, the offset between the two
being equal to the distance B. Connect the two profiles by the lines E and F,
which completes the plan view, from which the
oblique elevation of the elbow is drawn at right
angles to the plan line E as shown by the pieces
I to V, the vertical hight of the elbow being equal
to the distance A. Care should be taken in draw-
ing the oblique elevation of the elbow to have
all angles and miter lines alike, so that the
pattern cut for one piece will answer for all five.
Now through the centers a and b oi the semi-
circular ends in the profile D draw lines at right
angles to the flat sides of the profile D, as shown
by 6, 10 and 1, 5. Then divide the semicircular
ends into equal parts as shown by the small
figures 1 to 10. At right angles to the plan lines
Fig. 0. Sketch Submitted
E or F> from the small figures 1 to 10 in D erect
shown by similar numbers. Extend
lines until they intersect the first miter line as
the line X H in elevation as shown by J K, upon which place the stretchout of
the profile D as shown by similar numbers 1 to 10 to 1. Through these small
figures at right angles to J K draw lines indefinitely as shown, which intersect by
lines drawn parallel to J K from similar numbered intersections on the miter line

in elevation. Trace a line through points thus obtained, then will 1 L M 1 be the
pattern for piece I, also the miter cut for all the other pieces.
To obtain the balance of the patterns from one piece of metal without waste,

proceed as follows: As the outline of the elbow in elevation is in line with points
2 and 7 in the profile D, then upon lines drawn from 2 and 7 in the pattern must
the measurements be placed. Therefore at right angles to J K from points 2 and 7
draw lines indefinitely as shown. Now take the distance from 7 to 7 in elevation '

and place it 2 in the pattern as shown by ij. In a similar manner take

on line
the distance from 2 to 2 in elevation and place it on line 7 from c to d Next
'

take a tracing of the miter cut L i c M, reverse it so that the points i and c will
come upon j and d, and obtain the miter cut O j d N. Then will L M N O be the
pattern for piece II.
Take the distance in elevation of either 7' 7" or 2' 2", as they are both alike,
because the miter lines run parallel to each other, and place it as shown from
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 7

j to k and d to e in the pattern, and O j d N, having j d come

trace the miter cut
on k e without reversing the cut, and obtain the miter cut P R. Then will
N O P R be the pattern for piece III.

Next take the distances from 2" to 2* and from 7" to 7 a in elevation and place
them as shown in the pattern, from e to /and k to l respectively, and trace the miter
cut P k e R, reversing it so that k and e will come over l and j and obtain the cut
T S. Then will PRST be the pattern for piece IV.
 :

8 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

Finally take the distances from 2 s to 2 b and 7 a to 7 b in elevation and place

them shown respectively from l to m and f to h and draw a line
in the pattern as

through these two points m and h until it is intersected bylines erected from points
1 and 1 in the pattern. Then S T U V is the pattern for piece V.
It should be noted that these patterns are net —that no allowance has been
is

made along the miter cuts for seaming or riveting. In practice the amount of this
edge must be added to the various pieces parallel to the miter cut.

PATTERNS FOR THREE- PIECED TRANSITION ELBOW

HAVING AN OFFSET
For the pattern of a round to an oval three-pieced elbow with regular 45
degree backset, the transition to be in the middle section and oval section to be
offset, proceed as follows
In Fig. 7 are shown several of the conditions laid down. The length of the
oval profile X is equal to the diameter of the round profile Y. The first step is to
draw a proper side elevation of the elbow as follows: On a horizontal line, A C,
set off the distance of the throatA B and the diameter of the round pipe B C.
From A erect the perpendicular line A E equal to A C, and using A as a center
draw the quadrants B D and C E. From B and C erect perpendicular lines
and from D and E draw horizontal lines. Intersect these by the two lines drawn
tangent to the quarter circles at a and b at angles of 45 degrees. Draw the
miter lines 6 1 and 6' T and this completes the side elevation of the elbow.

In line with E D draw the profile X of the oval pipe, and in line with B C
the profile of the round pipe Y. Divide both semicircles in both the oval profile
X and round profile Y into similar number of parts as shown. From the various
divisions 1 to 10 in the profile X draw lines at right angles to E D, or parallel
to E 6, until they cut the miter line 6 1 from 1 to 10. Extend the line D E as
H upon which place the girth of one half the profile X as shown by the small
J,

figures 1 to 6 on H J. From these small figures at right angles to J H draw

lines which intersect by lines drawn parallel to H J from similar numbered

intersections on the miter line 1 6. Trace a line through intersections thus

obtained ; then will 6 6" 1" 1 be the half pattern for the oval pipe, with seams at
1 and 6 in profile X.
"
If the full pattern is desired with seam at 1, then reverse K
on the line 6 6.
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 9

From the various intersections in Y erect vertical lines at right angles to B C

until they cut the miter line 1' 5' as shown. To obtain the pattern for the round
pipe erect any vertical line, as B C
1 1
,
and place the girth of one half the profile Y
as shown by the small figures on B C 1 1
. Through these small figures at right
c

angles to B C
1 1
draw lines indefinitely as shown. Measuring from the line B0 in
the side elevation take the various projections to points T to 5' and place them on
corresponding lines in L, measuring in each instance from the line B C
l 1
. A line
traced through points will be the half pattern for the 1'
round pipe with seams at
and 5' in plan. If the full pattern is desired with a seam at T in Y, then reverse
the pattern L opposite the line 5’ 5°.
 ;:

IO Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

To obtain the pattern for the middle transition piece a correct plan view must
first be drawn showing the horizontal section through the miter line 6 1 in eleva-

tion. From the point 3' in the profile Y draw the tangent line 3' F, which is
intersected at F by a perpendicular line dropped from D in the side elevation.

Take a tracing of the profile X and place it in the position shown by X 1

spacing it

in the same size divisions as in X. Through the various intersections in X 1

draw
horizontal lines, which intersect by vertical lines drawn from similar numbered
intersections on the miter line 6 1 in elevation, thus obtaining points 1 to 10 in
plan. A line traced through these intersections will represent the view looking
down of the miter line 6 1 in elevation. Connect by solid lines 1 in the miter

line to T in the profile Y ;

2 with 2'
;
3 with 3'
;
4 with 3'
;
5 with 4'
;
6 with 5'

7 with 6'; 8 with 7'; 9 with 7', and 10 with 8'. Draw dotted lines from T to 2;
2' to 3, and others as shown. Connect solid and dotted lines in elevation to cor-

respond as shown.
From the various intersections on the miter lines 6 1 and 5' T in elevation,
draw horizontal lines to the right indefinitely as shown, and proceed to construct
the true lengths as follows : For example, to find the true length of the solid line

1 1' in plan, take this distance and set it off on the horizontal line drawn from 1
T T
on the miter line 6 1 in elevation as shown from 1 to 1 ;
from 1 draw the per-
pendicular line until it intersects the horizontal line drawn from T on the miter
line 1' 5' in elevation at T. Draw a line from 1 to T in M, which will be the true
length of 1 T in plan, or elevation. To find the true length of the dotted
line 5 5’ in plan, set off this distance on
'

the horizontal line drawn from 5 in ele-

T
vation, as shown from 5' to 5 ,
and from
T
5 erect the vertical line until it inter-

f" sects the horizontal line drawn from 5 in

elevation at 5. Draw the dotted slant
line 5 5' in M, which is the true length of
5 5' in plan or elevation. In this man-
ner are all the true lengths of the solid

Fig. 8. Pattern for Transition Piece

and dotted lines found.
In laying out the pattern for the
transition piece no sections will be necessary on the miter lines 6 1 and T 5' in
elevation, as the true distances along the miter lines will be taken from the
miter cuts in diagrams K and L. The transition piece is developed as follows
Assuming that the seam is to come on 1 T, in plan or elevation, then take the
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns II

true length of 1 1' in M and place it as shown in N, Fig. 8. Now with 1" 2" in

K as radius, and 1 in N as center, describe the arc 2, which intersect by an arc

struck from 1' as center and the true length of the dotted line T 2 in M as radius.
With 1° 2° in L as radius and 1' in N as center, describe the arc 2', which intersect
by an arc struck from 2 as center and the true length of the solid line 2 2' in M‘ as
radius. Proceed in this manner using alternately first the divisions in the miter
cut in K, then the true lengths of the dotted slant lines in M ;
the divisions in the
miter cut in L, then the true lengths of the solid slant lines in M, until the line
6 5’ in N has been obtained. Then using similar divisions in K and L ( as the
opposite halves of these patterns are similar) proceed to complete the pattern N to

1 1'. Trace a line through points thus obtained; then will 16 11" 5' T be the
full pattern for the transition piece.

PATTERN FOR LOCOMOTIVE CAB RAIN SHIELD

To lay out a pattern for a rain water shield to lie on top of the back end of a
locomotive cab, its object being to protect the fireman while coaling the boiler, as
shown by Fig. 9, it is suggested that if the locomotive is already built, a template
be made of a combination of light sheet iron and strips of wood. This template
must fit over the roof of the cab, thereby obtaining its outline. From this template

the half end elevation of the cab can be

Shield
drawn on paper. The shape of the upper
Roof Bach edge of the shield may be drawn as
fancy dictates.
For large drawings the sketching of a
profile is, of course, accomplished most
readily by the use of white chalk. After
u acquiring an outline that pleases, it can
Fig. 9. Sketch Showing Locomotive Cab Rain Shield
be drawn in with the lead pencil and the
chalk brushed off. Of course, if the outline of the cab is to be ascertained from a
scale drawing, it can be drawn by means of a trammel to the radii stipulated by the
scale drawing; and it is not likely that these radii will be of a length to preclude
trammels.
Having the end and side elevation as shown in Fig. 10, for the pattern, divide
the outlines of the cab and shield into equal parts —the shield from point V 6.

From V 6 to Z 6 divide again into equal spaces. Connect 1 to 1 and W, X and Y

to Z 6, Also connect O R to 1, etc.; with dotted lines.
 ia Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

The true lengths of the hypotenuses of the system of triangles, of which these
lines are the bases, are learned by drawing a horizontal line and erecting a perpendicular
line to it, on which is placed
the altitude of the triangles
( constant in all ) or the dis-
tance A B of side elevation.
From B in the diagram of
triangles, shown at the top
of Fig. 10, and to the left,

place the spaces in end ele-

vation of Z 6 to Y, X, W
and V 6, also 5 to 5, etc.
And to the right the spaces
O R to 1, etc.

The pattern is laid out

by drawing any line of a
length equal to 0 A of the

diagram of triangles or A C
of the side elevation; this
line is indicated by 0 0 R
of the half pattern. With
the compasses set to 0 RA
(OR 1) of the diagram of
Fig. 10. Method of Obtaining Pattern for Rain Shield

dotted triangles, strike an arc, using the end of the line 0 R of the pattern for a
center. This arc is intersected by one struck from 0 as a center and of a length
coinciding with 0 1 of the outline of the shield. From this point of ihtersection,

1, as a center, strike an arc equal to A of the diagram of solid triangles, which

1

is intersected by an arc from 0 R equal to 0 R 1 of the outline of the cab roof,

all as shown.
Continue in this fashion until V 6, Z 6 is obtained, then from Z 6 as a center
strike arcs of the length of Z 6, W, Z 6, X, etc., of the diagram. With the divid-
ers set to the space, in the end elevation, Z Y, etc., step off, beginning at V 6, this

space on these arcs. A line traced through these points will give one half of the
pattern.
In all probability this shield will be made of heavy iron, and therefore the
thickness of the metal should be allowed for, proportionally, in the spaces, and a
riveting edge along 0 R Z 6 and Z to Z 6.
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 13

BENDING HEAVY PLATE STEEL TO ARC OF A CIRCLE

In Fig. 1 1 the points A and B are the edges showing the flat parts usually pres-
ent when heavy plates are passed through rollers of large size, if the edges are not
first turned to the sweep of the circle desired by using a heavy wooden maul for the
^purpose. It is almost impossible to make a per-
fect curve by this method, even if done by skillful

Fig. 11 . Showing Curve With Flat Ends workmen. A method by which to accomplish the
result desired, without the use of a maul or other
treatment of the plate before it is formed in the
rollers, is as follows : Place the steel plate to be
rolled between two plates of a heavier gauge
in themanner shown in Fig. 12. The three plates
are shown in the position they bear to each other
during the process of forming. The heavier plates
must be of the length of the plate that is to
be formed and of sufficient width to project beyond
the side edges of it a distance somewhat greater than
Fig. 12. Manner of Rolling the
Plate to Circular Shape from the points
.

A and B of the plate shown m

Fig. 1 1 to the edges. When rolling the plates, the outside or heavier plates only
will be flattened at the start and finish, while the center or lighter plate will form
up perfect to the sweep to which the rolls are set.

MAKING AND ERECTING A SMOKESTACK

The subject of this article is an ordinary smokestack, and every operation
necessary for its production and erection will be set forth in consecutive order exactly
as it would be executed for a job of this kind.
As the metal man is seldom called upon to determine the size of such a stack
the ratio of area and hight of flue to grate area, etc. ,
will be passed over and it will

be assumed that a 16-inch black iron stack, with oblong base 10 X 26 inches, is
wanted, using No. 16 30 X 120-inch stock, and that it fits on a cast iron collar on
top of the smoke box, extends through the boiler house roof, and is secured in a
vertical position by three guy rods.
The first thing necessary is a sketch drawn to about %-inch scale, showing an
elevation and plan of the stack, as in Figs. 13 and upon which to mark the
14,
dimensions, etc., for ready reference and to show at a glance just what is to be done.
 14 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

Next in order are full size details from which to develop the patterns. Therefore
draw one-fourth of the plan of the base joint, as in Fig. 15. It is necessary to draw
the full -size oblong base profile longer than the finished size will be in order to
allow for drawing in the metal at the outer ends to fit the vertical collar on the

Fig. 14 Fig. 18
Laying out Pattern for the Base Section of a Smokestack

boiler. As Fig. 13 has been drawn to scale, this difference is quickest ascertained
by setting off the full hight of the boiler collar from the bottom of Fig. 13, inter-
secting the sloping side of the base joint, as at a. From a drop a perpendicular to
the base line, as a 6 ;
then b 2 of Fig. 15 should equal 6 c of Fig. 13. This only
applies of course where the flare of the base and hight of collar are not too great to
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 15

admit of drawing in the metal sufficiently, as otherwise it is necessary to provide

the base joint with a separate straight collar piece to fit over the boiler collar.

From o 2 in Fig. 15 draw a perpendicular, o d, equal to the straight hight of

the base joint. (All pattern lines are net butt or rivet lines, and all laps are added
to patterns afterward. ) Space the top and bottom profiles of the base joint, as in-

dicated in Fig. 15 by 1, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, respectively, and from the

point o set off on 0 2 the several distances 1 2, 1 3, 3 4, 4 5, etc., as indicated.

The dotted lines of Figs. 15, 16, 17 and 18 indicate the usual method of developing
the pattern by triangulation, but while it is necessary to keep the lines in mind it

is unnecessary to actually draw any of the dotted triangulation lines, as the solid
lines and points thereon aro all that are needed to give spacings or dimensions.
To develop the half pattern of the base joint, proceed as indicated by Fig. 18.
The spacings 1 2, 1 3, 3 4, etc., of Fig. 18 of course equal the distances from
corresponding points on o 2 to d, Fig. 15, the spacings 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 of Fig. 18

equal corresponding spacings in the oblong profile of the base, Fig. 15, and spacings
1, 4, 6, 8, 10 of Fig. 18 equal like spacings in top or round end of Fig. 15.

The rivets in a stack of this size and gauge should be about 10 pound in size,
spaced about 2 inches apart. The holes should be about 1-16 inch larger than the
rivets to allow for inaccurate matching, and the rivets should be of sufficient length

to allow for enough upsetting to completely fill the holes and provide good heads.
The next step is the development of the pattern of the round joints. Each
joint is a frustum of a cone, being so tapered that the bottom of each joint fits over

the top of the one below it, at the same time maintaining a uniform general diameter
throughout the round portion of the stack.

As the angle of taper is so slight and the converging radius is consequently so

great as to make it inconvenient, if not impractical, to describe the pattern as frus-
tum patterns are usually struck —from a center— it is necessary to describe the arcs
of the pattern without recourse to a center. Fig. 19 shows the proportionate shape
of the pattern, but in order tomore clearly illustrate the principles underlying its
development the taper of the joint and consequently the curve of pattern arcs are
exaggerated, as indicated in Figs. 20, 21 and 22, the actual taper necessary being
about 3-16 inch, or the proportion shown in Fig. 13. In Fig. 20 a c d f represents
an elevation of a joint turned upside down ;
e b is the center line and represents the
straight hight; a c the diameter of the large end and / d the diameter of the small
end. The arc a g c is developed as follows :

With the dividers locate j so that its perpendicular distance from line d c will
equal its distance from b from d c, perpendicularly through/, intersect center line,
;
 ; ;

16 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

establishing g ;
draw the straight line g c ;
draw a line through j across and perpen-
dicular to g c; locate k, so that its perpendicular distance from d c will equal its

distance from j from d

perpendicularly through k intersect j J, establishing/;
c,

draw l c ;
through k draw a line across and perpendicular to l c locate o so that its
perpendicular distance from d c will equal its distance from m ;
from d c, perpen-
dicularly through q, intersect k m, establishing p draw and bisect a g
; ;
draw a per-

Shape and Development of Pattern of Base Section of Smokestack

pendicular through point of bisection q make q v equal to j l; with a radius equal

;

to J p strike arcs on each side of and with J and q as centers, intersecting

g c and
g a ;
from lines g c and g a set off on these arcs the distance y p, establishing u, x
and w. A line traced through awvxgulpc is the true curve of the large end
of the pattern. The curve end is obtained by striking arcs from the
of the small
large curve with radius equal to a f or c d and tracing a line through the same.
There is now a trifle less that one-third of the pattern. The full size stretchout
is obtained by starting from a d and shifting and duplicating, as indicated by Fig.

21. The pattern piece should be shifted three times. Obtain the circumference of
the large end of the pipe by multiplying its diameter by 3. 1416, and measure it off
 )

Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns *7

on a b, the larger curve of the pattern ;
now place the pattern piece on the pattern
with its outer curved edge coincident with the outer curve of the pattern and its
straight edge at the circumference indicating point and scribe the line b c. Then
abed is the net butt or rivet line of the pattern, to which a lap of % inch must
be added all around.
Fig. 22 is not used in practice, but is shown here merely to make clear the
principles by which the arc a g c of pattern piece, Fig. 20, is developed. It will

be seen that when A B 0 D is revolved around center e to the position of abed,

or until its center line is where its side line was, / g and h g are equal and that h a
equals the hight of the arc of which A B is the chord. The principle holds good
with any radius or size of cone section.
Fig. 23 is the pattern of top band d, Fig. 13, which is laid off directly on the
2 X 24 -inch band iron. It will be seen that only alternate rivet holes are used, and
that the lap of the band and the pipe seam are dodged by one rivet spacing. Fig.
24 shows the stack provided with a cap, the diameter of which is one and two-thirds
and the hight one-quarter those of the stack. The distance from the top of the
stack to the lower edge of the cap should equal one-half the diameter of the stack.
When a cap is used the band d need only be 2 X 34 inch, riveted only at the braces
t. These braces should extend down into the pipe about 6 inches and be secured
with a second rivet each. Fig. 25 is a section on C D of Fig. 24 and shows how
the braces, seam in pipe and lap band should dodge each other. Fig. 26 is a
of

pattern of the cap, which is quickest obtained by striking a circle with radius equal
to / g, Fig. 24, out of which take six times the difference between / g and h g, Fig.
24. To this should be added the laps. Space off rivet holes for braces e, as indicated.

Fig. 27 shows a pattern of 124 x yi-inch braces, e. Fig. 28 shows the 2X%-
inch guide rod strap, made in three pieces, secured together by 24 -inch bolts, which
also pass through eyes formed in the ends of the %-inch guide rods. It is only
necessary to lay out one-third of Fig. 28 full size to develop the straps (see Fig. 29.
Fig. 30 is a pattern of one piece of the strap. Fig. 31 shows how the eye should
be formed in the guide rods.
If the punch with which the rivet holes are to be made is provided with a center
point the rivet spacings of the pattern should be prick marked, or centered, only,
and the material be likewise pricked, or centered, from the pattern, but otherwise
the rivet holes in pattern should be accurately made with a punch about 1-16 inch
larger than the punch that will be used on the material and the holes carefully
scribed onto the work. Thus the thickness of scribe is allowed for, so that the circles
are about the size of the punch, making centering easier.
 i8 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

After cutting, punching and forming in the machine rolls, the next step is to
rivet the longitudinal seams in each joint separately. Next assemble the stack by
riveting a round joint to the base joint ;
then add round joints until the entire stack
is put together in one piece, which is possible in this case, the length being only
about 25 feet and weight not exceeding 300 pounds. In riveting together the joints
of such a stack a straight piece of railroad iron, firmly secured in a perfectly hori-
zontal position and projecting about 5 feet into the stack, makes a good mandrel.
Such a mandrel, together with an overhead track carrying a roller from which is

suspended a chain tackle for supporting the stack in a horizontal position, makes it

comparatively easy to rivet the joints together quickly and accurately.

In a job of this kind the accuracy of the patterns entirely governs the facility

with which the work can be put together, thus it is essential that the pattern be

made absolutely correct in every particular before any material is marked out.

When the stack is dry, after receiving two coats of black asphaltum paint, the sim-
plest way to set it up is as follows:
Provide one good man with three strong helpers, plenty of %-inch guide rope,
a block and tackle hoist and two strong 18-foot ladders. After delivery to building
the four men ean hoist the stack on the roof by hand ; next attach the strap and
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns *9

guide rods and lay the stack over the hole in the roof, with the hole about midway
of the stack. Now lay the ladders one on top of the other, tie the upper ends
together and secure the tackle and two guide ropes thereto. Raise the ladders to a
vertical position and spread the bottoms about 8 feet apart, locating them so that
the tackle will hang vertically over one side of the roof opening. Secure the lad-
ders in this lean-to upright position with the two guide ropes tied to the most
convenient hitchings. Wind a rope several times around the stack just above the
middle, form a slip noose and hang on the tackle. Hoist the stack until the lower
end can be inserted and lowered through the roof opening and connected with the
boiler. Now permanently secure the guide rods to convenient hitchings (previously
provided), ascend one of the ladders and disengage the rope from the stack, lower
the ladders and make the connection between the roof and stack, as described.

FACILITIES FOR WORKING WROUGHT IRON

A majority of the shops that do general sheet metal work find it necessary to
use and work a considerable quantity of bar and heavy sheet iron, but compar-
atively few are adequately equipped for such work. The average equipment con-
sists of a small forge, a vise, a brace bender, a hand punch, shear and drill, and,

possibly, a very small shallow throated power punch, all in more or less dilapidated
condition, and with the forge so located as to be inaccessible for heating any other
part than the ends of bars, etc.
This general failure to provide adequate facilities for economically turning out
this part of thework may be accounted for by the assumption that this branch is
not important enough to justify any considerable investment in machines or floor
space. It has been found that one large deep throated combination power punch

and shear, with plenty of dies, benders, shears, etc., is worth more than any number
of small inadequate tools without proper dies.
Some concerns make the mistake, of spending several hundred dollars for a
machine of ample power and throat capacity, and then fail to get all the attach-

ments that can be used to advantage with it. In one instance a certain concern took
a contract that required the punching of a considerable number of 1 % -inch holes
through J^-inch metal, and while they had a machine of sufficient capacity, the

l^j-inch punch and die were lacking, and, rather than spend the price of the same,
they chewed out the holes by using a small punch and punching a circular row of
holes, and then filed up the jagged edges, which cost more in extra labor than the
 — ;

ao Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

new punch, and did not produce accurate work. In another case a party made
%-inch square holes by punching %-inch round holes and squaring with a file.

In both of these cases the

parties argued that thay had such
little use for such dies that it would
not pay to buy or make them. At
the same time they spent their cost
in extra labor, which would have
been saved if the dies had been se-
cured and used. Moreover, they
would have been on hand ready
for any more of such work. It

pays to have every attachment that

can be used to any advantage on
any machine.
For a shop doing general cor-
nice work a machine of this kind
should have a capacity of cutting
Fig. 33.
3X3X34 -inch angle iron, which
An Ideal Machine for Working Wrought Iron
strength would also meet any
other shearing, punching and bending requirements in the construction of roofs,
curbing and any miscellaneous structural framing likely to be encountered by the
cornice makers. The principal attachments and tools needed are: Bar shears,

with gauge ;
splitting shears, with gauge ;
round iron shears ;
angle iron shears
punches, closely graduated from the largest to the smallest ever used, taking care
to keep on hand several sets of each size of the small punches and those sizes most
used, and any special punch such as square, oblong, slot shaped, etc. ,
likely to be

needed.
A special bending tool that has been found extremely useful in connection
with a power punch and shear is shown in the illustration, Fig. 32, which is a
broken side view of the machine, showing the bender in position, and Fig. 33,
which is a face view of the machine and bender. In order to use this tool the
dotted line portion d of the lower jaw, or bed, of the machine must be removable,
so that the bender can be placed directly under the plunger, or vertical acting
head, to which is bolted the upper inverted V-shaped die a, made of east iron.
The lower die consists of two members b and c. b is a stud about 2% inches
in diameter, hexagon shaped for about 1 inch at its lower end, which rests on the
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 21

ledge, from which the block d is removed, and is provided with a short tenon
which sockets into the ledge to keep the stud in place. C is of cast iron, into
which the stud b is threaded about 8 inches. It is provided with slotted flanges
on each side for bolting to the face of the machine bed, is tapered off in wedge
shape at its upper end and is finished with a hatchet shaped steel point, /.

It will be seen that by turning the stud b the member c can be raised or low-
ered, in order to produce any desired angle in bending, in the same way that one
member of a vertical acting cornice brake can be adjusted to produce any angle
when forming molded work. This bender bears the same relation to wrought iron
work, especially cornice braces, as compared to an ordinary brace bender, as the
upright cornice brake bears to cornice moldings, as compared to a hand brake.

PATTERN FOR SIDE OF BOILER BREECHING

This problem is of frequent occurrence and the following is an explanation of
how to lay out the pattern for the side of the breeching
against which the clean out door closes, opposite the flues
in a power boiler. Fig. 34 shows the boiler with the breech-
ing which leads to the smoke stack in position. In Fig. 35,
0 P in the front elevation represents the circumference of
the boiler, F B D the breeching and ABODE the clean
out door, while in the side elevation E' E 4 4' represents the
side of the breeching, which is represented in the front eleva-
tion by ABCD E. As the two halves are the same, it will

Fig. 84. View of Boiler be only necessary to find the pattern for the one C D E. half,
ami Breeching
Divide the curved part of the half front elevation C D E

into a number of equal parts, as shown by the small figures. From these points and
from the point E draw horizontal lines into the side elevation, intersecting the clean
out door and the side of the boiler, as shown
by similar letters and numbered points.

Then draw in Fig. 36 the stretchout line

C E, on which lay off the stretchout of C
D E in Fig. 35 in front elevation, as in-
dicated by similar letters and figures on Fig. 88. Laying Out the Pattern
the stretchout line in Fig. 36. Through these points draw lines perpendicular to C
E, send on the lay off the distances as obtained in the similarly numbered letters in
 ;

22 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

the side elevation. Draw lines through the points thus obtained. Then will C E
E' C' be the half pattern desired.

PATTERN FOR A PIPE BRANCH WITH ITS TWO

PARTS JOINED
Of the many problems submitted for solution in the pipe work, this is worthy
of especial consideration, by reason of it requiring the seams to be along the lines
a b and c d of Fig. —
37 and to have the pattern in halves one half of F and one
half of E in one piece. This condition as imposed does not complicate the pattern
on the contrary it simplifies it and what is more important it allows of great ease
in uniting the parts together. In the first figure are reproduced the inquirer’s
sketches asshown by the heavy lines, and for a clear conception of the article the
views were drawn complete. The developing of the patterns for this branch would
not be extraordinary, for part F is simply the frustum of a right cone intersected
by a scalene cone E, were it not that it is required that the seams be as aforesaid.
As the pattern line at the intersection would ordinarily be a curve, these two halves
of the pattern could not then be in one piece; hence the intersecting plane, the
Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns *3
 24 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

placed on the base line and from these points perpendiculars are erected of a length
coinciding with those of the profiles. The lines connecting correct points will be
the exact length of the lines shown in the side elevation, as 17 3 of E is true on
17 3 of the diagram of solid lines.
Since the lines 1 15 and 14 21 are indicated in their true lengths in the side
elevation and as the seams are wanted on those lines the pattern is started by
drawing anywhere a line equal to 1 15, as in Fig.

39, and from point 1 with compasses set to 1 16 of

diagram of dotted lines strike small arc and from
point 15 with bow dividers set to the space 15 16
prick off on the line just drawn, the point 16 ;
and
so on to 4 18. Then from 18, the various lines
of the diagram for this part are struck and then
stepped off with the bow dividers adjusted to 1 2.

Likewise B and 8 are struck from 18 and the

space 7 to B to 8 of the elevation set on these arcs.

The surface F is obtained in a similar way.

When forming up this pattern slight bends are made, in the same direction,
one line 18 to 7, another 18 to 8 and the third 18 to B, being reverse of the
curved parts.

ASCERTAINING MITER LINES OF ELBOWS IN DISCHARGE

PIPING OF CONVEYOR SYSTEM
One of the frequent requests received, is that for finding the true
angle in a change in direction in piping. In Fig. 40 is reproduced a sketch sub-
mitted by a correspondent, for the devel-
oping of the miter line and pattern for the
elbow of conveyor piping at the junction
of pipes A and B at C. He also desired
information as how to develop the cut of
the openings of the corrugated window
fills. To make it of utmost interest to
the other readers, miter lines and open-
all ^
Front Elevation
Fig. 40. Problem Submitted by Correspondent ingS are here developed.
The first essential in laying out work of this class is correct measurements of the
building, giving all data, such as the hight of ceiling, distance conveyor is from
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns *5

the windows or wall and the like. A plan and oftentimes two elevations are drawn
to a scale. In these various views the piping may be sketched in, as indicated
in Fig. 40.
With this information at hand, and knowing that in problems of this sort the

form of the object or objects is neglected for the time being, and only the center or
rather axial line utilized as working material.

Referring to Fig. 41, therefore, a line A B representing the conveyor in plan is

drawn. As the conveyor is parallel to the wall through which the piping passes,
another line as C D represents this wall. This line will not be the axial line of the
oblique pipe, inasmuch as the diameter of the pipe is to be taken into account.
Accordingly, another parallel line the distance away from the wall equal to the
a6 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

radius of the pipe is drawn, as E F. From the data the centers of the windows G
and H are located on line C D, also point I on the conveyor line. A line drawn
through points I and G from A B to E F will be the axial line of one run of pip-

ing. The point of intersection of the other run of piping with this is fixed where
required, as at J. From J then, through H to line E F, draw a line to be the
axial line of the run of piping labelled A in Fig. 40.
The line of the conveyor in the end elevation by the dot I\. is now indicated
This is to be the hight above window openings as called for by the data. The
window openings are shown by the dot L. The piping is indicated by the axial
line in elevation from K to L' and the point of intersection by M.

A side elevation is projected to the right, as shown, in which N and O are

the center points of the elbows, and O P the line of piping designated as B in

Fig. 40. In this case the slope of O P is such as to have the line of piping ( > P
lie in the same plane in this side elevation to the line of piping O Q, which is

H' J in the plan ;

it is to be remembered that this slope is governed in practice
by the data. The correspondent does not
state how the piping G J of Fig. 41 turns
after passing out the window, but for enhance-
ment of this article it is assumed that it passes
down the side of the wall, as N R parallel
to O P.
With this much of the elevations and
plan the true angle of the intersection of the
two lines of piping can be ascertained, though
Fig. 42. Development of Pattern of Elbow again he does not require this. Before going
C in Fig. 40
any further, it is well to remark that a practi-

cal suggestion is not to branch two lines of pipe in the manner he indicates in
Fig. 40. Instead, a fitting should be made which is a transition from the shape of
the conveyor to an ordinary fork about as sketched in Fig. 43 in the upper comer
of the illustration.

Parallel to line L MK draw a line as S T from this the distance G H draw

;

another parallel line as U V. Project the points L M and K to these lines as

'

shown. Then U V will be the true length of G 1

I and point W the true position
of the point of intersection of the two lines of piping. Then W X will be the
true length of line H 1
J. Also U WX is the true angle of the intersection at W.
For determining the angles of two lines not
shown true in any view, as the angle
J G Y
l
in the plan of Fig. 41, an expeditious method would be to assume that
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 27

M L' Z (or Q N R) is a triangle. Granting this much, the next operation would
be to lay this triangle flat; that is, view the plane in which the triangle lies at

right angles. This can be most readily accomplished by first learning the exact
length of side of the tri-

angle M Z. To do this,

erect a line at right angles

to line Z M and from Z
the length of 2 R, as Z 3.

Knowing that N R lies

in a plane viewed at right

angles, and is therefore
its true length, the next
step would be to swing
an arc of the radius of
this length from 3.
Again, knowing that L'
M is the true length of
Development of Pattern for Two Pipe Connections
and Suggested Alternate
the line Q N (or G 1
J)
an arc of this length as

radius is swung from M to intersect the first arc, establishing point 4. Hence, M
3 4 is a full view of the mentioned triangle and 3 4 the true angle of J G 1
Y.
Another method of finding the true angle, that of J H 1
F, may be indicated
by projecting an oblique plan from the side elevation in this manner: Parallel to

Q P draw aline at 5 6. Project the points Q O P to this line, continuing the line
from Q indefinitely. Take the distance L’ 7 in the end elevation and place it on the
linefrom Q, giving point 8. Where lines from O and P cut line 5 6 will be called
a and b and a line drawn from 8 to a and b
;
will be a true view of J H 1
F and,
of course, the desired true angle.

For the pattern of an elbow of this angle, transfer line 8 a 6, as in Fig. 42.
The rest of the procedure is of such everyday occurrence that further explanation
is unwarranted. Similarly, the procedure for the branch is as shown in Fig. 43.
For the openings in the corrugated window fills, a suggestion is that the open-
ing be laid out on a flat piece of metal, then this template laid on the corrugated
iron at the correct position and the opening scribed thereon. In Fig. 44 the axial
line LM K in Fig. 41 is reproduced, also the line L M. And in the plan, the
axial line H J in Fig. 41 is represented by H J in Fig. 44, together with line C D.
For the opening at G, the profile of the pipe S is divided into spaces and the usual
 2,8 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

parallel linea drawn to line L' Z, thence horizontally to the left indefinitely. Erect
any vertical center line as X T and from both sides of this line place the distances
of the profile ;
for instance, 6 O in the profile is

Opening at G G 1
O 1
in the template; and so on, realizing the
of Fig. 41 N
!T* j
elliptical figure as shown for the opening.
In like manner divide profile R and project
lines to line C I), thence to the left and vertical
center line erected. Instead of taking the dis-
tances from profile R as was done for S, it is to

be remembered that line H J is at an angle to

C R, both in elevation and plan. In con-

sequence, while the spaces, as O 6 of profile,
Opening at II
2
of Fig. 41 are each at O* 6 ,
the distance 9 3 is greater.

Imagine that line H J is the edge line of a

plane as wide as 9 3 in profile R. This plane in
elevation is 9 3 in profile S, and would be cut
obliquely at L Z 1
as 9
1
3 1
. So much decided,
this distance is carried to the vertical line for
2 2
Fig. 44. Method of Cutting Opening in the opening at H, as 9 3 . The process as out-
Window Filling lined is repeated until the points for the elliptical

opening are obtained as shown in the illustration, Fig. 44.

A BOILER FLUE CONNECTION PROBLEM

This problem deals with a connection between the smoke outlet of a boiler
and the flue hole in a chimney at a higher level and offset from the position of the

boiler. The furnace collar is of the oval shape, and in a relatively short distance
the smoke connection is to be changed from the oval to the round in order to fit
into the chimney. As explained in the following discussion, the idea has been
not to treat the question as one to be worked out by a special application of
6heet metal pattern drafting, but to attempt to make the offset with the use of el-
bows or parts of elbows, such as one is likely to have in stock for general pipe
requirements.
In preparing the answer to the foregoing inquiry the author had in mind, as
a result of a considerable experience in these lines, that no employer will allow
his foreman the time to lay out fancy fittings, by reason of his inability to aak his
customer a price to cover the time to lay out and make and likewise connect smoke
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns a9

pipe built on such lines. Hence, due thought was given to describe everyday-
practice.

The sketch, Fig. 45, shows a boiler with an oval 9)4 x Hj/ji-in. collar con-

necting to a 12-in. round Hue opening, which is a given bight above the collar
and to the right of it when viewed from the front of the boiler.
After the boiler is set in itspermanent position the measurements can be taken
in this manner: With a stick held level and in the center of the boiler collar, also
square with the face of the chimney and
of a length to touch the chimney (assum-
ing that the boiler is set square with it),

establish the point d in Fig. 45. Draw-

ing a level line from this point on the
chimney to aline dropped plumb from the
center of the flue gives the offset to the
right and the vertical rise from the boiler
collar to the flue opening. These meas-
urements are jotted down in a sketch
P| a n like Fig. 45, not forgetting the distance
[ /
the boiler is from the chimney on a line
perpendicular with the face of the chim-
ney. The boiler collar is measured for
both diameters and the girth found by
winding a thin strip of sheet metal around
the outside of the collar. For a positive
shape of this opening an ellipse is not
Fig. 45. Relation of Boiler and Chimney drawn geometrically, for who knows if the
collar of the boiler was so laid out, but a piece of paper is held against the collar
and the hand rubbed over it; the collar being dirty, an impression of the collar is
obtained on the paper. These data are taken to the shop.
To a convenient scale construct a side elevation of the job. That is, a vertical
line will represent the boiler as indicated in Fig. 46, with a horizontal line for the
center of the boiler collar. At a distance of 3 ft. 6 in. from the vertical line erect
another for the chimney, and 22 in. from the horizontal draw horizontal line for
the center of the flue opening; these horizontal lines continue indefinitely to
the right.
It is customary for work of this nature to have fittings as near standard as pos-
sible, and if special ones are required to design them with the expectation of using
3° Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

them on other jobs for the transition, therefore, a simple oval to round shape is
;

employed as shown in elevation by B and as a plan at C. This, to take up as

little room as possible, is made with 2-in. collars and 6 in. from one profile to the

other or a to b of elevation. On the lower horizontal line s f to place point c,

Fig. 46. Method of Determining the Length and Angles of Smoke Connection

erect a vertical line crossing the upper horizontal line u v, then to the right of this
2 ft. 6 in. from the line just drawn make a dot. These dots c and d are end
views of the horizontal axial lines of the lines of pipe, inasmuch as a line is shown
by a point when viewed on end. Connecting these points gives a line depicting
the axial line of center section of the line of pipe seen on line of arrow A.
Parallel to c d draw a line for the base of a triangle, as K h. Lay off from
K on c K to the point g, so that K g is equal to f of elevation.
e Then g h is
the true length of e f of elevation ;
that is, the axial line of the middle section of
the pipe connection. As standard fittings are to be used and as the throat of the
elbows will require some space, the points are moved along the lines s t and u v
respectively, or what the same thing, on line g c and line h d.
is As this moving
of the points is a changing of the angle g h d, point h may remain stationary.
 ;

Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 31

Now, as the nearest standard fitting is a 45-deg. elbow, make angle g h d such,
which establishes point i. Obviously this transposing of g to i does not give
sufficient space lor the elbows on the horizontal lines s t and u v, so a little cal-

culation is performed, and as it is not advisable to make a turn of greater than 45

degrees with a two-piece elbow, it is decided to employ
the first, last and one of the middle sections of a four-
piece 90-degree elbow, D, which leaves an angle of 120
degrees and consequently establishing point,;' as indicated.
So long as the distance j k is maintained, the locat-
ing of the points on the lines 8 t and u v is arbitrary
therefore point j' of the elevation is a distance from e of

one half of the elbow B, allowing for the collar and an

ample joint. This fixes the point (the distance j k
k'

of the oblique elevation ) and thus the point h". While

this line j' h" is not essential, the process of obtaining it
Fig. 47. Style of Fitting for
Smoke Connection requires but a few minutes and aids the draftsman in his
mental conception of the article.

The elbow D is used at both h and j. As indicated, it leaves a distance l m

on the line j h that calls for a length of pipe of 2 ft. 9% in., to which must be
added an allowance for the lap of the joint. And a small piece from o to 6", with
about 2 in. to go in the flue, and also allowance for lap must be provided for; say,

about 1^ in.

The author of this article, together with several of his comrades in the trade,
has always endeavored to lay out pipes for all classes of work just as one would
erect the lines of pipes in steam or hot water heating. Simply because a line hap-
pens to have some unusual turns the steam fitter does not attempt to devise special
fittings, but gets over his difficulty with what he has at hand. Should you
have a dozen boilers all set differently, you could use the fitting B with suitable
angle elbows to realize the offsets. Still if you really desired to accomplish
the transition in the angle piece on the angle g h d, the process is as outlined
in Fig. 46, only moving point j' a distance from the boiler collar to permit of an
easy turn and taking the distance j' k' to the oblique elevation to get the true
axial distances.
The profiles are placed with the center line of the round on line c' d, Fig. 47,
and the center line of the oval on line c' t. Projecting to the oblique elevation ,

one will have a fitting like that shown in Fig. 47. A round pipe elbow of the
same angle is required for the flue or at h of Fig. 46.
3a Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

PATTERN FOR A TAPERING ELBOW

For an accurate method of cutting the patterns for a two or more pieced taper-
ing elbow, where the difference in the sizes of the ends is so small that the dividers
or trammels cannot reach the long radii required by the cone method and also

adaptable to elbows of heavy metal, the following exemplification applies:

The method to be employed in this case is that of triangulation. The patterns
for a two-pieced tapering elbow will be developed. The same principles may be

Fig. 48. Obtaining Miter Line and Fig. 49. Measurements for Fig. 61. Sections on Dotted
True Section Sections Lines

applied to any angle or number A B C D in Fig. 48 represent the

of pieces. Let
section of a tapering pipe to be cut by the line M N so as to form a square tapering
elbow when reversed and joined together, as shown by C D N B A M. 1 1

To obtain the line MN proceed as follows: Draw the center line F E, as

shown, on which locate any point, as G. Draw G H parallel to the axis of the

second piece of the elbow. Bisect the angle E G H. Next locate the desired

hight C M, and from M, parallel to G L, draw the line M N. Take a tracing of N

ABM and place it reversed on N M, shown by N B A M.
as
1 1
The sections on
B A
1 1
and C D are true circles, but the section on N M is an ellipse, which is

obtained as follows Through O, the center point of M N, draw the horizontal

:

line R S. At right angles to N M, and from O, draw O T, equal in length to P R

or P S. Through N, T and M, draw the semiellipse.
Take a tracing of N M C D and place it in Fig. 49, as shown by 1 7 9 15.
On 1 7 place a tracing of the semiellipse, as shown by 1 4 7. On 9 15 draw the
semicircle 9 12 15. Divide both the semicircle and semiellipse into the same
number of equal spaces, as shown by the small figures. At right angles to 1 7 and
from points 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 draw lines intersecting 1 7 at 2', 3', 4', 5' and 6'. In
 :

Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 33

similar manner, at right angles to 9 15 and from points 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14,
draw lines intersecting 9 15 at 10', 11', 12', 13' and 14'. Draw solid lines from 2'
to 14', 3' to 13', 4' to 12', 5' to 11' and 6' to 10'; and dotted lines from 2' to 15',
3' to 14', 4' to 13', 5' to 12', 6' to 11' and 7' to 10'. The exact, or true length,
of these lines will be determined by constructing a series of sections, the bases of
which are the aforesaid lines and the outer sides or ends to be coincident in size
to like numbered lines of the semiprofiles, A and B. The connecting lines to
these or rather, the remaining side of the sections will be the required lines of true
length. The mentioned sections are constructed as follows
In Fig. 50 draw any horizontal line, as 2' 14', upon which place the lengths of
all the solid lines shown in Fig. 49. From these points, on and at right angles to
2' 14' in Fig. 50, erect lines
B»
r TTii'TT
A’
r
l equal to the altitudes in the semi-
\ profiles in Fig. 49 having similar
numbers. Draw lines connect-
ing the ends of the proper vertical
lines. These will represent the
actual distances on the finished
article, of similarly numbered
lines in Fig. 49. In precisely
the same manner obtain the sec-

tions on dotted lines in Fig. 49,

Fig. 52. The Patterns
as shown in Fig. 61.
For the pattern, draw any vertical line, as 1 15, in Fig. 62, equal in length to
1 15 in Fig. 49. With 1 2 in A as radius and 1 in Fig. 52 as center describe the

arc 2, which an arc struck from 15 as center and 15 2 in Fig. 51 as

intersect with

radius. Then with 15 14 in B in Fig. 49 as radius and 15 in Fig. 52 as center de-

scribe arc 14, which intersect by an arc struck from 2 as center and 2 14 in Fig. 50
as radius. Proceed in this manner until 7 9 in Fig. 62 has been obtained, which
is measured from 7 9 in Fig. 49. Trace a line through the intersections obtained

in Fig. 52; then will 1 7 9 15 be the half pattern for the lower arm of the elbow.

As the elbow has an equal taper throughout, the pattern for the upper arm
A B N M
1 1
may be obtained by extending 15 1 in Fig. 52 indefinitely, as shown,
and making 1 A 1
equal to MA 1
in Fig. 48. Through A 1
in Fig. 62 draw the curve
A 1
B* parallel to 15 9.B* lay out the stretchout of the half section on A 1
On A 1

B1 in Fig. 48. In Fig. 52 continue 9 7 to 8'. Then will 1’ 8' 7 1 be the half
Trace this to the left of A 15 for full pattern.
1
pattern of the upper arm.
 34 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

METHOD OF SUPPORTING SHEET METAL FLUES

In the ventilation of large buildings where sheet metal flues are carried up
from the basement to furnish means for the distribution of air to rooms desired,
there are numerous little kinks which greatly facilitate the work, but are usually
developed by experience. Of course, the majority of the forming is done either at
the shop or in temporary quarters located on the job, if it is a big one, but it is in-

convenient to handle ducts which are usually 20 x 28 in. in size or thereabouts, in

lengths of over 14 ft. Consequently
arrangements must be made so that
pipes can be readily entered one to
another.
In Fig. 53, a section is shown
of a device which is used to facilitate

this work. These bent pieces of sheet

Fig. 53. Fig. 54. iron are slipped over each piece of
Erecting and Supporting Ventilating Ducts
pipe in such a manner that the in-

side loop hangs over the lower piece of pipe, while the outside piece of pipe is

ready to receive the upper piece of pipe. This is shown more clearly in Fig. 54,
which gives a rather exaggerated section of the top of the pipe indicating the taper,
but it serves as an outline to illustrate the making obvious
method of fastening,

the ease with which work can be erected by this method. At the points marked
A and B in Fig. 54, a hole is drilled through all the sheet metal work with a fid-
dler’s drill and a common wood screw inserted, after which the ventilating ducts

can be handled and lifted with little or no danger of their coming apart. Of course,
after the ducts are finally in place they are riveted together, but this forms a tem-
porary holding power. There are numerous other forms of “slips” ;
but these are
the fundamental principals of all and the most popular.
In some cases long vertical ducts are supported from the bottom, but this is

not desirable in many cases, as it throws the entire load at one point, consequently
the method shown in Fig. 55 is frequently employed. A band of iron usually %
or 3-16 in. in thickness by hooked over a steel I beam or some
1% in. broad is

other substantial part of the building framework, and turned in such a manner
that a bolt may be passed through this and the sheet metal work, giving it support
on either side. These supports are usually made at every floor of a building, but
staggered on either side of the ventilating duct so that support is afforded both
sides of the pipe.
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 35
HEAVY METAL PATTERNS FOR PIECED ELBOWS
This treats of a method of obtaining the patterns for an elbow, made of any
number of pieces out of heavy material, so as to get the large and small diameters
of each piece, the miter joints to be riveted as shown in Fig. 50, in which the large
end in all of the pieces is indicated by L E and the small end
which goes into the large end is shown by S E. Or, as better
shown by Fig. 57, which being a section, shows how pieces are
lapped for riveting. It makes no difference how many pieces
the elbow may have, the principles will be similar to those given
Lange rnd vjr in the f., ur-pieced elbow in Fig. 58.
Fig. 56. Perspective First draw the side elevation of the elbow desired, in this
case four-pieced, as shown by s t u v, and from the corners E, F and G draw
miter lines to D. Add the straight pieces of pipe as shown by A D and B C,
making them equal to the outside diameter of the normal profile of the pipe. In
other words, if the inside diameter of the normal or given profile of the pipe is 20
in.and the elbow is to be made of metal 3-16 in. thick, then the distances B C
and A D will be made 20% in. Knowing the outside diameter of the normal pipe,
complete the side elevation of the elbow. Number the pieces
I, II, III and IV. Directly below the line B C draw the
normal profile of the pipe, struck from the center to. The thick-
ness of the metal shown by X. Assuming that the pieces
is

are to fit into one another as shown in Fig. 57, or by the direc-
tion of the arrow H in Fig. 58, then the large ends would be
at the lower ends of the pieces I, II, III and IV and the small Fig. 57. Method of
Joining
ends at the upper ends of similar pieces I, II, III and IV.
Divide the outer curve, representing the outer diameter of the pipe, into
equal parts, as shown from 1 to 5, in the semicircle in the normal profile, and
take twice the girth from 1 to 5 and place it on the horizontal line K as shown
v T v
from 1 to 5 to l . From 1 set off the distance l a equal to 7 times the thick-
ness of the metal in use. Using 1 as a center and 1 a as radius, describe the arc
T
a 1°, which intersect by a perpendicular line erected from 1 at 1°. Draw a line
from 1° to 1, and from the various divisions 2 to 5 to 2 on the line J K erect
perpendiculars until they intersect the slant line 1°
1, at 2° to 5° to 2°. This
length 1° 1 is then the true girth for the wide end of the pipe ;
in other words, when
this girth T 1 is rolled up, the normal profile shown below the elevation will fit

inside of same.
 3^ Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

To obtain the girth of the small end of the pipe, which will give the true in-

the metal and deduct it from the length 1 T 1 on J K as shown from 1 T to 6.

Then using 1 as center and 1 6 as radius, draw an arc of any desired
length, as b
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 37
x x T x
l ,
and draw a line from l to 1. Draw a line from 1 to l and parallel to this-
x
line from the divisions 2 to 5 to 2, draw lines until they intersect the line l 1,
X X x
from 2 to 5 to 2\ Then will the length l 1 represent the true girth for the
small or given diameter of the pipe, which, when rolled up, will correspond to the
normal profile. In practice it is only necessary to find the one division 1°, 2° on
x X
the wide end and the one division l ,
2 on the small end, as the other respective
divisions are equal.
The true girths having been obtained, the patterns are now in order. The
taper in the patterns is greatly exaggerated to make the various operations clear
and distinct. To obtain the pattern for piece I, take the girth of the wide end
from 1° to 5° to 1 and pi „ce it on the line C B extended as B L, as shown by
similar numbers 1° to 5° to T'. At right angles to E B, at any point between E
and B draw the line M N, which intersect at 5 X
by a line erected from the cen-
X x
ter point 5° at right angles to B L. Take the half girth 5 to l of the small or
given diameter, and place it on the line M N, on either side of the center line 5°
5X ,
as shown by the divisions from 5 X to l
x
. At right angles to M N, through
the small figures on same, erect vertical lines, which intersect by lines drawn par-
allel to M N, from similar numbered intersections on the miter line E D. Trace
a line through points thus obtained as shown by O P, and draw lines from O to
B and from P L. Then O P L B will be the pattern for piece number I.

To obtain the pattern for pieces II and III, draw any two lines at right an-
gles to E F, as shown by V and R S. W
On the lower line R S place the
girth of the wide end as shown from 1° to 5° to 1°, and through 5° at right angles

to R S erect a line intersecting V W at 5

X
. On either side of 5 X place the semi-
X
girth 5 l
x
equal to the semigirth 5 X l
x
of the given diameter or small end of
the pipe. At right angles to R S from the various divisions 1° to 1°, draw lines
which intersect by lines drawn parallel to R S from similar numbered intersections
on the miter line E D. Trace a line through points thus obtained as shown from
T to U. In a similar manner at right angles to V W, from the intersections l x
to l erect lines, which intersect by lines drawn parallel to V
x
from similar in- W
tersections on the miter line F D. Trace a line through these intersections as
shown from X to Y and draw a line from X to T and from U to Y. X Y U
T will be the pattern for pieces II and III.
In this connection it may be proper to remark that if the elbow were made of
10 pieces which would have 8 middle pieces, then the pattern obtained for the
first middle piece, as II in this case, would answer for all 8 in the 10-pieced elbow,

in the same manner as the pattern for II in this case also answers for III, because
the miter joints lap the same as shown in Fig. 56.
38 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

For the pattern for piece IV in Fig. 58, extend the line I) A as A A°, on
x X x
which place the girth of the small end of the pipe, as shown from l to 5 to l .

From the center l

x
at right angles to A A° draw the line 5 X
r, which intersect at
5° by the line B° J drawn at right angles to A G at any desired point, between
A and G. Take the semigirth of the wide end from 5° to 1° and place it on
either side of 5° on the line B° J, as shown from 5° to 1°. Through these small
figures at right angles to J B draw lines, which intersect by lines drawn parallel

to J B° from similar numbered intersections on the miter line G IX Trace a

line through points thus obtained as shown from C to r to D°, and draw lines from
1

x x x x
D° to l and from C° to l . Then will l C° r D° l be the pattern for piece IV.
A lap must be allowed along the seam for riveting, also a lap for riveting along
the miter joint as indicated by a b c in the patterns. The laps along the miter

joints must he flanged to the proper angle.

PATTERN FOR A Y OBLONG TO ROUND

To describe the pattern for the Y shown in Fig. 59, the first step is to con-

struct a section pn H E. As the width through the point H is equal to I K in

plan, or A B in elevation,
and the bight to H E,
draw at pleasure the
shaded section A E B.
Take a tracing of H
BODE, and place it as
shown by 10' 1 2 7 8 in
Fig. 60; a tracing of A
H E in Fig. and59,
place it as shown by 10
10' 8 in Fig. 60, and a
tracing of the quarter sec-
tion I e L in plan in
Fig. 59, and the half sec-
tion M P O, and place
them in Fig. 60, as shown
Fig. 59. Plan, Elevation and Section on HE JO" 10* 1 and 7 5 4 2
respectively. Divide the quarter circles in a each into two equal parts, as shown by
2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Also divide the two sections c and b into two equal parts, as shown
 —

Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 39

by 8, 9 and 10, and 10,11,1. In practice more space should be employed. At right
angles to 2 7, 8 10' and 10' 1, and from the various points just obtained in the pro-
10 *
files a, c and b, draw lines to their respective base

lin es. Connect opposite points, 1 to 3' to 11' to

4' to 10' to 5' to 9' to 0' to 8. Then will these lines
represent the bases of sections which will be con-
structed, the altitudes, or hights, of which are

Fig. 60 . Obtaining Measurements foi Sections

10 ' 11' 1 9' 6'5' 4' a'

Fig. 61. Diagram of Sections Fig. 62. The Pattern Shape

equal to similar numbers in the sections a, b and c, as indicated in Fig. 60.

In Fig. 61 is shown tho method and diagram for obtaining the true lengths of
the dotted lines in 1 2 7 8 10' in Fig. 60.

For the pattern draw 1 2 in Fig. 62, equal to 1 2 in Fig. 59. Now using 2
as center and 2 3 in a in Fig. 60 as radius, describe the arc 3 in Fig. 62, which
intersect by an arc struck from 1 as center and 1 3 in Fig. 61 as radius. Then
with 1 11 in 6 in Fig. 60 as radius and 1 in Fig. 62 as center describe the arc 11,
which intersect by an arc struck from 3 as center and with 3 1 1 in Fig. 61 as
radius. Proceed in this usual manner until the line 7 8 in Fig. 62 is obtained.
Trace a line through points thus found. Then will 1 10 8 7 2 be the half pattern.
If the Y were smaller and a pattern is desired in one piece, trace the half pat-
tern opposite. As the Y in this case is of such large dimensions and is to be made
from No. 10 steel, each branch had better be made in six parts, three of which are
shown punched for riveting at A, B and C in Fig. 62, If a lap joint is required
the laps must be added to the dividing lines in the pattern, or if butt joints are
wanted it will be necessary to punch on either side of the lines in pattern. The
elevation in Fig. 59 shows the joints riveted, using a lap joint. Laps must be
allowed to the top and bottom of the pattern to allow the stack and neck collars to
be riveted to same, as shown in Fig. 59.
 4° Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

ADJUSTABLE SLEEVES FOR STEAM PIPES

In buildings that are constructed in conformity with the requirements of the

fire underwriters and the fire protection regulations of large cities, it is necessary to
protect the material of the various floors through which the large steam mains and
returns pass in going to the various radiators supplied. Steam fitters who engage
in such work, whether the floors are composed of terra cotta and concrete supported
by iron beams or wooden joists and floor covering, are accustomed to inclose the
steam pipes in a sheet metal casing. These sleeves are so arranged that they are
adjustable to different thicknesses of floors and allow free expansion and contraction
of the steam pipes.
The method of construction is shown in the accompanying illustration, Fig. 63,
although the methods of different shops vary. The sections consist of two parts,
the upper section being shown at the left

and the bottom section at the right, while

the two sections connected are shown in

the center. The sections consist of a sheet
iron cylinder or rectangular tube, either
double seamed or riveted together, of suit-
able dimensions to inclose the pipes in
UPPER SECTION

connection with which they are used. In

Fig. 63. Adjustable Sleeves for Steam Pipes
some shops, after cutting the two holes in
the top piece and the bottom piece for the pipes to pass through, little angle formed

lugs are riveted to the sleeve proper, and these, in turn, are riveted to the top and
bottom piece, forming practically two boxes open at one end. In addition to the
holes for the pipes two small holes are provided for the connecting rods, which are
threaded at both ends for nuts. The two sections are made of slightly different size,

so that one can readily slip into the other. When the steam fitter is running his
risershe puts on a top piece and a bottom piece at each floor. The top piece nat-
urally rests on the floor by gravity, while the bottom piece must be held by one
workman while another making the connection between the two
workman assists in

parts and screwing up the rods which hold them securely in place. Steam fitters
doing a large business, in the majority of cases have a sheet metal working shop
for the making of ducts, fan systems and the like, work that is coincident to a
steam fitting business ; manufacture their own sleeves, although there are sleeves in
the market that can be purchased for this purpose.
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 41
PATTERNS FOR ELBOWS MITERING WITH ROUND PIPE

In this article it will be shown how to obtain the patterns for the Y shown in

Fig. 64, which is formed by means of an elbow springing from a vertical pipe, and
also for the T shown in Fig. 65, formed by means of two elbows joining together as
shown. In the former case the vertical pipe is

18 in. in diameter, and the diameter of the elbow

12 in. In the latter case both elbows and pipe
are 18 in. in diameter. The problem shown in

Fig. 64 will be worked out in detail, showing

how the principles can also be applied to Fig. 65.
It is immaterial what diameter the pipe or elbow
Fig. or. Single Elbow Fig. 05. Double Elbow may have, or how many pieces are contained in
the elbow, or what radius is used in striking the throat of the elbow, the principles
hereinafter given are applicable to any case.

In Fig. 66 draw any horizontal line as A B and with any point on this line

as A, describe the elbow shown byCDEFGHJ K L M. In its proper posi-

Fig. 66. Plan, Elevation, Profiles and Pattern

tion draw the profile through M C of the elbow as shown by N, struck from the
center a; and in its proper position below the elevation G S T U of the pipe

draw the profile throu gh G S of the pipe, as shown by R, struck from the center
4* Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

b. Through the center a in the profile N draw the two diameters as shown, and
divide the circle into equal spaces, in this case but eight, as shown, from 1 to 3
to 1, etc.

Through the center b in the profile R draw the line O P, upon which locate at

pleasure the center point a 1

,
which use as center to describe the profile N 1
,
similar

in size and divisions to the profile N. Notice that if points 1 and 1 are at the sides in
profile N in elevation, they will be at top and bottom in profile N 1
in the plan,

which represents the sides when viewed from the top. Now through the various
intersections 1 to 3 in the profile N 1
in plan draw lines parallel to 0 P until they

cut the profile of the main pipe R, as shown from 1 to 3 to I. In similar manner,
through the various points of intersections 1 to 3 in the profile N in elevation, draw
lines parallel to M L, until they cut the miter line L R of the elbow, as shown from
3 to 1 ;
from these intersections on L D, parallel to L Iv, draw lines until they cut
the miter line K E, from which points, parallel to K J, draw lines indefinitely, as

shown, and intersect these lines by lines drawn parallel to G U of the pipe, from
similar intersections in the profile R, thus obtaining the points of intersections 3',

2’, 1', 2" and 3". Trace a line from 3' to 2' and from 1' to 3”.
Before a line can be traced from 2' to 1' it is necessary to know where the miter
line between the elbow and main pipe will cross the miter line K E of the pieced

elbow, and is obtained as follows : Assume that the cylindrical portion W of the
pipe intersects the main pipe. Therefore extend the required line following 2',

which is 1 as from 1 to a; and intersect it by a vertical line erected from 1 in the

profile R locating point d. Extend the miter line 3' 2' to d, as shown, and where
this curved line crosses the miter line KE is the desired point, or e. From e com-
plete the miter line e, 1', 2", 3”, and it will be found that this line will pass over the
one previously drawn to d, owing to the small size of the drawing, which however,
will not be the case when drawn full size. From the intersection e drop a vertical
line, until it meets the profile R at e and e. In similar manner from the intersection
e on the miter line K E draw a line parallel to K L until it meets the miter line L
1) at e, from which point, parallel to L M, draw a line intersecting the profile N at
e and e. Then will the miter line from 3' to e to 3''
in elevation represent the in-
tersection between the elbow and main pipe. All that part of the elbow shown by
dotted lines K J and H will not be required.
The development of the patterns is now in order. To obtain the opening to be
cut in the main pipe take the girth of the various spaces contained in the profile R
of the main pipe, as shown from the horizontal line 8 B. From these points at right
angles to S B erect vertical lines, which intersect by horizontal lines drawn from
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 43

similar numbered and lettered points in the miter line 3' e 3" in elevation. A line
T T
through 3° 1 3 1°, gives the opening in the main pipe, shown shaded.
To obtain the patterns for the pieces Y, W and X, a tracing of these pieces, with
A the various points of intersec-
tions, has been transferred to
Fig. 67, shown by similar
as
letters and figures. Now, to
obtain the pattern for Y, extend
the line C M, as shown by M A,
upon which place the girth of the
profile N. From these points at
right angles to M A draw lines,

as shown, which intersect by

lines drawn parallel to M A from
similar numbered intersections
on the miter line between the
pieces V and W, then will A B
D 3 be the pattern for piece Y.
The pattern for piece W is

obtained by drawing the girth

line E F at right angles to 3, 3
in W, and placing on this the
girth of the profile N in Fig. 66,
d? being careful to include the in-
Fig. 67. Developing Pieces in the Elbow between and
tersections e 1 2, as

shown by similar letters and figures on E F in Fig. 67. Through these points at

right angles to E F draw lines indefinitely, which intersect by lines drawn parallel

to E F from similar lettered and numbered points of intersections on the miter line

3, 3 on the left of W and the miter line 3' e 3 on the right. When a line is traced
through points thus obtained, as shown by G P 0 on the left, and N L K J H on
the right, the desired pattern with seam in throat will be obtained.
For the pattern for X, draw the line R S at right angles to 3 3", upon which
place only the girth of the lower part of the profile N in Fig. 66, from e to 3 to e
(as only that much of the profile miters with the main pipe in elevation from
e to 3" ). Proceed as before, T ,U V W T being the pattern desired.
If desired these patterns can be proved thus : Measure the various intersections
T T T
in opening in pipe in Fig. 66 from 3 to 1° or 3 to 1 ,
and compare them with the
 :

44 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

various spaces in pattern for X in Fig. 67 from U to T or U to V respectively. In

similar manner the various spaces in pattern for opening in Fig. 66 from 1° to 3° to

1
T
are compared to similar intersections in pattern for W in Fig. 67 from J to Iv to
L respectively. This, then, completes the patterns for a single elbow mitering on a
pipe similar to that shown in Fig. 64; laps or edges of course, to be allowed for
riveting or seaming.
The second case shown in Fig. 65, shows a double elbow mitering on a pipe, in
which both diameters of the pipe and elbow are equal. To show this problem
would require another set of drawings, and to avoid this, as the principles are simi-
lar, assume that the double elbow is to bo 12 in. in diameter, thus allowing the

drawings and patterns already described to be used in developing the patterns for an
elbow similar to Fig. 65, excepting the change in diameters. While the elbow in
Fig. 66 intersects the main pipe in plan as fai as 1 1, if this elbow were of the same
diameter as the main pipe, it would intersect the main pipe at m and n, the princi-
ples in all the operations, however, being similar, as before explained.
All that would be necessary, if a double elbow were to intersect the main pipe
in Fig. 66, is to draw a horizontal or miter line from the center a in the profile N
until it cuts through the eleva- „i 1 t ~is

w
g
tion of the elbow, as shown by
\ P|jl|)
h i. This line h i then repre- rZ/J Matter J
W
w/
FOR
r ^-L
1
% f
v'\ \ °--
sents the joint line between the /<
o
o| |n
-In

two elbows, as indicated by h i / ] J

I
1
in Fig. 65. In its proper posi-
j
tion draw the line h i in Fig. 67, ^From „
flQ
Fig. 08. 1V
Elbow Doubled Fig. 69. Opening for „„
Fig. 70. Pattern
crossing the lines e and 2 in Fig. 08 Double Elbow for Wl, Fig. 08

piece W at e° and 2°. Now take a tracing of h i 3" C in Fig. 66 and double it

on the line h i, as shown by similar letters and figures in Fig. 68, thus showing the
appearance of the double elbows from dimensions obtained from Fig. 66. Thus it

will be seen that the pattern for X in Fig. 67 remains the same for X 1
in Fig. 68,
but a change of pattern will be required for W 1
,
because they miter along h i ,
and
is obtained as follows
From the intersection i in elevation in Fig. 66 drop a vertical line in the plan
cutting the profile R at i and i.Take the distance from 2 to i on both sides in
profile R and place it on the girth line S B, also shown from 2 to i on both sides,
and from the points i erect vertical lines, which intersect by a horizontal line drawn
from point i in elevation, thus obtaining points i i1 in the pattern. Take a tracing 1

T
of i 3 i and place it as shown in Fig. 69, by il 3 T i1 tracing it on either side or
1 1
,
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 45
1 1
the line i i . This represents the pattern for the opening to be cut in the main
pipe, to receive the double elbow shown in Fig. 68.
Again referring to Fig. 66, from the intersection i in elevation draw a line
parallel to the piece W until it intersects the miter line L D at i. From this point
draw a horizontal line, cutting the profile N also at i and i. Take the distance from
2 to i in profile N on either side and place it on one side of the girth line E F in
Fig. 67, as shown, from 2 to i between 2 and 3. From i draw a line perpendicular
to E F, as shown, which intersect by a line drawn parallel to E F from the inter-
section i on the miter line 3' e. In similar manner from the intersections 2° and
e° draw lines parallel to E F, intersecting the lines 2 and e in the pattern at 2V and
v v v
•
,T
,
respectively. Draw thu miter cut as shown dotted from l to i . Then will l

0 N L i v be the half pattern for the full pattern trace this half opposite the;
line

O N, as in Fig. 70, which represents the pattern for the pieces marked W in 1
Fig.
68 with a seam along 1 i.

To obtain the full pattern for V 1

,
simply draw a line from 1 to a in V in Fig.
T
67, crossing line 2 at 2 ,
and project points into the pattern for V, as shown. Then
will A B 1° a° l
v
I) 3 be the pattern for V 1
in Fig. 68. Laps and edges must be
allowed on these patterns for seaming purposes.

OBVIATING NOISES IN FAN SYSTEMS

A complaint often heard in reference to a heating or ventilating system which
depends upon a blower or suction fan to keep the air in motion is that the sound of
the vibration of the fan is transmitted so plainly by the metal ducts and flues that
itbecomes an annoyance. A good way to avoid this is to put in a canvas joint
where the fan collar connects to the duct. To make the connection the metal duct
should not start at the collar of the fan, but a gap of several inches should be left,

which gap should be filled in by means of the canvas joint.

In making the connection to the fan consider that the collar is rectangular or
square and take a strip of galvanized iron long enough to go around the collar and
wide enough to fold up into the canvas. The first step will be to form the metal
as shown by Fig. 71. Slip the canvas into the fold of the metal as far as it will
go and clinch it down in the folder or brake, or close it down with a mallet. The
next operation shown in Fig. 72, which is merely turning the galvanized iron
is

over in the brake and mashing it down. When holes are punched through this to
correspond with the holes in the collar of the fan, this end of the expansion joint
4fi> Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

ia ready to be attached to the collar of the fan, which is done by bolting it as shown
in Figs. 75 and 76. By method the canvas is folded into the galvanized iron
this

in such a way that it cannot get out. Both edges of the galvanized iron should be
hemmed before the strip is bent, so there will be no sharp edges to cut the canvas.
The end of the canvas joint that joins the duct should have a piece of galvan-
ized iron folded over it somewhat similar to the end next to the fan, and this should
be turned up and clinched up over an
edge turned out square on the top, bot-
tom and both sides of the duct. The
first step in preparing this end of the

joint is to hem one edge of the galvan-

ized iron and fold it over the canvas, as
Fig. 72 shown in Fig. 73, and close the edge

down tight. Fold this over and close it

down tight, as shown in Fig. 74. Next

turn 1 in. up square and 1 in. out
square, as shown by dotted lines in Fig.
74. Then turn 1 in. out square all
around on the metal duct, bolt the can-
vas joint to the collar of the fan, sew
the canvas where it laps on the longi-
tudinal joint, slip the edge shown by
Fig. 74 the dotted lines in Fig. 74 over the edge
Method of Joining the Canvas and Metal _ 4 ,
turned out on the duct; turn it down,
hammer it and put a few rivets or bolts through to make sure the joint will
tight
not come apart. This makes a practically airtight joint and one which will allow
the air to flow freely, but which will transmit none of the vibration to the ducts.
The joint in section would appear as in Fig. 75.
If the collar of the fan happens to be round, the galvanized iron can be folded
on the canvas at the side which will fit on the collar of the fan, and the galvanized
iron folded on the side of the canvas that fits onto the circular duct the same as
shown in Fig. 74, before the edges shown by the dotted lines are turned. This
would leave that edge of the galvanized iron flat, as shown by the solid lines in Fig.
74. The canvas strip, with the metal binders clinched to each side, would then be
formed up in the rollers to fit the collar of the fan and the end of the metal duct, and
would be bolted to the collar of the fan the same as in Fig. 75, but the side next to
the duct would lap over same and be soldered and riveted instead of having an
 ^

Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 47

edge turned up and over as it would in the case of the square or rectangular duct.

The joints for the circular duct would then be as shown by Fig. 7G.
The longitudinal joint in the canvas would be sewed. Care should be taken
with these joints, especially for round collars, to allow for the thickness of the mate-
EDGE OF GALV. IRON CARRIED OVER rial, as this will be con-
EDGE TURNED ON END OF DUCT AND CLINCHED
—
rrv siderable, as there are
BOLT four thicknesses of gal-
1 oalv. BOLT.
GALV. IRON
I IRON1
i CANVAS
vanized iron and two of
END OF METAL DUCT canvas, which will ag-
gregate from % to 34
Fig. 75 in. in thickness, which
LAPPED AND
RIVETED JOINT)
means from 34 to 34 i n -

GALV. /
CANVAS added to the diameter
END OF METAL DUCT
of the fan collar, or %
COLLAR
FAN
OB'
to 1 % in. to the circum-
Fig. 76 ference.
Sections Showing Canvas Connections
Fig. 77 shows an-
other construction of a flexible joint for a circular pipe. The ends are located 4 to

6 in. apart and connected by the canvas sleeve which is slipped over the bead on the
pipe, doubled under at the ends and secured in place by annealed galvanized wire
drawn up tight.

For rectangular pipes the method shown in Figs. 78 and 79 may be used. The
canvas is doubled under as before and held in place by stove bolts passing through

Fig. 77. Flexible Joint for Round Pipe Figs. 78 and 79. Joint for Rectangular Pipe

the angle iron, canvas, galvanized iron and the strap iron inside the duct. The
holes should be punched about 4 in. on centers, and before putting the strap iron
in place in the inside of the duct, it should be placed on supports, the same distance
on centers as the holes, and slightly bent as in Fig. 79, so that when drawn up in
place by the bolts, the spring in the iron will force the galvanized iron hard against
the canvas between it and the angle iron, making a tight joint. Canvas joints of
 48 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

this description should be thoroughly painted after they are put in place, to prevent
the leakage of air.

CONSTRUCTING A RECTANGULAR DUCT

In Fig. 80 is presented a sketch, which shows a plan view of a duct, A, 30 X
80 inches in size at its largest section and 31 feet long, having five branches or
outlets of the size as indicated. A section taken through B C would appear as
shown by D, which makes the depth
of the duct 30 inches and the side view

of the branch 20 inches, as shown in

plan. Then, in this case, the con-

nections between the branches and duct
should take place on the lines X, X,
X, etc., the side of the branch appearing as shown by J E F II in section D,

connecting the 20-inch opening of the branch to the 30-inch opening of the duct
by means of the curved corners, as shown.
In constructing a large duct of this kind, where a number of sheets are to be
joined together, a rigid construction must be provided for. While there are var-
ious methods employed, the one shown in Figs. 81 and 82 is usually adopted, as
it prevents sagging in the middle. Assum-
ing that iron 36 inches wide will be used,

TsesS,
the duct will require a little more than ten
il widths, as shown by abcdefhij in
BOTTOM « Fig. 80. All the corners on the entire duct
Method of
Fig. 81 .
Locking Seams
F»g. 82 .Method °f should
Laying Out Sheets
be double seamed, as shown by
J ,
A
and B
t

in Fig. 81. In A is shown the

single edge turned up on top and bottom, while on the 30-inch depth of the duct
is added the double edge, as shown, which is closed, using the “dolly and mallet,”

as at B. At 0 is shown the standing seam taken through r s in Fig. 80 and

riveted at intervals, as at a in diagram C in Fig. 81. This standing lock should
be made about inch high, notching out at the ends where the doubled lock
1 B
takes place, as shown at b, and turning over a lap on the ends, as at c.
When laying out a large duct of this kind the floor is swept clean, a rough
diagram made with chalk upon the same and the sheets dotted, as shown in Fig.
82, in which A is a sheet having a single and double edge and B a sheet having
a single edge. The sheets are now laid one over another, so that the line c on the
 :

Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 49

sheet B meets the second line b on the sheet A, as shown. Of course the sheets
should be made even at the ends, B being shown lower to indicate the method of
lapping. When all the sheets are laid out to the required length of 31 feet, tack
the sheets to the floor with roofing nails and draw out the full sized duct, allowing
forand notching the laps for double seaming. The sheets must then be marked
and bent up on the brake, being careful to have all the numbers toward one side.
The duct is then put together at the building, using band iron hangers to fasten
against the ceiling or wall. It should be understood that the 30-inch depth of the
duct is a plain strip with the necessary edges allowed, while the top and bottom
have the standing seams.

GALVANIZED IRON WORK FOR FAN SYSTEMS

This article will treat of various methods commonly employed in the con-
struction of ducts and flues used with the fan systems of heating and ventilation,
and will take up details of dampers hangers,
,
etc. Tables of the weights of round

OO Fig. 83.

and rectangular pipes will

Fig. 84. Longitudinal Seams Fig. 85.

be given together with extracts from specifications deal-

,

ing with gauges and methods of construction. Although such work is used chiefly
with fan systems the following will apply equally well to large gravity systems
Longitudinal seams in round or oval pipes are generally made with the usual
lock edges, as shown in Fig. 83, on all gauges up to and including No. 20 iron.
After the edges are locked the pipe is and the seam is set down
placed on a mandrel
with a hand groover of the proper size and is then set down flat with a hardwood
mallet, making a finished seam, as shown in Fig. 84. The cost of these operations
can be materially reduced if one of the various styles of hand or power machine
groovers now on the market is used. Pipe jointed in this manner meets all the
requirements of a first class job and does not need additional soldering.
Piping of No. 18 and heavier gauges should be made with riveted lap joints.

Rivets should be spaced about 2 or 2 in. on centers, and buttoned down on sur-
face of metal with a rivet set of proper size. The total lap should never be less
than 1 in., as shown in Fig. 85.
5° Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

Figs. 86 and 87 show two methods of making joints in round or oval piping,
and can be either soldered or riveted, as desired. Fig. 86 shows a single bead on

Fig. 86 Fig. 83.

Fig. 87. Joining Round Pipes Fig. 89.

the small end of the joint, which is

made to fit snugly in the large end of

adjoining joint of pipe. Fig. 87 shows
a bead on the small end of joint fitted
to the large end of the adjoining joint.

These beads serve to stiffen the pipe,

and sometimes several are used close
together for this purpose.
Fig. 88 shows a plain lap joint,

having a lap of about 2 in., and can be

either soldered or riveted, or both, as
required. Joints are marked out, al-
lowing for an outside diameter on small
Fig. 90. Special Coupling Flange
end of joint and inside diameter on the
large end of joint. When the proper allowance is made the small end should make
a tight joint with the adjacent one, when the lap allowed has been reached.
Fig. 89 shows a method of using either cast or wrought angle iron flanges in
making up joints on piping of heavy gauges or piping run in a vertical position on
the exterior of a building. Angle iron flanges are generally riveted on each end
of a length of piping, about 12 or 14 ft., which has intermediate riveted lap joints.

Fig. 90 shows a special flanged connection used on work that must be abso-
lutely tight. Special angle flanges are recessed at A to receive the ends of the
pipe section, which are flanged over. A collar about 3 in. long, made of a straight
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 51

piece of iron rolled to diameter of the flange, is riveted to the small end of the pipe
and extends beyond the joint. Such joints are used on pressure work, but are not
required for ordinary heating and ventilating systems.
Elbows should have the internal radius at least equal to the diameter of the

pipe with which they connect. Even in the smaller sizes they should be made up

of not less than five pieces, those above 8 in. usually having seven pieces. See
Fig. 91. All elbows, except those of No. 18 gauge and heavier, are grooved and
locked. Heavier elbows are riveted and soldered.
In blower work of good construction the branches are carefully designed
somewhat as shown in Fig. 92.
Tapers to reduce from one size to another are generally made in a length of
not over 36 in. They are either straight or offset to suit conditions.
Longitudinal seams on rectangular piping are made in various ways, and
should be modified to meet the conditions of cutting sheets to make the various
sizes of piping, also to suit the means of handling various sizes of piping in the shop.
Fig. 93 shows one of the most common ways of making a longitudinal seam.
This is done by bending the single edge at right angles to the piping. The double
edge is turned over and locked over the single edge, and the single and double
edges are then bent over flat as shown.
Fig. 94 shows another method of making
longitudinal seams, which is very popular in
many shops; this is simply the ordinary
grooved seam, and can be located at whatever
point desired. This is an advantage, since
Fig. 93. Longitudinal Double Seam the sheets can then be cut with a minimum of
waste material. The seam is made in the manner described for round pipes.
Where a hand or power machine groover is available, these joints can be made
 5a Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

very quickly and at small cost, especially when piping is made up in 8' 0" joints.
When large sizes of pipes are to be shipped to a distance, they can be made up in
this manner, with seams left open .during shipment to be put together by hand
on the job. This facilitates handling, permits nesting during shipment and eaves
in the cost of transportation. Less damage is likely to occur during shipment than
where the pipe is shipped made up. It is to be understood that the groove seam
is often made the reverse of this; which is to say, on the inside of the pipe. This
seam is made by pounding the lock into a groove in a suitable mandrel, familiar to
all. Sheets can be taken from the bundle of iron, squared up in the shears and
then taken to the cornice brake and edged on both sides, also making the right

Fig. 94. Longitudinal Grooved Seam Fig. 95. Longitudinal Riveted Seam

angle bend all at one handling. This method can be used on all gauges up to and
including No. 18, if the iron used is of a good grade. If poor iron is used it

often cracks at the seam.

Fig. 95 shows the method of making longitudinal seams on piping of heavy
gauges. They are ordinary lap seams and can be placed in almost any position.

Fig. 96. Longitudinal Riveted Fig. 97. Longitudinal Corner Seam

Corner Seam With Angles

The lap on these seams should never be less than 1 in. and rivets spaced about 2
or 2 % in. on centers, and in about in. from side % of sheet, making rivet line in
center of lap. When an especially neat job is required, regardless of expense, it is
probably better to make the lap at the corners of the pipe, as shown in Fig. 96,
and place the lap on the inside. The raw edge of metal can be rounded over the
corner, making a very neat and serviceable job. Riveted joints should be made
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 53
up very carefully and rivets buttoned down on the metal with a rivetset of the
proper size.

Fig. 97 shows a general method of constructing ducts of heavy plate metal

when metal is most too heavy to make a right angle bend on a sheet of ordinary

length. Angle irons about 1*4 X i M X 3-16 in. are cut the exact length of sheets,
and about 9-32 in. holes punched about 3 in. on centers.
Fig. 98 shows a method of making up joints for the lighter gauges of iron, say

Fig. 98. Ordinary Cross Seam Joint Fig. 99. Slide Joint by Means of a Slip

from No. 30 to No. 26, and is known as a double seamed joint. A single edge is

turned up on one end of the joint of pipe, and a similar edge on the abutting end
is slipped over it. Then both edges are brought over flat with a smooth mallet.

Fig. 100. Conventional Slip Joint Fig. 101. Another Conventional Slip Joint

This seam should be dented by means of a good prick punch in order to avoid the
joint slipping out while handling the finished length.

99 shows a joint much used on good work and known as the slide joint.
Fig.
Edges are bent almost flat on the pipe, and a double edged flat piece is slipped
 54 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns
over these edges. This makes a very neat and serviceable job, and has the ad-
vantage of being utilized in almost any tight corner, besides enabling the duct or
casing to be taken apart for cleaning.
Fig. 100 shows a form of slip joint used where particularly neat work is re-

quired. The slip proper is made up separate from the piping, and outside edge
wired with about 3-16 or J^-in. round rod, then
formed up with solid corners and riveted to small
end of the duct, where provision has been made for
its reception by cutting out the corner of the duct
for the length of the slip. Then the large end of
adjoining joint is placed into this slip as shown.
Slips of this character should not have less than
2-in. lap, and outside section of slip should be
Fig. 102. A Simple Slip Joint about 1 in. wide.
Fig. 101 shows the same pattern of slip joints as the foregoing, but without
the wired outside edge, and in place of it a hem edge turned inside of slip, thus
doing away with the raw edge of metal that would otherwise be exposed.

Fig. 102 shows a joint used by some blower manufacturers for their rectangular
ducts. The sleeve B, into which the end of section C slips, is about 2 in. long.
This joint gives the appearance of good workmanship in a system of ducts con-
nected by this method.
Fig. 103 shows a method of making up joints, that has been used where a very
neat job is desired. About %-in. edges are bent up at an angle of 45 degrees on
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 55
large and small ends of the piping. They are then placed together and a %-in.
brass tube previously slotted is slipped over the edges, mitering the corners of the
tubing. This method of making joints is often used for cylinder lagging.
Figs. 104 and 105 show a joint used on large rectangular piping. This joint
is practically a standing seam joint, makes a strong, firm joint and also serves to

Fig. 105. General View of Standing Seam Joint Fig. 106. Cross Joint by Means of Angle Irons

stiffen the piping. When these joints are made about 36 in. long they make a very
rigid length of piping without the additional bracing generally necessary on piping
of large sizes. The joint is made by bending a single edge about 1 in. at right
angles to the side of the piping, and on the adjoining edge a double edge is bent,
bending down nearly tight on three sides of the duct, allowing one side open in
order to slip single edge into position. Then all sides are gone over and hammered
down tight and riveted or bolted through the standing lock.
Fig. 106 shows angle irons arranged to make a joint between lengths of piping.
The angles should be either 1, 1% or 1% in., according to the size of the pipe.
They should be riveted securely, making either a miter or butt joint on the corner
of the piping.

Fig. 107. Band Iron Braces Fig. 108. Sheet Metal Braces

On rectangular ducts having a width of about 30 in. or over it is generally

necessary to provide some means of bracing the wide sides of the ducts. Fig. 107
shows a popular and cheap method of bracing with bar iron braces, suitable to use

on ducts up to 36 in. wide. Braces can be made of about 1 % X 3-16 in. bar iron
 X

56 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

and bent up in Z form, as there is no tendency for the brace to turn sideways.

Only one rivet is used on each end in riveting to duct.

Fig. 108 shows a method of bracing ducts by means of bent strips of about No.
18 iron, riveted to the ducts as shown.
Fig. 109 shows a duct braced with angle iron, which makes a thoroughly sub-
stantial job. Angle iron should not be less than 1 X 1 X ^
in. on ducts up to 40 in.

wide, and using larger angle iron on sizes above this. Rivets should be spaced
about 0 in. on centers and braces spaced about 32 in. apart.

Fiff. 109. Fig. 110. Fig. 111.

Anglo Iron Braces Incased Wood Braces Complete Angle Iron Braces

Fig. 110 shows a method of using wooden strips incased in galvanized iron
and fastened to the ducts by wire nails, clinched on the inside. Strips of hemlock
or almost any soft wood, about 2%*% in., with the ends tapered wedge shaped
for a distance of about 4 in., are completely incased in a covering of about No. 26
galvanized iron, allowing a small tab for riveting to the side of the duct at each end
of the brace. The rough edges of the iron are left on the under side of the brace,
which is then set on the duct and 3-in. wire nails are driven through the brace and
duct, then clinched over by the helper on the inside. This makes a cheap form
of bracing, but is barred out by many specifications.

Fig. Ill shows a very good method of bracing rectangular ducts, and can be
used on all sizes. Angle irons are cut for all sides, and an allowance equal to the
width of the angle iron is made on each angle on each end. By setting angle
irons on adjacent sides of the duct in an opposite position, you have angle
irons meeting back to back at the corners, then having a hole in each, they can be
bolted or riveted together, forming a complete frame around the duct. This feature
is made use of in erecting them on. a length of piping, as the necessary number of
braces can be bolted around the piping, then all riveted to the piping at one time,
thereby saving labor in handling. Angle irons should be 1 X1 % in. on smaller
sizes of piping requiring bracing and V/± X1 X 3-16 in. on ducts of larger dimen-
sions. Space rivets about 6 in. on centers and space braces about 32 in, on centers.
Fig. 112 shows a method of joining corners of this brace in larger detail.
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 57
Transformation pieces are made in a variety of forms from rectangular to
square or to a rectangular shape of different dimensions. It is important in the
case of the latter that the piece be of ample length, so that the change from one
shape to another will not be too abrupt, thus interfering with the passage of air.
A transformation from rectangular to round is shown in Fig. 113.

Fig. 112. Detail of Corner Fig. 118. Fig. 114.

of Angle Iron Braces A Transforming Piece Rectangular Square Elbow

In making rectangular bends it is always advisable to make them as easy as

possible. Good practice determines that bends shall have an inner radius or radius
in the throat equal to the diameter of the side of duct in the direction of the bend
as shown in Fig. 114.
Dampers for controlling the flow of air should be placed in all branch pipes
and connections, for in all heating and ventilating work it is impossible to foresee
all conditions that may arise in erecting a piping system. Adjustable dampers
must be used to secure the desired distribution.
Fig. 115 shows an approved form damper and fittings which can
of adjustable

be used on round or rectangular ducts. Damper braces are made of cast iron and
holes for riveting to the damper and for the damper rod are cored in the casting.
The top of the brace is tapped out to receive a set screw for setting down on the
damper rod. Screw castings are cast with a hole for the damper rod and holes for
riveting to the ducts are cored in the casting, and the hole is tapped out to receive
a set screw for adjusting the damper. The damper rod made from stock wrought
is

rod and generally made % in. in diameter for small dampers and about J4 in. for
large dampers. Damper braces are also made in two sizes, for large and small
dampers.
Deflecting dampers are commonly used in ducts, at branches. These are com-
monly called switch dampers and the type is illustrated in Fig. 116.
 8

5 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

In factory buildings of slow burning construction, hangers can be made up as

shown in Fig. 117, when the ducts run at right angles to the floor beams. Where
piping runs parallel to the floor beams a straight hanger of bar iron can be used by
bending about 4 in. of the bar at right angles and fastening to the tongued and
grooved flooring by at least two lag screws. This type is shown in Fig. 118.

Fig. 118.

A BRACE FOR LARGE DAMPER

B “ " SMALL ••

C OAMPER_IN ROUNO PIPE

C STOP TO PREVENT DAMPER CLOSINCT OTHER WAY
D DAMPER ROD

Fig. 115.

Fig. 116. Fig. 119.

Fig. 117. Fig. 120.

Types of Dampers and Hangers for Air Ducts

In buildings of fireproof construction, when the piping runs at right angles to

the floor beams, a hanger of the type shown in Fig. 119 may be used to good ad-
vantage. One beam clamp can be made as part of the hanger and the
half of the

remaining half of the clamp made up and bolted fast. Fig. 120 shows one method
of hanging ducts from a concrete floor. The vertical irons riveted to the sides of
 :

Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 59

the ducts are turned at right angles at the top and are drilled to receive the bolts
nassing down through the floor.

ESTIMATING THE WEIGHTS OF RECTANGULAR AND ROUND

PIPING AND SPECIFICATIONS
As to gauges of galvanized iron commonly used, the following are taken from
a United States Government specification:

Round pipes up to 13 in. in diameter No. 24 gauge

Round pipes 14 to 30 in. in diameter No. 22 gauge

Round pipes 31 to 48 in. in diameter No. 20 gauge

The following are taken from the specifications of prominent engineers:

Round pipes smaller than 1 2 in No. 26 gauge

Round pipes 13 to 20 in No. 24 gauge

Round pipes 21 to 24 in No. 23 gauge

Round pipes 25 to 30 in No. 22 gauge

Round pipes 31 to 44 in No. 20 gauge

Round pipes 45 in. and larger No. 18 gauge

Round pipes smaller than 26 in Nos. 24 or 26 gauge

Round pipes 26 to 36 in No. 22 gauge

Round pipes 37 to 48 in No. 20 gange

Round pipes 49 in. and larger No. 18 gauge

One prominent blower company uses these gauges

Round pipes 3 to 8 in No. 28 gauge

Round pipes 9 to 14 in No. 26 gauge

Round pipes 15 to 20 in No. 25 gauge

Round pipes 21 to 26 in No. 24 gauge

Round pipes 27 to 35 in No. 22 gauge

Round pipes 86 to 46 in No. 20 gauge

Round pipes 47 to 60 in No, 18 gauge

Round pipes 60 in. and larger No. 16 gauge

6o Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

The accompanying table, Fig. 121, is of immeas-

urable value for quickly figuring weights of rectangular piping. It is to be under-
stood though, that one gauge only is given for each size.

The weight of elbows, agreeing to the gauges represented for the rectangular
piping, can be estimated quickly by computing the weight of a length of straight

pipe equal to that of the center line of the elbow.

The weight is given in pounds per running foot, and the table covers all sizes
from 2X2 in. to 60 X 60 in. The outer lines of figures are dimension figures ;
all

other figures denote weights in pounds. It is obvious that all pipes having the
same circumference must be of the same weight, provided, of course, that they are

made of the same gauge of metal. Therefore, to avoid a repetition of figures and
in consequence, considerable confusion, diagonal lines are drawn across the sheet,

each line representing a certain weight, which weight is indicated at each end of the

line at intervals throughout its length.

. To find the weight of a rectangular galvanized iron pipe of any size, find one
dimension in inches in one of the horizontal (top or bottom) lines of figures, and
the other dimension in one of the vertical side lines of figures ; at the intersection
of the columns headed by these figures will be found either a figure denoting the
weight in pounds per running foot or a diagonal line which, when followed, ter-

minates in a figure denoting the weight. For example, let it be required to find the
weight per foot of a pipe 16X24 in. Find in the upper line the figure 16 and in
the side line the figure 24, follow the columns and the space at their intersection is

found to be crossed by a heavy diagonal line ;

follow this line in either direction
and the figure 12.9 is found, which denotes the weight in pounds per running foot.
The diagonal lines are made alternately heavy and light to aid the eye in fol-
lowing them. This table has been in use for a number of years by one of the larger
blower companies, and has been found in practice to agree closely with the weight
of metal used in actual installations and it has also been recommended for its
accuracy by readers of aforesaid journal.
The following gauges are represented: From 2X2 in. to 6X6 in., No. 26;
from 7X7 in. to 12X12 in., No. 24; from 13X13 in. to 20 X 20 in., No. 22; all
above 20 X 20 in., No. 20. This represents about the average of the gauges used
for fan work, the larger sizes requiring internal bracing. An allowance has been
made for seams, laps, sleeves, rivets and solder, and waste when pipes are made
from sheets 30 X 96 in. Reverting to what was previously stated in the matter of
gauges, it is to be remembered that these weights may be readily converted into
other gauges by using the usual factors.
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns
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Ascertaining

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Chart

121.

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 X ) 1 ;

6a Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

The following table is reprinted from the book, “Furnace Heating” :

Pipe
Inches
TABLE I—WEIGHT OF GALVANIZED IRON PIPE, THE AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES

Diameter Approx.
area
Sq. Inches
OF CIRCLES
Circum-
ference
Inches
No. 28
gauge
No. 26
gauge
— Weight of pipe per running foot-
No. 24
gauge
No. 22
gauge
No. 20
gauge
—No. 18
gauge
No. 16
gauge
1 0.7854 8.14
2 8.1416 6.28 ....
8 .7.07
. 9.42 0.7
4 12 .57
. . 12.56 1.1
5 .. 19.64 15.70 1.2 1.4 1.8 ....
6 .. 28.27 18.84 1.4 1.7 2.1
7 88.49
. . 22.00 1.7 2.0 2.5 The heavy faced figures indicate the
8 .. 50.27 25.13 1.9 2.2 2.8 weight of pipes commonly built of
9 .. 68.62 28.27 2.1 2.4 8.1 the gauge stated at the head of the
10 .. 78.54 81.41 2.8 2.7 8.4 column m
which they occur.
11 .. 95.08 84 55 2.9 8.7
12 .. 118.10 87.70 3.2 4.1 ....
18 .. 182.78 40.84 3.4 4.4 .... ....
14 .. 158.94 44.00 3.7 4.7 ....
15 .. 176.72 47.12 .... 5.0 6.1 ....
16 .. 201.06 50.28 5.4 6.5 ....
17 .. 226.98 58.41 5.7 6.9
18 . 254.47
. 56.55 • * • • 6.0 7.8
19 .. 288.58 69.69 .... 6.3 7.7
20 .. 814.16 62.88 6.8 8.2
22 .. 880.18 69.11 7.3 8.9
24 .. 452.89 75.89 • • • . 0.0 9.7 ii.5
26 .. 580.98 81.68 8.7 10.6 12.4
28 .. 615.75 87.96 • • « s 9.4 11.4 18.4
80 .. 706.86 94.24 • • * • 10.0 12.2 14.4 18.7
82 .. 804.25 100.58 • • • • .... 13.0 15.3 20.0
84 .. 907.92 106.81 • • • • 13.9 16.3 21.2
86 ..1017.88 118.00 • • a • .... 14.6 17.2 22.4
88 ..1184.12 119.88 , # # f .... 15.5 18.2 28.7
40 ..1256.64 125.66 • • • • .... 16.2 19.1 24.9 80.7
42....... ..1885.45 181.94 • • « • .... 20.1 26.1 82.2
44
46
. 1520.58
..1661.91
. 188.28
144.51
21.01
22.0
n a J 88.7
<85.2
48 ..1809.56 150.79 29.8 22.9 86.7
50 ..1968.60 157.08 f
, , , 31.0 23.9 88.2
52 ..2128.72 168.86 .... « • • 32.2 • 89.7
54 .2290.28
. 169.64 X
The diameter squared 0.7854=iarea of a circle 33.6 41.4
56 ..2468.01 175.98 .... .... 34.9 48.0
58
60
. .2642.09

..2827.74
182.21
188.49 —
The diameter X8. 1416=circumference of a circle 36
.... 37.4
. 44.0
46.0

Weight of Galvanized Iron Sheets in pounds per square foot, United States Government Standard
Gauge 28 26 24 22 20 18 16
Weight in pounds 0.78 0.91 1.16 1.41 1.66 2.16 2.66

In regard to rectangular pipe, custom varies considerably in the gauges used

if properly stiffened, lighter gauges may be used than for round pipes of the same area.

The following is taken from a United States Goverment specification: Rect-

angular ducts not exceeding 40 in. in width are to be made of No. 24 gauge ; those
wider than 40 in. to be made of No. 20 gauge. All surfaces of ducts 24 to 39 in.
wide are to have V-shaped stiffening ribs, riveted in place outside of the ducts,
spaced not over 30 in. apart. All ducts having a surface of 40 in. or over in width
or depth must have 1 X1 3-16 in. angle iron frames around them riveted to the
ducts and spaced not over 30 in. apart. The ends of the various sections of ducts
 :

Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 63

are to be finished with 1 34 X V/± X 34 -in. angles. All ducts must be practically air-
tight when finished.

A specification for one of the largest department stores in the country states

Galvanized iron ducts 4 ft. square and greater are to be made of No. 22 gauge,
smaller ones of No. 24 gauge. All joints are to be riveted airtight. All stiffening
frames are to be of angle iron, painted. No wood construction allowed. Ducts
must be thoroughly stiffened with 1-in. angle irons spaced not more than 4 ft. apart.

WEIGHTS AND THICKNESSES OF AMERICAN TIN PLATES

It is of interest to compare the weights of galvanized sheets stated in Table 1

with those of tin plates given in Table II, which is reprinted from Metal Worker.

TABLE II— WEIGHTS AND THICKNESSES OF TIN PLATES

Weight Approximate
per box of 112 weight per Thickness in
Denomination sheets, 14X20 square foot in decimals
Pounds inches — Pounds decimals of pound of an inch
55 55 0.252 0.00625
60 60 0.275 0.00638
65 65 0.3 0.0075
70 70 0.321 0.008
75 75 0.344 0.0086
80 80 0.367 0.0092
85 85 0.39 0.0098
90 90 0.42 0.0105
95 95 0.436 0.0109
100 100 0.46 0.0115
IC 108 0.5 0.0125
IX 136 0.625 0.0156
IXX 156 0.71 0.0178
IXXX 176 0.8 0.02
IXXXX 196 0.9 0.0225
IXXXXX.. . 216 1 0.025

FINDING TRUE ANGLES IN BLOWER CONNECTION

In Fig. 122 is shown the side and plan views of two fan collars connected to
one discharge pipe, and it is desired to find the true angle of the Y and the elbows.
The size of the fan collars indicated by H and H in plan and H 1
in side view is to be
as indicated, connecting to an 18-inch round pipe in the form of two elbows, as
shown in plan,which in turn connect to a 25-inch pipe by means of a Y. The
large discharge pipe passes through the wall at an angle of 54 degrees. The dis-
tance from the fan collar to the wall is 4 feet 6 inches and the hight from the
bottom of the collar to the opening in the wall 3 feet 2 inches. The distance
between the inside of the two fans is 2 feet, as shown in plan.
 .

64 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

Having drawn the side and plan views in their proper relative positions, as
shown, the true angle of the Y is obtained as follows: Draw the center line
through the side view, as shown by the dotted line rnfv; also the center line in
plan, as shown by ni d c. From n in elevation drop a vertical line intersecting the
center line y n in plan at i also from / in elevation drop a vertical line cutting the
;

center lines in plan at d and s.

Parallel to r n, in side view, draw any line, as D E, which intersect by a per-
pendicular dropped from / at E. Take the distance from s to d in plan and place
it, as shown, from E to d' and from E to d" From n in side view, perpendicular
to E D, draw a line intersecting E D at B. From B draw lines to d' and d". Then
will D B d' and P B d" be the center lines of the Y. On either side of D B place
one half of the 25-inch pipe and on either side of the center lines d" B and d' B
place one half of the 18-inch pipes until the sides of the pipes intersect, as shown,
which gives the true angles. The pattern for this Y must be developed by
triangulation.
To shown by/ v in side view and d c in plan
obtain the true angle of the elbow
proceed as follows: From v and J draw horizontal lines, as shown, intersecting
the perpendiculars dropped from / and n. At right angles to d i in plan draw i n"
equal in hight to b n in side view. Then d n" in plan shows the true length of d i.
Take the distance from c to i in plan and place it on the horizontal line shown
by c x in (T). From i' erect the perpendicular i' n equal to m n in side view
and draw the line n c in (T). At right angles to c d in plan erect the perpen-
dicular d f
equal to e f in side view. Then /" c in plan is the true length of d c in
plan.
With radius equal to c /" in plan, and c in (T) as center, describe the arc f,
which intersect by an arc struck.from n as center and n" d in plan as radius. Then
ri fc in (T) is the true angle of the center line at point d in plan or at/ in side
view. an elbow between the points / and v in side view,
If it is desired to place

draw a graceful curve between the points M

L and N 0 in (T), as shown, at a dis-
tance of 9 inches on either side of the points /' and c', and make the elbow L M
N 0 into any desired number of pieces. A slip joint is placed between a and b in
side view to allow the work to be fitted as desired.

PUNCHING SHBBT IRON

All who have made riveted smoke drums or other heavy sheet
stacks, furnace

iron work, have had more or less trouble in getting the holes in the two ends of the
 66 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

sheet so that they would match perfectly. If punched on a lead cake or nut the
punch is likely to get off of the mark that has been made with the template, and
when the time comes to do the riveting a great deal of labor is spent in reaming
the hole so that the rivet will enter. This method of punching also raises a burr
that must be flattened down when the rivet
is in place, or before it is inserted, if a neat
flat tight seam is desired. A good work-
man has often longed for a gang punch
when he has had a lot of such work to do.
The device shown in Fig. 123 has been in
use in the sheet iron shop for punching
heavy sheet iron work. It consists of a
heavy casting with lugs cast at each end, ae
shown. This serves as a bed plate and is
Fig. 128. A Device for Punching Sheet iron proper intervals with 34 -inch
drilled at

holes. On the top of this bed plate arrangement has been made to secure steel
plates by means of set screws.

These steel plates are drilled with holes of different sizes to suit the punches
used for different sizes of rivets. The lugs at each end of the bed plate serve to

form a hinge for templates which correspond with the holes in the steel plates used.

This template shuts down accurately over the holes in the steel plates and on top of

the iron to be punched. by a wedge pin, which is driven in

It is secured in place

the oblong slots that are made in the lugs at the opposite end of the bed plate. By
this means the iron is held from slipping while the holes are punched clean and
accurately, so that when the sheet is formed the holes in the two ends match each
other perfectly and there is no trouble in putting the rivets in them without ream-
ing. After this is done it is simply a matter of labor with the heavy hammer to do
the riveting.

LINING ELEVATOR BINS WITH HEAVY SHEET IRON

Herein it will be endeavored to tell the manner in which certain elevator bins
were lined. These bins averaged from 8 ft. sq. to 15 ft. sq., and were constructed
of timbers about 6 in. sq. ,
laid on top of each other, and notched together at the
intersection and doweled intermediately as indicated in Fig. The bottoms of
124.

the bins were slanted in as indicated in Fig. 125. The bins were not all square
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

and the outlet a, Fig. 125, was not always in the center of the bin. There were a
number of groups of different sizes and some were used for corn, others for wheat,
etc. The grain is poured into the bins by being mechanically carried to the top of
the building, where it is dumped into a weighing device, from which it flows into
the bins. Outlet a is connected with a chute for drawing the grain from the bins,
the chute being provided with a slide valve.

While the friction of the grain against the vertical sides of the bin is not suffi-

cient to warrant lining it throughout the entire hight, the friction on the sloping
parts of the bottom is so great that the woodwork is rapidly worn away. In order
;oprevent this wearing, the bin bottoms were lined with No. 16 galvanized iron.
Dwing to the variation in size and shape of the bottoms, it was impossible to order
theets of any special size that would facilitate the work and save material. The
ron was therefore ordered in sheets 30 X 96 in., and it required over 700 sheets.
There was much discussion between the proprietors and the foreman as to the
iest methods of procedure, that is, whether it was better to have the material deliv-
ered to the elevator, direct, and have all work done there, or to deliver it to the
ihop for preparation. It was finally decided that it would be better to measure
he bins, numbering each one and lettering each side, and cut, punch and form
he material at the shop, where the work would be under the supervision of the
oreman, and where everything would be convenient and comfortable.
The bins were measured as follows, each one being treated separately and
ndependent of any other. A plan and surfaces of the four sides expanded, as in-
licated in Fig. 126, were made of each bin. The bin indicated is No. 1. These
ketches and dimensions were made in a notebook at the building from measure-
nents of the woodwork, after the bin bottoms were complete ready for lining. A
ketch drawn to lj^-in. scale was then made, showing what was roughly sketched
n the notebook, and the lines d drawn on the expanded
a, b, c, sides A, B, C, D,
,s indicated in Fig. 127. The material being 30 in. wide and 1 in. being allowed
ar laps, the lines a ,
b, c, were spaced 29 in. apart.

As there were to be a great many different sizes to lay out on the same floor

pace, was necessary to devise some way of doing it that would not require the mak-
it

ag of lines on the floor, as the lines would soon become so numerous as to be con-
lsing. A way was therefore schemed out, as indicated in Fig. 128. Lines a a,
b, c c, d d and e e were chalk lines marked on the floor, and they were made

bout 18 ft. long and just 29 in. apart. Two strips of metal were then cut 4 in.

dde and 8 ft. long and joined together, making a straight strip 16 ft. long, as
hown by/; four other strips of the same width were also cut and joined together
68 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

in pairs, making the two straight strips g and h. One inch from one edge of g and h,

respectively, lines were struck, as indicated by i and k l.

In laying out one side of the bin take A, for instance. The 10-ft. dimension
was laid off on line a a, as indicated at mm'. Straightedge / was then placed 6 ft.

4%. in. from line a a and secured by nails tacked to the floor through each end. A
trammel was then set to the 7 ft. 9 in. dimension, and from to and m', as centers, arcs
were struck against the edge of /, locating the points to and ri. The distance n ri

should be just 12 in., and if a slight variation was found, the difference was distrib-
uted on each side, but it was found that when measurements were taken accurately
there was hardly ever a discrepancy that amounted to anything. One of the other

straightedges was then laid with its edge against to and to and tacked to the floor

and the third straightedge laid against m and ri and tacked to the floor. Thus the
surface outline by to to', n and ri was an exact full size development of side, A,
and the chalk marks a a, b b and c c were the line of the upper edge of the sheets.
The lines i j and k on the straightedges g and h were the allowance for
l struck
laps to be turned at the valley corners of the bins on opposite sides. Thus, sides
A and C had laps on each side, while sides B and D were cut off on the line to to
and to' ri.

After locating the straightedges the next step was to lay a sheet of iron in posi-
tion at O, as indicated by the dotted lines. A straightedge was then on the
laid

sheet and brought even with line m to, and a line scribed across, which was where
the sheet was to be bent at the valley. The straightedge was then pushed back 1 in.

in line with ij, and the sheet scribed across for cutting. Another sheet, P, was
then laid in position, overlapping O \]4. in. This sheet was similarly scribed on
line to' and ri for bending, and on line k l for cutting. The piece P' which was
thus cut off was then laid in position at Q, it having been turned over so that the
miter line would just fit line i j ,
then being only necessary to scribe line to w to
it

locate the bend. Lines to' ri and k l were then struck and piece Q' was cut on k l,
which was similarly turned over and placed in position R.
It will be seen that this completed side A, with the exception of the small
corner R', which was cut from the scrap which fell from R. It will thus be seen
that there was practically no waste of material.

All sides of all the bins were consecutively laid off and cut in this manner.
Letters are used in describing the operation, but the pieces were marked 1 A 1,
1 A 2, 1 A 3, 1 A 4, 1 A 5, as shown, the first figure indicating the number of
the bin, the letter indicating which side of the bin, and the last figure indicating
the number and location of the piece of that particular side.
Fig. 189 Fig. 186 Fig. 187 Fig. 188
Laying Out Galvanized Iron For Bin Bottoms
 7° Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

The straightedges were then shifted to form a full size outline of the next side
of the bin — for instance D. As soon as a side was laid out so that the cross seams
and number of pieces could be located and determined, they were properly mark-
ed on the scale drawing, Fig. 127. It will be seen that the expanded side A of

Fig. 127 shows the number of pieces just laid out in full size, and is correspondingly
marked. In laying out and cutting the material the edges which were to be
punched for nailing, as described below, were also marked. The side of the metal

on which the marking was done indicated that it was the upper surface. All mark-
ing was done with a solution of copper and acid.
After the different pieces were cut and identified by marking they were
punched on one side and one end for nailing. The top courses were, of course,

punched on both sides. Two-inch wire nails were used, spaced about 3 in. apart.

Fig. 129 indicates how piece 0 (1 A 1) was punched; Fig. 130 indicates how P
(1 A 2) was punched; Fig. 131 indicates how Q (1 A 3) was punched; Fig. 132
shows how R (14) was punched, and Fig. 133 shows how R’ (1 A 5) was
A
punched. The upper edges and the straight ends of Q and R were not punched
for the reason that was found that while two thicknesses could not be pricked, a
it

nail hole could be pricked through one thickness of ihe iron after it was laid in

Method of Laying Sheets in Bin

positionon the solid heavy timbered bottoms of the bins, so that in laying the iron
the unpunched edges were prick punched by means of a stout, well tempered sharp
pointed punch and a heavy hammer, through the holes in the punched lower edges
of O and Q, and square ends of P and R', Fig. 128.
Referring to side D, Fig. 127, Fig. 134 indicates how piece 1 D 1 is punched.
This piece is punched along its miter cut where it laps over and nails through the
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 71
l-in. lap edges turned on the miter pieces of sides A and C. Fig. 135 shows how
1 D 2 is punched; Fig. 136 shows the punching of 1 D 3; Fig. 137 shows the
punching of 1 D 4, Fig. 138 shows the punching of 1 D 5. After being cut and
punched, the miter pieces of the sides which carried the l-in. laps along the valleys
had this lap turned up a
more than half square, in the cornice brake.
little

When the material was ready it was sent to the building and nailed into the bins
in the following manner: Two long strips of metal were provided, and marked as
indicated in Fig. 139, the strips being about 1 in. wide and the spacings 29 in.
apart. These strips were used to lay off the horizontal course lines, in the bins.
Referring to Fig. 140, which represents a sectional perspective view, looking
into one of the bins, the strips were first laid in the position indicated by dotted
lines a and a, and marks m.tde on the woodwork at the first 29-in. space, as
indicated. The strips would then be shifted to b and b and further marks made ,

lower down on the wood surface, as indicated, and points marked on the wood from
the spacing lines on the strips. In handling the strips they were kept rolled up
except that portion which was to serve as a spacing measure.
Chalk lines were then struck through the points thus established on the wood-
work, as indicated in Fig. 141. These lines determined the location of the upper
edges of the sheets. It was then feasible to lay the smallest and lowest piece in
position first and secure with a few nails in the upper edge, as indicated at a, in
Fig. 142; then the second piece, b, was laid in position overlapping the first piece,

and having the upper edge coincide with the second chalk line and secured with a
few nails in its upper edge, as indicated. Piece c was then laid. All the sheets
were thus nailed along the upper edges
before the next and overlapping sheet
was put in place, so that in case the grain
should ever wear off the nail heads that
projected up through, the sheets would
not slip down, because of being secured
by the nails in their upper edges, which
were protected from the action of the
grain by the sheet overlapping them.
The next operation was to punch holes
in the unpunched underedges, through
Fig. 148. Method of Punching the Sheets
the holes which were machine punched,
and the nailing done. This process was repeated with the other courses until the
top of the bin bottom was reached.
 7* Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

It was necessary to chalk line the bin for the spacing of the courses, as other-

wise it would be easy to have allowed too much lap, and especially in view of the

weight of the sheets and their insistence upon sliding down a trifle when securing,

the result being that when the top and last course was laid, it would not reach to

the top of the bin. Furthermore, the horizontal chalk lines were a help in keeping
the pieces straight in position. While at first it seemed that there might be some
confusion and difficulty in finding the proper pieces or keeping the pieces belong-
ing to one bin from getting mixed up with those of another, the event proved that
it was easy to keep the bins separate, and practically no time was lost in searching
for the missing pieces.

Fig. 143 indicates how the sheets were punched. A rolling table, the upper
surface of which was on a level with the lower die of the punch, was guided in

tracks made by nailing strips of wood on the floor across the front of the punch.
A long gauge was secured to the under jaw of the punch which guided the iron, so

that the center of the holes would be % in. from the edge of the sheet. On this

gauge were two marks a and a', located 3 in. on each side of the punch. As
accuracy to within % in. in the spacing of the holes was not required, it was only
necessary to lay the sheet on the table as indicated, and starting from one end
punch a hole, then sliding the sheet along until the hole just punched came
opposite to mark a or o’, according to whether the punching was being done from
right or left, and punch a second hole, the second hole then being shifted opposite
the mark and a third hole punched, etc. The punch was worked by a hand lever,
and as the bench was easily moved along, a stout boy alone did all the punching.
The pieces were marked on the edges to be punched, when being laid out.

GRAVEL ROOFER’S KETTLE AND FIRE PLACE

The thickness of the metal to be used depends upon the size of the kettle and
fire place. Whatever thickness is used the construction can be similar to that
shown in Fig. 144, in which A A shows the fire pot seamed to the bottom B B at
C C. At the top of the fire pot an angle iron D D is riveted, as shown at a a. At
E is the elbow, beaded and flanged as shown respectively by b and e, while F
shows the damper in position.
The angle iron H
H, riveted as shown, supports the grate J J, while K shows
the opening for the ash pit door, around which grooves are riveted, into which the
door will slide as shown by e e. The opening for the fire door is at L and around
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 73
it grooves are riveted as indicated at/ j. The tar kettle M M is double seamed to
the bottom at N N, on the top of which an angle, O O, is shown by i i.
riveted as
The pitched cover P is seamed
to the collar, as shown by R R.

The handle S is riveted at m m.

The wheels and axle TUT are
fastened to the bottom of the fire

pot, as shown in Fig. 145, in

which A is part of the fire pot

and B the section of the axle,
v/hich is fastened to the bottom
by means of the angle C C,
riveting^at a a a a. The bal-

ance legs are shown at D D, one

being fastened on either side of
the fire pot and riveted at E and
E, which forms a pivot.
When the fire pot is to be

wheeled to a certain place the

legs I) D are raised, and after-
Sectional View of Fire Place anJ Kettle
Fig. 144.
war(J lowered, thus preventing

Fig. 147. The Grate Construction

Fig. 146 shows how the slides and grooves for the doors
the kettle from tipping.
L and K in Fig. 144 are constructed, while A A in Fig. 146 shows the part body
74 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

of the fire pot, cut out as shown from b to b. The riveted grooves are shown by
B B, in which the door C slides, D being a handle riveted at a a.

Fig. 147 shows the construction of the grate, which can be made from band
iron. The outside ring A A should be a trifle smaller than the inside diameter of
the angle iron ring D D in F.ig. 144, so that it can be removed when desired.

Three of the grate bars, as a a a in Fig. 147, are to project over the ring as shown,
these projections to rest on the angle iron H H in Fig. 144. The balance of the

grate bars, as b b b, etc., in Fig. 147, are riveted. It will be noticed that the angle
iron ring at the top of kettle in Fig. 144 restsupon the angle iron ring D D at the
top of the fire pot. This allows the kettle to be removed for cleaning purposes. If

desired, the fire pot and kettle can be made square, using the same construction,
which, however, can be modified to suit.

POINTS ON WORKING HEAVY SHEET IRON

The following is a description of how a power punching machine was used in

the working of heavy sheet iron. The method of making ice cans is used to illustrate
how such work was handled, and it will be seen that the equivalent of many of the

methods or operations can be applied to various other kinds of heavy work.

The cans were made of Nos. 16 and 18 galvanized iron, according to size, which
was governed by the weight of the block of ice to be frozen, 100 lb., 200 lb., or 300
lb., these being the commonest sizes of blocks. For the benefit of those who may
not be familiar with the manner in which the cans are used for making artificial ice,

it is stated that the large vat of salt water containing the ammonia filled freezing

pipes is floored over and openings left in the floor just the size of the can under the
heavy wrought iron stiffening band. Fig. 148 is a view of a typical can. The cans
are then filled with pure water and let down through the openings in the floor into
the solution of salt water underneath, and covered. As the temperature of this
solution can be and is reduced below 32 degrees, which is the freezing point, with-
out congealing, whereas the pure water congeals at 32 degrees, the result is a solid
block of ice in the can. The ice filled can is then raised, but by means of a travel-
ing overhead tackle with hooks inserted in the holes in the sides and placed under
a stream of warm water which melts the ice loose from the sides and bottom so the
block will slip out. The can is made slightly tapering to facilitate this, and it must
be perfectly smooth on the inside no ;
rivet heads, lumps of solder or buckles being
allowed to project at all.
Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 75

>4 Fig. 165

> Making of Ice Cans
 j6 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

One size of can was about 11 X 22 in. at the top and lOj^ X 21}^ in. at the
bottom and 44 in. high. Fig. 148 is a view of a completed can, which it will be

seen is made in two pieces, with seams at diagonally opposite corners. Fig. 149 is

a half pattern, Fig. 150 a horizontal section, Fig. 151 a vertical section and Fig.
152 a pattern of the bottom. The 1-in. edges, a, of the bottom, after being punched
for riveting, are turned down square, and then slipped into the bottom of the can
and riveted as indicated at Fig. 151.

The stiffening band was made of 1J4 x %-in. iron, laid out, punched, and
countersunk, as indicated in Fig. 153. was then formed up, as indicated in Fig.
It

154, with the countersunk ends of the holes on the inside of the band and joint a
welded. After the cans were formed and riveted together the stiffening bands were
slipped over the top, allowing the sheet metal to project about 5-16 in. above the
band. The can was then laid on a mandrel, as indicated in Fig. 155, and holes
punched through the sheet metal by hand for riveting on the bands. Fig. 156 is a
sectional view showing the form of punch used, which first punched a hole a
trifle smaller than the rivets to be used, and by added blows of the hammer drove

the sheet metal down into the countersink of the rivet holes in the band, so that
the countersunk head rivets used would be laid in flush with the inside of the can,
asshown in Fig. 157. Then the edge which was left projecting above the band
was laid over square on top of the band by a special die in the punching machine,
as indicated in Fig. 158.

The material was ordered of such a size that one complete can could be cut out
of a sheet, as indicated at Fig. 159, and the cutting was done with a 36-in. gap shear
by means of gauges, so that while the pattern was used to set the gauges by, no
marking was done on the sheets. The first operation was the cutting of the sheet in
half on the oblique line a a, Fig. 159. This was governed by gauges, b and Fig.
160, which were temporarily but securely tacked to the bench that sat in front of the
square shear and was permanently connected thereto. It will be seen that this cut
not only severed the sheet, but made the cut on both halves
c of pattern, Fig. 149,

of the can. The solid lines show how the pattern was laid on the bench and against
the blade of the square shear for setting the gauges, and the dotted lines represent
the sheet.
Fig. 161 indicates how the gauges were set for making cut e. As the side of
the can was about 44 in. long, while the square shear was 36 was necessary
in., it

after cutting the length of the blade on side e, to raise the material above the gauges,
and push it along for the second bite of the shear, which finished cut e. Fig. 162
indicates how cut d was made ;
Fig. 163 shows the arrangement for cutting /; Fig.
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 77
164 shows how g was cut. This completed a half side with the exception of notch
h, Fig. 149, which was cut with a special notcher in the punch machine. Notch h
was made the depth of the stiffening band plus the 5-16 in. edge, which was turned
over. Similar cuts of all made at one time. For instance,
similar pieces were
if 500 cans were being made, 1000 cuts would be made at each set of the gauges.
The sheets were punched for riveting by a gang punch die arrangement in the
punching machine Fig. 165 ;
is a front view of this, and Fig. 166 a longitudinal sec-
tional view on center line of punches. The rivet lapson the bottom and sides of
the cans were 1 in. wide and the center of the rivet holes was % In- from the edge.
In Figs. 165 and 166, a. is & gauge set * n back from the center of the holes in the
-

lower die b. The letter c is the stripper, made of % -in. thick sheet iron and
secured by screws d, which also secure gauge a to die plate b. It will be seen that
the punches were provided with countersunk heads and were laid into the upper
die plate e, which was attached to the plunger /.
The punching of the holes in the bottom of the can and in the bottom ends /
and g of the body of the can was comparatively simple, but great accuracy was
required in punching the holes for the side seams, as the slightest longitudinal dis-
crepancy resulted in a twisted can, and it requires much longer to melt the ice out
of a twisted can than one which is true. Breweries and factories usually reject
twisted cans. In order to avoid twisting, the two first holes, i and j, Fig. 149,
were accurately located, and made in the pattern, and after the sides were cut the
pattern was carefully laid on same, so that the edges would match perfectly, and
clamped in position, and the holes i and j machine punched through the holes in
the pattern ;
the pattern being reinforced around holes, i and j, by a %-in. thick-
ness of band iron.
When side e was being punched, holey was slipped over the projecting punch
gauge g, Figs. 165 and 166, the center of this punch gauge being located just one rivet
spacing from the first hole in die b (the rivets were spaced about 1% in. apart).

The plunger was then brought down punching 9 or 10 holes, as indicated, then the
sheet was pulled along, and the last hole punched at h, Fig. 165, was slipped over
the guide punch g and the operation repeated until the entire side was punched.
This process was repeated on the other side, starting with hole i. The bottom edges
/ and g of the body, Fig. 149, and the bottom piece, Fig. 152, were punched in a
similar manner, so that when the can was formed ready for riveting, all holes matched
perfectly. Countersunk head rivets were used.
The side seams of the cans were riveted by hand on a long mandrel. The
rivets were inserted in the manner indicated in Fig. 167, it being necessary to slip
78 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

the last rivet inserted onto the mandrel before putting in the next one, thus the
mandrel held the rivets in as fast as they were inserted, and the cans gradually
slipped onto the mandrel.

Method of Riveting and Soldering Ice Cana

It was found that if all the rivets were put in before being drawn and headed
up, the seam would be wavy on the inside, because when a rivet was set down as
at a, Fig. 168, the next rivet b, not having been drawn, held the material up,
which resulted in a kink and stretched the material so that it was difficult to get it
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 79
to lie smooth. It was, therefore, found best to draw and head up each rivet as it

was put in ;
one operator doing the riveting, while the other was inserting and
assisting in holding the can in position.

Fig. 169 is a sectional view showing the bottom of the rivet sets used. The
bottom of the cans was riveted in on the punching machine, as indicated in Fig.
170. Fig. 171 shows the gang set and header used under the plunger, as indicated
by a, Fig. 170. The rivets were inserted in the bottom by hand and secured by
clips,a and a, Fig. 172. Then the can was laid in position on the mandrel of
the punch, as shown in Fig. 172, and clips, a, pushed out of the way, as indicated
by lines, b. Clips a were made the same length as the gang-set. All the rivets
around the bottom were inserted and held in position by the clips before the can
was put into the machine for riveting. The stiffening bands were gang-riveted on
the top of the cans in the machine, in a similar manner, after which the edges were
turned over, as indicated in Fig. 158.
The solder for the side and bottom seams was cut up into small pieces, and
after the acid was applied these bits of solder were laid on the seam at intervals, as
indicated in Fig. 173. A heavy hatchet forged gas heated soldering copper, as
indicated in Fig. 173, was used for soldering the side seams on the inside of the
can, and a similarly heated bent chisel forged copper was used for soldering the

bottom seams on the inside of the can, as indicated in Fig. 174.

PATTERNS FOR IRREGULAR PIECED ELBOWS

This problem is how to obtain the true angle of the center elbow, B, shown in
Fig. 175; for a rule for the center elbow where A,B and C are any given angles,
and for the twist required for the elbows B and C to bring them in the proper
position to punch holes for rivets before putting together. ABC shows the ele-

the elbows, and A B C is the plan.

1 1 1
vation of Fig. 176 is a perspective view
of Fig. 175.

In Fig. 177, draw the plan and elevation of the center line of the elbow, as
shown. In this elevation A A B C
2 1
,
1 1
and C 1 C2 are the full size of the lines

they represent, so A B 1 1
is the only line the true length of which must be found.
The true angle atC 1
is shown, so it will be only necessary to determine the true
angles at A and B
1 1
. From A draw the horizontal line A D,
1 1
intersecting C*
C 1
,
extended at D. From B drop a line intersecting A D at E.
1 1
Equal to and
parallel to A B in plan draw A B
8 2
,
at right angles to which lay off B* B8 equal
8o Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

to E B 1
A B which is the true length of A B, or A B
in elevation. Draw 8 8
,
1 1
.

At right angles to B A draw A A equal to A A then will B 8 A A be the

a 8 8 4
,
1 2
;
8 4

true angle of the elbow A A B in elevation. On either side of the center line
2 1 1

B A A draw the pipe and the miter line 1'

8 8 4
as shown. 5',

Fig. 175. A Sketch of

the Problem

To obtain the true angle at B in elevation proceed as is shown in Fig. 178.

l

Draw any horizontal line, as A C, equal in length to a line drawn from A to C

in Fig. 177. Take the vertical hight from the points A to C in elevation, as D 1 1

C and place it in Fig. 178 on a line drawn from C at right angles to C A, as C

1
,

C 1
Draw C 1 A, the true length between A and C in plan in Fig. 177. The
.

true angle is obtained by using as radius A B in Fig. 177, and with A in Fig.
8 8

178 as center, describing the arc B. Then, with a radius equal to B C

1 1
in Fig.

177, and with C in Fig. 178 as a center, describe an arc intersecting the arc pre-
1

viously drawn at B. Draw a line from A to B to C 1 Then will A B C 1 be .

the true angle of the elbow shown by A B C in elevation in Fig. 177.

1 1 1

The next step is to construct a developed elevation in which the true miter
lines are obtained, as shown in Fig. 179. Take a tracing of A A B
4 8 8
in the
oblique elevation in Fig. 177, and place it as shown by A A B 1
in Fig. 179; then

take a tracing of the true angle A B C 1

in Fig. 178 and place it in Fig. 179,
placing the line A B of Fig. 178 over the line A B
1
in Fig. and obtain
179,

A B
1
C. As B C C1 1 a
in elevation in Fig. 177 is the true center line and angle of
that elbow, take a tracing of same, placing the line B C over the line B C in
1 1

Fig. and obtain B C n

179, Then will 1
B C C l be the developed center
G . A A
line with the true angles of the full elbow. On either side of the center line in
Fig. 179 lay off the half diameters and draw side and miter lines.

In its proper position draw the profile of the pipe A a

Assuming that the
.

seam is to come at the point 1 in the plan A in Fig. 177, divide A* in Fig. 179
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 81
into an equal number of parts, and start to number same on the shortest side of
the first piece of pipe, A A 1
,
as shown in plan at 1, which corresponds to point 1
in the plan A in Fig. 177. From the various intersections, 1 to 8 in plan, erect
lines into the elevation, cutting the miter line 1' 5', as shown from ;
which,, paral-
lel to A 1
B, draw lines intersecting the miter line 5", as shown. Continue
these lines parallel to the center lines in the other pieces of the elbow in the usual
way.

Fig. 178. True Angle at B 1 in Fig. 177 Fig. 179. Obtaining the Miter Lines and Patterns

now necessary to know how much the elbow B

It is will turn on the elbow
A 1
,
and how much the elbow C will turn upon the elbow B. To accomplish this
another operation in projection is necessary, and is shown in Fig. 180, in which
the center line A A B C C is a reproduction of A A B C C in Fig. 177.
0 x 1 8 1 l 1 8

Take a tracing of the plan A with the intersections 1 and 5 on same and place it
directly under A A° in Fig. 180, as shown, the point 1 representing the shortest
x
8a Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

side of the lower arm of the elbow. Take a tracing of A 4

T A8 5' in Fig. 177,
which is similar to A T A 1
5' in Fig. 179, and place it as shown by A 4 T A3 5'
in Fig. 180, being careful to have the points A 4
and A 8
meet the horizontal lines
drawn from the points A° and
1

A x
,
respectively. Directly below A 4
draw the
plan A 1
,
which divide into the same num-
ber of spaces as the plan A, being careful
to have 1 come directly below T.
From the various intersections in A 1

in Fig. 180 erect lines intersecting the

miter line T 5', from which intersections,
at right angles to A8 A 4
,
draw lines,

which intersect with lines drawn parallel

to A 1
A° from similar numbered intersec-
tions in A, resulting in the intersections
1 to 8 in Ax . Through these points trace

the ellipse shown, which is the miter line

in elevation. With the use of this miter
line the amount can be obtained that the
elbow B in Fig. 179 will turn upon the
elbow A 1
,
there being in this problem a
continuous seam. From the center line
A 1
on the first miter line 5' T draw a line
through the lowest point of the second miter line at 1", which represents the line

of the seam, and extend it until it intersects the center line B C at e. At right angles
to B C, from 1", draw the line 1" / intersecting B C at /. Now take the distances
from Btojf and / to e and place them on similar center line in Fig. 180, as shown. It

must be remembered that Fig. 180 is a projection, and while B C in Fig. 180, in
this case, shows the true length of B C in Fig. 179, it will not do so in most instances.
If it does not, it is necessary to lay off the true distances B / and B e on the true

length of B C, and then project the points properly on B C in Fig. 180. Draw a
line from e to point A x
,
which represents the similar point A 1
in Fig. 179. Then
in Fig. 180, from/, at right angles to the line, not the projection of, B C, draw / 1°,

which will intersect Ax e at 1°, the same relative position in elevation as 1" in Fig.
179. From the point 1° in Fig. 180 parallel to the center line B Ax ,
draw aline
intersecting the miter line shown by the ellipse at a between 3 and 4. From a drop
a line into the plan intersecting the circle a The point . a indicates the amount
that the second elbow will be turned upon the lower one that — is, from 1 to a'.
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 83

The next step is to find how much the upper elbow will be twisted upon the
middle elbow. From 1° in elevation parallel to the center line B C draw 1° 1.

Now, with any point on the line B C, as B 2

,
as center, and radius equal to A 1 in
plan, describe the circle B 2
,
intersecting 1° 1 at 1. Then will this point 1 repre-
sent a in plan and be numbered 1 in the profile B 2
. Divide B2 into eight equal
parts. An operation in projection is now required to find the miter line of the
middle elbow. Parallel and equal to A B x
draw the line D E, as shown. At right
angles to D E erect E F, equal in distance to b B in plan in Fig. 177. Draw a line
from F to D in Fig. 180, which equals A B in Fig. 177, or A B in Fig. 179. Now 3 a 1

take a tracing of 6' 5" B 1" Y A and place in Fig. 180, placing the center line A B
1
it
1

upon the center line D F, and obtain the miter line 5" 1". Draw the profile B 1
.

Through c draw a horizontal line, as 1 5, and divide the circle also into eight
equal parts, starting to number at the shortest side of the pipe. From the various
intersections in B 1
in Fig. 180 draw lines parallel to G D, intersecting 1" 5". From
these intersections, at right angles to A x
B, draw lines, which intersect with lines
drawn parallel to B C in elevation from similar numbers in the profile B2 , result-

ing in the intersections 1° to 8°. Trace an ellipse through these points.

It will be noticed that a line drawn from 1" in the oblique elevation meets the
point 1° in elevation previously obtained on the line Ax e from/. As the upper
angle of the elbow is the true angle similar to the upper angle in Fig. 179, then
x x
will the seam line or point 1"'
be represented in Fig. 180 by l ,
and l 5 X will be
the true miter line, and no operation in projection will be necessary. If, however,
this elbow was drawn so as not to show the true angle, then to find how much
the upper elbow in Fig. 180 would turn upon the center one would require an oper-
ation similar to that used in connection with the turning of the center elbow on the
1"'
lower one. Then the point b will represent the seam line of the elbow, in Fig.
179, and the upper elbow will be turned upon the center one a distance equal to 1 b
in the profile B 1
or B* in Fig. 180.
The final step is to develop the patterns, as shown in Fig. 179. At right
angles to A B draw the line D
1
E, upon which place the stretchout of the plan A 2
,

as shown by similar figures on E D. At right angles to E D and through the

small figures draw a line, which intersect with lines drawn at right angles to A B 1

from similar numbered intersections on the miter line 1' 5'. Through points thus
obtained trace a line, as shown by F G, which is the miter cut for the lower elbow.
Now take the distance from 3 to a' in the plan A in Fig. 180 and place it in Fig.
179 on the line E D, between the points 3 and 4, shown from 3 to a.
as Parallel

to E D draw any line, aB 6 7, at right angles to which from a draw a line intersect-
 :

84 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

ing the line 6 7 at 1. Then starting from 1 layoff similar stretchout as on E T),

as shown from 1 to 7 and 1 to 6, allowing the spaces to project over the lines 1 and
T on E D. At right angles to 7 6, from the various intersections on same, draw
lines, which intersect by lines drawn at right angles to A B
1
from similar numbered
intersections on the miter line 1" 5". A line traced through points thus obtained,
as shown by H I, will be the miter cut for the middle elbow. Extend the lines
F T and G 1 in the pattern, as shown, respectively, by F H and G I, intersecting
the miter cut H I at II and I, respectively. Then- will F G I H be the pattern
for the piece A B1
in elevation, with the upper miter cut H I in its proper posi.
tion to give the middle elbow the required twist over the lower one.
If the piece A B 1
requires a joint in the middle and holes are to be punched
before rolling, then mark off the holes, as many as required, as shown by r, s, t

and ?«, and parallel to the lines of the pipes carry them across on the upper cut H I,

as shown by r, s', t' and u. Then when the pieces are rolled up and fitted hole
over hole the elbows will be twisted in their proper position.
For the pattern arm of the first elbow take the distance h T and
for the lower

place it in the pattern, as shown by G 1 and F T, and draw a line from 1 to T.

Then will 1‘ F G 1 be the pattern for A A with the seam on the shortest side.
1

H 1 7' 7' 1
I is a reproduction of H 7 7 I in the pattern for the second piece. For
the opposite cut of the third piece proceed by a method similar to that by which
the second piece was determined. The method of punching in this piece is shown
by v w x y and v w x y. For the pattern for the upper arm, C C 1
,
proceed as
in the pattern for the first piece. In the patterns shown the seam will run along
the bottom from h to i in a continuous line. Laps must be allowed.

PATTERNS FOR A FORGE HOOD

To obtain the patterns of a hood for a forge similar to that shown in Fig. 181,

the hood is bolted to the forge at A and seamed at B and C. Proceed as follows
The methods for obtaining the patterns are shown in Fig. 182, in which A B
C D E F is the elevation of the hood, G being the plan view on E H, and M and
N the plan views of F C and A B, respectively.
The lower part of the hood, shown by F C D E, will be developed first.

Divide one half of the profile G into equal spaces, as shown from 1 to 7, and from
the points 1 to 4, or as much as is taken up by the curve C D in elevation, erect
vertical lines cutting the curve as shown from C to D. Establish an extra point a\
 :

Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 85

from which drop a vertical line intersecting the profile G at a. Extend the line
E D as H J, and then, on it place the full girth of the profile G, as shown by

Pig. 182. Plan, Elevation and Patterns

The pattern for the upper part of the hood A B C F is obtained as follows
Extend F A and C B until they intersect at P. P is then the apex of a scalene
cone, the apex shown in plan by 14. Divide the semicircle M into equal spaces,
as shown from 8 to 14, and with 14 as center and radii equal to 14 13, 14 12,

14 11, 14 10 and 14 9, draw arcs intersecting the center line 8 14 as shown,

from which points lines are carried vertically to the elevation, cutting the base of
 :

86 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

the cone F C at 8', 9', 10' to 14'. From the various points 8' to 14' draw radial
lines to P, cutting the line AB as shown.
These various radial lines give the true lengths or radii to develop the pattern
shown by (R). Therefore, with P as center and radii equal to P 14' to P 8' draw
1

arcs in (R) as shown by similar numbers. Now set the dividers equal to one of
the equal spaces in plan M, and starting from arc 14' in (R) step to arc 13', then to
12' and so on until the arc 8' has been intersected on both sides. From these points
draw radial lines to P which intersect by arcs having radii of similar numbers,
1
,

obtained from P in the elevation, to various intersections on A B. For example,

using P 8" as radius, and P in (R) as center, intersect the radial lines 8' P on
1 1

both sides at 8" 8". Through points thus obtained trace the pattern shown by
8' 8'', 8" 8', to which edges are allowed for seaming and riveting.

PATTERN FOR SHEET IRON FORGE HOOD

In Fig. 183 shown a perspective view of a forge hood in which A is the
is

forge hood, connected to the round smoke pipe at C and bolted to the forge at P>.
In developing this style hood, a lot of time and drawing can be saved by following
the short, accurate rule given in the following two
figures

Let A B C D E in Fig. 184 be the side elevation

of the forge hood, the plan of which on A B, is shown
by F and the partial section on E D is shown by G H.
Bisect both plans as shown by the dotted lines a b and
c d. The pattern will be developed without the use of
a plan, for if a plan was used it would be necessary to
project a horizontal section into the plan from the line
Fig. 183. View of Forge Hood
C D in elevation, which is to be avoided when both
halves of the article are symmetrical.
The short rule is shown in Fig. 185, in which 1, 5, 6, 9" 13 is a reproduction
of A B C D E in Fig. 184. Take a tracing of the half plan a b F and c dG
and place it shown by a and c, respectively.
in Fig. 185 as
Obtain a true section on the line 6 9'', as follows: Draw the perpendicular
9" 9 equal to 9'' 9', and at pleasure draw any desired sweep or shape as shown by

6 8 9. It should be understood that this shape can be made at will, so long as

the distance 9" 9 is equal to 9" 9'. Divide the curves in the semisections b and o
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 87
into equal spaces (two in each) and divide the semisection a into as many spaces
as contained in b and c (in this case four). Number these points 1 to 5 in a,
6 to 9 in b and 9' to 13 in c. At right angles to 1 5, 6 9" and 9''
13 and from the
various divisions in the semisections a, b and c draw lines intersecting respectively
the lines 1 5, 6 9" and 9''
13, as shown by similar numbers. Connect the various
points by dotted and solid lines, as shown.
The next step is to obtain the true lengths of the solid and dotted lines shown
in A, as shown respectively in diagrams B and C. In A, 1 13 and 5 6 show their
true lengths. To obtain the true length of 2' 11' in A, take that distance and place

Detail of Forge Hood Fig. 185. Developing Pattern for Forge Hood

it as shown by 2' 11' in B. Erect the perpendiculars 2' 2 and 11' 11, equal re-
spectively to similar numbers in the semisections a and c in A. Then 2 11 in B
is the true length of that numbered line in A. In this manner all of the true
lengths of the solid lines are obtained in B and that of the dotted lines in C, as
shown by similar numbers.
 88 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

For the pattern in which the seam is to come on 5 6 in A, proceed as shown in

I). Draw the vertical line 1 13 equal to 1 13 in A. With 13 12 in c as radius
and 13 in D as center draw the arc 12, which intersect by an arc struck from 1 as
center and 1 12 in B as radius. Now with radius equal to 1 2 in a and 1 in D as
center draw the arc 2, which intersect by an arc struck from 12 as center and 12 2
in C as radius. With radius equal to 12 11 in c and 12 in D as center, draw the
arc 11, which intersect by an arc struck from 2 as center and 2 11 in B as radius.

Proceed in this manner, using alternately the divisions in a, the true lengths in C,
the divisions in c and the true lengths in B until the line 3 9 in D is obtained.
With radius equal to 9 8 in b and 9 in D as center, draw the arc 8, which intersect
by an arc struck from 3 as center and 3 8 in B as radius. Proceed as before, using
alternately first the divisions in b, the true lengths in C, the divisions in a and the
true lengths in B, until the line 5 6 in D is obtained, being measured from 5 6 in
A. Then 1 569 13 in D is the half pattern, and when traced opposite 1 13, as

shown by 3° 5° 6° 9°, will complete the full pattern, to which edges must be
allowed for seaming and riveting.

PATTERN FOR THREE-WAY BRANCH

The branch for which the pattern is to be developed is shown in Fig. 186,
where A is the inlet, and B, C and D the three outlets or branches. In Fig. 187 is
shown the plan and elevation of the three-way branch, the lines of the joints being
indicated by I J and J K. The opening on the line A B is shown by L M N 0,
on C D by P R S T, and on E F by U V X. W
The section on H G is represented by Y Z Y Z while 1 l
,

A B C D E F
1 l l 1 l l
are plan views of the three openings.

Draw the line in plan from H to Z to J 1 and from 1

,

K‘ to Z 1 to L1 which will represent the plan view on

,

The Finished Branch

Fig. 180.
each side, taken on the dotted lines N 1
J W 1
in eleva-
tion. Knowing the hight and the width at the bottom, the shape can be estab-
lished at pleasure, as in Fig. 188, where I J equals I J of the elevation, Fig. 187.
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 89
At right angles to I J in Fig. 188 draw the line Z Z through J, making J Z and 1 1

J Z equal to J G or J H in elevation, Fig. 187, or equal to & Z or <fc Z 1 in plan.

Through the points Z I Z in Fig. 188 draw any desired elliptical figure, as shown,
1

which will represent a true section on I J or J K in elevation, Fig. 187.

Only one pattern will be required, also a separate pattern for the center
branch, both of which will be developed by triangulation.
To obtain the measurements for the sections for the center branch proceed as
shown in Fig. 189, where 14 4 5 9 5' 4' is a reproduction of O 1 C I J K D in
elevation, Fig. 187. As the four quarters of this center branch are alike, only one
quarter pattern will be developed; then, if desired, the quarter patterns can be
joined together, forming one pattern. Take a tracing of the quarter profile TQP
and place it as shown by 4 14 1 in Fig. 189. In similar manner take a tracing of
1
the section I J Z in Fig. 188 and place it as shown by 5 9 8 in Fig. 189. Divide
the profile 1 4 into equal spaces, and in similar manner divide the profile 5 8 into
the same number of spaces. In practice more spaces should be employed than are
here shown, for the closer the divisions are made the more accurate will be the
pattern.
At right angles to 4 4' and 5 9 and from intersections on the curve 1 4 and
5 8 draw lines as shown, intersecting the lines 4 4' and 5 9 at 12 and 13, and 10
and 11 respectively. Draw solid lines from 12 to 11, 13 to 10, 14 to 9, and dotted
lines from 12 to 5, 13 to 11 and 14 to 10. Then will these solid and dotted lines

represent the bases of sections which will be constructed, and the altitudes of which
will be equal to the hights shown in the profiles. Thus in Fig. 190 draw the line

9 14, equal to 9 14 in Fig. 189; at right angles to 9 14 in Fig. 190 draw the lines
9 8 and 14 1', equal to 9 8 and 14 1 in Fig. 189. Draw aline from 8 to 1 in Fig.

190, which represents the actual distance on the finished article on similar line in

Fig. 189. Proceed in precisely the same manner for the balance of the sections.

For the sections on dotted lines in Fig. 189 proceed in the same manner as
described in Fig. 190. For example, take the distance 10 14 in Fig. 189 and
place it shown by 10 14 in Fig. 191. At right angles to 10 14 from points
as
10 14 draw the lines 10 7 and 14 1, equal to 10 7 and 14 1 in Fig. 189. Draw a
line from 7 to 1 in Fig. 191, which will represent the actual distance on the finished

article on similar line in Fig. 189. Having now the necessary measurements in
Figs. 189, 190 and 191, the pattern is obtained in Fig. 192 as follows:

Draw any vertical line, as 1 8 in Fig. 192 equal to 1 8 in Fig. 190. With 8 7
in Fig. 189 as radius and 8 in Fig. 192 as center describe the arc 7. Then, with
1 7 in Fig. 191 as radius and 1 in Fig. 192 as center describe an arc intersecting
9° Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

the arc 7. Again using 1 as center and 1 2 in Fig. 189 as radius describe the arc
2 in Fig. 192. Then, using 2 7 as radius in Fig. 190, and 7 as center in Fig. 192,
describe an arc intersecting the arc 2. Proceed in this manner, using, alternately,
first the divisions in the profile 5 8 of Fig. 189, then the length of the slant lines
in Fig. 191, the divisions in the profile 1 4 of Fig. 189, then the length of the
slant lines in Fig. 190, until all the points in the pattern in Fig. 192 have been
obtained. Trace a line, as shown by 1 4 5 8, which will be one quarter of the
pattern.

p i

of Triangles

tf the pattern is desired in one piece, then trace opposite the lines 1 8, 4' 5,
"
and 1' 8'. Then will 4 4" 5 8' 8 5 4 be the full pattern for the center branch.
As the two side branches are alike one pattern will answer for the two. In
Fig. 193 let 1 7 8 12 1G be a reproduction of EFGJ K in elevation, Fig. 187.
Take a tracing, shown by X U V in elevation, Fig. 187, and place it as shown by
7 4 1 of Fig. 193. In similar manner take a tracing of I J Z' in Fig. 188 and
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 91
Y T
Z1 & in plan in Fig. 187 and place them as shown by 8 12 11 and 16 13 12
respectively in Fig. 193. Divide the two lower profiles 8 11 and 13 16 each into
three equal spaces, and the upper profiles 1 7 into six equal spaces, as shown by

10 11 3 12 ia 14

Fig. 191. Diagram of

Dotted Lines of Fig. 189

the small figures 1 to 16. At and from the

right angles to 1 7, 8 12 and 12 16,
small figures in the profiles, draw lines intersecting the lines 1 7, 8 12 and 12 16
respectively, at points 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18 and 17. Draw solid lines from 20
to 21, 19 to 22, 12 to 23, 18 to 24 and 17 to 25, and dotted lines from 8 to 21, 20

to
r ^ *
14 4
tt

» »
i r_»21
i

tr it s
„i i

t^arnsi
i j
«
1— l

os
,

Fig. 198. Diagram of Dotted Line* of Fig. 198

to 22, 19 to 23, 18 to 23, 17 to 24 and 16 to 25. Then will these solid and dotted
lines represent the bases of sections, the altitudes or hights of which will be
obtained from the vertical lines in the three profiles.
 92 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

In Fig. 194 are shown the sections on the solid lines in Fig. 193, and in Fig.
195 the sections on dotted lines in Fig. 193. These sections are obtained in precisely
the same manner as was described in connection with Figs. 190 and 191, and will

not be further explained here. Similar num-

bers in Figs. 194 and 195 correspond to
similar numbers in Fig. 193.
In Fig. 196 shown the pattern shape
is

for the side branch shown in Figs. 187 and

193, and is obtained in the same manner as
described in connection with Fig. 192. First

draw any vertical line, as 1 16 in Fig. 196,

equal to 1 16 in Fig. 193. Then use alter-

nately as radii first the spaces in the profile 1 7

Fig. 196.Method of Developing the Pattern of . t 1
Side Arms from the Diagram of Triangles ID .r lg. 19o, tnGD til6 iGHgtll Of tll0 SlRDt 11D68

in Fig. 195, the spaces in the profile 13 16 in Fig. 193, then the length of the
slant lines in Fig. 194, until the line 4 11 or 13 in pattern in Fig. 196 has been
obtained. Starting from the point 13 11 in pattern, use alternately as radii first

the divisions in the profile 11 8 in Fig. 193, then the length of the slant lines in
Fig. 195, the divisions in the profile from 4 to 7 in Fig. 193, then the length of
the slant lines in Fig. 194, the line 7 8 in the pattern in Fig. 196 being obtained
from 7 8 in Fig. 193. A line traced through points thus obtained in Fig. 196, as
shown by 1 7 8 11 13 16, will be the half pattern. Trace the other half opposite
line 1 16, which will complete the full pattern for side branches. Laps to be
allowed for riveting or seaming.

PATTERNS FOR TAPERING FORK

In the following method of how to lay out the patterns for the tapering fork
shown in Fig. 197, A B C D E is the elevation of the fork, F being the diameter
through E, and H and G the sections through A and D. The patterns for the
pieces A and D are obtained the same as for any elbow piece, while E is simply a
straight piece of pipe. The two forks B and C are of different sizes, but their pat-
terns are developedby the same principles, the section on a b being the same in
both forks. Similarly, if two or more pieces were used for the elbow or if the pipes
H and G had their axis parallel with the axis of pipe F.
In Fig. 198 C D is an enlarged reproduction of C D in Fig. 197. Construct
the half sections on 1" 7" and 1 7 by the usual method, as shown. Then, with
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 93
11 ' in C as center, describe the semicircle 8 1111". At pleasure draw any desired
curve, as 11" 12 14, representing the half section on a b in Fig. 197. Divide the
profiles L, F and J into the number of spaces shown, and draw perpendiculars to

Fig. 197. The Fork and Flbows Fig. 198. Obtaining Measurements for Sections

Fig. 200. Sections on Dotted Lines in Fig. 198 Fig. 201. The Pattern Shape

the base lines. From these points draw the solid and dotted lines shown. These
represent the bases, and the various lines in the profiles L, F, J the altitudes of the
sections which are constructed in and 200 by the usual method.
Figs. 199 This
being completed, proceed to lay out the pattern, as shown in Fig. 201.

REDUCING OFFSET IN PIPE WORK

In the shown to what use a reducer is put. The
illustration Fig. 202, is

reducer is shown by A and joins the large and small pipes at b and a. The joints at
a and b are on horizontal lines, each being locked as shown at e, or they can be
riveted, when heavy metal is used. The reducer can be developed the same as a
scalene cone as shown. All unnecessary drawings are omitted, using only such
lines as are actually required.
Draw the side view of the offset with the proper projection, hight and top and
 94 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

bottom diameters, as shown by 1" 5" 5 Extend the lines 1

Pig. 203. 1" and
1,

5 5" until they intersect at A. Now extend the base line 1 5 and intersect it by a
line drawn from the apex A at right angles to 1 5 at A 1
. Draw
( t
the one half section on shown by 1 3 5, which divide
1 5 as

VmK * * n *° e 0 ua l 8 aces as shown. With A 1 as center and radii equal

/ // M ^
P
ar*d A 1 2, draw arcs intersecting the base line
1 5 at 2' 3' and 4', from which points draw lines to the apex A

intersecting the upper line 1" 5" at 2", 3" and 4".
Using A as center, with radii equal to A 1 ,
A 2', A 3', A 4'
and A 5, draw arcs as shown. Set the dividers equal to one of
Fig. 202.^ General^ View the spaces in the half section and, starting on arc 5 or wherever ,

it is desired to have the seam, step from one arc to another as shown by 5 to 4
to 3 to 2 to 1, and then again to 5. From these email figures draw radial lines to
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 95
A, which intersect at 5° to 1° to 5° by arcs, struck from the center A, with radii

equal to the various divisions on the line 1" 5". A line traced through these points
as shown by 5 5° 1° 5° 5 1 5 will be the net pattern for the reducer.
Laps are allowed for seaming or riveting as shown by the dotted lines. If the
reducer is made from heavy metal (which is usually riveted), allowance must be
made for the thickness of the metal used, as follows Take twice the girth of the
:

half section and place it on the vertical line 1 X as shown from 1 T to 5 to 1. Assum-
ing that the thickness of the metal in use is % in. , then take 7 or seven times
the thickness of the metal in use and place shown from 1 to X. Using 1 T as
it as
center and 1
T
X as radius, draw an arc, which intersect by the perpendicular drawn
x v
from 1 at 1*. Draw a line from l to l ,
and erect perpendiculars from points 2,
T T
3, etc., thus obtaining 2 ,
3 ,
etc. Then, instead of using the spaces in the half

section to step off in the pattern as we have just done, one of the spaces on the
x T
slant line l 1 is used. This gives the necessary allowance to the girth on 5 1 5
in the pattern, after which proceed as before in obtaining the upper cut, 5° 1° 5°.

This same rule also applies to making the necessary allowance for the thickness of
the metal in the straight pipes a and b of the perspective sketch, Fig. 202.

RECTANGULAR AND OVAL PIPE FORK

The following is a method of finding miter lines of a rectangle running into an
oval that is offset two ways, the opening to have same capacity at both miter con-
nections. In this connection it may be proper to say that no matter what size the
opening is at either inlet or outlet, or what form the article has, the principles here-

inafter described are applicable to any case. In Fig. 204 letABCDEFGbe

the elevation of the offset, E H and B C. Let I J K L
the seams being at G A,
be the plan of the rectangular baee on the line A B in elevation, and M N O P
the section of the oval on G F of one of the arms, while D C on the opposite arm
has the same section. Though the plan is not necessary, so far as the pattern is

concerned, the method of drawing it is given so that the student will understand its
construction, if the occasion should arise. Bisect the short sides of the rectangle

I L and J K in plan at points O 1

and O*, through which draw indefinitely the line
M 1
M*.
Now, at right angles to A B in elevation, and from points F and G, drop lines
intersecting the line M 1
M* in plan at points M 1
and O 1
. At right angles to G F
in elevation extend the center line N P in oval section, meeting G F at R. From
R at right angles to A B drop a line indefinitely into plaq, as R P 1
. Take the
96 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

distance X N or X P in oval section, and, measuring from the center line M 1

M*
in plan, place the distance on the lineP R, as shown by P and N
1 1 1
. Then
through M N
1 1
O P 1 l
draw the figure shown. From R in elevation draw lines to

SECTION ON 13-16

SECTIONS IN
1-2-16

SECTIONS JN
8-9-16
IN
DIAGRAM S

Fig. 204. Plan, Elevation, Measurements for Sections and Diagrams

A, H and E, representing the lines of the transition. In similar manner connect

similar lines in plan. As the two arms are symmetrical, trace similar lines opposite
in plan and elevation. Then will M N
1 1
O P L
1 1
E* K 0* M® J E 1
1 be the plan of
the offset when viewed from the top.
As the pattern for one arm will answer for both, in diagram S let 1 2 8 9 13
be a reproduction of E D C B H in elevation. Take a tracing of MN0 in the
oval section and place it in diagram S, as shown by 2 5 8. In similar manner take
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 97
a tracing of E l
J O 2
W in plan and place it as shown by 13 9 10 11’ in diagrams.
It will now be necessary to obtain a section on E H in elevation, or 1 13 in dia-
gram S; therefore from 1 and 13 and at right angles to 1 13 draw the lines 1 12
and 3 11, equal in length to 13 11', as shown by the quarter circle, which is the
one half width, E W, in plan. Draw a line from 12 to 11 in diagram S. Then
1

will 1 13 11 12 be the half section on E H in elevation or W E 1

in plan. Divide
the half oval 2 5 8 in diagram S into equal spaces, as shown by the small figures
2 3 4 5 0 7 and 8, from which at right angles to 2 8 draw lines intersecting 2 8
at 14 15 10 17 and 18. From points 2 14 15 and 16 draw lines to point 1.

From 16 draw a line to i3. and from points 16 17 18 and 8 draw lines to 9. Then
will these lines represent the bases and the three sections on 2 8, 1 13 and 13 9
the altitudes, with which to construct the sections used in obtaining the pattern.
In diagram T draw any line, as 13' 16', equal to 13 16 in diagram S, and at
right angles to 13' 16' in T draw the line 13' 11” and 16' 5', equal to 13 11 and 16 5
in diagram 8. Draw the line 11" 5' in T, which will be the actual distance on the
finished article on 13 16 in S. In similar manner draw any line, as 1' 16’ in dia-

gram U, upon which place the various lengths shown in diagram S by 1 2, 14, 15
and 16, as shown in diagram U by 1' 2', 14' 15' and 16'. At right angles to
1', and from points T 14' 15' and 16', draw the lines 1' 12', 14' 3', 15' 4’ and

16' 5', equal in length

to 1 12, 14 3, 15 4 and
16 5 respectively in
diagram S. Then draw
lines in diagram U, as
shown by 12' 2’, 12' 3',

12' 4' and 12' 5', which

will represent the act-

ual distances on lines

having similar num-
bers in S. Proceed in
Fig. 205. The Pattern Shape
precisely the same
manner for sections in 8 shown in diagram V by similar figures.
9 16, as

For the pattern proceed as follows Draw any vertical line in Fig. 205, as
:

1 2, equal to 1 2 in diagram S in Fig. 204. Take the distance from 1 to 12 and

place it from 1 to 12 in Fig. 205 at right angles to 2 1. Draw the line from 2 to

12,' which will equal 2

'
12' in diagram U in Fig. 204. Now with radii equal to 12'

3', 12' 4' and 12' 6', and with 12 in Fig. 205 as center, describe arcs, as shown by
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns
oval in
3 4 and 6. Set the compasses equal to the spaces into which the half
rlmgm m S in Fig. 204 is divided, as shown by 3 4 and 5, and starting at 2 in

Pig. 209. Sections on Dotted Lines in Fig. 207 Fig. 210. The Pattern Shape for One Arm

Fig. 205 intersect the arc 3, then use 3 as center and intersect the arc 4, then 4 as
center and intersect 5 and draw a line from 5 to 12. With 12 as oenter, and 12 11
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 99
in S in Fig. 204 as radius describe the arc 1 1 in Fig. 205. Then with 5 as center, and
5' 11" in diagram T in Fig. 204 as radius,
intersect the arc 11 in Fig. 205, as shown.
Next, using 11 as center, and IT 10 in S in Fig. 204 as radius, describe the
arc 10 in Fig. 205, which intersect with an arc struck from 5 as center, and 5' 10’
in diagram V in Fig. 204 as radius.
With radii equal to 10' 6', 10' 7' and 10' 8', and 10 in Fig. 205 as center,
describe the arcs 6 7 and 8, which intersect with divisions equal to 6 7 and
8 in the half oval in S in Fig. 204. With 8 9 as radius, and 8 in Fig. 205 as
center, describe the arc 9, which intersect with an arc struck from 10 as- center,
with a radius equal to 10 9 in S in Fig. 204. Trace a line through intersections
thus obtained in Fig. 205, then will 1 2 6 8 9 10 11 12 be the half pattern.
Trace the other half opposite the line 1 2, then will 8 1
5 1
2 5 8 9 10 11 12 1
1 1 1
12 ll 10* 9 be tho full patttern.

In Fig. 206shown a similar fork, excepting that the section of the large pipe is
is

oval, or rather rectangular with semicircular ends. The principles of developing the
patterns are identical to the foregoing and as shown in Figs. 207, 208, 209 and 210.

FINDING THE TRUE ANGLE IN A FLARING OBJECT

To find the true angle between the flaring sides of an irregular hopper, proceed
OBLIQUE ELEVATION as follows
K : In the illustration, Fig. 211,
A B C D represents the base of the hop-
per and E F G H the top. It is now
desired to find the true angle between
the sides E F B A and G F B C,
which join on the hip line B F. Draw
o c at right angles to the hip line F B
in plan. Then construct an oblique
elevation on F B in plan in which the
true length of one of the hips will be
shown, as follows: Parallel to F B
draw F B 1 1
which intersect by two
,

lines drawn from F and B in plan at

right angles to F B. Extend F F 1
to
K, making F 1
K equal to the hightof
the hopper in elevations. Draw K B 1
,

which is the true length of the hip. At right angles to F B extend c o, meeting
F B
1 1
at b\ From this point, at right angles to K B l
,
draw b’ e. Through b\
 .

IOO Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

parallel to K B 1
,
draw a c', making b' a' and b' c equal respectively to b a and
b c in plan. Connect the points v' to e to c' Then will the shaded portion a' e c

be the true angle between the sides of the hopper a and c at right angles to the hip
line in plan and oblique elevation, e' in plan is obtained by dropping a line par-
allel to c b’ from e, and a e' c in plan is the horizontal projection of the true

angle, but it is not necessary to find this in practice.

SOME SHORT RULES FOR DEVELOPING PATTERNS

Fig. 212 shows an elbow at any angle, the rise of the miter line of which is equal
to a b and its section is a rectangle, as shown by A. To obtain this pattern by
l «

Fig. 212. Elbow at Any Angle Fig. 213. Pattern for Elbow Shown in Fig. 212

the short rule take the girth of A and place it on the proper size sheet of metal, as

shown from 1 to 1 in Fig. 213, the seam in this case to come on the corner 1 in

Fig. 214. Cylinder on Inclined Roof Fig. 215. Pattern for Cylinder on Inclined Roof

A in Fig. 212. Make 1 A

and 1 B in Fig. 214 equal to the length of the end
piece on the throat side and draw a line from A to B. Take the rise of the miter
 ;

Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns IOI

line a b in Fig. 212 and place shown from b to a in Fig. 213, and through
it, as
a draw the horizontal line c d. A e c d B is then the desired cut. Take the
distance A 1 and place it, as shown by c i, and through i draw the line D C
1 A a B 1 is then the pattern for the end piece and A a B C D the one half

pattern for the middle piece, which, however, can be made any desired length.
By tracing 1 1 C D opposite the line C D the full patterns are obtained, to
which edges must be allowed for seaming and riveting.
Fig. 214 shows how to obtain the pattern for a cylinder fitting on an inclined
roof. A represents the cylinder and B C the pitch of the roof. From D at right

angles to the pipe draw I) a. Then a b becomes the rise of the miter line. Now
cut a piece of metal equal to the girth of the round pipe A, to which edges have
been allowed, as shown by 1 1° D B in Fig. 215, and divide the girth 11° into
any convenient number of even spaces. Use the metal T-square and erect lines,

as shown. Place the rise b a, in Fig. 215, as shown, from 1 to 7’ in Fig. 215.
Bisect 1 7' and obtain d which use , as a center and describe the semicircle 1 4' 7',

which divide into half as many spaces as contained in 1 1°, as shown by similar
figures. With the metal T-square from the various intersections in A intersect
vertical lines previously drawn. Through these intersections draw the miter cut
1 C 1°. Then B 1 C 1° D is the desired pattern. The rule given in Fig. 215
can be applied whether the pipe A in Fig. 214 is square, rectangular or round.

Fig. 216. Cylinder on Doable Pitched Roof Fig. 217. Pattern for Cylinder on Double Pitohed Roof

In Fig. 216 shown the cylinder A mitering on a double pitched roof, shown
is

by B O D. From C draw the horizontal line C a. Then a b is the rise of the

miter line. Obtain the girth of A in the usual manner and cut a piece of metal of
the required size, as shown in Fig. 217. Space the girth into an even number of
 :

102 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

spaces, as shown from 1 to 4, 4 to 1’, 1

' to 4” and 4 to 1
" ,
and with the
metal T-square draw lines, as shown. Take the distance from b to a, in Fig.

216, and place it, as shown, from b to a, in Fig. 217. With a as a center and a b
as radius draw the quarter circle ah 4' which divide into one fourth as many
spaces as there are spaces in 1 1 From the various intersections in the quarter
circle draw lines parallel to 1 1" until they meet similar vertical lines, as shown.
A line traced through points thus obtained, as shown by a C D, will be the
desired pattern. In the previous problem, Fig. 215, a semicircle was used, because
the cylinder intersected a roof of one inclination, as shown in Fig. 214. In this
problem but one quarter of a circle is used because the cylinder A, in Fig. 216,
miters against a double pitched roof. This is easily proved by extending the line
D C, in Fig. 216, until it cuts the side of the cylinder at e. From e draw a line

to c. Now c a and a b are equal, and a would be the center point with which
to draw the semicircle, radius of which is equal to a b or a c, as was done in Fig.

215. In Fig. 217 a quarter circle is only used, because C b, in Fig. 21G, is one
half of b e.

When a roof flange is required to fit around a cylinder butting against a single
or double pitched roof a simple and quick method for obtaining same is shown in

Fig. 219. Let A B in Fig. 218 be the pitched roof, against which the cylinder C
miters;a b represents the roof flange soldered to the cylinder at c and d. Now
knowing the diameter of the cylinder C and the length of the opening e d, the
flange is developed as follows
Draw any horizontal line in Fig. 219, as c d equal to c d in Fig. 219. Bisect
c d in Fig. 219 and obtain a, through which at right angles to c d draw e b,
making a b and a e each equal to one half the diameter of the pipe C in Fig.
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 103
218. With a radius equal to one half of c d, as a d or a c, and with e as center,
describe an arc cutting the line c d at a' and a". Drive a nail at a' and another
at a". Tie a piece of spool wire around these two nails long enough so that when
the wire is drawn taut it Now, using a pencil or scribe awl,
will reach point b.

draw the ellipse, shown by c b d e. Knowing the width of the flange a or b in

Fig. 218, set the dividers equal to this distance and scribe a line parallel to e d b c,
as shown by u v w x in Fig. 219. These flanges are usually made in two parts
with a seam on u c and d w, which enables the flange to be placed around the
cylinder C in Fig. 218 from both sides.

When the cylinder C in Fig. 218 butts against a double pitched shown roof,

by A a E, it is only necessary to take the distances c a and a' d' and place them
asshown by c a and ad in Fig. 219 and proceed as before. In this case a bend
would be made along v x in the pattern to correspond to the angle A a' E in
Fig. 218. By a little study and foresight time can be saved by using the foregoing
rules when developing sheet metal work of this kind.

PATTERNS FOR A PIPE TO DESCRIBE A HELICAL CURVE

ABOUT A CYLINDER
A pipe 6 inches in diameter is required to wind around a cylinder 24 inches in
diameter so that the rise at each revolution shall be 30 inches, as shown in Fig. 220,
the number of pieces in each revolution being 16. It can be readily seen that the
pattern will not be the same as that of an ordinary elbow and it will be something
like what is shown at A, the throats of the two miters being marked by the arrow
points. What is desired particularly is how much the throat of the miter at one
end of a piece is placed to one side of that at the other in order to produce the
required twist.
Perhaps it would be more accurate, however, to say that each miter in itself is

the same as would be required for an elbow of the same curve, but that the wind is

produced by theoretically turning one end of each piece of the elbow axially upon
the other end, thereby throwing the throats of the two miters out of line. This is

accomplished in the pattern by shifting the position of the stretchout for one end of
the pattern a sufficient amount above or below that of the other, as indicated.
The problem consists, then, in determining just hoVr much to turn the throat of one

miter around from that of the other, or, in other words, in finding the exact angle
between the lines of the two throats, as seen in an end view of a section of the pipe.
 IO <4 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

In the case of a helix consisting of a great number of pieces to each revolution,

say 16 or more, the amount of turn in each piece is so slight that the desired result
might be practically obtained by judicious manipulation in
the process of putting the pieces together. The twist is
further decreased of course as the pitch, or rise, of the spiral
decreases. The conditions given in the sketch, Fig. 220,
are such, however, as to make the difference in the posi-
tions of the throats quite appreciable. There are several
ways in which this difference may be derived from accurately
made drawings. Probably the simplest way is

that of developing a correct elevation of the

helical curve. This may be properly accom-

plished by first drawing a plan, as shown in the
lower part of Fig. 221, above which the eleva-
tion is projected in the usual way.
In this figure ABC shows a half plan of

the vertical cylinder, around which the winding

pipe, made up of the required number of pieces,
is drawn, as though laid in a horizontal plane.
In drawing the several pieces of the pipe on the
plan, it is best to divide the circumference of the 24-inch cylinder so that the middle
of one of the pieces (not a miter) shall fall on the center line of the plan and eleva-
tion. As all the pieces required to form the spiral must necessarily be alike, this
arrangement will give a normal elevation of the central piece, from which its.correct

length may be measured and its miter lines obtained. Therefore, divide the semi-

circumference A B C of the plan into 16 equal spaces and through the alternate
points a, b, c, etc., draw lines from the center D, extending them to represent the

miters of the small pipe. on the center line B D extended, the diam-
From B set off

eter and semidiameter of the small pipe, as shown at E and F. Through B, F and
E draw lines parallel to A C, representing the sides and axis of the pipe, continuing
them till they intersect the miter lines d G and e H. Now, from D as center with
D G as radius draw a semicircle, shown dotted, cutting the several miter lines as
shown. Connect the several intersections, as G J, J K, etc., thus obtaining the
1
*
outer line of the spiral pipe, and continue the inner axial lines parallel with the
outer line from the points of intersections with d G, all as shown. From each of
the points of intersection of the axial line with the several miter lines of the plan,
as 1, 2, 3, etc., project lines upward through the elevation indefinitely.
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 105
It will now be necessary to divide a space of 30 inches in the vertical hight of
the cylinder into as many spaces ( 16 ) as there are pieces in one complete revolution
of the helical pipe. The same result will be obtained if desirable, by dividing 15
inches of the hight into eight spaces and using half the plan. Therefore, at any

convenient point outside the elevation of the cylinder draw any line, as L M, 15
inches long, and divide the same into eight equal spaces. From each of the points
of division in L M draw horizontal lines across the elevation, intersecting each with
the line of corresponding number just drawn from the plan. It should be noted
 106 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

that the numbers of the points in the plan and in the line L M should increase in
the same direction, as, for instance, in the direction of the rise of the pipe. Straight

lines connecting the adjacent points of intersection in the elevation, as shown by

0' 1', 1' 2', 2' 3', etc., will then represent a correct elevation of the axis of the
spiral pipe throughout one half a revolution, and the line 4' 5' willshow the correct
length and inclination of the axis, or center line, of the middle piece, shown by 4 5
of the plan. Upon this line 4' 5' may be constructed the complete elevation of one
piece if desired, but as it is not really necessary in obtaining the final result it has
been omitted.
An inspection of the plan will now show that while the lines 3 4, 4 5, etc., of

that view are inclined at the angle shown by 4' 5' of the elevation, the lines
6 H, d G, c J, etc., are drawn horizontally through the intersections, or meeting
points, 4, 5, 6, etc., of the axes of the several pieces, and that these lines when
extended to D intersect the vertical axis of the large cylinder, not at one point, as
the plan might seem to indicate, but at various hights, shown respectively by the
figures in L M. If, therefore, vertical lines be erected from the points e, d' ,
c, etc.,

representing the throats of the miters in the plan, to intersect with the horizontal
lines of corresponding number of the elevation —that is, from e of the plan to

intersect with the line from 4 in L M, and from d' with 5 in L M, etc. —the several
points so obtained will show the true positions of the throats of the several miters
in the elevation, as indicated by c", d", c", etc. If now lines be drawn from e" and
d" parallel to 4' 5' toward the center line, the distance between these lines shown
at X will give the exact amount that the stretchout for one end of the pattern must
be shifted above or below that ojt the other end to produce the desired pattern for
one piece of the spiral elbow.

Inasmuch as the distances 4 5, 5 6, etc., of the plan in Fig. 221 do not repre-
sent the true lengths of the axes of the pieces on account of the inclination of those
lines, as before mentioned, it will be necessary before attempting to develop the
pattern that a correct plan of one piece be drawn. Therefore,D E draw the line

of Fig. 222 equal in length to D E of Fig. 221, and on this locate the points B and
F correspondingly. Through the point F draw the centerline 4' 5' at right angles

to D E, making it equal in length to 4' 6' of the elevation, Fig. 221, and from
D draw lines through points 4' and 5' indefinitely, constituting the true miter lines.
Upon 4' 5', extended to any convenient point, and with C as center and with B F
as radius, describe the profile as shown. Beginning now at the point 0, correspond-
ing to the throat B of the miter, divide the profile into any number of
suitable
equal spaces and set of! a stretchout of the same on D E, extended as shown
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 107
toward Measuring lines for the miter at one end of the piece may now be
S.

drawn to one side, as to the left, for the pattern of that end of the piece, after which
the stretchout must be repeated on the same line E S,
beginning at a point, n, the distance of which below
0 of the other stretchout, is equal to the distance X
obtained in the elevation, Fig. 221. From the points
of the second stretchout the measuring lines are now
drawn to the right and the remaining operations nec-
essary to complete the pattern conducted in the usual
manner. Of course, that portion of the right half of
the pattern which projects beyond the other side,
shown at m, must be transferred to the top so as to
make a straight joint at the throat, where the usual
lap will be allowed. In putting the miters together
great care must be taken to bring the point h at the
left end of one piece to the point k at the right end of
the adjacent piece.
Much work described in connection with
of the

Fig. 221 and shown therein is done for explanatory

reasons and can be omitted in actual practice. After
the plan ABC and the line L M have been divided
into the requisite number of spaces, the parts of the
drawing really necessary to obtain the final result

are those portions between the lines d G and e H of

ono _ . _. _ _ D . the plan and between 4' and 5' of the elevation. It
showingMannerofLayingoffstretchout must also be noted in forming the pieces that that
portion of the pattern from 0 to 8 of the stretchout forms the under side of the
piece, for if formed so as to bring it on the upper side, the joining of the miters as

above described would produce a spiral inclining downward toward the left instead
of upward, as in Fig. 221.

PATTERN FOR TWISTED TRANSITION ELBOW

The drawing shown by Fig. 223 is for some piping in a grain elevator. The
connections of this must be made in the elbows and the flare on the side of the top
elbow must be made all on one side, so as to pass the rafters in the building.
 —

io8 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

By referring to the front elevation, it will be seen that three different fittings are

used. A shows a pieced elbow, shown in side view by A B 1

,
is a transition piece
joining the round elbow at a, shown in
fj ' side view by B 1
,
while C is a twisted transi-
J f tion elbow, 20 inches square at b, flaring

/ gy j
to one side, as shown, to connect with a
!
pip e 9 X 35 inches, and is shown in side

ev a"h o n
v ' ew by C 1
. The pieced elbow at A is cut
wjL— ,v
!

J, in the usual manner, while the transition

B is developed as shewn.
Fig. 223. Dimensions and Views of the Problem

In laying out the elbow C, to avoid a confusion of lines, which would occur in
so small a space, enlarged diagrams are shown in Fig. 224, in which 1 2 12 11 is

the side of the elbow shown in front by 1, 2, 2°, 1°, 12° and 10, which represent
similar shapes, as shown by C and C
1
The first step
respectively in Fig. 223.
in Fig. 224 is to divide the two curves in side view into an equal number of spaces,
as shown by the small figures 2 to 12 on the outer curve and 1 to 11 on
the inner curve. At right angles to 1 2 in side elevation and from points 2 to 12
on the top curve, draw horizontal lines intersecting the top of the elbow in front
elevation at 2 4, 6, 8 and 10 on the line 2 10, and at 2°, 4°,
,
0°, 8°, 10° and 12° on
the line 2 ° 12 °, as shown. In similar manner, at right angles to 1 2 in side eleva-
tion and from points 1 to 1 1 on the bottom of the elbow, draw horizontal
lines

intersecting the bottom of the elbow in front elevation at 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 on the

line 1 9 and at 1 ° 3 ° 5 ° 7 ° 9 ° and 11 ° on the line 1° 11°, as shown.
,
In this connec-
tion it should be understood that the corner or miter lines 2 10, 1 9 and 2 ° 12°, 1°

11° are drawn at pleasure after the dimensions are obtained ;

but when once drawn
remain fixed lines.

For the pattern for the top of the elbow proceed as follows : At right angles

to 2 2° in front draw the upon which place the stretchout of the top
line 12' 2',

curve 2 to 12 in side elevation, as shown by 2' to 12' on the line 12' 2'. At right
angles to 2' 12' and from the small figures draw lines, as shown, which intersect
with lines, not here shown, drawn from points having similar numbers on the
miter lines 2 10 and 2° 12° at right angles to 2 2° in front elevation, thus obtain-
ing similarly numbered intersections in A. A line traced through the points thus
obtained, as shown by 2 2° 12° 10, will be the pattern for the top of the elbow.
For the pattern for the bottom draw a line, 1' 11', at right angles to 10 9°, upon
which place the stretchout of the bottom curve 1 1 1 in side elevation, as shown by
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 109
airmlar numbers on r 11'. At right angles to 1' 11'and from the small figures
draw lines, as shown, which intersect with lines, not here shown, drawn from
points having similar numbers on the miter lines 1 9 and 1° 11° in front elevation

at right angles to 9 9°, thus obtaining similar numbered intersections in B. A

shown by 1 1° 11“ 9, will be the pat-
line traced through points thus obtained, as
tern for the bottom of the elbow.
 no Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

The patterns for the sides E and F will be developed by triangulation. As

the method used for obtaining the pattern E can also be applied to F, only the
side E will be developed. Now, from the various points in the side view connect
lines 2 to 3 to 4 to 5 to 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11, as shown. In similar manner, in
the side E in front connect points 2° to 3° to 4° to 5° to 6°, 7°, 8°, 9°, 10° and 11°,
as shown, and proceed in the same manner for the side F by connecting 2 to 3 to
4 to 5 to 6, 7, 8 and 9, all as shown. Then will the lines shown in E and F rep-
resent the bases of the triangle which will be constructed, and the horizontal dis-
tances between the points in the side view the altitudes or hights. To obtain these
horizontal distances in the side view draw any horizontal line, 2 10, on which
erect perpendicular lines drawn from the various points in the side view, as
shown, thus obtaining similarly numbered figures on 2 10 corresponding to those
in the side view.
For the diagram of triangles for E erect any line, as C D, as shown. Now
take the various distances in the dividers in the side E, as from 2° to 3°, 3° to 4°,

4° to 5°, 5° to 6°, 6° to 7°, 7° to 8°, 8° to 9°, 9° to 10° and 10° to 1 1°, and place them on
the line C D, as shown by distances having similar numbers. At right angles to
C D draw lines from the various points, as shown. Then take the various hori-
zontal distances and place them on similar lines just drawn. For example, take
the horizontal distance 2 3 and place it, as shown, from 3° to 3 in the diagram of
triangles, and draw a line from 3 to 2°. In similar manner take the horizontal
distance from 3 to 4 and place it, as shown, from 4° to 4 in the diagram of triangles
and draw a line from 4 to 3°. In thismanner obtain all of the triangles for the

twisted side E. Then, using these triangles and the patterns for the top and
bottom, the miter lines of which show the developed lines for the corners of the
elbow, all is ready to strike out the pattern for the twisted side E in front. Thus,
in J draw any line, as 1 2, equal to 1° 2°
Now, with B as radius and
in E. 1° 3° in

I in E as center describe the arc 3, which intersect by an arc struck from 2 as

°
center with 2° 3 in L as radius. With 2 in J as center and 2 ° 4 in A as radius
describe the arc 4 in J, which intersect by an arc struck from 3 as center and 3° 4
in L as radius. Proceed in similar manner for the balance of the pattern, using
alternately, first the divisions on the miter cut 1° 11° in B, then the proper num-
bered slant line in L, the divisions on the miter cut 2° 12° in A, then the proper
numbered slant line in L, until the last line, 11 12 in J (which is obtained from
II 12 in the side view), is obtained. A line traced through points thus obtained,
asshown by 1 2 12 11 in J, will be the pattern for the side E. In precisely the
same manner obtain the pattern for side F.
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns in
PATTERN FOR COMPOUND CURVED TAPERING ELBOW
The following exemplifies the correct method of laying out the patterns for a
reducing elbow having a compound curve, as shown in Fig. 225. The elbow
curves 90 degrees in plan and reduces from 15 to 10 inches. The center of the 10-
inch pipe is placed 18 inches below the 15-inch opening in the blower.
First draw a correct plan and elevation of the elbow when viewed in the direc-
tion of the arrow in Fig. 225. This has been done in Fig. 226. With a radius of
2 feet 5 inches and A as center, draw the quarter circle B C. As the elbow is

to be six pieced, divide B C into five spaces,

placing two halves, as shown, from B to a
and C to e. Through a, b, c, d and e draw
radial lines, as shown. From B and C draw
vertical and horizontal lines, respectively,
intersecting the lines A I and A E atm and
f. Take the distance of A m and place it on
the balance of the radial lines, as shown by h,

i and j. Draw lines m /, j i, i h and h f.

0
Make the distances B J and B J each equal
to 5 inches and draw vertical lines from J
and J°, intersecting the miter line at I and
1°. In a similar manner make the distances
C D and C D° each equal to 1% inches and
draw horizontal lines, intersecting the miter
line at E and E°. These two end sections of
Fig. 225. A Sketch of the Problem
the elbow are parallel pieces of pipe, the
patterns for which are obtained as in ordinary elbow work, the half sections of the
10 and 15-inch pipes being shown, respectively, by m in elevation and C in plan.
It is now necessary to obtain a proportional taper between I and E in plan.
This is done by taking the distances of m j, j i, i h and h f and placing them on
any vertical line, as m' /', as shown by similar letters. From m' and /' draw
making m' I and
horizontal lines, E 1
/' m I and / E in
1
equal, respectively, to

plan. Draw I E and from

1 1
,
% and h' draw horizontal lines, intersecting I 1

E at H 1 G l and F Take the various distances, f H 1 i' G and K F and

1
,
1
.
,
1 1
,

place them on the miter lines in plan, as shown by j H and j H°, i G and i G°,
k F and h F°. Draw I HG F E and 1° H° G° F° E°. Then will J D D°
J° represent the plan of the elbow.
112 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

As the vertical distance from the center of the 10-inch pipe to the center of the
15-inch pipe is 18 inches, and as the elbow has four tapering sections in plan,
then, on the line
erected from A in

plan, make m" f"

equal to 18 inches.
Divide the same into
four equal spaces, as
shown by h", i" and
j". From these
divisions, draw hori-
zontal lines which
intersect by lines
erected from similar
letters in plan, repre-

senting the center

points on the miter
lines and resulting in
the points of inter-
sections /, h, i,
j
and m in elevation.
The heavy dottedline
traced through these
points represents the
center line of the
elbow around which

Obtaining Miter Lines

the tapering elbow
Fig. 226.
must be constructed.
To obtain this construction the elevation of the miter lines in plan must be
projected as shown, after which each section ( excepting the top and bottom ) is

developed by triangulation. With m in elevation as center, draw the 10-inch

circle shown, and divide the lower half into equal spaces, shown from 1 to 7.

From these points drop lines intersecting the miter line I 1° in plan. At right
angles to I 1°, and from the intersections on same, draw lines as shown by
2* 6 1
,
which are equal to similar lines 2 6 in the half circle m in elevation.
x 1 X
l 4 7 is then the true section on I 1° in plan. In similar manner, place the
half section of the 15-inch pipe on D D° in plan and divide same into the same
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duc t Patterns 113
number of spaces, as m in elevation, and obtain the true section on E E° in plan,
as shown by 1 4 7 At pleasure construct true sections on the miter lines
.

H H G G° and F F°, which in this case have been assumed to be circles divided
,

into the same number of spaces as in m. From the various intersections in X, Y

and Z draw perpendiculars, cutting the miter lines as shown.
The method of obtaining the miter line in elevation on F F° in plan will
explain the principles required for obtaining the other miter lines in elevation.
From the intersections in Z lines are drawn perpendicular to F F°, intersecting
same from 2' to 6'. From these intersections vertical lines are projected into the
elevation indefinitely, as shown. Through h in elevation, draw the horizontal
line intersecting the vertical lines drawn from 1 and 7 in plan at 1 and 7 in ele-
vation. Now, measuring from the line F F° in plan, take the various distances
to points 2 to 6 and place them in elevation on similar lines measuring above and
below the line 7 1 in h. A line traced through the points thus obtained, as
shown by 1 4 7 4 1 in h, will be the miter line on F F ° in plan.
Having obtained the miter lines, each section must be developed by triangu-
lation. This is done by connecting similar points by solid lines and opposite
points by dotted lines, as is shown in both plan and elevation for the upper
section, h /; and requires no further explanation, as many examples are here

presented.

PATTERN FOR A ROOM AIR DIFFUSER

In connection with the ventilating systems provided in New York schools, a

diffuser of sheet metal is used at the air opening into the room wall to spread and
room and
direct the air, so far as possible, to get satisfactory circulation within the
without giving rise to air drafts. The diffuser serves to direct the air upward more
or less against the ceiling to spread the air in strata, which will descend more or
less generally over the entire room area rather than in distinct currents. As the
flues of a school building naturally come at different distances from the outside

wall, the diffusers vary slightly in design to take account of this fact. The closer
the air opening is to a corner of a room, the more is it desired that the air shall be
directed away from the corner and to the center of the room, while a diffuser situated
at the center of a wall would probably be designed to spread the air equally on
both sides of the diffuser. As the pattern cutting of these diffusers is of more than
passing interest, the following demonstration of the way that they are cut out has
been obtained from a reader, who has had considerable of this work to do.
 1 14 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

The accompanying drawings, Fig. 227, show the side elevation and the front
elevation of one of the diffusers, in which it will be noted that it is calculated to
divert more air toward the left than toward the right. The procedure in working
up the pattern is as follows : The profile A B in the side elevation is divided
into a convenient number of equal parts, in this case 10. From these points lines
are extended horizontally until they intersect the miter line C D of the front ele-

vation. Above the front elevation, in the usual way, is laid off the line X Y per-

pendicular to the horizontal lines, and on this is indicated the stretchout of the
profile A B. Vertical lines from the points of intersection on the miter line C D
Pattern of Front

Fig. 227. Air Diffuser of Sheet Metal for Fresh-Air Inlet Openings of New York School Rooms

and horizontal lines drawn through the points O', 1', 2', etc., of the stretchout,

intersect in a series of points, giving the curve of one side of the pattern of the
front. This curve is E F. The outline H G is obtained in the same way, so
that E F G H is the pattern of the front.
The pattern of each side is obtained, in an equally simple manner. A horizon-
tal line O P is drawn underneath the side elevation. Lines are projected from the
points of division on the profile, obtaining the points 0", 1", 2", 3", etc. Per-
pendicular to the miter line C D in the elevation, lines are drawn from the points
of intersection on the miter line, these lines being projected indefinitely to the
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 115
left of C D as indicated. Parallel with these lines and at some convenient point
is laid off the line O P with the exact location of the points 0", 1", 2", 3", etc.

Lines projected perpendicular to the new location of O P intersect corresponding

lines perpendicular to C D, and a curve drawn through points of intersection gives
the true curve of the miter line of the left side of the pattern.
The point S is not obtained as might first be assumed from the drawing by
continuing line D N until it is intersected by the line O S. Instead, the true
length of W B of the side elevation is obtained. An arc is then described about
N as a center, with a radius equal to this true distance, and where this arc is inter-
sected by another arc described about tic' point M as a center and with a radius
equal to the distance C R of the front elevation, is determined the position of S.

In order to get the true 1* ngth of the line W B, a plan is drawn below the
front elevation, with the two parallel lines B B' and 10 10’ spaced apart equal to
the distance W B of the side elevation. Lines projecting vertically downward
from C and D locate the points B and 10 and then B 10 is the true length of
W B. The arc described about the center N therefore has a radius equal to B 10.

The true length of the other radius is that given directly by C R. The intersec-
tion of the two arcs determines the location of S, and S M N is therefore the
pattern for the left side. The pattern for the right side is obtained in a similar way.

PATTERNS FOR A BRANCH— INTERSECTING SCALENE

CONE AND TRANSITION PIECE
This article deals with the method of cutting the patterns
for the branch reproduced in Fig. 228, which portrays the con-
ditions imposed —conditions that are of frequent occurrence in

the trade. As will be seen, the problem involves a transition

piece, A, intersecting the scalene cone B. The seam is to
come on a vertical line central over the center in plan and it ;

is to be understood that cylindrical collars would be attached

at the 6-in., 8-in. and 12-in. openings, but as they involve
no especial principles of pattern cutting, they were not detailed
in this figure.

Fig. 229 is Extend G F and A E

an enlarged view.
until they intersect at X. From X, and from A, Y and H,
Problem the center points of B C, E F and A G, drop lines inter-
 ii6 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

secting Z &. Divide the base in plan, I J K L, into equal spaces, as shown by
1 to 7, and from these points draw radial lines to the apex it, as shown. The line
of joint is shown by D H in elevation, and as the point H comes over the point
4 in plan, to obtain a plan of the joint line erect at right angles to I & and from
points 1, 2 and 3, lines intersecting A G at A, i and c. From these points
draw lines to the apex X, cutting H D at 1', 2', 3'. As the joint, or rather
seam, D H is a perpendicular line in elevation it will consequently show a
straight line in plan, L J, and will intersect radial lines in plan at 1
",
2 ", 3" and 4".
Trace the ellipse D E
1 1
C 1
Z, which is the plan of B C in elevation. Draw
D L l
and C 1
J. Then will D L 1
J C Z
1
be the plan of the irregular transition
piece, shown in elevation by
ABCDH, L J P K O 1

represents the plan of the

scalene cone, shown in eleva-

tion by H G F E D.
From the intersections
1", 2", 3", 4' on D II of the

elevation draw lines parallel to

GA ,
extending them to the left,

as shown, intersecting the ver-

tical line F* G 1
,
onto which the
true section on D H is to be
constructed, as follows : Measur-
ing in every instance from the
center line Z & in plan, take the
distances in the dividers to
points 2", 3" and 4" and place

them on the horizontal lines

having similar numbers, meas-
uring right and left from F G
1 1
,

as shown by intersections 1"',

2"', 3"' and 4’" on either side. Trace a line through the points thus obtained and
4"' 1'"
4"'will be the section D H.
For the pattern for the scalene cone proceed as follows: Let X E A G F of
Fig. 230 be a reproduction of similar letters and figures in elevation in Fig. 229,
and let the half plan I J K be a reproduction of similar half plan in Fig. 229,
with the divisions similar to those on I L K. Then with <fc in Fig. 230 in plan as
 Heating fit Air Conditioning Duct Patterns JI 7

center and radii equal to & 1, & 2, & 3, & 4, etc., draw arcs intersecting the
line I K, as shown. At right angles to I K and from the intersections on same
ti * draw lines intersecting A G,
as shown by 1' to 7'. From
•
the intersections on A G
draw lines to the apex X,
intersecting the top of the
cone E F, as shown by points
1 to 7.

Extend A G to 4". Now

take the various hights in ele-
vation in Fig. 229, as 4', 3',

2' and 1' onD H, and place

them on A X in Fig. 230,
starting at 4”, obtaining the

points 3", 2" and 1". At

j«" right angles to X & and from
1'', 2", 3" and 4" draw lines

intersecting hypotenuses of

triangles having similar num-

1”', 2”', 3 " and 4'.
bers at
Plan and Elevation, and Pattern for Scalene Cone
Fig. 280.
Now> with X as center an(J

radii equal to X 1', X 2', X 3', etc., draw arcs indefinitely, as shown. Set the

dividers equal to the spaces into which the plan is divided, and, setting one leg of

the dividers upon the arc 1, step from one arc to the other, placing the division 2

of the plan on the arc 2 in the pattern, 3 of the plan on the arc 3 in the pattern,

until all of the divisions necessary to complete the full pattern are obtained, as
shown by the small figures 1 to 7 and 7 to 1. From these figures draw lines to
"
the apex X. Now, with X as center and radii equal to X 1"', X 2"' and X 3
draw arcs intersecting radial lines in pattern of similar numbers, as shown by 1 °,
2° and 3° on either side in the pattern. Finally, with X as center and radii equal

to X 1, X 2, X 3, etc., on E F draw arcs intersecting radial lines of similar

numbers in the pattern, as shown. Trace a line through points of intersections
thus obtained and E F E 1°4
1 1 1
4 1 will be the required pattern for the scalene

cone.
The patterns for A B C D H in Fig. 229 will be developed by triangulation;
therefore in Fig. 231 let 1 14 8 7 22 be a reproduction of A B C D H in Fig.
 ii8 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

229. Take a tracing of the half section VST and place it as shown by 14 11 8
in Fig. 231. In similar manner take a tracing of the quarter circle I M J in plan
in Fig. 229, with the divisions equal to 1 L thereon, and place it as shown by
1 22 4 in Fig. 231. Finally take a tracing of the half section F G
1 1 4"' in Fig.

229, with the points of intersections on same, and place it as shown in Fig. 231 by
7 22 4'.

At right angles to 1 22 and from 2 and 3 draw lines intersecting the line
1 22 at 24 and 23. In the same manner, at right angles to 7 22 and from points
5 and 6 draw lines intersecting the line 7 22 at points 21 and 20 As the two .

Fig. 231. Diagram for Obtaining Measure- Fig. 234. Pattern Shape for Transition Piece
ments for Sections

sections A and B have a total of six divisions, then divide the profile or section C
into six spaces, as shown by the small figures 8 to 14. At right angles to 8 14
and from the figures draw lines intersecting 8 14 at points 15 19. Draw solid

and dotted lines in 14 8 7 1, as shown. Then will these lines represent the

bases, the section of which will be constructed, having altitudes equal to the lines
drawn in profiles A, B and C.
For the sections on solid lines draw any horizontal line, as A B in Fig. 232,
upon which place the various lengths of the solid lines in Fig. 231, as shown by
having similar figures in Fig. 232. For example, take the distance 17 22 in Fig.
231 and place it as shown by the line 17 22 on A B in Fig. 232. At right
angles to 17 22 and from points 17 and 22 erect lines, making 17 11 and 22 4
equal to 17 11 and 22 4 respectively in Fig. 231. Draw a line from 4 to 11 in
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 119
Fig. 232, which will represent the actual distance on the finished article on the line
17 22 in Fig. 231.
Proceed in similar manner for all sections on solid lines in Fig. 321, similar

parts corresponding to similar figures in Fig. 232. Also proceed in similar manner
for diagrams of sections on dotted lines,
D
as shown in Fig. 233 upon the line A B.
For the pattern draw any vertical line,
as 1 13 in Fig. 234, equal to 1 14 of Fig.
231. Now with 14 of Fig. 234 as center
and 14 13 of Fig. 231 as radius describe
the arc at 13. Then, with radius equal
to 1 13 of Fig. 233 and 1 of Fig. 234 as
center describe an arc intersecting the
previous arc at 13. Next, with 1 2 of
Fig. 231 as radius and 1 of Fig. 234 as

center describe the arc 2. Then, with

13 2 of Fig. 232 as radius and 13 of Fig.
234 as center describe an arc intersecting
the previous arc at the point 2. Proceed
in similar manner until all the divisions

necessary to complete the pattern have

Fig. 285 . Elevation and Sections of Branch been placed, as shown by similar figures
with Same Diameter
in Fig. 234.

Trace a line through the points obtained, as shown by 14 8 7 4 1, which com-

pletes one half the pattern. The other half can be traced opposite.

Should both pipes of the branch be of the same diameter the elevation would
be drawn as shown in Fig. 235. After obtaining the true section on the seam line
by the aforesaid process the developing of the patterns would be as described for

Figs. 229 and 234

ANOTHER METHOD FOR A PATTERN FOR

THREE-WAY BRANCH
One problems submitted outlined a method of obtaining the pattern for
of the
a three-way branch, like that shown on page 88, affording a simple solution for
same. It is conditional on having the branches at 45 degrees with each other, but
as this is usual in work of the kind the solution is altogether practical.
120 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

As will be seen in Fig. 236, the branches lie all in the same plane, and are
all of the same cross-sectional area. The feature of the solution is that only one
layout is required and one pattern suffices. Geometrically, the three-way branch
as here outlined, comprises the intersection of parts of three right cones. The
cones being identical, the view of the miter line between joining cones is a straight
line, as shown in the cut.
The method of obtaining the pattern is pretty clearly indicated. Dotted lines
are drawn as usual between end8 of the elements of the cone surface and the
elements themselves are left in full lines. The true lengths of lines 1 to 7 inclusive

are obtainable directly from the conical surface by the use of the semicircles as

shown, the diagram of triangles being a usual one. When one comes to the rest
of the surface of the prong at the right side, the actual distance of the ends of the
and 13 from the imaginary plane passed through the center of
lines 8, 9, 10, 11, 12

all of the prongs (and thus dividing the circular opening at bottom and top into

the semicircle as shown ) is obtainable from the semicircles. The distances of other
points on this conical surface from this same plane are derived by remembering
that they lie in definite elements of the surface of the right cone.
Other elements of the right prong surface are continued to a dotted line repre-
senting the base of the cone, and at that point a quarter circle is drawn in order to
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 121
learn the distance of the ends of the elements from the plane already mentioned.
To the left of the cone has been drawn the line 0 O', parallel to the axis of the
right cone. From the semicircles at the opposite end of elements 9 and 11 dis-
tances have been laid off perpendicularly to the line 0 O', and the resultant inclined
lines 9' and 1 T at D show the distance of any point in either of these lines from
the lines 0 O', or, in other words, the distance from the plane passed through the
center of the right cone.
The application of this simple arrangement is as follows: To get the actual
length of the line 8, the horizontal distance is laid off as usual in the diagram of
triangles. The distance of one end of the line 8 from the imaginary plane is

obtainable from the upper semicircle. The distance of the other extremity of the
line 8 from that same plane is obtainable from the diagram D. As this extremity
of 8 lies on the element 9, the distance of the extremity of line 8 fi*om the plane
is equal to the distance a b of the diagram D. Similarly, the distances from the
plane mentioned for determining the actual length of the line 9 are obtainable in
one case from the small semicircle and in the other case by the distance a b. Sim-
ilarly, the line 10 has one extremity in the element 11, and this distance is equal
to c d of diagram D.
The one half pattern shown is obtained in the usual way by taking the equal
distances from the semicircles and also the actual length of the lines as shown in
the diagram of triangles, alternating with full and dotted lines. The entire half
pattern R S T WX is a half pattern for each of the outer prongs. The part of
the pattern R S T V is a quarter pattern of the central prong.

PATTERNS FOR INTERSECTING PIPES

The following is the method of laying out the patterns for a round smoke pipe
that joins an upright pipe having flat sides and round ends. The round pipe
inclines to the vertical pipe at about 45 degrees, both vertically and horizontally.
In the accompanying illustration, Fig. 237, A ,B in plan represents the
oblong pipe, while C D shows the round pipe intersecting the oblong pipe at an
angle of 45 degrees. A B shows the elevation of the oblong pipe intersected by
1 1

the round pipe C D also at an angle of 45 degrees. The line of intersection in

1 1
,

the elevation has been omitted, as it is not required in the development of the pat-
tern. If the intersections were required for the purpose of making a finished
drawing this could be done by dropping lines from the intersections in plan into
122, Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

the elevation, and intersecting same by lines drawn from the intersections in the
profile b" from similar numbers, parallel to the lines of the pipe.

E
Fig. 237. Plan Elevation, True Elevation and Patterns

The first step necessary in the development of the patterns is to obtain a true
elevation, for which proceed as follows: Draw a center line through the elevation
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 12,3

and plan of the oblong pipe, as shown by A E. In similar manner draw a center
line through the round pipe C D in plan, as shown by F G, intersecting the line
A E at F. Also draw a line through the center of the round pipe in elevation,
asshown by G 1 F intersecting the center1
,
line A E at F 1
. At pleasure establish
any point on the center line F G in plan, as G. From G drop a perpendicular
line intersecting the center line F G1 1
in elevation at G 1
,
extending the line GG 1

until it intersects the line drawn from the point F 1

at right angles to A E at a.
1

Then will these points form the basis of measurements for obtaining the true
elevation.
Now parallel to F G m plan draw the line F G 2 2
,
equal in length to F G. At
right angles to F G draw
2 2
the line G G
2 8
,
equal to a G 1
in elevation. Draw a line
from G 8
to F which
2
,
will represent the true length of the center line of the round
pipe on F G in plan. A.t right angles to F G draw
2 8
the line L K, equal to the
diameter of the round pipe, and describe the circle ~b\ which divide into equal
spaces, as shown. In similar manner describe the circle b in plan view, which
divide into the same number of spaces, as shown from 1 to 7 to 1. Parallel to the
lines of the pipe draw lines intersecting the oblong pipe at points 1' to 7'. Then
' at right angles to F G and from points 1' to 7' draw lines indefinitely, as shown,
which intersect with lines drawn parallel to F G from
2 8
similar numbered intersec-
tions in the circle b' t as shown by points in the miter line 1 to 7 to 1. Trace a line
through points thus obtained, which will give the true points of intersections
between the round and oblong pipes at an angle of 45 degrees, both vertically and
horizontally.
As confusion is apt to arise in numbering the points in circles b and b' an
explanation may not be out of place. Assume that 1 7 in plan of the circle b is a
pivot, and the circle is turned so that one point 4 comes above and the other
point 4 below, then for this reason should the points 4 and 4 in circle b' come below
and above respectively, as shown.

From the extreme point of the oblong in plan, as A, erect the line to the true
elevation, as shown. Then will HIJKLMNbe the true elevation of the
round and oblong pipes. For the pattern for the opening to be cut into the oblong
pipe extend the line M N, as shown by M O, upon which place the stretchout of the

intersections on the oblong pipe in plan T to 7', as shown by the small figures 1 to 7
on N 0. From these small figures and at right angles to O N draw lines, as shown,
which intersect by lines drawn from similar numbered intersections in the miter
line M F* J at right angles to M I. Trace a line through the points thus obtained,
then will P R 8 T be the pattern shape for the opening in the oblong pipe.
 ;

1^4 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

For the pattern for the round pipe draw any line at right angles to J K, as
Y U, upon which place the stretchout of the circle b', as shown by 4 to 1 to 4 to 7
to 4 Y U, thus bringing the seam on the line 4 L in true elevation.
on At right
angles to Y U and from the small figures draw lines indefinitely, which intersect
by lines drawn at right angles to M L in true elevation from similar numbers in
the miter line M F* J. Trace a line through these points of intersections thus
obtained in pattern, as shown by V W X. Then will V W X Y Z be the pat-
tern for the round pipe.

TAPERING ELBOW IN SQUARE PIPE

This is an exemplification of how to lay out an elbow, tapering from iO inches
square to 4 inches square. In Fig. 238, let 1 2 3 4 5 G be the side elevation of
the elbow, 12 3 forming a right angle. Let T 6' 6" 1" be the section in plan

on the line 1 6 in elevation, and A B C D the section on 3 4. Through this

section draw the center line E F. Draw J H, the center line in plan.
As the elbow tapers it will be necessary to obtain the true widths at the points

2 and 5 in elevation, as follows: Upon the line H J in plan lay off the stretchout
of 1 2 3 in elevation, as shown by 1°, 2° and 3° in plan.At right angles to H J,

and through these small figures, draw 1 1, 2 2 and 3 3, making 1 1° equal to

half 1' 1" in plan, and 3 3° to A E or E B in section. On both sides, from
the points 3 draw lines to 1, intersecting 2 2. Then 1 2 3 3 2 1 will be the pat-
tern for the top of the elbow, shown by 1 2 3 in elevation ;
2 2 in the pattern is

the true width in plan on the point 2 in elevation.

In similar manner take the stretchout of 6 5 4 in elevation and place it on
the line H J in plan, as shown by 6°, 5° and 4°. Proceed as before, obtaining
4 5 6 6 5 4, the pattern for the bottom of the elbow shown by 4 5 6 in elevation
5 5 in pattern is the true width on 5 in elevation.
To draw the plan of the elbow proceed as follows Parallel to H J in plan, :

and from points 2 and 2 in pattern, draw lines intersecting 1' 1" at 2' 2". This
gives the width in plan of point 2 of elevation. At right angles to 2 3 in eleva-
tion, and from points 3, 4 and 5, drop lines into the plan indefinitely, which inter-

sect lines drawn H

J from points having similar numbers on the two
parallel to
patterns, as shown by intersections 3' 4', 3" 4", 5' and 5" in the plan. Draw
lines from 6' to 5' to 2' to 3' 4' to 5'; also from 6" to 5" to 2" to 3" 4" to 5",
which will be the plan of the elbow.
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 12 5

Before obtaining the patterns for the sides of the lower and upper arms it will
be necessary to construct three triangles, for which proceed as follows : Draw dotted
lines in elevation from 3 to 5 and from 5 to 1. These are represented in plan by
3' 5' and 5' 1'. At right angles to 2 1 in elevation, and from points 2, 5 and 1,

draw lines to the left indefinitely, as shown. Now take the distance of 5 T in plan
X x
and place it on 1 K, as shown by 5 l . From 5 X erect a line intersecting 5 L

at 6'". Draw 5"' l x which is the true distance on 5 1 in elevation. In similar

,

manner take the distances in plan and 2’ 5'

and place them on 5 L, as5' 3'

shown by 2 X 5* X
and 5 3 X
From 3 and 2 erect lines intersecting 2 M at
X
.
X

3"' and 2". Then will 2"' 5 and 3"' 5 X be the actual distances on the finished
X

elbow when measured on the lines 2 5 and 3 5 in elevation.

For the pattern for 1 2 5 6 draw any line, as 1 2 in Fig. 239, equal to 1 2
in the patterns for top in Fig. 238. Then with l x 5'" in the diagram of triangles
126 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

as radius, and 1 in Fig. 239 as center, describe the arc 5, which intersect with an
2"' X
arc struck from 2 as center, with a radius equal to 5 in the diagram of triangles
in Fig. 238. With 5 6 in the pattern for bottom as radius, and with 5 in Fig. 239
as center, describe the arc 6. With 1 as center, and with 1 6 in elevation in Fig.
238 as radius, intersect the arc 6 in Fig. 239, as shown. Trace a line through
points thus obtained. Then will 1 2 5 6 be the desired pattern.
For the pattern for the upper side of the elbow draw 2 3 in Fig. 240 equal to
2"'
2 3 in the pattern for top in Fig. 238. Then with 5 X in the diagram of tri-

angles as radius, and with 2 in Fig. 240 as center, describe the arc 5, which inter-
" X
sect by an arc struck from 3 as center, with a radius equal to 3 5 in the diagram

Fig. 241. Pattern for Lower Arm in One Piece Fig. 242. Pattern for Upper Arm in One Piece

of triangles in Fig. 238. Now using 3 4 in elevation as radius, and 3 in Fig. 240
as center, describe the arc 4, which intersect by an arc struck from 5 as center, with
a radius equal to 5 4 in the pattern for bottom in Fig. 238. A line traced
through these points, as shown by 2 3 4 5, will be the desired pattern.
If it is desired to make the lower and upper arms each complete in one pattern,
this can be done as shown in Figs. 241 and 242. In Fig. 241, 1 2 2 1 is a tra-
cing of the top pattern 1 2 2 1 in Fig. 238, while 1 2 5 6 on either side in Fig.
241 is a tracing of 1 2 5 6 in Fig. 239, and 5 6 6 5 in Fig. 241 a tracing of
5 6 6 5 in the pattern for bottom in Fig. 238. Fig. 242 is a similar combination
of the patterns of the sides for the upper arm of the elbow.

PATTERNS FOR INTERSECTING TAPERING ELBOWS

This problem is to find the patterns for two similar, pieced tapering elbows
that intersect. The elbow has three openings as shown in Fig. 243. The two
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 127

arms of the elbow are symmetrical, so it will be necessary to construct the elevation
of but one arm, in which the true taper, miter lines and true sections are obtained.
From A, in Fig. 244, with radius equal to the curve
made by the center line of one branch, describe the arc D E.
As the elbow has four pieces, divide D E into three equal
parts by a and b. Bisect D a, obtaining the joint c. Starting
from c, set the dividers equal to D a and step off to the
points d and e. From A draw lines through D, c, d, e

and E. Perpendicular to A D draw D h. From d and e,

ELEVATION
Fig. 243. Sketch of the on the miter lines M N and G H, lay off distances equal to
Problem
r. h, locating points i and f. Draw h i, f and f E, the
i

center lines of the elbow pieces Describe the half sections U and P of the large
and small ends, from D and E as centers. From I B draw
and lines parallel to

D h, intersecting J K. In similar manner, from C and F draw lines parallel to

E /, intersecting H G.
To obtain a proportionate taper between J K and G H,
take half of G H and
place it on J K, from h to j. Bisect j K, obtaining n.
Take the distance h n and place it on M N, from i to N and i to M. Draw
J M, M G, K N and N H. Then will I F C B be the desired elevation.
To obtain the true sections on J K, M N and G H, divide U into equal
parts, as shown by 1 to 5. From these draw lines parallel to D h, intersecting
J K from 1"' to 5"'. From these points, perpendicular to J K, draw the lines
2'” 3"' 3 and 4"' 4, equal to the hights of 3 and 4 in U. Draw the semi-
2, 2,

ellipse T, the true half section on J K. In similar manner obtain half section R.
For the half section on M N, draw from i, i o, perpendicular to h i. Then per-
pendicular to M N draw i 3, equal to i o. Through M, 3 and N draw the
semiellipse S. Divide this into four equal parts, and from these points drop lines
intersecting M N at 1" to 5 ".

It is now necessary to obtain a plan of the elbow, showing the intersection

between the two arms and the horizontal projections of the miter lines. To avoid
confusion of lines, a tracing of the elbow taken and placed in Fig.
is 245. Draw
the horizontal line O P. From D erect D 5°. From 5° describe the circle

1 3 5 3, representing the section on I B. Divide U into the same number of

parts as contained in U in Fig. 244, as shown by similar figures.

Take a tracing of the half section S, in Fig. 244, and place it as shown by S
in plan in Fig. 246, the center i and the points 1 and 5 being on O P. Parallel
to O P, from the small figures in S, draw lines, partly shown, intersecting lines
drawn at right angles to 0 P from similarly numbered intersections on M N.
 12,8 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns
1
Trace a line through points thus obtained; then will S be the horizontal pro-
jection of section M N.
on
From F, G and H erect lines intersecting 0 P at F 1
,
G 1
and H 1
. Take
the distance of E F and place it as shown from F 1
to E 1
and F 1
to E®. From
E x
and E® draw horizontal lines, intersecting the line erected from / in elevation

at/' and f" in plan. Trace an ellipse through /', G 1

,
/", H 1
and draw/" 3 3
and f 3 3. Then will E® 3 5 3 E 1
be the plan of one arm of the elbow.

Fig. 244. Elevation of One Arm and Sections

Through the point 5° in plan, at an angle of 45 degrees, half the angle at

which the arms meet in plan, draw the projection of the line of joint R T.
The patterns for I B K J and F G H C are obtained by the usual method
employed for fin din g elbow patterns in round pipe. The half patterns are
developed in Fig. 245 and are shown by U VX 1
W and Y G H 1 1
Z.

From the various intersections on J and K

N draw solid lines from 2” to M
2'", 3" to 3'" and 4" to 4'", and dotted lines from 2" to 1'", 3" to 2'", 4" to
3'" and 5" to 4'”. In similar manner connect the same numbers in and S 1 U .

The joint line, R T, in plan cuts 5 5 at 5°, 5 4 at b, 4 4 at 4°, 4 3 at a and

3 3 at 3°, and the section U at 2 and 4. From these various points of inter-
section drop lines intersecting similarly numbered solid and dotted lines in eleva-
tion, as shown respectively by 5°, 5, 4°, a, 3°, 2° 2°, 4° and 4°. Trace a line
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 129

through points thus obtained, which will be the line of joint in elevation, This has
been shaded in Fig. 245 to clearly show the plane of the miter line.

The next step is

to obtain measure-
ments for the diagram
of sections on the
various solid and dot-
ted lines. In Fig. 246, 1 5 5" 1"
is a reproduction of .J K N M
in Fig. 245, and T and S of T
and S in Fig. 244. Then will

the solid and dotted lines in 1 5

5" 1" represent the bases of the
sections the altitudes of which are
equal to the various hights in T
and S. For the sections on the
solid lines proceed as is shown
in Fig. 247. For example, take
the distance of 4' 4T ,
in Fig.

246, and place it on the hori- ELEVATION

zontal line in Fig. 247, as
shown. From 4' and 4 V erect
Fig. 245. Plan and Elevation and Patterns for End Pieces
T
lines 4' 4 and 4 4", equal to
4' 4 in T and 4 T 4" in S, in Fig. 246. Draw 4 4" in Fig. 247, which represents
the true length on 4' 4 T in Fig. 246. In this manner the other sections on the
solid lines are obtained. The same principle is used in obtaining the sections on
the dotted lines, as shown in Fig. 248.
"
For the pattern, draw 5 5", in Fig. 249, equal to 5 5 in Fig. 246. Then,
by the usual rules of triangulation, develop the half pattern, as shown by 5 1

1" 5" in Fig. 249. T 1 5".

Opposite it trace the other half, shown by 5 1 l The
full pattern is thus obtained, on which must be located the miter line. Take the
various distances on the solid lines in Fig. 246, as 3' to 3° and 4' to 4°, and
place them on the shown from
horizontal line in Fig. 247, as and 4' to 3' to 3°

4°. From 3° and 4° erect lines intersecting 3 3" and 4 4" at 3 X and 4 X respec-
tively. Take the distances 3 to 3 X and 4 to 4 X and place them on similar
numbered solid lines in the pattern in Fig. 249, as shown from 3 to 3° and 4 to
4°. Now take the distances in Fig. 246, on the dotted lines, from 3' to a and
 :

130 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

from 4' to b, and determine their true lengths in Fig. 248. Take these true
distances, placing them on similarly numbered dotted lines in pattern, thus locat-
ing a and b in Fig. 249. Take the distance from 5 to 5° in Fig. 246 and place
it from 6 to 5° in Fig. 249.

Fig. 246. Diagram for Obtain- Fig. 249. The Pattern for J K N M in Fig. 245
ing Measurements for Sections

As the line of joint R T in plan, in Fig. 245, passes through point 2 and 4,

start from 2 in Fig. 249 and trace a line through 2, 3°, a, 4°, b ,
5°, 4’. Then
will 1 2 4° 4 T
l
v
l
1 1" be the full pattern for J K N M in Fig. 245 for each
arm. In the same manner obtain the pattern by triangulation for the piece M N
H G, using the sections S and R in Fig. 244. Laps must be allowed for seaming
or riveting.

PATTERNS FOR SHIP VENTILATING COWL

An interesting article on patterns for a ship ventilating cowl is as follows
What is termed a standard cowl is explained in connection with Fig. 250.
Start by erecting a line perpendicular to the base line from point A, extending it
indefinitely. The diameter of the base, assuming it to be 14 in., is marked off to
the right of this line, establishing point B. The radius of the throat is next
determined by taking one-fourth the diameter of the base, or 3% in., which is
marked off on the base line to the right from point B to point C. From G erect
a line with an inclination to the right of 82 degrees from the base line. With one
leg of the dividers at C and with radius 3% in., or B C, draw the throat line
until it intersects the inclined line at point D. The mouth of the cowl is laid off
 ;

Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 131

on the inclined line from point D, and is found by taking twice the diameter of
the base, which gives 28 in. With this distance from point D establish point E.
Draw the radius of the back, which is taken as one and one-half times the diameter
of the base, in this case 21 in. With
this radius and one leg of the dividers
at point E, the other should be so
located that when the arc defining the
back is drawn the vertical line, erected

from the base line at point A, will be

tangent to it, completing the outline of
the cowl. This method, in the form of
a formula, is assuming B to represent
base; T, throat; M, mouth, and R,
radius of back, would read : B = 14 in.
T = B, or in. ;
M= 2 B, or 28
in. ;
R= 1)4 B, or 21 in.

The back and throat lines are now divided into four equal parts and these
points connected by lines, as in Fig. 251, thus dividing the surface into four sec-
tions, each section of which is developed by triangulation. The development of
one section will serve to show the method employed in all.
To avoid confusion of lines transfer the bottom
section, as in Fig. 252, where A G and 1 7 rep-

resent the section. Bisect A G and 1 7, and with

these points as centers draw a semicircle on each
side, which will represent a half plan of each end
of the section. Divide these semicircles into a con-
venient number of equal parts, in this case six.

Project these points to the elevation by lines in the

semicircle A G. Letter these lines A, B, C, etc.
To avoid confusion in the semicircle 1 7, number
the lines 1, 2, 3, etc. Divide the elevation into
by connecting 1 and B, B and 2, 2 and
triangles

C, C and 3, 3 and D, and so on, until all the

points have been connected. Beginning with the
line 1 A, and number each line, as B' 2',
letter

C' 3', D' 4', etc. At any convenient place draw a straight line and erect a line
perpendicular to it. Take the length of the line B' and transfer it to this line,
i3 a Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

as shown, and likewise take the line B in the plan and transfer it to the base

line, as in Fig. 253. Connecting these two points gives a right angled triangle,

and the hypotenuse, or line B 2

, is the true length of B' in elevation. Erect
another perpendicular line and transfer the length of the line marked 2' to it, as

shown. Take the length of the line 2 in plan of small end and transfer it to line

B in plan of large end. Take the difference in length of these two lines and mark
it off on the base line from the intersection of the perpendicular line as at 2 B.

Fig. 254. Development of the Pattern

Connect these two points, giving another right angled triangle, of which the
hypotenuse, or line 2*, is the true length of line 2' in elevation. This process is

now repeated by erecting another perpendicular and transferring the length of line

C' to it, and taking the difference in length of lines 2 and C and transferring it

to the base line as before. The points being connected, another right angled tri-

angle is obtained, the hypotenuse, or C 2

,
being the true length of C' in elevation.
This process is repeated until all the true lengths of the different triangles have
been found, after which all is ready to proceed with the development of the pattern.
Accordingly, in any convenient place, draw a line of indefinite length. On this
line lay off the distance from 1 to A in elevation, this being the true length of the
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns I 33

center line. Next, with the point A as center and with a radius equal to one of
the spacings in the large semicircle, or half plan of top, as A to B, describe an
arc of indefinite length. Then, with a radius equal to the length of
the hypotenuse of the triangle that represents the true length of the
line B', as at B 2 and
,
with 1 as center, intersect the arc, as at B.
Then, with 1 as center and radius equal to 1 2 in plan, describe

/
another arc and intersect, as at 2, with a radius equal to the
hypotenuse of the next triangle, using B as center. This process
is repeated until the true lengths of all the triangles have been
used, finishing with the line G 7 of elevation, which is shown in
its true length in that place. A line traced through these points
gives the development of the required pattern, minus the neces-
sary laps.
This line is termed the rivet line, the necessary holes being laid off on it.

Considerable care is necessary in the spacing of these holes in the different pat-
terns, also in transferring the
different sections, due allowance
being made for the thickness of
material. Consequently the top
of one section will be smaller
than the bottom of the next, so
as to allow them to be assembled
without too much stretching.
The cowl is raised with a rais-
ing hammer until the center line
at the back forms a true arc,
gradually diminishing each side
of the center. The rivets are also
countersunk and make the seams
as shown in Fig. 255. The seam
Fig. 256. Front View of Large Fig. 257. Side View of
is soldered on the outside and the Cowl Large Cowl

surplus solder scraped off, which leaves the cowl perfectly smooth outside, while
the three seams inside have a tendency to reinforce and stiffen the cowl. It is
also further reinforced by finishing around the mouth with a suitable sized bead
iron, the rivets being countersunk to conform to the rest of the cowl.
The material used is galvanized steel which was found to be much superior in
regard to lasting qualities to planished iron or black steel. The two illustrations,
 '

134 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

Figs.256 and 257, show an exceptionally large cowl, the diameter of the base of
which is 37 in. Consequently the mouth is 74 in. Owing to having no sheets
larger than 36 X 96 in. ,
the rule of four pieces was departed from, as will be noticed
from an inspection of the pictures.

PATTERNS FOR AN IRREGULAR T JOINT

To develop the patterns for an irregular T joint, in which the branch pipe is

to be 7 in. and is to intersect the main 16-in. pipe to one side of its center, as

/ %3
S\
v/ PROFILE

/A
yf
4/\ A / '
L47

V/

dfa / Vr
A/ */ 7 !

/ &T
f\ |
I

tvE
iK_ \^—h
'PATTERN FOR
OPENING IN HEAD
PARTIAL SIDE VIEW i

SHOWING IV1ITER LIl^E

! ! ! ! i

1
jtZmmmmim , '.*
partial end view
I I SHOWING MITER LINE
258- Method of Obtaining Miter Lines
|

I
shown in the end view in Fig. 258, at
angle of 45 degrees, as shown in
side view and portion of the pipe is to
,* intersect the end or head of the large
urge pipe showing opening pipe, as shown, with the center line of
TO BE CUT TO RECEIVE BRANCH r r
fa,
the branch pipe so placed that it will
not come in contact with the head of the main pipe ;
proceed as follows:
All of the above conditions have been observed in Fig. 258 except that the
profiles of the pipes are somewhat larger than called for, which allows the principles
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 135

to be clearly shown. The locating of the miter lines is the most difficult part of
the problem, for after the miter lines have been found the development of the
patterns are simple. With the proper size radius and any point as B as center
draw a partial end view of the large pipe, as shown by C D. Through B draw
the vertical line B 7 and the horizontal line B 9. As the branch pipe is to be
placed to one side of the center line then draw at pleasure the horizontal line 7 3,

equal to the diameter of the branch, which bisect and obtain d. With d as center
and d 3 as radius describe the circle A 1
. Divide this profile into equal parts, as
shown from 1 to 8, from which points vertical lines are drawn indefinitely, inter-
secting the curve C D of the main pipe at 1° to 8°, as shown.
From the end view project the partial side view of the
main pipe, as shown by E a G F. As the center line of
the branch pipe should not come in contact with the head
V
line a G, then let 7 or any other point be on the center
line, and through this point at an angle of 45 degrees draw
the line 3°, 3. Establish on this line any point, as d,
which use as a center, and describe the profile A similar in
b' size to the profile A 1
. Through d draw the diameter 1 5
perpendicular to the center line 3° 3, and divide A in the
same number of spaces as A 1
,
and if point 1 is at the top

in the profile A 1
it will be placed at the top in the profile
A, as shown. Through these points, 1 to 8 in A, draw
lines parallel to 3 3° indefinitely, as shown.
The first step in obtaining the miter lines is to find out

how much of the branch pipe will intersect the head of the

main pipe and is done as follows: Extend the head line G

a of the main pipe until it meets the center line at 7°.
Now, where the lines 3 7, 4 6 and 5 drawn from the pro-
Pig. 258 . The Pattern file A, cut the head line G 7°, draw horizontal lines in the
end view until they intersect similar lines drawn vertically from similar numbers
in the profile A 1
,
as shown by intersections 3°, 4°, 5°, 6° and 7°, thus obtained.
Trace the elliptical figure through these points, as shown, and where this elliptical
outline cuts the profile of the main pipe at a and b, are the desired points. From
a and b draw vertical lines to the profile A 1
,
intersecting same at a' to b'. The
distance from a' to b' shows the amount that the branch will intersect the head of

the main pipe and the shaded portion b 5° 6° a 8° 1° b shows the pattern for the

opening to be cut in the head of the main pipe.

136 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

Now, take the distances from 4 to 6' and 6 to a' in the profile A 1
,
and place
them from 4 to b' between 4 and 5, and 6 to a' between 6 and 7 in the pro-
file A, and from these points a' and b' parallel to the line 3 3°, draw lines until

they intersect the head line G 7° at a and b. If these points are in their true posi-
tion they will be intersected by horizontal lines drawn from a and b in the end view.
To find the miter line of the rest of the branch pipe a' 1 b' with the main
pipe, extend horizontal lines from the various intersections on the curve C D in

the end view until they intersect similar numbered lines drawn from the profile A
in the side view, as shown by the points of intersections a, 7
T
8°, 1°, 2°, 3°, 4°
,

and b. If desired a curved line can be traced, giving the miter line in both views.
For the pattern for the opening to be cut in the main pipe, take the girth of

all the spaces contained in the curve C D in end view from 9 to 7

T
,
as shown by
similar letters and figures placed on the line G 9 below the side view. From
these small figures, at right angles to G 9, draw lines, which intersect by lines

drawn parallel to G 9, from similar numbered intersections in the miter line in

the side view. Trace a line through points thus obtained, as shown by a N 6,

then will the shaded portion be the desired opening.

The pattern for the branch pipe is shown in Fig. 259, and is obtained as fol-

lows Take the girth of the profile

: A in Fig. 258 each and every space, and place
it on any vertical line L M in Fig. 259, as shown by similar letters and figures.

Through these figures at right angles to L M draw lines indefinitely, as shown.

At pleasure, at right angles to 3 3° in Fig. 258 draw any line as L M. Now,
measuring from this line, L M, take the various distances to points 1° to 5° to a
to 1°, and place them on similar lines in Fig. 259, measuring in each instance
from the line L M. A line traced through points thus obtained, as shown by
N 0 P R, will be the miter cut for the branch pipe, with the seam at 1 as called for

in Fig. 258. The miter cut N 0 and P R in Fig. 259 joins the curved part of

the main pipe, while the miter cut from 0 to P joins the opening in the head
from b to 5° to 6° to a in the end view in Fig. 258.
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 137
SHORT RULE FOR CHIMNEY BASE
In Fig. 158 shown a perspective view of a smoke stack base, in which A is the
is

base, B the flange, which rests on the chimney and is cemented, and C the collar,
which fits into the chimney I). When making up the complete base, it is con-
structed as indicated in Fig. 159, in which the base A has a M-in. flange at a,

which is riveted to the collar and the flange B at b. It will be noted that the collar
and flange are doubled at c with a hem edge at d. The short
rule for obtaining the pattern for the base is shown in Fig. 160,
and can be used for any size chimney or pipe. While a full

plan is shown, a one-quarter plan is all that is required.

Let A B C I) show the size of the opening in the chim-
ney and L 11 the size of the smoke pipe. Draw the two
diagonals A 0 and B D intersecting each other at E, the
center point from which the circle is struck, and which inter-
sects the diagonal at H. From H at right angles to E B
draw the line H J equal to the hight of the base. Also from
E draw the perpendicular E F indefinitely. Draw a line from
B through J until it meets the center line at F.
With radii equal to F J and F B and with F 1
as center, draw the arcs L M
and D D 1 2
. Starting from D 1
step off on the arc drawn divisions equal to D A,
A B, B C and C D
shown by similar
in plan, as letters in the pattern, from
which points connect lines as shown, and add the lap indicated by the dotted line.
Take one-half the girth of the circle H in plan and place it on either side of the
pattern, as shown from J to M and from J 1 to L. 1
Draw lines from D 1
to M
and from D 2
to L. Allow a lap for riveting as shown by M D 1
.

Fig. 159. Construction

Indicated Fig. 160. Pattern for the Base Fig. 161.
, „ _
Pattern for Flange

This results in an accurate pattern, with the exception that the lines D* L and
D M 1
are not true radial lines, and give an acute angle shown by the arrow points
L and M. This will in no way interfere with the pattern nor require any trimming,
 .

138 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

because the upper joint of smoke pipe will cover it when lapping as is shown in
Fig. 159, when B overlaps A at e.

The patterns for the flange and collar combined are shown in Fig. 101. Obtain
the girth of b c d in Fig. 159 and place it on any vertical line in Fig. 161, through
which draw the usual measuring lines, as shown. Take the distances of A B and
B C in plan in Fig. 160 and place them, as shown, by A B and B C in Fig. 161.
Draw vertical lines A A B B 1
,
1
and C C 1
. Take the distance from a to b and
place it, as shown, from a to b' on both sides, and from a" to b" Connect lines, as
shown, A B B A 1 1
and B C C B 1 1
are then the patterns for the long and short
sides of the flange, to fit into the base, as indicated in Fig. 159.
Sometimes instead of using a flange, the entire chimney is covered the same as
an inverted pan. The method here shown gives the best results, though of course,
considerable cementing is necessary to make a tight joint with the chimney.

SHORT RULE FOR DRUM ELBOW

In Fig. 162 is shown a view of a finished drum elbow. Fig. 163 shows how
to lay out the patterns without using an elevation. First, draw the plan of the
elliptical drum shown by A, through which draw the long and short diameters, as
shown. Extend the short diameter, as A C, and, using C as center, describe the
section of the round pipe. This is shown in plan by B.
To obtain the pattern for this pipe divide C into equal spaces, as shown from
1 to 5 to 1, from which draw horizontal lines intersecting the ellipse A at 1' to
5'. Extend the line of the round pipe, as D E, and, assuming
that the seam come at the bottom, lay
is to off on D E in Fig.
163, the stretchout shown from 3 to 3 in C. Through these
points, at right angles to D E, draw lines, which intersect by
lines drawn from 3' to 5' in A parallel to D E. Trace the
curved line G F. Then will G F 3 3 be the half pattern for
the round pipe.
For the half pattern for the drum and opening establish the

points b and c in A, and take the stretchout of a, 6, 1 to 5', '

c, d,and place it on a vertical line, H as I. From the numbers draw horizontal

lines, which intersect by vertical lines drawn from similar points in the section C.
Trace a line through points thus obtained ;
then will the shaded part N be the
shape of the opening to be cut.
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 139
Knowing the hight of A in Fig. 163 and the distance that the round pipe is

to set below the top, set off these spaces above and below the opening N in Fig.

163, and draw vertical lines through the points obtained-, which limit by horizontal
lines drawn from a and d in the stretchout. Then will J K L M be the half
pattern. When the paper pattern is developed draw a line through 3', as e /,

which represents the proper seam line. Then one-half the opening N should be

Fig. 164. Sectional View Fig. 165. Notching Collar

placed at either end of the full pattern for the drum,

allowing laps for riveting or seaming. The plan A,
with edge allowed, answers for the pattern for the top
of the drum.
The method of constructing the drum elbow is
shown in Fig. 164, where A is the drum and B the
top, double seamed at a. C is the round pipe flanged
at b, and D a collar, about 2 inches long, riveted to
C, and the projecting 24 inch notched and turned
against the drum at e e. By
method the body this

is held firmly between the two flanges b c and e e.

Fig. 103. The Pattern*
In cutting the collar D the same miter cut is used as
shown by GF in Fig. 163, but it is made slightly smaller to fit into the round pipe.
Fig. 165 shows the perspective of the round pipe a, with flange b, also the

collar c riveted to a and notched at d 24 inch. This extra work of riveting and
notching the collar can be avoided if a special machine is used, which is made to

form a lock, as shown in F in Fig. 164. If this machine is not at hand, the ordi-

nary thick edge will answer the purpose just as well. The swedge F of Fig. 164 is
made as deep as possible with this machine, allowing say of an inch edge to %
project past this swedge and this edge is inserted in the opening of the drum. The
elbow is now stood,on the collar and this edge thrown over by a heavy bar of iron
giving the same appearance as at F. It is to be understood that, in both methods,

the cap B of Fig. 164 is placed on last.

 14° Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

PATTERN FOR RANGE CANOPY

In the accompanying-illustration is given the pattern for a range canopy, the
perspective view in Fig. 1G6 showing the canopy in position and giving a general
idea of its outline. In cutting the pattern let A B C I), Fig. 107, be the front

elevation of the canopy and E 6 2 the side elevation. A flange is added from 2
to 1, through which the canopy is fastened to the chimney or wall. To obtain the
pattern for the side extend the line 1 E in the side elevation, as shown by F G.
Divide the curve 2 6 in the side elevation into an
equal number of shown by the small
parts, as
figures 1 to 6. Place a stretchout of 1 6 on the line
F G, as shown from 1 to 6. Through these small
figures at right angles to F G draw lines as shown,
which intersect with lines drawn at right angles to
6 E from similar points in the side elevation.
Fig. 166. Perspective View of Range Trace a line through the points thus obtained, and
Canopy
1 6 H will he the pattern for the side. No allow-
ance has been made for wire which must be added to the pattern, as the pattern is

only developed to the under side of the wire, as shown by 6 in the side elevation.
The pattern for the front is obtained as follows, using the miter cut on the side
pattern : First draw the line J I equal in length to D C. Using the side pattern
1 H 6, place the bottom of the pattern H 6 upon the line .T I, placing the corner
H of the pattern upon the corner J, and mark the miter J K. Reverse the side
pattern, and in precisely the Then will K
same manner obtain the miter cut I L.

L I J be the pattern for the front. Laps must be allowed on the front and side
patterns, to allow flanges to be stretched to obtain a standing seam on the corners,
as shown by C in Fig. 106, or by ti a b" in Fig. 108. It will be noticed that at a

there is a single and a double edge through which rivets are placed at intervals.

A flange must also be allowed to the straight part 1 to 6 of the side pattern in

Fig. 107 to allow a flange to be stretched, so that the canopy can be fastened against
the chimney D in Fig. 166. It is sometimes the case that the front of the canopy
is of such length that anumber of sheets are required. In that case straight sheets
are placed between by means of the standing seam e a e in Fig. 168 and shown at
B in Fig. 166, riveting the same as before mentioned.

Assuming that the canopy has a wired edge, as shown by D in Fig. 168, it is
fastened to the wall A by nailing through the flange C, the canopy, if very long,
being balanced by means of a neat brass or galvanized chain E. Sometimes the
 ;

Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 141

wire edge is band of iron is bolted or riveted to the lower edge, as

omitted, and a
shown at E 'in Fig. 166. The band iron is encased, as shown by F in Fig. 168,
in which b shows the band or flat iron, the metal c from the canopy being bent

Fig. 167. Elevations and Patterns Fig. 168. Details of Construction

around the band iron, as shown, the rivet or bolt being indicated by c. Chains are
also employed in this case to hold it in a plumb position.
In preparing the flange for the canopy seams, when both pieces to be seamed
are curved in completed job, proceed as follows : After the patterns have been
developed and allowance made to same for flanging, pass the flange through the

Fig. 171 Fig. 172

The Procedure of Making Standing Seams

large turning machine, which will put a small groove along the curve of the pattern
and will look as at a in Fig. 169. This small groove serves as a guide in stretching
the flange, which is gradually turned over the stake at an angle indicated by b
 4

1 2 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

then to a right angle, as at e, holding the sheet metal to the required curve by
means of a wood template secured to it.

The stretching is done by the use of a stretching hammer, shown in Fig. 170,

the faces of which are 1 inch wide, one side being a little sharper than the other,
and the edges on both being rounded. The method of using this hammer is shown
in Fig. 171, in which A represents part of a bench, in which the square stake B
is placed. C shows the article to be stretched. This is done by using the hammer
D, just described, and striking along the edges of the flange, as at a, b, c and d,

being careful to strike each blow with equal strength and at equal distance apart.
When the desired curve has almost been reached, use a flat face hammer to flatten
the flange and take out the buckles, after which dress down square with the mallet.
In seaming the two sections together one side requires more flange than the
other, so as to allow the turning of the left flange over the right one, as shown at

F, in E. Knowing the amount that the left flange turns over the right, set the
turning machine to the required distance and obtain a small groove along the
flange, which acts as a guide, then turn the double flange, which will look as
shown at F, when completed. When the pieces are level on the inside, as at E,
the rivets F are placed at desired distances. This method of stretching applies to
all similar kinds of work.
Fig. 172 shows a double seaming stake, that can be used for this work with six

heads. Any desired head can be used in the mandrel, and where the article to be
seamed is of such size that the mandrel cannot be used, the heads can be used as
hand stakes in large sized metal bodies.

STOVE PIPE RADIATORS OR HEATING DRUMS

Although it may be grammatically correct to speak only of those having a
cylindrical form as drums, the term as now used in the sheet metal worker’s
vocabulary may include various shapes —owl, square, rectangular, etc. —so long as
the object of the contrivance is to save heat that might otherwise pass out of the
chimney. They are thus economical to the user because they allow a large per
cent, of heat t» They
be utilized in heating the house instead of the chimney.
also allow of a more thorough distribution of the heat, as in the case of a chamber

through which the stove pipe must pass. In other cases a room may be heated by
a hot air pipe leading from another such contrivance. The smoke pipe from a
 — ;

Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 143

furnace is often so hot near the chimney that the hand cannot be held upon it ;
in
such cases a hot air drum may be used to advantage.
Plain and annealed sheet iron can now be procured in handy sizes, that the
tinner will find very convenient to work up. Among the sizes made, 18X42
inches, about No. 28, will be found perhaps the most useful. Russia iron and its

imitation may also be used effectively.

Fig. 175. Section Through Cylinder Drum

Fig. 174. Baffle Plate

Fig. 175. Pillar Drum Fig. 170. Sampson Pillar Drum

Many varieties of radiators are in use that can easily be made in any tin shop
viz., the cyclinder, or barrel drum; the plain oval body drum; the pillar drum in
connection with round body ;
the pillar drum in connection with oval body ;
the
descending flue, plain oval body ;
the descending flue in connection with pillars
 144 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

the vertical cylinder drum, with tube; drums with hot air attachments, such as the
horizontal, tubular, internal cylinder, etc.

One of the easiest to make, and perhaps the cheapest, is the first mentioned,
which is made as follows : For the circumference take three pieces, each 18X24
inches, roll them, and fold along the 24-inch way, then seam them with’ a mallet

on the stove pipe stake, making the surface even on the outside, which gives a
better appearance than when seamed with a hand groover. A cyclinder about 16%
inches in diameter and 24 inches deep is the result. Turn an edge at each end
with the small turner or large burring machine to take the top and bottom, which
should now be cut out, and will need to be about 17% inches in diameter to allow
for the edge to be turned over to engage with body. If the body be put through
the beading machine, having an ogee swedge in position, it will improve the appear-
ance considerably. The collars at the ends may be formed to fit either 6 or 7-
inch pipe, as is desired; if for 6-inch, cut one piece for large end 20% X 4%
inches, and another the same depth and % inch less in length for small end for ;

a 7-inch collar cut 23 inches by 4% deep. Turn an edge on these collars, as

shown in Fig. 173, and rivet within them a piece 1% inches wide, and in length
the same as the circumference of the collar, leaving about 3-16 inch projecting
past the face of the end, which (when the hole is cut in the drum) is hammered
over to secure it to the top or bottom, as the case may be. The construction is
clearly shown in Fig. 173, which is alike both top and bottom. A partition, or,

as it is sometimes called, a baffle plate, is now made from the pieces that were left
after cutting out the ends, and cut to shape, as in Fig. 174, the three projections
shown allowing it to be riveted horizontally in the center of the drum. If it is

desired to use feet as an additional support, provision must be made for them
before putting on the bottom, by riveting thereon three pieces of hoop iron, suit-

ably bent, so as to allow of the insertion or removal of the feet at any time.
In Fig. 175 is shown a useful size of pillar drum. The upper section is made
from three pieces of the same material as the proceeding one, each 17% X 6 inches
wide. The best way is to first cut pieces for the ends of the two cylinders —namely,
four pieces 18 inches square —thus leaving a piece off each sheet 6 X 18 inches,
three of which will make the upper section previously mentioned. Three pieces
17% inches by 12 wide, put together will make the lower section. Five pillars

are used, each 12 inches in circumference and 18 inches long. A small fold is
required on these, so that they may be grooved on the machine. The ends of
these pillars are fastened in the same manner as the collars shown in Fig. 173 and
should be the first thing done when putting the drum together then the lower and ;
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 145
upper sections (each having an end and collar attached) can be finally joined.
They may be used with or without feet, but it is customary to provide three feet.
A very attractive and efficient heater is shown in Fig. 176, which is known as

“Samson,” a good name too, strong to heat and to wear. The pillars, six in

Fig. 177. Pattern for Drum Top Fig. 178. Section of Descending Flue Drum

number, are each made from sheets 10X17% inches and are about 3 inches in
diameter when finished. Two pieces 4X17% inches and one piece 4X4% inches
make the circumference of the upper section, and two pieces 8X 17% inches and
one piece 8X4% inches the lower section. The diameter of drum will thus be

about 12 inches after allowing for seams. To obtain the cones proceed as follows:
With the square set off two lines, as A and B, Fig. 177. Make A C equal to
one-half the diameter of large end or base of cone ;
from C to I) is the straight
hight, in this case 2 inches. Make E D equal half the diameter of smoke pipe.
Draw a line through A E, intersecting B at F. With the compass set from F to
A, atany convenient place describe the circle a a. Then with the distance F
E describe the circle b b. With the dividers set from A to C, step off around
the outer circle six times and draw lines to the center, and make allowance for all
edges needed, as shown by the dotted lines. Put together in the same manner as the
aforementioned. No feet are required, but the collars should fit the pipe snugly.
 146 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

In some places an oval shape drum may be more desirable than a round one.
A cheap one may be made manner of the cylinder drum, Fig. 173, the
after the

9ame size, only after swedging form up to an oval 14 X 19, approximately.

The descending flue, plain oval body, is made in different hights to suit
customers. A popular size is shown in section in Fig. 178. It is the same circum-
ference as the plain oval, only, as it is made twice as deep, provision must be made
for a small end so as to allow a slip joint to be made in the center, after the manner

of a stove pipe. To obtain the oval end proceed as shown in Fig. 179.
Make A B equal to the desired length, 19 inches. Make C D equal the
width, or 14 inches. With the compasses set half the distance from A to B and
with one leg at C describe the arc E F. Drive pins at E, F and C. Tie a
string at E and F, passing around C, then remove C and substitute the point of
a lead pencil, which, when moved around, keeping the string tight, will describe

C
Fig. 179. To Draw an Oval

Fig. 181. Pattern for Intersection of Collar

the required oval. The cut, Fig. 178, shows a straight partition, commencing
about 1 inch above the inlet collar and extending to within 6 inches of the
bottom of drum. This is riveted to the sides for support. At the point A is

pivoted the damper B, which when turned, as shown by the dotted lines, allows
the smoke to go directly to the chimney. Fig. 180 shows the manner of attaching
the handle to the damper by means of two stove bolts passed through that part of
the handle which has been flattened for the purpose. A base is provided for this
 Heating & Air Conditioning Pact Patterns 147
style of drum 8 or 9 inches deep, wired at the lower edge and perforated. The
collar at the side will need to be made on a curve in order to fit properly. To
obtain the pattern let A B, Fig. 181, represent the curvature to which the collar is

required to Draw the plan D below it and in line with the elevation. Divide
fit.

it into any equal number of parts and draw line at right angles to E C, cutting
the curved line where numbered. Parallel to E C draw the stretchout line F G.
With the dividers set equal to one of the spaces in D, step along E G as many
times as will equal the circumference of D. Erect perpendiculars as shown,
numbering them in order to avoid confusion. These lines are called measuring
lines. Transfer the length of the lines in elevation to the
corresponding measuring lines — viz. : Make a 1 of the
measuring lines equal a 1 in the elevation, b 2 of the measur-
ing lines equal to b 2 of elevation, and so on. A line
traced through these points will give the pattern required.
The oval drum with pillars may be made of the same
dimensions as Fig. 175, the body being formed oval instead
of round and the pillars adjusted to suit the difference in

shape.
Another drum, shown by Fig. 182, can be made of

Russia iron, 28 inches high and from 14 to 17 inches in

diameter, or of smooth black iron 24 inches high and 10
Fig. 182. a Heating Drum j nc h es j n diameter. Continue the pipe or collar on the
bottom drum upon the inside to about 6 inches from the top, and the outlet
of the
pipe at the top of the drum is carried down to within 6 inches of the bottom, as
shown in the sketch. This brings the hot smoke to the top of the drum, so that a
pan of water can be easily warmed, then the smoke gives off its heat to the drum
as it falls to the bottom and passes off through the outlet. The legs are made of the
Straps that come around bundles of sheet iron and should be about 6 inches high.

A HOPPER REGISTER BOX

In the illustration, Fig. 183, is shown the hopper register box, and it will at
onoe be noted that the boxes, after the patterns are cut, are very easily made and
are good goods to handle and show prospective customers when talking up work.
It will be readily seen that the air starts to spread over the full surface of the
register from the collar to the top of box, and there is nothing to interfere in any
way with the register valves or a free outflow of the air.
 148 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

The way to get the patterns for this box is a simple problem in triangulation,
and it is advisable to use this method in getting out the patterns for all stock sizes
at least. The hopper is shown in elevation by A B C F E D in Fig. 184. The
top square part made to receive the register is represented by A B C D, the hop-
per proper by D C F E, and the round collar at the bottom of the hopper, to
which is fitted the hot air pipe, by E F G H. The half plan of the top of the

Fig. 185. Diagram of Triangles Fig. 184. Plan and Elevation

hopper is represented by I K L M and the half plan of the round bottom part by
O R P. To find the pattern of the hopper, D C F E, and the top square part,
A B C D, which are made in one piece, divide the quadrant 0 R into any num-
ber of equal spaces, as shown by the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. From the
point M draw the lines M 1, M 2, M 3, M 4, M 5 and M which show the
6,
horizontal distances between the point represented by M in plan and I) in eleva-
tion and the points on the quadrant.
To find the true distances between this point and the points on the quadrant,
draw in Fig. 185 the base line T U. At T erect the perpendicular T S, equal to
the vertical distances between D C and E F in Fig. 184. From T on the line
T U lay off the horizontal distances between M and the points on the quadrant,
making T 1 equal to M 1, T 2 equal to M 2, etc. From the numbered points
thus obtained on the line T U draw lines to S. These lines will represent the
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 149
true distances from M in plan, which is the same as D in elevation, to the num-
bered points on the quadrant O R in plan, which is E W in elevation.

To make the pattern as shown in Fig. 18G draw A' B' C' I)* equal to A B
C D in Fig. 184. It will be seen from the plan in Fig. 184 that the line L M
and the point 7 of the arc ORB meet at R, so that the vertical distance

between the points V and W in Fig. 184 is equal to the actual distance between
these lines. Therefore, in Fig. 186 let fall from the center of C’ D’ aperpendicu-

Fig. 186 . Pattern for Half of Hopper

lar with a length equal to V W, the vertical distance between D C and E H

in Fig. 184, and call the bottom point of the line 7'. Now from 7', with a radius

equal to one of the spaces on the quadrant O R in Fig. 184, strike arcs, and from
D' and with a radius equal to S 6 in Fig. 185, draw arcs intersecting these,
C',

marking the intersections 6’. From the points 6 strike arcs with a radius equal
arcs having
to the spaces in the quadrant in Fig. 184, and intersect these with
centers at D' and C', and which have a radius equal to S 5 in Fig. 185, calling these
points 5'. Proceed in a similar manner until points 1' are reached. Trace a

curve through the points thus obtained.

From D' and C' in Fig. 186 strike arcs equal to I M in half plan in Fig.

184 and intersect these with arcs struck from 1', with a radius equal to D E in

Fig. 184, calling the intersections D" and C". Draw the lines D' D' and C
C". Fromthe points D", D’, C' and C" erect perpendiculars equal to in A D
Fig. 184, and connect the top of these perpendiculars, so as to form
the rectangles

A"' A" D' D" and C' B” B'" C". Draw the lines D" 1' and C" 1'. Then
1' 7' 1' be the pattern for half the
will the figure A'" A" D' A' B' C' B" B'"
hopper, no allowance being made for laps.
Attention is called to the way that the joints on the square top of the hopper
are made, as shown in Fig. 183, and also to the floor flange which has been pro-
 150 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

vided and which is an essential part of the hopper. It is usual to make the square
box to receive the register about 2 inches deep. As shown in the illustration, Fig. 183,
the joints at the corners of this part are
simply lapped; if desired these corners
can be double seamed, which makes a
neater job. After forming up and groov-
ing, a collar is put on the bottom of the
box, as shown in Fig. 183, the joints of
which are made as in Fig. 188.
Fi &- 187 Fi s- 188 The principles explained in the fore-
View and Section Through Offset .

going also apply to starters, that is,

transition pieces, which referring to the transition offset shown in Fig. 187 the
part marked A joins a rectangular pipe at B, and a round pipe at C, while Fig.
188 shows how the various pieces B, A and 0 are seamed together at a and b.

The pattern for an offset of this or any other similar kind is developed by triangu-
lation, as shown in Fig. 186.

PATTERN FOR OFFSET BOOT

The pattern for a boot shown in Fig. 189 is obtained by triangulation without
using the plan, and is a method that can be used to advantage when both halves
of the article to be made are symmetrical as shown in the plan view in Fig. 190.
This method is applicable to any shaped boot, regardless of the size of the pipes at
either end or the amount of offset, it may contain.
First draw the side elevation of the boot as shown by a b 9 1, the profile of the

pipe on the line a b being a rectangle as shown in plan,

and the profile on the line 9 1 being a circle, also shown
fore-shortened in the plan. On the line a b in elevation
place one-half of the rectangular profile a a b' b in plan
as shown by similar letters in elevation ;
and on the line
1 9 place a semicircle representing the one-half profile of
the round pipe. As before mentioned, the plan view is

not necessary, as the profile of the rectangular pipe would

Fig. 189 be known without a plan. Divide the semicircle into an
A One-Piece Offset Boot
even number of spaces as shown from 1 to 9, from which
points at right angles to 1 9 draw lines until they intersect the base line from 2°
to 8°. All points from 1 to 5° are connected to a and all points from 5° to 9 are
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 15 1
connected to b°. These lines then give the base lines of sections which will be

constructed with altitudes equal to the various hights in both semiprofiles. For
example, to obtain the true lengths in Y, take the distances from b° to 5°, b° to

G°, to 7°, to 8° and to 9, and place them on the horizontal line in T as shown by
similar numbers. From b° in T erect the perpendicular b° b' equal in hight to

b in the half profile.

b' From the points 5°, 6°, 7° and 8° in T erect the perpen-
5° 5, 6° 6, 7° 7, 8° 8, re-
diculars 5° 6, 6° 6, 7° 7 and 8° 8 equal in hight to
spectively, in the semicircle in elevation. Then draw lines in T from b' to 5,V
to 6, to 7, to 8 and to 9, each of which represents the true length of a similar num-
bered line in elevation. In a similar manner obtain the true lengths of the lines in X.
 I 52 '
Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

Before laying out the pattern the location of the seam must be known, and in
this case the seam will be placed along 1 a in elevation, which would be at 1 a
when viewed in plan. The pattern can now be laid out by taking the distance of
9 b° in elevation and placing it on the vertical line in R, as shown by 9 V. At
right angles to 9 b ,
through b draw the line b° b°, making b b° on both sides
equal to b b in the half profile. Draw lines from b° to 9 in R, which will equal
b 9 in T. With radii equal to b' 8, b' 7, 6 and 5 in T and with b° in R as
center, describe the short arcs 8, 7, 6 and 5. Now set the dividers equal to one of
the equal spaces in the semicircle in elevation and, starting from point 9 in T, step
to arc 8, then to 7, to 6 and to 5, and draw a line from 5 to b°. Next with b° a

in elevation as radius, and b° in R as center, describe the arc a, which intersect

by an arc struck from 5 as center, with 5 o' in S as radius. Connect lines in R,
from 5 to a to b°, as shown. With radii equal to a 4, a 3, 2 and 1 in S, and
with a in R as center, describe short arcs 4, 3, 2 and 1. Then again using the
spaces in the semicircle in elevation, step from point 5 to arc 4, to 3, to 2 and to
1, and draw a line from 1 to o'. With the seam line 1 a in elevation as radius,
and 1 in R as center, describe the arc o°, which intersect by an arc struck from a
as centerand with radius equal to a a in the half rectangular profile in elevation.
Connect lines in R from 1 to a to a and trace a line through the intersections
from 1 to 9 on both sides. Then will 1, 9, 1, a, a, b°, b°, d, d be the net
pattern for the transition piece.
To add the rectangular part shown at the top in Fig. 189, simply take
the distance from b° to b in elevation and place it perpendicular to b° b° in
J
the pattern asshown by b b, and draw a line from b to b. Take a tracing of a
0
b b° a in elevation and place it as shown by a b b° a0 in the pattern.
Take the
distance of o° a and place it perpendicular to a 1 o° in the pattern and draw
the
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 153
line a a. This then completes the pattern for the offset boot in one piece, to which
edges must be allowed for seaming purposes.
It is to be understood that, if this arrangement precludes cutting from stock
material, the collar R can be made separately ;
also a seam could be provided on
line b' 9. This method is applicable for a boot that is to connect to a horizontal
round pipe and would look like Fig. 191. A slight change of procedure is necessary,
inasmuch as a section on line A B is an ellipse. This section is ascertained by
dividing the circle X into equal parts and carrying lines from these points to the line
A B. At right angles to A B and from where these lines intersect it, erect lines
that are equal in length to the distance from the center line of the circle as, 4°
R°
;
—
of line A B equals 4 It of the circular section.

SHORT RULE FOR STRAIGHT BOOT PATTERN

In Fig. 192 is shown a finished view of a straight boot from oblong to round
used in ventilation and heating work. In this article the proposition is to obtain
the half-pattern for A, with seams at the sides, as shown by B by a short rule.
The usual rule is to obtain the plan and elevation of the article, then divide the
plan in equal spaces and obtain the base lines of the sections the
vertical hights of which would be equal to the hight of the
article. In this case the plan is omitted, as will be seen in Fig.
193, which shows a simple method for obtaining an accurate
pattern.
First draw the center line, upon which place the hight the
boot is to have, as shown by a 1'. Draw horizontal lines through
a and 1', making 5 5' equal to the length of the oblong pipe,
4 4' equal to the diameter of the round pipe.
Fig. 102. View of the an<^
Finished Boot
Place the half profile of the oblong pipe in the position
shown by C, and the half profile of the round pipe in the position shown by B. As
the four quarters of the article are alike it is only necessary to divide the quarter
circle in B in equal spaces, as shown from 1 to 4, and the quarter circle in C into
a similar number of spaces, as shown from 5 to 8, 8 8' being the semidiameter of
the circular ends of the oblong pipe.
From the various divisions 1 to 4 and 5 8 lines are drawn at right angles to
their respective base lines, intersecting them from 1' to 4 and 5 to 8'. Solid and
dotted lines in A are now drawn, as shown, which represent the bases of sections
to be constructed, the altitudes of which are equal to the various hights in the semi-
 154 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

profiles B and C. For example, the true section on 1' 8' in A is obtained by
placing this distance on the horizontal line 1' 8' in D and erecting the perpendic-
ulars 1' 1 and 8'
8, equal, respectively, to 1' 1 in B and 8' 8 in C; 1 8 in D
then gives the true length on the finished article on the line 1' 8' in A. Diagram
D shows the true lengths of the solid lines in A, while in E are shown the true
lengths of the dotted lines in A.
The pattern for one-half the boot shown in Fig. 194,
is in which the distance 9
8 is equal to 9 8 in C in Fig. 198. With the radius equal to 1 8 in D and 8 and

Fig. 193. Elevation, Half Profiles and Sections Fig. 194. The Half-Pattern Shape

9 in Fig. 194 as centers, arcs are struck intersecting each other at 1 . With 1 as cen-
ter describe the arc 1 2 with a radius equal to 1 2 in B in Fig. 193. With radius
equal to 2 8 in diagram E and 8 in Fig. 194 as center intersect the arc 2 at 2.
Using 8 as center, describe the arc 7 with a radius equal to 8 7 in C in Fig.
193. Then using 2 7 in diagram D as radius and 2 in Fig. 194 as center describe

an arc intersecting the arc 7.

Proceed in this manner, using alternately first the divisions in the profile B,
in Fig. 193, then the true length in E, the divisions in the profile C, then the true
length in D, until the line 4 5 in Fig. 194 is drawn, which is obtained from 4 5
in A, in Fig. 193. Trace 1 4, 5 8 in Fig. 194 opposite the line 1 9, as shown by
1 4', 5' 9 which completes the half-pattern, to which edges must be allowed for
seaming.

PATTERN FOR FURNACE PIPE FITTING

The following is a demonstration of the method of obtaining the pattern for a
furnace pipe fitting shown by Fig. 195. As will be seen, this is a transition fitting,
which makes a quarter twist for a line of piping. It is emphasized that such a fit-
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns *55

ting is frequently useful between a floor and the ceiling below, where a square box
with collars attached is generally used. This, of course, is unscientific and requires
more space, necessitating considerable additional cutting away of the timber.

VSeam
Naturally, such a fitting affords, in a large measure, obstruc-
tion to the flow of the air, as it does not provide an easy tran-
sition from one portion of the line of piping to another,
whether the line is vertical or otherwise.

In laying out this article a plan is the first essential. The

plan of Fig. 195 is to be redrawn as in Fig. 196. By studying
the problem it becomes evident that the object is composed of

triangular and cylindrical surfaces which alternate. Inasmuch

as the elements of a cylindrical form are always parallel, the

Co/hr}
obvious conclusion, it would seem, is to develop these surfaces
by the parallel line method. As three of these surfaces are
Fig. 195. Pattern Problem inclined, however, with but one vertical, and its true section
shown by the plan, this surface being the one designated 13 to 17, the question
arises, would the method suggested be preferable to triangulation? because true —
sections are, perforce, required of the inclined surfaces to develop the pattern by the
parallel method.
By experimenting with both methods, it is learned that the parallel methods
are decidedly quicker and insure the greater accuracy by reason of the elimination
of the dotted lines required by triangulation to connect the elements. For this
exemplification, therefore, the procedure will be by the parallel method.
The plan is divided into spaces as shown by 1 to 30, and the elements of the
various cylindrical surfaces represented by dot and dash lines as shown. The tri-
angular surfaces are also shown by certain lines, as 13 30, 9 26 8, 21 4 22. It

is purely a fortunate accident that some lines pass through two points, as line 4 26

is for two triangles.

The true sections of the cylindrical surface are determined in this wise : For
the surface 9 13 to 30 26 an elevation is drawn by projecting the division points
upward. On the line 31 32 the hight of the fitting is placed. Horizontal line 32
33 terminates the elements at the top, and line 31 34 at the bottom. From the
point where the projectors drawn from 30 to 26 in plan intersect line 31 34, lines
(the elements) are drawn to where projectors from 13 to 9 intersect line 32 33.
These lines are parallel, and 32 33 34 31 is a partial elevation of the fitting, giving the
exact lengths of the lines of the triangular surface 13 30 in plan, also of the element
of the cylindrical surface 13 9 30 26 of the plan. Although it is not a true eleva-
156 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

tion, it will suffice for the triangular surface 17 0 and cylindrical surface 17 21 0 4
of the plan.

The ascertaining of the true section is

now in order and is done in this fashion :

A line A B is drawn perpendicular to the

elements in the elevation. Measuring

from this line on each element, the distances
in plan are placed, as 30 R in plan is 35 S
in elevation, etc.

An oblique view is necessary for the

finding of the right lengths of the elements
and the true section of the surface 26 22 8
4 as follows: A line 36 37 is drawn
parallel to the plan lines and another line

38 39 the distance away of 31 32. Projec-

tion lines are drawn to this from the plan,
Fig. 19(5. Development of Elements of Fitting
as instructed for the other elevations. In
a like manner the true section is found on the line, using the distances as 23 P in

plan is 40 Q in the elevation. The triangular surface is not shown true in this
elevation, owing to the plane in plan 8 9 26 being fore-shortened in elevation 37

39 41.
The sides of this triangle having been already obtained in the elements of the

curved surfaces, also the other slanting triangular surface 4 21 23, no further work
is required, leaving the developing of the pattern still to be accomplished, to wit:

As the seam is stipulated to be at point 16 in plan, a stretchout of that surface is

placed anywhere, as 16 to 13 in Fig. 197. To this is annexed the triangular sur-

face 13 30 in plan; that is, 32 31 42 in elevation is transferred to the pattern, as

shown by 13 T 30 13. To these are attached the stretchout of the cylindrical sur-
face 13 9 30 26 in plan, by drawing, in Fig. 197, aline A A B B with the stretchout
points of the true profile perpendicular to 13 T 30 the same distance from 13 T that
AB of Fig. 196 is from 32. The most convenient way to carry the elements to
the pattern is to take the distances on the various elements in Fig. 196 from line
A B to 32 33 and A B to 42 34 ;
like the space 33 43 of Fig. 196 coincides with
9 43 of Fig. 197.
Line 9 26 of Fig. 197 is one side of the triangular surface 9 26 8 of the plan,
Fig. 196. With the compasses or trammels spaced to 9 8 of Fig. 196, swing an
arc from 9 as a center, Fig. 197. With the compasses now set to the distance
 ;

Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 157

37 41 of the oblique elevation, Fig. 196, and 26 as center, Fig. 197, swing an
arc to intersect the arc just drawn, giving the point 8 or the exact triangular surface.

The elements of the cylindrical surface

26 22 8 4, Fig. 196, are appended to
this much of the pattern, as per former
instructions. The triangular surface
21 4 22 of Fig. 196 is obtained by
swinging an arc of a length coincident
to 21 22 of Fig. 196 with 22 as a center
in Fig. 197. From 4 swing an inter-
secting arc of a length equal to 42 32 of
Fig. 196.
Fig. 197. Development of Pattern The rest of the pattern is simply
the repetition of the first part of the pattern, from 14 T to 9 to 14 to 26 as shown
inasmuch, as stated, the elevation of Fig. 196 would suffice for two of the cylindrical

and triangular surfaces combined. In conclusion, it is suggested that the pattern

be made in two parts with an additional seam at, say, line 7 26. This is suggested
to allow of cutting with little waste from standard sizes of tin plate.

From the foregoing solution the method of obtaining the pattern for a fitting

of an oblong pipe, that is to say, a pipe with four flat sides or rectangular in section,
should be clear, because flat surfaces are only dealt with, making it much more
simple.

PIPE INSERTING FURNACE TOP

In Fig. 198 A B C D represents part of the furnace top and E F J G the
pipe, which joins the top at an angle in elevation indicated by B K E, and at
an angle in plan, Fig. 199, by Z. In this connection it may be proper to remark
that no matter what size of furnace top or what size pipe is used, or at what angle
the pipe is placed in plan or elevation, the principles here shown are applicable in
any case. Referring to Fig. 199 let A B C D represent the elevation of the furnace
top, the half-plan of which is shown by E F G H I J K. Let J G in plan
represent the angle at which the pipe is to be taken off the top, and let L in eleva-
tion represent the hight which the side of the pipe H of Fig. 198 will be above the
base line of the cone in elevation in Fig. 199. At right angles to D C, and from
the point L, draw aline intersecting the center line E H of the plan at T 1
. With
J in plan as center, and J T 1
as radius, describe an arc intersecting the line J F,
 158 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

which is drawn at right angles to J, G, at X 1

. Then at pleasure locate the point
where the side of the pipe, indicated at H of Figs. 198 or 200 in the profile N
of Fig. 199, should touch in plan, as shown by the
point M. Now through the point M, and parallel
to J G, draw the line M S, prolonging it until it

intersects the line J F at R. At right angles to

R S draw the line S P, equal to the width of the
pipe, and parallel to R S the line P 0, as shown.
In line with the pipe draw the profile N, which
c divide into equal spaces, as shown by the small
figures. Through the small figures, and parallel to

Fig. 198. Shape for which Pattern ia

° the arc G F and line
P O, draw lines intersecting
Desired J F, as shown by O Z, S T, V U, X and R Y. W
With J in plan as center, and with the various radii shown from J 0 to J

R, describe arcs intersecting the line E H at N 1

,
O 1
,
P 1
,
R 1 and S 1 At
,
. right
angles to E II, and through the various intersections, draw lines intersecting the

side of the cone B C in elevation at C 1

,
E 1
,
G 1
,
J 1
,
L 1
. Parallel to D C, and
B line A M at 1 1
from the intersections on C, draw lines intersecting the center

B 1
,
I)
1

,
F 1
,
M K V 1
,
1
,
1
. Then will the arcs O NT O V P 1
,
1
,
1
,
etc., represent
sections of the cone in plan corresponding to the lines. B C D E 1 1
,
1 1
,
F G 1 1
,
etc.,

shown in elevation.

The next step is to construct sections of the cone as it would appear if cut by
the lines shown by O Z, T S, U V, X W, and Y R. To avoid a con-
in plan
fusion of lines the method has been shown separately in Fig. 200.
All that part of the plan in Fig. 199 contained in G J F has been transferred
as shown by G .T F in Fig. 200, the line J F of Fig. 199 being placed vertical in
Fig. 200 because the sections of the cone will be taken at right angles to the line
of the pipe O P. Having placed the plan in Fig. 200 in the proper position, draw
any horizontal line, M 1
C representing the base of the cone in its relative position
to the plan, as shown by the dotted lines. Now upon this base line M 1
C con-
struct the half elevation of the furnace top, containing the lines representing the
sections in plan, similar in all respects to A BC M 1 1
of Fig. 199, as shown by
C M A B 1 1
in Fig. 200. For the section of the cone on the line O Z in plan,
Fig. 200, proceed as follows : At right angles to the line O P in plan, and from
the intersections on the arcs shown, carry lines upward, as shown by the dotted
lines, intersecting lines in elevation corresponding to the arcs in plan. A line
traced through the intersections thus obtained, shown from B* to B a
in elevation,
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 159

will be the section of the cone if cut on the line O Z in plan. The sections on
the lines ST, U V, WX and Y R in plan are obtained in the same manner
as shown by the sections D D
1 2
,
F F2
1
,
H H
1 2
and K K 1 2
in elevation, all the

lines not being carried through from plan to elevation, the points of intersections
only being shown, so as to avoid a confusion of lines. From the point M in plan,
A A’ B

jFig, 200, which indicates the position of the point 3 of the pipe, shown by H in

Fig. 198, and at right angles to R S in plan, Fig. 200, draw a line intersecting
the one drawn from the point L in elevation, as shown at 3. Then will 3 indicate
the position of the point 3 of the pipe, shown by H in Fig. 198. Let
1
BQU
represent the angle at which the pipe is to come in elevation then from the point ;
160 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 161
3 obtained in elevation, and parallel to Q U 1
,
draw the dotted line 3 7. At any
convenient point on the line 3 7 as center, and with radius corresponding to the
profile N in plan, draw the profile N 1
,
as shown. As the point 1 in plan in profile
N represents the top of the pipe, this point must be placed as shown at the top of

the profile N 1
in elevation. Now divide the profile N 1
into the same number of

equal parts as shown by the profile N.

The next step is to obtain the miter line or line of joint in elevation between
the cone and pipe. By referring to the plan it will be seen that the point 7 lies

in the plane of the section O Z ;

then must a line from point 7 in profile N 1
cut
the profile B B 1 2
,
which corresponds to the line 0 Z in plan, as shown by 7.

The points 6 and 8 in the profile N in plan being in the plane of the section T
S, then must the corresponding points 6 and 8 in the profile N 1
intersect the
section D D 1 2
. In this manner is the balance of the points 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 in
profile N shown by the
1
the intersected with sections in elevation, as intersections

1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 in half elevation. A line traced through these points of inter-

sections, as shown, will be the miter line, showing the intersections between the
pipe and cone of the angle desired.
For the pattern for the pipe proceed as follows: At right angles to the line of
the pipe Q U 1
draw the line A B
upon which place the stretchout of the pro-2 3
,

file N as shown by the small figures.

1
,
At right angles to A 2 B 8 and through the ,

small figures, draw lines, which intersect with lines of corresponding numbers
drawn from the points of intersections on the miter line in elevation at right angles
to Q U Trace a line through the intersections thus obtained, as shown from D 8 to
1
.

C 2 Then will A2 B 8 C 2 D* be the pattern for the pipe mitering against the cone
.

at the angle shown in plan and elevation. To obtain an accurate fit and the correct
angle, a pattern must be obtained for the opening to be cut into the side of the cone.
The method of obtaining this pattern has been shown in Fig. 201, which avoids this
confusion of lines which would occur if the pattern were obtained from Fig. 200.
Thus A B C M in Fig. 201 is a reproduction of A B C M in Fig. 200. Like-
1 1 1 1

wise the plan J G F, the pipe O P S R and profile N in Fig. 201 are a reproduction
of the quarter plan J G F, etc. as shown in Fig. 200. From the points in the ,

profile N of Fig. 201 draw horizontal lines through the plan, as shown. Now
obtain a duplicate of the miter line 12345678 in elevation, Fig. 200, and
place it in the same relative position, as shown by 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8, in the half
elevation, Fig. 201. Now, at right angles to M 1
and through the small figures
C,
in the miter line in elevation, draw lines intersecting those of similar numbers in
plan, as shown by the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
 1 6a Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

A line traced through these intersections, as shown, will be the miter line in
plan showing the intersection between the pipe and cone. Through the small
figures or points of intersec-
tions in the miter line in plan
• H
\ draw lines to the center J,
" prolonging them until they
intersect the arc F G, as shown.
Number the points of intersec-
6 7
tion with the arc G F similar
to the intersections in the
miter line, as shown by the
small figures 2, 3, 1, 4, 8, 5,

6, 7 divide the distance

;
shown
from 7 to G into equal spaces,
as shown by 9, 10, 11, etc.

Extend the lines M A 1 1

and
C B in elevation until they
meet at B 1
. Parallel to M 1
C,
and through the points or
small figures in the miter line
in elevation, draw lines inter-

secting the side of the cone B

C at 8, 1, 7, 2, 6, 3, 4 and 5,

as shown. Now with B 1

as
center, and B B and B C
1 1
as
radii, describe the arcs B H
and C G
From any point,
1
.

as F\ draw the line F B\ in- 1

tersecting the arc B H at I.

From F on 1
the arc F G lay1 1
,

off the stretchout of the quarter

S 3 circle F G in plan, as shown

Fig. 201. Pattern of Opening in Furnace Top by the small figures. From
the point G 1
draw a line to the center point B 1
,
intersecting the arc I H at H.
From the small figures 2, 3, 1, 4, 8, 5, 6, 7 on the pattern draw lines radi-
B Then with B center, and B 8, B 1, B 7 as
1 1 1 1 1
ating to the center point . as
radii, describe arcs intersecting the radiating lines of similar numbers just drawn.
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 163
A line traced through these points of intersection, as shown by the shaded portion,
will represent the shape of the opening to be cut into the side of the funnel top, of
which I H F G
1 1
represents one-quarter.

PATTERNS FOR A CONCAVE FURNACE TOP.

The concave top constitutes an inverted cone with a base 9 feet 8 inches in
diameter and has an altitude 4 inches. The radius with which to describe the
pattern will be the slan bight of the cone, found
:
by constructing a diagram of the
same, either full size or with accuracy to a scale not less than one-fourth full size.

In the accompanying illustration Fig. 202, A C represents the vertical center line
of the furnace top. Draw A B and C
D horizontally 13 inches apart, repre-
senting respectively the upper and
lower lines of the article. Measuring
from the center line, make A B 4 feet
10 inches long, one-half the required
upper diameter and make C D 5 feet
5 inches long, one-half the required
lower diameter, and draw B D. Also
set off on the center line the point E 4
inches below A and draw A B, thus
completing a sectional view of the fur-
nace top. Then will E B be the radius
for the pattern of the concave top, as
above described, the pattern being
shown in the upper part of the diagram.
To obtain the circumference of the
pattern it will be necessary to first con-
struct a quarter plan of the top. There-
fore, from any point, as S on the center line extended, with radii equal to A B and
C D, describe the quarter circles H J and F G, terminating them at the top against
the center line and at the bottom, at the line S G, drawn horizontally from the point
S. The circumference of the quarter circle H J, as measured by the equal spaces
designated by the points 1 to 8, may then be set off on the line B' H' of the pat-

tern, as shown, and if one-half the pattern should be required in one piece the arc
 :

164 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

B' H’ may be extended to K, making H' K equal to B' H', as shown by the eight
additional spaces.
To find the radius with which to describe the pattern for the sides of the fur-

nace top, extend the line BD of the sectional view upward until it intersects with
the center line A C extended at L. Then will L B and L D be respectively the
radii for the upper and lower edges of the side pieces. From L as center, with
these radii, describe the arcs B M and D N, as shown, and make the arc D N equal
in length to the arc GF of the plan, as shown by the corresponding equal spaces
in both. Then will B MN D be the pattern for one-quarter of the side piece.
The necessary edges for joints should be allowed.

FOR RECTANGULAR FURNACE HOOD

AND DEFLECTOR
The problem is, where a flaring rectangular furnace
hood, with rounded corners, is intersected by a flaring

rectangular deflector, with rounded corners, to find the

patterns for the hood and deflector, such as is shown
in Fig. 203. It may be well to say that it makes no dif-

ference what size or shape this hood has, as the prin-

ciples here laid down are applicable to any case.

First draw the plan of the bottom of the hood, as shown by A B C D in Fig.

204, the rounded corners being quarter circles struck from the centers a, b, c and d,
as shown by kj, s r, on and m l respectively. As the flare of the hood is be equal
on all sides, and knowing the pitch, construct the plan of the top of the hood, as

shown by E F G H, the corners also being quarter circles, struck from the centers
e, f, h and i, with the same radii as used for the bottom, These arcs are shown
respectively by u t, t' u, v w' and w v. From the plan project lines and construct
the elevation, as shown by K L M N. Also draw the elevation of the deflector, as
shown by M N P O, which is to have equal flare on all sides, as shown in plan by
E F G H I J, the rounded corners on both ends tapering to I and J, as shown.
To obtain the patterns for the flat side and end of the hood proceed as follows
At right angles to the side and the end of the hood in plan draw the lines N l L1 and
N* L2 equal in length to N L in elevation. Through the points N and L parallel
1 1
,

to m n draw lines, as shown, which' intersect with lines drawn at right angles to m
n from points w w' and m n, as shown by w” w" and m" n". Draw lines from w"
to m" and w" to n", and the figure obtained is the pattern for the flat side of the hood.
 ,

Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 165

Through the points N 2
and L2 ,
parallel to k l, draw lines, as shown, which intersect
with lines drawn at right angles to k l from points u v and k l, as shown by u" v"
and k" l". Draw lines from u" to k" and v" to l'\ and the figure obtained is the
pattern for the flat end of the hood.
Before obtaining the pattern for the rounded corners a diagonal elevation must
be constructed from which to obtain the true section and pattern. Parallel to one
of the corners in plan, as h 2, draw the line h' 2". Divide the quarter circles o n
and v' w', both into the same number of equal spaces, as shown by the small
figures 1, 2, 3 and 1', 2', 3' respectively. In practice more spaces should be em-
ployed. At right angles to h’ 2" draw the line, h’ li" equal in hight to RN in

Pig. 204. Plan, Elevation, Diagonal Elevation, True Section, Diagram of Triangles and Patterns

elevation. From h’" parallel to h’ 2" draw the line h" 2'".
At right angles to h 2
in plan, and from points c, 1, 2 and 3, erect lines intersecting the base line h’ 2" at
c", 1",
2" and 3" respectively. In similar manner from h"' 2'" at h'", 1'", 2"’ and
3'”. Through similar numbered points on the base and top lines in diagonal eleva-
tion draw lines, as shown, extending them indefinitely beyond K" 2"'. Then will
h"\ 2"', 2", c" be the diagonal elevation of the rounded corner and its center.
 166 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

At right angles to c" h'" draw the line S T. Measuring from the line c 2 in
plan, take the distance to points 1 and 3 and place it on similar numbered lines in
diagonal elevation, measuring from the line S T, thus obtaining the points c°, 1°,

2 °
and 3°, through which trace a line, as shown, which will be the true section of
points 7t, 1', 2' and 3', of the rounded corner at right angles to the diagonal ele-

vation. For the pattern for the rounded corner draw the line U Y at right angles
to 2" 2”', upon which place the stretchout of the true section 1°, 2°, 3°, as shown
by 1, 2, 3 on U V. Through the small figures, parallel to 2', 2"', draw lines, which
2"'
intersect with lines drawn at right angles to 2" from similar numbered points
on the top and bottom of the diagonal elevation. Trace a line through points thus
obtained, as shown ;
then will WXYZ be the pattern for the corner, which can
be added to the pattern for side, as shown by A 1
and B 1
.

For the pattern for the deflector, space one of the corners into an equal number
of parts, as shown by t E u, and draw lines to the apex 1. In practice more spaces
should be used. M O in elevation represents the true length on x I and
y in I

plan. To obtain the true lengths on I t, I E and Iua diagram of triangles must
be constructed as follows: Extend the lines NM and P O in elevation, as shown.
Take the distance of I t or I u in plan, both of which are the same, and place it as
shown by I t° in the diagram of triangles. In similar manner take the distance I
1

E in plan shown by t° E in diagram of triangles. Erect perpen-

and place it as
1

2
and I 3 E which represent
'

diculars I I and t° I as shown, and draw the lines I 2

31
,
t
1
,

respectively the true lengths in plan on I t or I u and I E.

For the half pattern of the deflector take the distance of O M or P N in eleva-
tion and place it at right angles to M N, as shown by P N Through these two 1 1
.

points parallel to M N draw lines, as shown, which intersect with lines drawn from
points t, I, t' and J in plan at right angles to I J, thus obtaining the points tx I ,
4
,

F and J in pattern. Draw lines from tx to I and t x to J which should equal I 2 t°

1 4 1

in the diagram of triangles. With radii equal to I 2 t° and I 3 E in the diagram of l

triangles, and with I in pattern of deflector as center, describe the arcs t x t u and
4

E° E, respectively, as shown. Set the dividers equal to t E and E u in plan, and,

starting from the point F in pattern, step to similar lettered arcs, thus obtaining
x x
the intersections E° and u respectively. Draw a line from u to I and 4
,
trace a
x
curve through points t
x
,
E° and u . With u x in plan as radius and ux in pattern
4
as center describe the arc x", which intersect with an arc struck from I as center
and N P
1 1
in pattern as radius. Draw a line from n to x" to I x
In similar manner 4
.

4
obtain C or the opposite side. Then will the outline shown represent the half
pattern for the deflector in the top of the furnace hood.
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 167
PATTERNS FOR A FURNACE BOOT
Of late furnacemen are more careful to design fittings that permit the flow of
air with the minimum amount possible of friction and with no reduction of area in
any part of the fitting. The elevation shown in Fig. 206 is constructed in accord-
ance with the dimensions given in the sketch, Fig. 205, but the proportions of the
boot may be varied to suit any depth of joist, amount of offset or dimensions of
pipes necessary to make it conform to any other set of conditions, without in the
least affecting the method of developing its pattern. The reader will, of course,

understand that if the proportions are varied materially from

ihose shown in the diagrams, the results will differ corre-
spondingly from that shown in the pattern given, but he
need have no fear of error if the method herein prescribed
be adhered to.

First draw the plan with its two pipes P and Q, centered
upon the horizontal line C E, placing them so that the dis-
tance D E shall equal the required offset. Next construct
Fig. 205. Diagram of the
the elevation by projecting lines upward from each point on
Problem
C E of the plan, as shown, giving B the required vertical
hight above P. Some libertymay be permitted with regard to the location of
point C in this view. The line C D can of course be drawn horizontally as in
Fig. 205, but the function of the boot is naturally that of an elbow, and the capac-
ity of the offset will be greatly reduced if the point C is placed on the same level
with D ;
for it will be seen that if this is the case the distance across the boot from
D to the line C B will then be much less than the diameter of the round pipe P,
and further, that this narrowing will be increased as the amount of offset is increased,
by reason of the increased obliquity of the lines. It is therefore necessary to
elevate the point C to such a hight that the area of a section on a line, P e, drawn
from D perpendicular to C B of the elevation, is equal to that of the round pipe
P, or to that of the rectangular pipe Q, whichever may be the lesser.

It may be noted that the distance across the elevation above referred to need
not be quite as great as the diameter of pipe P, from the fact that, while the dis-
tance across the boot, as seen in the side elevation, decreases from C D toward B
A, the distance shown by the plan, increases in the same direction, while
across, as

at the same time the section is becoming more and more rectangular as B A is
approached. For a like reason it will be seen that the point A of the elevation
Bhould be lowered till the line A D falls outside the point of tangency to an arc
drawn from B as a center, with B a as radius, as shown, since the horizontal width
 Y " -

ConditioningDuctPatter^_
Air no comph-
Aft Heating^J^L^
— T^involve
d6 These
“ ' for the
^Ttoward C
from
D-
9
the pattern
decreasing ® the P atter ?
’

** and takes
the
r
the boot
is
fdeveloping elboW ,

the
OTtion -
d ;^-“‘
h6rebyth
TD
Hr:£ ^ ^
ol a develop rn oi the
boot. elbow P >tte'“
ptee

-s^Ssrasr si.
-- - - * 1

in the
—

mf FLAK-
TVvftt P&ttGf^ *

of etod
numt«
„
ng *».
1 .U rAan into
any conv erecting the

spaces,
the nsnal
mann projections
mn <
,
pattern
measuring toes
P

0D ol the
>

plan to ont
n of the
0 »•
^
elevation.
0, *e «***““ ^ developing
, .

convenient spa»

ot
constructing
a diagram
|M
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 169

have therefore been so arranged as to accomplish this result with the least possible
labor. As the T square is brought successively to the several points on C D of
the elevation in making the projections into the measuring lines of the stretchout,
which may for convenience be placed to the left of the elevation, carry lines also in
the opposite direction to cut a vertical line B' H, erected as close as convenient to
the elevation, numbering each of the horizontal lines to correspond with the point
of the plan from which it was derived, as shown by the small figures above H.
Next in order will be the arrangement of the triangles the development of
which will constitute the pattern for the boot. This must be done on the plan in
the following manner: Connect point A with each of the points 1 to 5, inclusive,
of the plan C D, and point B with the points 5 to 9, inclusive. These lines will
represent the horizontal distances between the several points in the lower base
C D of the boot and the points A and B in the upper end, and will form the bases
of a series of right angled triangles the altitudes of which will be the distances from
the several points 1 to 5, inclusive, to A', and from 5 to 9, inclusive, to B', as
measured along the line H B'. Therefore, on each of the horizontal lines cutting

H B', set off the length of the base line of the plan of corresponding numbers;
thus make the distance H ( 1 ) T of the diagram of triangles equal to A 1 of the
plan, 2 2' of the diagram equal to A 2 of the plan, etc. Lines drawn from the
Iseveral points, T to 9', inclusive, thus located to A' and B', as shown, will give
the true distances from A and B of the pattern to corresponding points in its lower
outline.
These measurements cover all of those portions of the pattern forming the
rounded corners of the boot, each conical in shape, their bases uniting to form the
elliptical opening C D and with apexes at the four points A and B. Besides these
corners, there then remain four flat triangular sides, two of which are shown by B
5 A of the elevation, while the plan shows by F B C and E A D one-half each
of the other two.

To lay out the pattern of the boot, first take the length along the center
line of the side in which it is desired to have the seam, as D A of the elevation,
and set this distance off on any straight line, as D E of the pattern, and from E
draw E A at right angles to D E, making it equal in length to E A of the plan,
and draw A D, which will be equal to A' 1' of the diagram of triangles. Now
from A of the pattern as center, with radii equal to A' 2’, A' 3', A' 4' and A' 5'

draw the several arcs shown in the pattern between D and 5 giving to each its

proper number. As intimated above, the measurement along the lower side line
of the pattern of the boot must be equal to that along the upper side of the
17° Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

pattern, of the pipe ;

therefore set the dividers to the first space ( 1 to 2 ) on T S,

and placing one foot of the dividers at D or 1 of the pattern, swing the other foot

around to cut arc 2 just drawn in the pattern, thus locating the point 2 of the pat-
tern. Now from 2 as center with a radius equal to 2 3 of the line T S describe an
arc cutting arc 3 of pattern locating point 3. As A' 2' and A' 3' of the diagram
of triangles are in this case equal, one arc answers for both in the pattern. This
operation is continued to complete the lower outline of the pattern, stepping from
one arc to the next in order and making the several spaces from D to C of the pat-

tern, respectively, equal to those along T S of the other pattern. When the point
5 of the pattern of the boot has been reached, take the distance 5" B’ of the dia-
gram of triangles as a radius and from 5 of the pattern as center describe an arc,

which, cut with another struck from A of the pattern as center with a radius equal
to B A of the elevation. The intersection of the two arcs will locate the point B
of the pattern, which becomes a center from which to describe those arcs between
t

5 and C of the pattern the radii of which are respectively equal, to B' 6', B' 7', B
8' and B' 9'. It remains now only to add the triangular space shown by F B C
of the plan, the true central measurement of which is shown by B C of the eleva-

tion. Therefore, with this distance as a radius and C of the pattern as center,

describe an arc which intersect with another arc struck from B of the pattern as

center, with a radius equal to B F of the plan. This completes the half pattern.
If it is desired to make the entire pattern in one piece, describe an arc from C as
center with C B as radius, and intersect the same with an arc drawn from B as
center with a radius equal to two times B F. This will locate point B on the oppo-
site side of the pattern not shown in the illustration. If it is desired to obtain the
entire pattern in one piece by development it may be most economically accom-
plished by first laying out this last named triangle ( B C B) then conducting the
work in a reverse order to that above described, working from C toward D and
carrying both sides along together. Other methods of duplication may, however,
be deemed more expedient.
The pattern for the rectangular pipe above is of so simple a nature as scarcely to
require explanation. One-half of it corresponding to F B A E of the plan is
shown in dotted lines in the upper part of the engraving, in which fB A g shows
its mitered end.

PATTERN FOR OFFSET BOOT, ROUND TO OVAL

A view of a finished offset boot such as would be used in heating and ventila-
ting piping is shown in Fig. 207. The development of the top and bottom pipes
 Heating fo Air Conditioning Duct Patterns xy
of the boot is done by the usual method, but the pattern for the center piece will
be obtained by triangulation without using the plan for obtaining the basis of the

ggmm^ sections and without finding the true sections on the

JX| \ miter lines 1' 5' and 6' 10' in Fig. 208, as is usually done.

Xmam r>raw the elevation of the boot, as shown by A B C

es tablishing at pleasure the miter lines 1' 5' and 0' 10’.

£
s'
si // Below the elevation the plan view F
however, is not necessary, it
E 10 is

only being here shown to

drawn, which,

indicate that the halves of the boot on both sides of the

j

^ — line c d are symmetrical. Place the profile of the round

Fig. 207. View of Finished pipe below I) C and divide it into equal spaces, as shown,
from d to 10 on both sides. In similar manner place the
profile of the oblong pipe above A B, and also divide the semicircles at the ends
into the same number of spaces as the semicircles below C D, as shown from 1 to 5
in the oblong profile, and through the center of which draw the line a b. From
the various intersections in the round and oblong profiles draw vertical lines inter-
secting the miter lines G' 10' and 1' 5', respectively, as shown.
Take the stretchout of the round pipe and place it on the horizontal line 0 H,
as shown. Draw the usual measuring lines, which intersect by lines drawn from
the various intersections 6' to 10' parallel to C H, resulting in the intersections G"
to 10" to 6". C I J 11 is then the pattern for the round pipe.
The pattern for the oblong pipe is obtained by taking the stretchout of the
oblong pipe and placing it on B K and proceeding as before. B L M K is the
desired pattern. Bisect 1 1 in the pattern P and obtain e, which will be used in de-
veloping the center piece. From the various intersections on the miter lines
connect lines, as shown, from 1' to 9' to 2' to 8' to 3' to 7' to 4' to 6'. These lines
represent the bases of sections which will be constructed, with altitudes shown in
the two profiles of the pipes. For example, to find the true length of 2' 9 ' in ele-

vation, take this distance and place it as shown by 9 2 in the diagram of sections.
From 9 and 2 erect the altitudes 9 9' and 2 2', equal respectively to the distances
measured from the line c d in plan to the point 9 and from the line a b in the ob-
long profile to the point 2. The distance from 2' to 9' in R is the desired length.
In this manner all of the true lengths shown in R are obtained.
The pattern for the transition piece is developed as follows Assuming that the :

seam is to come on 5' 6' in elevation, take the distance of 1' 10' and place it as
show by e 10 in Fig. 209. With e 1 in the pattern P, in Fig. 208, as radius, and e
in Fig. 209 as center, describe the arc 1, which intersect by an arc struck from 10
,
1 72- Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

as center and 10 1' in the diagram R in Fig. 208 as radius. With 10" 9" in the
pattern O as radius, and with 10 in Fig. 209 as center, describe the arc 9, which
intersect by an arc struck from 1 as center and 1' 9' in the diagram R in Fig. 208
as radius.
With 1" 2" in the pattern P as radius, and 1 in Fig. 209 as center, describe the
arc 2, which intersect by an arc struck from 9 as center and 9' 2' in diagram R in
Fig. 208 as radius. Proceed in this manner Using alternately first the divisions
:

Fig. 208 . Plan, Elevation, Diagram of Sections and Patterns Fig. 209. Pattern for Transition Piece

along the miter, cut I J in the pattern O, then the true length in R; the divisions
along the miter cut L M in the pattern P, and again the proper length in R, until
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 173

the line 5 6 in Fig. 209 has been obtained. Then 5 e and e 6 represent respec-
tively the lengths in Fig. 208 shown by e 1 in the pattern P and 5' 6' in elevation.

Allowance must be made in the pattern for seaming.

PATTERNS FOR STOVE PIPE CONNECTION

The subjoined article is in answer to a request for patterns for an interesting
stove pipe elbow. The stipulation was that the stove be connected with the fire-
board and, if possible, that the connection should have a flat place where it leaves
the stove, so it could be used for a variety of purposes. At the fireplace the
thimble is 6 in.and the collar on the top of the stove is equivalent to a 6-in.

pipe flattened out to an oval.

In Fig. 210 is presented a reproduction of the sketch as submitted, in which
riAT aoarace
OVAL If POSSIBLE.
all conditions and dimensions are carefully shown, with
the exception that details are omitted from that part of
the pipe immediately connected with the stove and for
which the patterns are The problem presented
desired.

therein contains conditions somewhat novel even in the

line of sheet metal work. The part in question, the
horizontal portion, must be so constructed as to form a
joint at one end (the right in Fig. 210) with a short
piece of pipe, the profile of which is that of the collar on
the stove, while its other end must form a joint or miter
with the round pipe which descends obliquely at the back
of the stove. Such pieces are by no means uncommon,
but the general shape is that which naturally results

from the transition from one profile to the other.

It is specified that the top surface of this section of the pipe shall be flat and
(referring now to the legend on the drawing, Fig. 210) oval if possible. One may
pause for a moment to remark that it seems to be a universal error to use the word
“oval” when “elliptical” is meant. An ellipse is a symmetrical figure that is, —
when divided by either its longer or its shorter diameter both halves are exactly
the same, which is not true of the oval when divided by its shorter diameter. In
1
other words, the word ‘oval’ signifies egg Bhaped.
’
It is presumed, however, that the
simplest method of solution which will give the desired flat surface on top will be
 —

174 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

satisfactory without reference to its exact shape. It is therefore shown how the
given shapes of the several parts may be utilized to produce the nearest approxima-
tion to an “oval” top which they are capable of, maintaining at the same time a
uniform capacity throughout the course of the pipe so far as possible.
Begin the work by the construction of a plan and an elevation of the several
parts of the pipe as shown in Fig. 211, which is drawn to a scale of 2 in. to the
foot. Working drawings must, of course, be made full size, so that the patterns
when obtained can be transferred at once to the metal and cut. The general out-
lines of these two views as given in Fig. 211 can therefore be redrawn full sizes

that is, each dimension multiplied by six — after which the subsequent operations
can be conducted as explained herein.
In beginning the drawings, the hight B C should be somewhat more than
the width across the collar at its widest part, plus the hight of the collar above the
stove, so that the capacity of the elbow may not be reduced in the least. From B
draw B A horizontally to meet the outer line of the inclined pipe at A. Before
going further with the elevation, begin a plan by carrying the points A, B and D
upward to cut a center line drawn horizontally, as shown at A', B' and D\ Now
bisect D' B', draw the vertical center line G H of the collar and complete the
plan or profile of the collar, which becomes the profile of the vertical pipe EDO
B of the elevation. This profile must, of course, be made to correspond exactly

with that upon the stove. In Fig. 211 it has, for simplicity, been made to consist
of two semicircles the centers of which are at c and d, joined by straight lines.
In many cases the sides of the profile are somewhat curved instead of straight.

In providing for the required flat surface on the top of the pipe, the line A B
of the elevation can be assumed as an edge view of such surface, while its outline
or shape must be determined upon the plan. To assist in this operation, suppose
for the time being that the inclined portion of the pipe is continued up to inter-
sect with the plane A B, as shown at the points A and e. Since now the plane
represented by the line A e is oblique to the sides of the pipe, A K and F L, a
section through the pipe on this line will be an ellipse with a major axis A e and
minor axis equal to the diameter of the pipe as shown in the profile below. This
ellipse if represented upon the plan would pass through the points- A' and e. In
consideration of the fact that, in the present case, the line A e is a very little

greater than the diameter of the pipe and that only a portion of the section will be
used, it will answer all purposes to set off from A', on A' B' of the plan, a dis-
tance equal to the radius of profile S, as shown at /, and from / as a center draw

somewhat more than half a circle, as shown. Lines drawn tangent to the circle
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns *75

justdrawn and to the circles the centers of which are at c and d, all as shown by
a" H and a' G, will complete the outlines of what may be made a flat surface.
To the several curves and sides of this surface patterns to form a satisfactory elbow
can be made to meet without difficulty.
The surface A'a"HB'G a\ while neither an ellipse nor an oval, more nearly
approximates the latter. Two other methods of solving the problem are possible.
By one method the flat service on top can be made a true ellipse, or even a figure
ofany shape, while by the other method the shape will be that of the common ap-
proximation to an ellipse consisting of arcs of circles but both methods will be ;

more complicated than that herein shown. As the shape just obtained in Fig. 211
includes the entire space within the outlines of the plan, which an ellipse would
not, it is presumed that the shape there shown will be more acceptable than if the
letter of the request had been complied with, because of the greater area thus ob-
tained. Therefore, it will be shown how the remaining parts of the elbow may be
laid out.

From points a' and b' of the plan, drop lines cutting A B of the elevation as

shown at a and b. Since the point E has already been fixed as the throat of this
part of the elbow, draw a line from E to b, constituting the miter line between
that part of the pipe which fits over the stove collar and the intermediate or transi-
tional piece. In locating the point F, the throat of the second elbow, it is neces-
sary to place it just low enough that the area of a vertical section through the pipe
at F g", and indicated by g the plan, is equal to that of the round pipe
g' of ;
at
least it should be no smaller than that of the smallest part of the pipe, which is in
reality at the collar of the Btove. This is simply a matter of figures. If it is assumed
that 5 in. is a proper distance below the line A B to place the point F, it

can be seen by comparison that the area of the vertical section above mentioned is

about equal to that of the profile of the round pipe. In the diagram in the lower
left hand corner of Fig. 211, F g
g' is a section on F g' of the plan and elevation,
while the circle is the same as that of the profile S. Therefore draw F a, represent-

ing the miter line of the second elbow, and F E, the bottom line of the transitional
piece, thus completing the elevation.
For the pattern of the inclined pipe, first divide its profile, S, into any con-
venient number of equal spaces, as shown by the small figures, and from the points
thus obtained project lines parallel to A K to cut the lines A a and a F as shown.
Since both halves of the pattern will be the same, one half of the profile may be
used for both halves of the pattern. Inasmuch as neither of the points in the
profile strikes the point a, the intersection of the two miter planes, this point a
 tj 6 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

must be carried back to the profile as shown, where it is also marked a. The
several spaces in the profile must now be set off on any straight line, as M N,
drawn and numbered accordingly, thus con-
at right angles to the lines of the pipe
stituting what is termed a stretchout of the profile, one half of which only is shown
in the drawing. From the several points on M
N measuring lines are drawn
parallel to A K, extending somewhat beyond a point opposite the miter to be made.
Now from each of the points previously obtained on the miter lines project lines at
right angles to A K, to cut measuring lines of corresponding number. A line

traced through the points of intersection will give the required pattern, one half of
which shown by Q R P.
is

The method of developing the pattern for the vertical pipe is exactly similar to
that just described. One half of its profile is shown by D' G B', the curved portion
of which is divided into equal spaces, and the entire stretchout should be set off on

the line A B of the elevation extended and numbered correspondingly, one half
as before being shown. Only a portion of this profile miters against the oblique
plane E b and, as before, the point b' must be carried back into the profile and
,

properly located in the stretchout, as shown by b'. A portion only of the points
is included in the miter, the remainder being required to obtain the exact length
of the stretchout. The projection of the points from the plan against the miter
plane E b and thence into the stretchout is clearly shown.
The pattern for the intermediate section of the elbow, which, it will be ob-
served, is irregular in shape, is obtained by triangulation, which consists in dividing
its surface into triangles and then obtaining the true lengths of the several sides of

each by a system of diagrams. In these operations it will be convenient to use the

points along the two miter lines F a and E b, obtained in developing the previous
patterns. With this part of the work in view, therefore, the profiles S and D' G
B' should be so divided at the outset that those portions of the two miters which
are to be connected by the transition piece shall each contain the same number of

spaces. Thus in one half of the miter, F a, there are five spaces, which is also

true of the miter E b, remembering that the point D' is exactly behind the point

8, shown upon the plan. The method of procedure is to first connect points of
as
like number in the two miters by a system of lines, and then to divide the four-
sided figures thus produced by another system of lines diagonally, the latter system
being dotted simply for distinction, thus cutting the entire surface of the part to
be developed into small triangles. The triangulation may be indicated either upon
the plan or the elevation, according to the nature of the subject. It is sometimes
advisable to show it upon both views, in order to determine which view will best
 :

Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 177

serve the purpose of obtaining subsequent measurements. In the present instance
the plan is used for this purpose.
Before beginning this work, however, it will be necessary to obtain a view of

the miter a F in the plan. This can be accomplished in the following manner
Project lines from all the numbered points in a F vertically into the plan, cutting

the centerline A' B', as shown, between f and F', and on each vertical line set

off from the center line the length of lines of corresponding number in the profile

S as measured from its center. A line traced through the points of intersection, as
shown from a to F' of the plan, will give the required view. Now connect points of
corresponding numbers in the two miters by solid lines, as shown by 8 8, 7 7, etc.,
and draw dotted lines connecting diagonally opposite points, so as to obtain the
shorter diagonal. Thus a line connecting 7 of the miter a F' with 8 of the plan
of the collar is shorter than a line drawn from 8 at the left to 7 at the collar.

Follow the same order throughout the piece, connecting 6 with 7, 5 with 6, etc.,
 z 78 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

as shown. Had the side lines of the stove collar been drawn curved, as mentioned
before, it would be necessary to add one or two more points in this curve between
8 and D’, from which solid lines could have been drawn to point F' of the other
miter. In obtaining the true lengths of the several solid and dotted lines of the
plan, it will be seen that the horizontal distance between any two connected points
can be measured upon the plan, while the difference in vertical distance between
the same two points can be obtained from the elevation.
Therefore, to obtain the true lengths of the solid lines of the plan, construct the
diagram shown in the upper right hand corner marked X. First set off
of Fig. 211,

their several lengths from T on the horizontal line T U, as shown by the small
figures near U. From T and from each of the numbered points drop vertical lines,
as shown. Upon the line from T set off the hights of the numbered points in a F
as measured vertically to the line A B, numbering each point correspondingly.
Upon each of the other vertical lines near U set off the vertical hight of the point

of corresponding number in E b. Now connect points thus obtained with points

of corresponding number on line T. The several lines, 4 b, 5 5, etc. will then ,

represent the true lengths of the corresponding lines of the plan of elevation.
The true lengths of the dotted lines of the plan are obtained in exactly the
same manner, all as shown by diagram Y at the left. Having now obtained the
true lengths of all the long sides of the triangles, find the lengths of their short
sides or bases in the edges of the two miter patterns first obtained. Thus the true
distances, a to 4, 4 to 5, etc. ,
of the left end of the pattern of the transition piece

are found between R and P of the pattern of the oblique pipe, while the true

lengths of the spaces b to 5, 5 to 6, etc., for the end adjoining the collar are found
between E’ and b' in the pattern for the collar piece.

It simply remains now upon the

to construct the several triangles indicated
plan one after another in their proper sequence. Therefore, the work can be begun
most advantageously by constructing the triangle indicated by 8 F' 8 of the plan,
viz :Upon any line as a center line, as F E below the elevation, set off the length
F E of the elevation, and through the point E draw a line at right angles, upon
which set off in either direction from E the distance D' 8 of the plan, as shown by
8' and 8, and draw the lines F 8 and F 8'. The same result may be obtained by
first drawing the line 8' 8, making it equal to 8' 8 of the plan ;
then with the dis-
tance 8 8 of the diagram X as radius and the points 8' and 8 of the pattern as cen-
ters, strike two arcs, intersecting at F. Proceed now to add to one side of this the
triangle indicated by F' 7 8 of the plan, viz: With the distanoe 8 7 of the dia-
gram Y as a radius and the point 8 in the upper edge of the pattern as center,
 :

Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns *79

strike a short arc near F, which intersect with another arc struck from F as center,
with a radius F' 7 of the miter pattern of the oblique pipe, thus establishing the point
7 in the lower side of the pattern. Now, with 7 7 of diagram X as radius, and
point 7 of pattern just obtained as center, strike a short arc, which intersect with
another arc, its center being 8 in the upper side of the pattern, and its radius is the
distance 8 7 of the miter pattern of the pipe to fit the collar, thus establishing the
point 7 in the upper side of the pattern. Proceed in this manner, using as radii the
distances obtained in diagram Y in connection with those on the edge of the pattern
of the oblique pipe in obtaining the points along the lower side of the pattern, and
the distances in diagram X with the spaces on the edge of the pattern of the collar
piece in obtaining the points in the upper edge of the pattern, until all the distances
have been used and the line a a is reached, which will complete one half the pat-
tern. That part of the pattern shown by a 8 8 a can be transferred by any
convenient means to a reverse position at the left of the first large triangle, thus
completing the entire pattern. It is understood that the necessary edges or laps
required to make the usual form of joints must be added to all of the patterns ;
the
pattern here shown being net.

RISES FOR ELBOWS

The rise in an elbow is equal to the difference in length between the longest
side and the shortest side of an end piece. In the accompanying illustration,
Fig. 212, showing a three-piece elbow, the distance AB is the rise. The following
are the rises of elbows of from 3 to 10 pieces, the
diameters of which are 1 inch
8 piece elbow, 0.414 inch rise 7 piece elbow, 0.182 inch rise
44 44 44
4 0.268 8 0.118
5 0.199 9
44 44
0.098
14 “

6 0.158 10
44 “ 0.087
44 44

FRACTIONAL EQUIVALENTS (Correct to 1-64 of an Inch)

0.414 18-82 0.132 9-64

0.268 17-64 0.118 7-64

0.199 8-16 0.098 8-82

0.158 5-82 0.087 5-64

To find the rise for an elbow of any diameter multiply the rise given in the
above table by the diameter in inches of the desired elbow, and the result will be
the rise in inches for the desired elbow. Thus, to find the rise for a seven-piece
 180 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

elbow the diameter of which is 11 inches, multiply 0.132 by 11, which will give

1.452 inches, the desired rise.

THE PERFECT ELBOW PATTERN

All tin and sheet iron workers who have had experience in making elbows for
round pipe know the trouble there is in trimming the pieces for the elbows,
especially if they have a quantity to put together. Even a miter pattern developed
by a system of lines in the ordinary way needs to be trimmed to meet the requirement
of a seam. A perfect pattern requires that proper allowance shall be made for the
“take up of the seam,” as it is called.

The object of the diagrams, Fig. 213, and the accompanying explanations, is to
Bhow how a correct and reliable pattern can be obtained that will require no trim-
ming of the work afterward. Solid lines in Fig. 213 show profile of a square elbow.
A B is the miter or angle line of the profile. The dotted lines A G and A D show
the oorrect miter line required in an elbow with the usual seamed joint. To deter-
mine the points C and D first extend the line E B sufficiently to make the distance
from B to C 1-16 inch longer than the width of seam required, as the seam nat-
urally works a little large. The seam for this purpose being usually made in the
Bmall, thick edge machine, set the gauge the required width for the seam, from %
to 3-16 inch, as the case may be. If the seam is % inch wide then make the distance
from B to C 1-16 inch more, or 3-16 inch ;
if the gauge is set for a seam 3-16 inch
wide, then make the distance from B to C, % inch. The distance from B to D on
line BE is always the same as the distance from what would be B to C. This is

termed adjusting the miter line to meet the requirements of the seam. Having
established these miter lines A C and A D, proceed to develop a pattern from them
the same way as from the miter line AB of the profile.

On the plan of the pipe, as shown, space off on the circle 1, 2, 3, etc., up to

9, as in this case, equal to one half the circle or size of pipe. From these points 1,

2, 3, etc., and at right angle with the base line E F, draw lines to intersect with
miter lines A C and A D. Then draw a line, as K L, shown to the left, level with
the base line EF . On this stretchout line K L space off the distance 1, 2, 3, etc.,

up to 9, the same as in the plan, then duplicate the numbers, except 9, and this
gives the stretchout or circumference of the pipe. From these points 1, 2, 3, etc.,
on line K L, and at right angles with it, draw lines of sufficient length to intersect
lines drawn at right angles with these lines from corresponding points 1, 2, 3, etc.,
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 181

on miter line A C and A The intersecting points of these

D. lines, after connect-
ing them, give the miter lines, a d and e h, that are required, all as shown in the
diagram, Fig. 213.
abed is the developed pattern for that half of the elbow represented by A
FED. The developed pattern, efgh, is for that half of the elbow represented by
A F E C. The end lines of the pattern, 1 at c and 1 at b, are to be of sufficient
length to form the width of pattern required usually calculated to cut from stock
material without waste. In order to have a guide to go by in putting the two
pieces together, to make the elbow true and free from twist or wind, make a prick
mark in the center of the pattern efgh about 3^ inch from the miter line, as
shown by k. Then, when putting the pieces together, place this dotted point, as
shown by k, exactly in line with the seam of the opposite piece, if the seam is a lap-
—
ped seam that is if the horizontal seam of the pipe is a lapped seam. But if the
seam ( horizontal ) of the pipe is a locked or grooved seam, then place this dotted
point in line with the center of the seam, which varies in width from % to % inch,
more or less.

This method of securing a perfect pattern applies alike to elbows made to any
angle or bevel, as the same width of seam, or lock, is used in both cases of square
and beveled miters. If the pipe is to have simply a lapped joint, one piece lap-
 182 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

ping over the other, then add the width of lap at one end of the developed pattern
as shown to the left of the pattern in Fig. 213.
If it is to be a seam that has edges turned and grooved together, then divide
the lap required for making the seam equally between each end of the pattern.
The dotted linem n between the solid miter lines a d and e h, shows the developed
pattern from miter line A B in the profile. It also shows what has to be cut away
to meet the requirements of the seam when such a pattern development is used.

SEAMS IN AIR DUCTS

A popular method of seaming elbows and rectangular pipes is by use of what is

often termed the “Pittsburg” seam. A section of an elbow taken on the line A
B of Fig. 214 is as shown in Fig. 215 with the seam exaggerated in size. The sides
or cheeks of the elbow have a in.
i

edge allowed, which is bent out square,

Fig. 216 usually with a mallet and dolly, and
would be as shown in Fig. 216. The back
w and throat of the elbow have in. %
Fig. 214 Fig. 215 Fig- 217
allowed and are bent as shown in Fig. 217.
Details of Making a “Pittsburg” Seam
is placed on the back
This pocket edge
and throat because it would be impossible to form it on the circular part of the
—
sides whereas on the back it is bent in the brake, while the back is flat and then
rolled to shape. During the rolling operation a heavy strip of metal is placed in
the pocket so that the rolls will not squeeze the pocket tight. The edge of the side
is slipped into this pocket when assembling the elbow and to keep it in the pocket
the upstanding edge a of Fig. 217 is hammered over as at d in Fig. 215. The idea
of the shoulder or depression a in Fig. 215 is to have a foundation for the impact
of the blows of the hammer during the operation of throwing over the edge.
Without this a dolly would have to be held on the edge b, Fig. 215, to prevent
driving it back and distorting at c. This depression also makes the pocket seam
flush with the outside of the cheek and almost invisible. As no other tools for
assembling are required, this seam is commendable in case piping must be shipped
in parts from the shop to the building.
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 183
THREE PIECE ELBOW OVAL TO ROUND
The exemplification of this problem, is by what the author terms a simplified
process, dealing with triangulated articles that have two symmetrical halves.
Referring to Fig. 218, first draw the side elevation of the elbow of the required

size and angle and in its proper position outside of the top and bottom openings

draw the profile of the round and elliptical pipes as shown. Draw the miter lines
A B and C D.
To obtain the pattern for the upper part of the elbow, divide the circular pro-
file into equal spaces as shown from 1 to 7, from which points draw horizontal lines
until they cut the miter line A B as shown by similar numbers. Perpendicular to
 184 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

these lines draw the line E F, upon which place the girth of the circular profile as
shown from 1 to 7 to 1. From these points horizontal lines are drawn and inter-

sected by perpendicular lines erected from similar numbered intersections on the

miter line A B. A line traced through points thus obtained, as shown from 1' to
T 1 T
7' to 1 will be the desired miter cut and 1 ' 1 1 will be the pattern for the upper
arm of the elbow.

In a similar manner obtain the pattern for the lower arm. Divide the ellip-

tical profile into equal spaces as shown from 8 to 15 and carry up vertical lines until
they intersect the miter line C D
shown by similar numbers. In line with the
as
lower arm draw the girth line G H, upon which place the girth of the elliptical
profile as shown by similar numbers. At right angles to G H from the various
points of intersections, erect vertical lines, which intersect by lines drawn parallel
to G H from similar numbered intersections on the miter line CD. A line traced
T
through points thus obtained as shown by 15 15' 8' 15 15 will be the desired pat-
tern. To obtain the pattern for the middle piece of the elbow, a set of true lengths
must first be obtained as follows : Connect the various points on the miter lines

A B and C D as shown. These lines represent the bases of sections which will be
constructed, the altitudes of which are equal to the various hights in the semi-profiles

of the two arms of the elbow.

For example: To obtain the true length of the line 11 4 in the side elevation,
take this distance and place it as shown from 11 to 4, to the left in diagram J.

From the points 11 and 4 in J, erect vertical lines making 11 11' and 4 4' equal

respectively to the distance measured from the center line 1 7 to the point 4 in the
round and the distance measured from the center line 8 15 to the point 11
profile,

in the elliptical profile. A line drawn from 4' to 11' in J will be the true length of
4 11 in the side elevation. In this manner obtain the true lengths of all the dotted
lines shown in the middle section in the side elevation, as indicated in the two dia-
grams in J. These true lengths having been found and as the miter cuts in both
the pipe patterns give the true edge lines, the transition or middle piece is found as
follows : Take the length of 7 8 in the side elevation and place it as shown by 7'

8' in N. With the distance from 8' to 9' in the miter pattern of the oval pipe as
radius, and 8' in N as center, describe the arc 9', which intersect by an arc struck
from T as center and 7 9' in diagram J as radius. Again, using 7' 6' in the miter
pattern for round pipe as radius, and 7' in N as center, draw the arc 6', which inter-
sect by an arc struck from 9' as center and 9' 6' in diagram J as radius. Proceed
in this manner, using alternately first the division in the miter pattern for oval pipe,
then the proper true length in J ;
the division in the miter pattern for round pipe,
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 185

then the true length in J until the last line 1' 15' in N has been obtained, and
which is equal to 1 15 in the side elevation.
It will be noticed that after the line 4' 12’ in N has been obtained the pattern
is continued from this line, by first using the division on the miter pattern for round
pipe, etc. A line traced through points of intersections thus obtained will be the
half pattern as shown by 1
'
7' 8' 15'. If the full pattern is desired, reverse on the
line 7' 8' as shown by 7' 1° 15° 8’.
1 86 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

Rectangular Offset Mitered on Flat or Long Side. —A manner of laying out

the patterns which makes it possible to cut out the entire offset from one piece of

metal. Since this offset mitered on the long side of the rectangle, obviously the
is

short side will appear in elevation. Draw the plan as shown and designate the

comers as A,B,C,D, or by numbers if desired. Extend the line CB, and erect the
line EFGH, in elevation, representing the angles of offset elbows required. Bisect
the angle EFG, and obtain the miter line FK, as follows: With F as center and
,

any convenient radius, draw arcs, cutting the angles at d and e. Now, with a slight

ly greater radius and d, and e, as centers, draw arcs intersecting each other at /. A
line drawn from/, through F, indefinitely, will be the required miter line. Bisect the

angle FGH, in like manner, as indicated by a, b, and c, thus obtaining miter line GJ.
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 187

With the miter lines established, complete the elevation indicated by

EFGHIJKL, as shown.
The two angles of this offset are alike since both upper and lower arms run parallel;
hence the pattern for one angle will suffice for all.

For the patterns, lay off, consecutively, EL, extended as EM, the
on the line
four sides of the plan ABCD, X, as shown by
beginning and ending at the seam
XABCDX, from which points erect vertical lines indefinitely as shownand interersect
them by lines drawn parallel to L'M, from intersections on miter line FK. Trace a
line from K' to N, reproducing miter line FK, from A to B and from C to D, as shown.

Then K'L'MN, will be the pattern for the lower arm or section. Take length of FG,
or JK, and set it off on pattern lines from K' to J' and from N, to 0. Draw line from
J' to 0, reproducing miter cut shown by K'N. Now take the length of IJ, in elevation
and set it off on pattern lines from J' to /' and from 0 to P, and draw a line from /' to
P; thus completing the pattern shapes for the three sections of the offset shown in
elevation, with the seams occurring in center of long sides as indicated by the arrows.

A Twisted Rectangular Duct. —This is a fitting having two pipes identical in

shape placed centrally one above the other. The letters a,b,c,d and e,f,g,h in plan,
represent the profiles of the upper and lower pipes respectively.

It is obvious that since the projection of all four sides is the same, it is necessary
to construct but one elevation as shown by A,B,C,D\ making its required height as
XY, and thus determining the true length of the sides AB and DC.
To lay out the one pattern which serves for all four sides: Through the center of
the profile a,b,c,d, in plan, draw a horizontal line to the right indefinitely. Take the
length of slant height AB, in elevation and set it off on this line as shown by A'B' _

Through draw
these points the measuring lines EF and GH, at right angles to A'B',
and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to A'B' from the profiles in plan, as shown;
add the collars indicated by “«”, and complete pattern EFGH. Allow sufficient lap for
seaming on all four patterns.
1 88 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

elevation RECTANGULAR DUCT

A Square to Square Taper.— It is readily apparent from the perspective
view that this fitting is a simple reducing joint, and that it has the shape of a four sided
pyramid. The principles of the method used to develop the patterns for such figures, is
fully explained.

Lay out the plan by drawing the profile of the large pipe represented by A BCD in
plan, draw in the diagonal lines intersecting at 0, and put in the profile of the small
pipe as shown by EFGH. The vertical height of the joint is indicated by the distance
a, b, in the elevation.

To develop the pattern proceed as follows: From the points 0 and D, in plan and
at right angles to the line OD, draw lines indefinitely and intersect them by the line
O'D' drawn parallel to OD in plan.
Take the distance of the vertical height a,b, in elevation and place it on the line from
O' to b'. Fromdraw a line at right angles to 0-0', and intersect it by line drawn from
b'

H, and establish the point H'. Now from D' draw a line through H'
parallel to 0-0',
to the line 0-0' at P. With P' as center and PH' and PD' as radii, strike the arcs EG
and AC, respectively. Now with the dividers set at AB, and BC, in plan, point off
these two distances on outer arc as indicated by similar letters. From the points A,B,
and C, on outer arc draw lines to point P', cutting the inner arc at E,F, and G. Trace
a line through ABCGFEA and complete the pattern for one half the taper, E,F,G, in
pattern equals E,F,G, in plan. Laps for seams are not shown in these patterns.
Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 189

PLAN

A SQUARE TO SQUARE TAPER

CURVED OFFSET
HAVING
RECTANGULAR PROFILE
19 ° Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

Curved Offset Having Rectangular Profile. — Laying out an elbow to a given

dimension. Begin by laying out the space according to dimension in which the offset
is to be drawn, as represented by WXYZ; and place the plan a,b,c,d in position as in-
dicated on page 189 .

If, however, it be desired to draw the offset with the long side of the profile
in elevation, place the plan so that its length a,d, will be in a vertical position
parallel WX, and proceed as follows: Take the width c,d, of plan and set it
with
off on the line WX, as indicated by W A. Take the distance a,d, the widest part of

the profile, and set it off from A as AB; with B as center and BW, as radius, strike
the arc WC, indefinitely.
On the line YZ, measure off the distances WA
and AB, as indicated by YE and
ED. Using D, as center and DE, as radius, draw arc EF, indefinitely. Connect the arcs
WC, and EF, by drawing a line tangent to them as shown by a'b'\ and from the points
of tangency draw radial lines c' to B, and from D, through d’ indefinitely. Then with
B, as center and BA, as radius describe an arc intersecting the radial line at/; in like
manner with D, as center and DY, as radius, draw an arc passing through the radial
line at e. Connect e and/, and the form W,E, Y,A is the pattern for the offset.

When the dimensions are such that the offset cannot be made in one piece, the
elbows are made separately and connected by a straight piece of pipe joined at c'j

and d'e.
 1

Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 191

Compound Curved Reducing Elbow. —An elbow of this sort is not infre-

quently found where high class work prevails. This one makes a quarter turn in both
frontand side elevations. In the elevations as presented, the two profiles are plainly

shown by their heavy outlines; the small profile 1-2-2- in the side elevation is shown
in the front elevation by the line 1-2-, and the line 9-X in side elevation, shows the
profile 9-X-X-9 in front elevation.
Draw
the elevations as shown, according to given dimensions;' the throat and heel
curves in side elevation being drawn frnm centers a and b, respectively, and in the front
elevation, from d and c, respectively. Bisect the profiles in both elevations by perpen-
dicular lines as A-B and C-D. Point off an equal number of spaces on the back curve
as indicated, and from these points draw horizontal lines to the right, cutting across
both sides of front elevation as shown by corresponding numbers. Add the points e, on
the left side, and/,g, on the right side to insure greater accuracy in taking the girth.
Beginning with the pattern for left side: With the dividers, take the girth of the
left side in front elevation and lay it offon a vertical line, as G-G' and through these
points draw horizontal lines indefinitely. Then from the line AB in side elevation, take
the distances to the numbered points at the right and left of line, and put them to the

right and left of the line G-G' on like numbered lines as shown. Drop a perpendicular
line from 9' through X' indefinitely. Take the distance from 9 in side elevation to

points a and b, and place them on the line from 9' as centers a’ and V. Using o' as
center, draw arc X'-4' and with b' as center, draw arc 9'-3'; complete the outline and
J-9'-X'-K is the pattern for left side.

For the pattern for the right side, extend the vertical line G-G' as H-H', and place
on it the girth of the right side in the front elevation, and draw the usual measuring
lines through the points, at right angles to H-H'. Take the numbered points to the
right and left of the line AB, in side elevation, and put them to the right and left of the
line H-H’ as in the pattern for left side. The drawn from a" as
arc for the throat is

center, and the arc for the heel from b" as center. The completed outline shows
L-9”-X"-M as the pattern for the right side.
The patterns for the front and back are arrived at in a similar manner. For the
front, place the distances 1-X in side elevation, on the vertical line E-E’ as diown,
and draw horizontal measuring lines through them. From the line C-D in front eleva-
tion, measure the distances from the points 1 to X, on the right side, and 2-X on the
left side, placing them to the right and left of the line E-E' as indicated. To locate the

centers c' and

measure the distance from 1 to d and c, in front elevation, and place
d',

them on a line drawn from V through 2’ as shown. From c' as center, describe the arc
l'S', and using d' as center, draw the arc 2’ -3', complete the outline and l'-2'-N-0
shows the pattern for the front.
 '

I9a Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

For the back pattern, set out the girth on vertical line F-F' as indicated by the
numbers, and draw the usual measuring lines. Locate the intersection points by taking
the distances of the projections each side of the line C-D in front elevation, and placing
them to the right and left of the line F-F'. Fix center points c" and d" as in front pattern;
describe the arcs l"-5' and 2”-3' respectively, draw the straight parts and finish the
outline; then P-R-l"-2" will be the pattern for the back. No allowance has been made
for seaming.

COMPOUND CURVED OFFSET

Compound Curved Offset. —Here
is an offset which curves in both the
front and the side elevations, with thetwo profiles of the same dimensions, but in
different positions. The upper one occupies a horizontal position and the lower one a
vertical position.
To develop the patterns begin by drawing the elevation and plan in the proper
relative position as follows: Draw the profile of the opening represented by the heavy
lines 1-2-2' -1' in elevation and with R-2 as the given radius of throat, draw the quadrant
2-5; using R, as center and R-2 as radius, draw the heel 2'-a. Then l-l'-a-S shows the
elevation.
Below the elevation and in direct line with it, construct the plan. Drop perpendicu-
lar linesfrom points 1,2,5 and a, in elevation, and on the line from point 5, locate the
point R'. With R' as center and R'-2'" as radius, describe the arc 2"'-5'", take the
width of the narrow side of the rectangle and set it off on the perpendicular line 5-R'
from 5"’ to 5", and with R' as center and R'-5" as radius draw the arc 5"-l" for the heel;
complete the rectangle 5"-a"-a"'-5"' as shown, thus completing: the plan and elevation.
 .

Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns *93

The curves in both views of this offset are the same, being quarter circles; some-
times they are elliptical or irregular in shape, but in any case the same principles of
pattern development as here employed, would be applicable. As a means of quick
identification, the four sides of this offset shown in elevation and plan are designated by
their names in small letters.
Divide the curve of throat in elevation into any number of equal spaces, as shown
by the figures 2,3,4 and 5. (Use more divisions in actual work to facilitate measuring
the girth), from which points drop perpendicular lines intersecting the heel in elevation,
and the heel and throat in place at points indicated by similar figures. As the space in
the heel in elevation between the points a and 5' is too great, fix an extra point as at b,
and from b, drop a perpendicular line intersecting the profile in plan at V and b"
As the space in the throat in plan between 2"’ and 3'" is too great, therefore an
extra point is established as at c'", and from there a perpendicular line is erected to
intersect the heel in plan at c" and the heel and throat in elevation at c' and c respec-
tively. For the same reason an extra point is fixed in the heel in plan between 1" and 2"
as at d" from which a perpendicular line is erected to intersect the rectangle in elevation
at d' and d.
Having located the measuring points onall four curves in both views proceed to
develop the patterns.
Parallel to R-a in elevation draw a line as W-X. Beginning with the pattern for
the front a'"-2"’ in plan, take this girth and set it off on the line W-X as shown by
similar numbers and letters. From these numbers and letters drop perpendicular lines
indefinitely, and them by lines drawn parallel to W-X from similar numbers
intersect
and top and bottom curves in elevation.
letters in the
Since the space 5'"-a'” in plan is in a horizontal plane, it is apparent that the
pattern for that space for both front and back, will be a replica of the segment 5-5'-a
in elevation. Therefore this sequence must be reproduced in both patterns.
For the front pattern, take the radius of R-a in elevation and set it off in pattern
for the front from a"' to A. With the same radius and A, as center describe the arc
a'"-5'. Continue the line through points of intersection to B, and draw line from 5"'
through intersecting points to C, as shown; join points B and C and 5"' and a'" thus
completing pattern.
For the pattern for the back, take the girth of the back 1 "-a" in plan, and lay it
out on the line W-X as shown by corresponding numbers and letters. From these points
drop perpendicular lines cutting through horizontal lines drawn from corresponding
letters and numbers in elevation.
Take the radius R-a in elevation and set it off from a" to D, in pattern for the
back and, with D as center, draw the curve a” -5', thu9 again reproducing the segment
5-5'-a\ continue the line through points of intersection to E. Trace a line from 5"
through intersecting points to F, connect E and F, and a" -5" thus defining the pattern.
Draw the stretch outline Y-Z parallel to R'-l" in plan, and proceed as before.
For the pattern for the top 1-5 in elevation, take this girth and lay it out on the
line Y-Z as indicated by its numbers and letters. Draw horizontal and perpendicular
lines obtaining the points of intersection as shown. The space 1-2 in elevation being
in a horizontal plane, its pattern shape would be a replica of the segment l"-2-"-2'"
in plan. Reproduce this segment in pattern thus; take the radius R'-l" in plan and with
H, as center, establish the intersecting point G. With G, as center and G-H as radius,
draw the arc H-2". Continue the line from 2" through points of intersection to 5 and
J-K-H thus completing the pattern.
^94 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

For the bottom pattern, take its girth l'-a in elevation and stretch it out on the
line Y-Z as shown, and obtain the intersecting points of perpendicular and horizontal
lines as previously explained. Reproduce the segment l"-2"-2'" in plan by taking the
radius R'-l” in plan and with M in pattern as center locate the point L. With L as
center and L-M as radius, describe the arc M-2". Through the established points of
intersection, continue the line from 2" to a, and to N-O-M which completes the pattern.
In these patterns no allowance has.been made for seaming; hence proper laps should
be added. Be careful to roll the patterns so that the elbow will turn in the right direction.

Rectangular Double Offset. —The requirement of this offset is that it

retain the same sectional area throughout. Therefore the development of the patterns
is such as to achieve that result.
In addition to the plan and elevation there is shown an end view, from which it

should be observed that center lines is the basis of the pattern development.
Draw in the plan and elevation as shown, the vertical height of elevation between
centers being as indicated by C-B. Extend the center lines AC and BY in elevation to
X. From X drawvertical
the right indefinitely, and draw in profile of pipe as shown at
to interset B-Y, and locate point Z>; Set off to the right from D, the distance E-F, in
plan and establish point Y; draw profile with Y as center; and connect profiles by
center line XY; thus completing the end view.
As a means of simplifying the method of developing the patterns, and for ascer-
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 195

taining the curves for heel and throat, a true view is erected in line with the end view
as shown, according to the following procedure: From the angles of the profiles X and Y,
draw lines at right angles to the center line X- Y, indefinitely; draw the lines aG' and bG'
horizontal to the perpendicular from the profiles, and separated by a distance equal to
GG in plan as indicated by G'G', locate the points a and b, as centers for throat and heel
curves. Complete the true view as shown.
Extend the lines from profile Y, sufficiently far below the true view and duplicate
the profile as shown by Y'. Extend the top and bottom lines of Y' to the left and the
side lines downward to intersect the line bn, drawn at right angles to XY, from b. From
the point thus obtained, we get the length of radaii, for the patterns.
Beginning with the pattern for the sides: With n, as center, and nj, and n,g, as

radaii,draw arcs /'-/* and g'-g1 in pattern, making g'-g* equal to the curve 1 to 6 in true
view, as shown by similar figures. Add the straight parts c'-d', which should equal c-d
in true view; then with m, as center and m,e, and m,h, as radaii, strike the arcs as
indicated by similar figures, making e 2 -e' equal to V to & of true view as shown, thus
completing pattern.
The pattern for the top and bottom is drawn in the same manner. From l in

pattern as center, with l-g and l-h as radaii describe the arcs, making g'-g equal to 1"
to 6" of true view as shown, add straight part c'-d' equal to c-d of true view. Complete
the pattern by striking arcs e-e' and /-/', from k, as center, making/-/' the same length
as d-6"' in true view, as is shown by corresponding figures.
It should be remembered when putting this fitting together that though the pat-

terns for both sides are alike, they should be reversed to each other. This also applies to
patterns for top and bottom.
196 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

fitting is not an uncommon one. While the two profiles are different in contour, they are
equal in area.
As the upper and lower profiles of this offset run flush in the back, therefore the
back when shown in elevation appears as the front elevation and also becomes the
pattern for the back.
Draw in the plan as shown with ABEF representing the profile of the rectangular
pipe at the top, and HCDG the profile of the square pipe at the bottom which offsets
a distance equal to Eb, in plan. Construct the front elevation with its required vertical
height equal to a-EB in elevation, as shown, and FA, EB, DC, GH, will be the pattern
for the back.
Erect the side elevation as shown, having its vertical height a'-FE equal to a-EB,
in front .elevation. Take the distance FE-DG in side elevation and stretch it out on a
vertical line asLM below the plan; from these points draw the horizontal lines to
intersect the perpendicular lines drawn from corresponding letters in plan. Draw a line
through the points of intersection and these form the pattern for the front FEDG
in plan.
Extend the horizontal lines AC, GD, and FE in plan to the right indefinitely; and
above them draw another horizontal line as JK, on which set off the distances FA-GH
and EB-DC in the front elevation as shown.
Draw the usual measuring lines vertically from these points to intersect the hori-
zontal lines from similar letters in plan, connect the points thus obtained and complete
the patterns for the two sides as shown. Add the collar to top and bottom of all four
patterns, also laps for seams.
 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 197

Twisted Offset For Rectangular Pipe. —This fitting is a variation of Fig. page
188 having both profiles alike and centrally placed in relation to each other, but
offset a distance equal to a-GH in front elevation.
Lay out the plan as shown, with ABCF representing the upper profile and GHDE
the lower profile. Erect the front elevation from the plan as indicated, its required
vertical height being the distance from a to A B,shown in elevation. In line with
as
the front elevation erect the side elevation giving it the same vertical height.
Then FC-ED and AB-GH in the front elevation show the actual lengths of material
required for the right and left sides shown in plan. Set these lengths off on the horizontal
line XX as shown; and from these points drop perpendicular lines indefinitely, and inter-

sect them by horizontal lines drawn from similarly lettered points in plan. Draw the
outlines connecting the intersecting points and the result will be the patterns for the
right and left sides.
Drop vertical lines from the points A,F,G and E, in plan, and the vertical line YY,
at the right; on which place the distance FA-EG in side elevation, and draw lines from
these points at right angles to YY cutting the vertical lines from the plan. Draw the
outline connecting the points and complete the pattern; as both sides in the side eleva-
tion are alike, this will be the pattern for the front and back. Add to top and bottom
of the patterns the collars “c” and sufficient laps for seams.
198 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

A Two-Way —
Offset Twisted Duct. This fitting like the previous one, has
two profiles identical in shape, making a quarter turn, but differs in that it is offset
both ways.
The patterns for this fitting may be developed as follows: Assuming that ABCF in
plan is the required profile of the upper pipe, and GHDE the profile of the lower pipe,
and that b to D, and b to C, is the amount of offset both ways, draw in the plan as
show
Erect vertical lines from profiles in plan as shown, and construct the front elevation
according to the given height as represented by a to FC, in elevation, and in line with
the front elevation, construct the side elevation as shown with the offset V to DH
equal to b to D, in plan.
Draw any horizontal line as XX, and set off on it the lengths AB-GH and FC-ED
which are the actual lengths of the right and left sides. From these points drop per-
pendicular lines and intersect them by horizontal lines drawn from similarly lettered
points in plan as shown; connect the points by the diagonal lines and complete the
patterns for the right and left sides.
Now draw any perpendicular line as YY, and set off on it the actual lengths
CB-DH and FA- EG. From these points draw horizontal lines to the left intersecting
the perpendicular lines drawn from similarly lettered points in plan; connect the points
by the diagonal lines and complete the patterns for the back and front of the offset as
shown. Add the collars indicated by “c”, at top and bottom to all patterns. Allow laps
for seaming as required.
 .

Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns 199

TRANSITION ELBOW
RECTANGLE TO RECTANGLE
— —
Elbow Rectangle to Rectangle. In the planning of heating and
Transitional
ventilating work, a transitional elbow of this type is frequently used. It is a tran-
sition of the same profile from a horizontal to a vertical position, making a quarter
turn.
Sometimes a twist in the checks or sides of the elbow is developed by the way in
which the patterns are laid out; therefore to obviate that, the present method is em-
ployed.
Construct the side view with the given radaii for throat and heel, as shown by
a-e-f-m. Above it draw the profile of the pipe as indicated by rectangle A; to the right
and in line with e-f draw the other profile as represented by rectangle B.
Locate the center of the narrow side of rectangle B, as at x, and through it draw the
perpendicular line C-F. Likewise bisect the wide side of rectangle A, as at y. Extend
line m-a in side view to right indefinitely, and to the left from center line C-F, set
off on it the distance y’-a' equal to y-a° in profile A
Divide the throat and heel curves of side view each into the same number of
spaces, as shown by a-e, and/-/. Transfer the girth of the upper or throat curve, a toe,
to the line EF, as shown by similar letters. Through these points draw horizontal lines
as indicated,making the distance from e tor equal to x-e' in profile B, and from a tor
equal to y-cr in profile A; draw a line connecting points <r and r which will show the
half pattern; reproduce this to the right of center line and complete the whole pattern
for the top.
 ,

2-00 Heating & Air Conditioning Duct Patterns

Prom the points of intersection on the line cr-e, in pattern for the top,

draw perpendicular lines indefinitely as shown. Now from the letters a to e, and / to l,
in side view, draw horizontal tines to the right to intersect the verticals from top pattern
and locate the points a' 4' ,e' J' ,g' ,k’ ,k' ,V ,m' in front view; draw lines through the
point of intersection and obtain the miter lines in the front view as shown.
Take the girth of the heel, / to m, in side view, and place it on the vertical line
C-D as shown by similar letters; at right angles to C-D, draw lines through these points
cutting through the verticals from the top pattern and resulting in the points p,g’,hr,kr,l’
and nr draw a line through these points from p to nr and trace the half pattern thus
produced to the right of center line, and complete the pattern for the bottom.
The pattern for the sides is developed by triangulation; hence it is necessary to de-
termine the true lengths of the lines in the triangles that are to be used for making up
the required patterns. To do this, take the vertical rise of each line, in one of the views
as one leg, and the apparent length of each line, as it appears in the other view for the
other leg; the hypotenuse gives the true length of the line.

Draw the solid and the dotted lines which form the angles in the side view, as
shown. Since the solid lines in the side view show as vertical lines in the front elevation,
as shown by similar letters, it may be assumed that the solid lines in the side view show
their true length.
To find the true lengths ofthe dotted lines in side view; Take the line e-g, and set
it down as one leg of a right angle triangle as shown by e-g"; for the other leg erect
the vertical line g"-g to equal the horizontal distance between the lines e'-f' and d’-g
in front view and indicated by R. A line drawn from e to g in the true, lengths, will be
the length sought. Proceed in this manner to find the remaining true length on dotted
lines, using the horizontal distances marked S, T, and U in front view, for the shorter
legs of the right angled triangles.
Having established the true lengths of the lines of measurement, proceed to lay
out the pattern for the sides. Take the distance e-f in side view, this being its true
length, and set it off as shown by e-p in side pattern. With p-g> in bottom pattern as
radius, and p in side pattern as center, draw the arc gr and intersect it by arc drawn
from e as center, and e-g in true lengths of dotted lines, as radius. Now, with e in side
pattern as center, and e-dr in top pattern as radius, describe an arc as at dr and intersect
it by an arc drawn from g* as center, and g-d in side view (this being its true length)

as radius.
Follow in this alternate manner, using a radaii, first the divisions on the miter line
in the bottom pattern, then the true lengths of the dotted lines; next the distances on
the miter line in top pattern, then the lengths of the solid lines in side view (which are
their true lengths) until all the points er-e-p-lr, in the side pattern are established, the

a duplicate of a-l-m in the side view. Draw a

triangle cr-lr-mr being line through the
points and complete the pattern. Allow laps fear seaming.
 SECTION II

(Pages 201-342)

SPECIAL SHEET METAL

LAYOUTS
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 2,01

Practical Sheet Metal Work and

Demonstrated Patterns

PATTERN FOR TAPERING PIPE INTERSECTING TWO

CYLINDERS
This deals with a method of obtaining the pattern for a tapering pipe joining
two cylindrical pipes, placed in position shown in Fig. 1. In this, B is the plan of
the vertical pipe, shown in elevation by Band C the plan of the tapering pipe,
1
,

shown in elevation by C 1
. D in the plan shows the inclined pipe, shown in ele-
vation by D 1
. E is the true pitch of the pipe on F H in plan. The pattern cut at
the intersection L in elevation is not
developed.

The pattern for the cut A in eleva-

tion will be obtained as shown in Fig. 2,
in which ABC shows the part plan
view of the vertical pipe shown in ele-

vation by E F GH. Referring to the

plan in Fig. 1, it will be seen that the
axis I J of the tapering pipe does not
pass through the center of the circle O.
Therefore, when drawing the plan in
Fig. 2 assume that O in plan in Fig. 1
is the pivot, and turn C and D so that the axis I J of the tapering pipe will be
a horizontal line, as has been done in Fig. 2, in which 4 R, the axis of the taper-

ing pipe, lies horizontally. Through the center D draw D B. At the required
distance below DB draw the axis of the cone or tapering pipe indefinitely,
as 4 R.

Now draw the plan of the inclined pipe in its proper position and angle, mak-
ing the length from 5’ to 5" at pleasure, as shown by 6’ 5” 1" 1*. Draw the profile
 202 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

J, which divide into equal spaces, as shown from 1 to 8. From these parallel
to 5' 5" draw lines intersecting the ends of the pipe in plan, as shown by similar

figures, 1' to 8' and 1" to 8".

Parallel to 1' 1" draw K L, which represents the line of the floor, at right
angles to which and from L draw L M of the required hight desired, so that a line
drawn from M to K will be the desired angle. Now take a tracing of the profile
J and place it as shown by J 1

,
giving the circle a one-quarter turn so that the line
3 7 in the profile J will be at right angles to K M, as shown. Through the point
7 parallel to K M draw 7 7, which intersect with lines drawn at right angles to

K L from 1' and 1" in plan, thus obtaining the lines 3 7 and 3 7 in the true
1
angle, as shown. Through the small figures in the profile J draw lines parallel to

K M intersecting the vertical ends K 7 and M 7 at 1 to 7 at top and bottom.

Then will K 7 7 M be the true angle on 7' 7" in plan.

The axis of the cone 4 R intersects the circle in plan at 2. From 2 at right
angles to 4 R draw a line into the elevation, as shown by 2 2 X
,
the point 2 X in
elevation being established at pleasure. From 2 X at
,
its proper angle to G F of
X
the vertical pipe, draw the line 2 S. Then with the apex S as center and S 2 X
x X
as radius describe the arc 2 4 . Set the dividers equal to the distance that the
tapering pipe is to have at its base, and using 2 X as center intersect the arc 4 X ,
as

shown. From 4 X draw a line to S and another from 2 X to 4 X . Place the profile
T in its proper position. From the center U draw a line to S, intersecting the

circle at 1. Extending the line downward until it intersects the circle at 3, draw
2 4, thus dividing the circle into four equal spaces. At right angles to 2 4 in T,

and from points 1 to 4, draw lines intersecting the base line 2 X 4 X at 2 X ,

l
x
,
3 X, 4 X .

X x X X x
From the intersections 3 ,
l and 4 drop lines into the plan, as shown by 4 4, l 1

and 3 X 3. Now take the distances from U to 3 and U to 1 in the profile T and
place them as shown in plan from U 1
to 3 and U 1
to 1 on the line drawn from l
x

and 3 X in elevation. Trace an ellipse through points 1, 2, 3 and 4 in plan, and

draw lines from 1 and 3 to the apex R, which completes the plan and elevation
for the tapering pipe.

The next step is to obtain an elevation of the inclined pipe. From the inter-

sections 1
'
to 8' carry lines upward to the elevation (partly shown). Now,
measuring from K in the true angle, obtain the various hights to 1 to 8, and place
them on lines having si milar numbers in elevation, measuring from E N, thus
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 203

obtaining the points of intersection 1 to 8. Trace through these points the ellipse
O. In precisely the same manner obtain the ellipse P. Now connect similarly
numbered points in the sections O and P, as shown.

It will next be necessary to obtain sections in the elevation of the inclined

pipe on the lines 1 R, 4 2 R and 3 R of the tapering pipe in plan, where they
 204 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

cross the inclined pipe 5' 5" 1" 1*. At right angles to 4 R and from the intersec-
tions where the line 1 R intersects the lines 5' 5", 4' 4", 6' 6", and 3' 7', 3" 7",

of the inclined pipe, carry lines upward (partly shown) intersecting lines of similar
numbers in elevation. Trace a line through the points, then will d e be the sec-
tion on R 1 in plan. Where S 1, the vertical projection of the line, the hori-
zontal projection of which is R 1, intersects d e, establish 1 T 1
T
. In similar
T 2* and 3 T
manner locate 4 ,
.

If a line was traced through the intersections 1

T
,
2 T 3 T and 4 T
,
it would look
as shown in diagram V. any reason it was desired to obtain the miter line
If for

in plan between the tapering and inclined pipe, then at right angles to E N in ele-
vation and from intersections 1 T 2 T 3 T and 4 T drop lines intersecting cone lines
, ,

having similar numbers in plan, as shown by 1", 2", 3 " and 4'*'.
For the pattern for the tapering pipe proceed as follows At right angles to :

the axis of the cone U S in elevation, and from intersections 4 T l 3 T and 2 T

v
, , ,

draw lines intersecting the side of the cone 4 X S at 4 y l y 3 y and 2 y With , ,

.

X
S as center and with radius equal to S 4* describe the arc 4 W. Draw any radial
line, as Y S, and setting the dividers equal to one of the spaces in the profile T

step off spaces on the arc Y W, as shown. From these draw radial lines to S.
Now, using S as center and with radii equal to S 4 y S l y S 3 y and S 2 y describe , , ,

arcs, thus obtaining the intersections 4', 3', 2 1' and 4'. Trace a line through
,

the points thus obtained, then will X 2' Z be the miter cut on the tapering pipe.
The opening in the pattern for the round inclined pipe would be obtained by
projecting the miter line to the oblique elevation and developing as for an ordinary T.

PATTERNS FOR A HELICAL TAPERING PIPE

One of the inquiries received was to be shown how to develop the patterns for

a tapering helical pipe, and, as an illustration of the idea, a small picture was sent
of a blast furnace which is reproduced in Fig. 3, in which the arrow indicates what is
known as the “down comer.” In this picture the pipe is seen to descend first verti-
cally to an elbow, whence it falls Spirally around the body of the furnace. Careful
inspection of the pipe seems to indicate that one or two sections or joints of the
pipe only are made tapering. For the purpose of more fully demonstrating the
principle involved, however, the spiral pipe has been given in the diagrams a con-
tinuousand uniform taper throughout its entire course, from which it can easily be
seen how to vary the method to suit a pipe with an irregular taper.
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 205

The construction of an elevation of the spiral from which the exact angle of

the elbows can be obtained will be the first The conditions for
thing sought.
accomplishing this in its entirety will, how-
ever, be found very unusual when it is
discovered that such a view cannot be com-
pleted until a correct view of each and every
joint of the pipe has been constructed in
which is to be found every detail necessary to
the development of its pattern. The work is

best begun by the construction of a plan and

elevation of the axis of the pipe —that is, the
axial lines of the several joints, it being under-
stood that the diameter of the furnace body,
the diameter of the helical pipe at its upper
and its lower end, the hight of the fall, its

Fig. 3. Tapering Down Comer of a Blast circumferential length on the plan and the
Furnace
number of pieces required are all given.
Therefore draw first the plan of the furnace body as shown by a b c of the
plan in Fig. 4, the center of which is at d. Upon the supposition that the helical
pipe is to extend through half a circle in the plan, extend the center line of the
plan in either direction, and set off on the same at one side (the left) the diameter
of the smaller end shown by c f, and at the other side the diameter
of the pipe as
of the larger end as shown by g h, making such allowances from a to e and from
c to g as will allow the several pieces of the pipe to clear the furnace body at their

middle portions, the said pieces appearing in the plan as tangents to a circle.

Here occurs the first instance in which extreme accuracy cannot be insured, since
these allowances can be only approximated or obtained by experiment. Bisect
e f and g h, obtaining the points 1 and 6. Then bisect th6 distance 1 6, obtaining
the point i, from which a semicircle may be drawn from 1 to 6 as shown. It being
granted that the angle of the fall of the pipe is to be uniform in every piece, and
that it is to be made in five joints or pieces, divide the circle just drawn in the
plan into five equal spaces as shown by the figures and through each
2, 3, 4 and 6,
of these points draw a line of indefinite length toward the center i, as shown out-
side the circle ab c.

The diameter of the pipe at its upperand lower ends having been indicated by
«/ and g h, uniformity in its taper may be obtained by the construction of a diagram
of diameters as shown above the right of the plan, in which the diameter of the
 —

206 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

inner circle equal to e f and and that of the outer circle is equal to g h.
is If the

space between these two circles be divided into five equal parts and circles drawn
through the points of division, the intermediate circles may be assumed as the
respective sizes of the pipe at the points 2, 3, 4 and 5 of the plan, and their
diameters may be set off respectively on the radial lines previously drawn through
the points just mentioned ( half on each side as shown ), and the points so found
connected, thus forming the broken lines from e to g and /to h. It must be under-

stood that this drawing does not constitute an accurate plan of the pipe for several
reasons, its purpose being primarily to bring the sides of the pipe into the desired
juxtaposition with the sides of the furnace body. When this matter has been
satisfactorily adjusted, lines connecting the points 1 and 2, 2 and 3, etc. ,
will then
form an accurate plan of the axes of the several pieces, from which an elevation must
be projected as shown above.
In the construction of the elevation of the helix the uniformity of its fall is

maintained by drawing any vertical line, as G

H, making it equal to the desired
hight of the fall and dividing it into the same number of equal spaces as were used
in dividing the plan, in this case 5, as shown by the figures 1' to 6'. Lines drawn
horizontally from the points 1', 2', 3', etc., to intersect vertical lines erected from
points of corresponding number in the plan, as shown by 1", 2", 3", etc., will locate

the central points of the several miters in the elevation, and the lines 1" 2", 2" 3",

3" 4", etc. will be the axial lines of the several pieces.
,

If from any cause it becomes necessary that the position of the points 2, 3, 4,

etc., of the plan and 2', 3', 4', etc., of the elevation should be arbitrarily fixed, the

result would no doubt be such that every section of the helical axis would then
stand at a different angle to the horizon. Such a condition would not vary the
method of solution as given below, but would require an extra degree of care in
determining the angles and locating the throats of the several miters.
In the subsequent operations of obtaining correct views of the several pieces
from which the patterns can be developed, it is necessary that the axis of each
piece shall first be brought into or parallel to the plane of the view in the elevation.
This is accomplished by turning the plan into such a position on the drawing
board that the axis of the piece under consideration shall be squarely in front
that is, shall lie horizontally across the board before the projection of the points
into the elevation is made. In the plan as drawn the piece D, the axis of which
is the line 3 4, conforms to this requirement. The result of this is that the line
3" 4" of the elevation is in the plane of the view and therefore represents the true
length of the axis of piece D.
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 207

As the possibility of making the sides of the helical pipe parallel instead of

tapering, was referred to, it may be stated here that in either case the operations
as described up to this point, and, in fact, to the point wherein a correct and com-
plete projection of a given piece is found, are the same. Beyond this it becomes, in
the case of the pipe of uniform diameter, simply a question of miter cutting, but if

the pipe be tapering, the pattern can best be obtained by means of triangulation.

In either case the two great points of the problem are the finding of the correct
angle between any two adjacent pieces and the relative distance, on the circumfer-
ence of the pipe, between the throat points of the miters at the two ends of any
piece, for upon this latter feature depends the pitch or fall of the spiral. Otherwise
the intended spiral would be the same as a pieced elbow, all arms lying in one
plane.
To be more specific, the positions of the throats are determined by the angle
made by the axes of the two adjacent pieces as measured upon a plane at right angles
to the axis of piece under consideration. A view or section in such a plane can be
obtained by extending the axial line 3" 4" in either direction upon which any
point, as n, may be assumed as the center of an end view. By extending 3 4, the
corresponding line of the plan in both directions, it is discovered that the points
2 and 5 are back of the line 3 4 —that is, back of a vertical plane represented by
the line 3 4, a distance equal to j 2 or k 5. Therefore set off from point n, on
3" 4" extended, a distance equal to
j 2 or & 5 as shown by the point and through m
m draw a line at right angles as shown, representing a vertical plane. Lines pro-
jected from 2" and 5" of the elevation, parallel to 3" 4", to intersect the line
through m, as shown at 2 "
and 5 ',
will determine the angle between the axes of
the two pieces adjacent to piece D. If now two circles the diameters of which are
respectively equal to those marked 3 and 4 in the diagram of diameters be described
2"'
from n as a center, their intersection with the lines n and n 5"', as shown at
a
3 and 4 a ,
will represent the circumferential distance between the throat points at
the two ends of piece D. In the case of a helical axis having an irregular fall, as
before mentioned, the distances j 2 and k 5 would most likely be unequal, with
the result that two points would be set off near m instead of one, when the line
from point 2" would fall into the line through one of the points, while the line
from 3" 2’" and
would fall into the line drawn through the other, and the points
5"’
would be thus located.
To obtain a view in the plane of the axes of the two pieces 3" 4" and 4" 5",

which will give the true angle between them, first draw any line parallel to the
axis 3" 4" and conveniently near, into which project lines from points 3" and 4" at
 208 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

ri
ght angles to this axis as shown at r and 8. On r s extended at any convenient
5"'
point as n place a duplicate of the section at n so turned as to bring the line n
at right angles tor 8 n' as shown by n 5 a which ,
line will then represent a hori-
zontal plane with reference to the view about to be constructed about the axis r s.

The point 5" of the elevation may now be located in this plane by the projection

Fig. 4. Elevation of Axial Lines and Angle of Miters for Helical Pipe 'with View Neoesuary for
Purpose of Triangulation

of a line to intersect a line from 5* drawn parallel to r s as shown at T. Then a

line drawn from T to s will represent in this view the axis of the piece 4"
6" (which

is shown at E of the plan ), and the angle T s r will be the true angle of the miter.
To obtain the miter line, or line representing the miter plane, the bisecting of
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 209

this angle is only necessary, which can be most easily done by drawing from r and T
as centers with any radius greater than r s, two arcs intersecting each other as

shown at l. A line drawn from l through point a will then represent the desired
miter plane.
This operation will have to be repeated with the axis 2" 3" to obtain the angle
of the miter plane at the upper end of piece 3' 4". Since the axis 2" 3" does not
lie in the same plane as that of the miter before shown, an additional view will

have to be constructed, this time bringing the line n" 2* of the section at right
angles to the axial line, all as shown still beyond the view just obtained, which
for convenience may be termed an auxiliary view or projection.
In this view r s'
is the axis obtained by continuing the lines previously drawn from 3" and 4 and ',

a line is projected from 2“ of the section to meet a line from 2" as shown at K,
when Kr s' is the true angle of the upper miter, which is bisected as before by the
arcs crossing at J, and J r represents the miter plane.

Thus far the procedure was entirely by using the axes only of the several
pieces. Before attempting the construction of such an elevation of any piece as
may be used in developing its pattern, the nature of its profile or cross section must
be considered. In the sections thus far shown the circle has been made use of
merely as representing a true section. From this point in the solution of the

problem, however, two courses are open to the draftsman, one of which may be
termed the truly mathematical course, while the other offers an expedient whereby
some labor may be saved. According to the first, a cross section of any piece
on a plane at right angles to its axis, as for instance, that indicated by
the line V U, is assumed naturally to be a circle, whence it follows that whether
the piece be tapering or cylindrical, the sections on the miter planes must be ellip-

tical, because they are oblique to the axis. According to the second course, it may
be assumed that the section on the miter plane is a circle which conversely
can exist only when the right or normal section ( V U) of a piece is elliptical.

Since the operations of triangulation impose no conditions upon the shapes of the
two bases or ends of what are frequently termed transition pieces, by adopting the

second course, the development of the ellipses mentioned in the first course is

avoided, and also that of a right section mentioned in the latter course, since such
section will serve no purpose. It may be remarked that the flattening of the pipe
into an elliptical section at V U will cause very little change in its appearance,
except the angle between any two pieces be made more acute than shown, as
would be the case if the pipe passing around a semicircular plan were made in
three or four pieces instead of five.
2-10 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

Having now determined the shape of the piece at its ends or miters, it now
remains to complete such a view as will show the correct relative position
of all points in v
both miters, such a view being required in the operations of triangula-
tion in order that the exact lengths of all the elements of the surface, both primary
and secondary, may be determined. In the case of the pipe of uniform diameter,
the pattern would be obtained conjointly from the two views last obtained by set-

ting off two stretchouts of the profile on a line at right angles to the axial lines r s

and r s', as toward J, taking care to place the point 0 of the upper stretchout at a
distance from 0 of the lower stretchout, equal to that from 3 a to 4 a of profile n, the
profiles at both ends being of course the same diameter. This will bring the
throat points at the opposite ends of the piece in proper relation to each other in
the pattern, thus insuring the proper twist of the spiral, after which points from
profile n" will be projected to the miter line at r, and thence into the measuring
lines of the upper stretchout, while points from profile n will be carried to the
miter line at s, and thence into the lower stretchout.
In constructing the view for the purpose of triangulation above mentioned, it

becomes necessary on account of different positions of the miter planes at the two
ends to make a projection from points on the miter line at one end as at r of the
auxiliary view into the other or principal view, so as to obtain at r the correct
position of the upper miter plane in its twisted position, thus bringing into that
view all that is necessary for the purposes of triangulation. In order, first, that
the points in the circumferences of both miter planes may be located upon the
miter lines passing through s and r', it is necessary that their profiles should be ao
placed that their centers are on lines normal to those miter planes <at their centers.
Therefore, draw r', v and s w at right angles, respectively, to those miter lines,

and from any convenient points on them as y and x as centers, draw the profiles

as shown. Lines drawn through those centers parallel respectively to the miter
lines which they represent, will locate the points at the throat and the heel, as
shown at 0 and 6 in both profiles.
To place a duplicate of the profile y in correct relation to the end of the prin-
cipal view, so that the oblique view of the upper end or miter plane shown at r
may be obtained by means of intersections from points on both profiles will per-
haps be found the most difficult part of the entire problem. It can be accom-
plished by first obtaining the position of the line r' v in the other view, as shown
at r v". In the rotation of this piece of pipe upon its axis, referred to above, it
will be seen that, since the line 2" K
is at right angles to its axis, this line will

represent a plane in which the points K and v would describe circles of which
 ,

Special Sheet Metal Layouts an

the point r", shown in both views, is the center. As explained above, the auxil-
a 2'" of
iary view is a view in the plane shown by n" 2 of the profile n" or by n
the profile n, and that the other or principal view is in the plane of n 5"' of the
profile n, the plane of the view being shown in every case by the line drawn
through the adjacent profile at right angles to the axis of rotation. Therefore, to
transfer the point v from one view to the other first carry a line from v, parallel
R
to the axis, to cut the line shown at v', then transfer this point to the
n" 2 ,
as
corresponding line of the profile ri, as shown by v\ and carry it thence by a line
parallel to the axis to cut the line 2" K, as shown at v”. The line v" r will then
show the correct position of the line in question, upon which any point, as y' may t

be assumed as the center of the profile. The positions of the throat and heel in
the miter may now be obtained by projecting lines from points 0 and 6 of profile
n, parallel to the axis, to intersect lines drawn at right angles to the axis from 0
and 6 on the miter line r', which are obtained from profile y, as shown at 0 and
6 near r. These points may now be carried parallel to r v" to cut the circumfer-
ence of the profile shown at 0 and 6. The profiles y and y may now be
y', as
spaced into the same number of equal spaces and the other points projected and
intersected as explained in regard to the points 0 and 6, and as shown by 0, 3,
6 and 9, near r, the intermediate points being omitted on account of the neces-
sarily small scale of the diagram. On account of the acuteness of the angle of
intersection of the lines 0 0 and 6 6 with the profile y ', there is great chance of
error. As a means of verification it should be noted that the angle made by the
intersection of the line 0 6 with the line 5 11 of profile y' should be equal to
the angle made at n by the lines n 2 and n 5 of the first profile, this being
the amount of rotation between the principal and the auxiliary view of this piece
of the spiral pipe.

In reference to the statement made at the beginning regarding the difficulty of

making a correct elevation and plan, it will now be seen how it is possible to make
projections from the points obtained in the miters, as shown at r and s, back
toward 3 " and 4", to obtain a true front elevation, and, further, to extend those
methods to also complete the plan. But as these operations are not essential to the
development of the patterns they need not be described.
With the elevation of a piece completed as explained, the method of triangu-
lating its surface will require some explanation since some unusual conditions
occur. For this purpose in Fig. 5 is shown a view of the piece to a scale suffi-

ciently larger to permit of points omitted in Fig. 4 being clearly shown. In this
drawing the points of division in the profiles of both ends and the method of tri-
2 12, ,
Special Sheet Metal Layouts

angulation are fully shown, but the miter line at r of the auxiliary elevation of
Fig. 4, from which projections are made to obtain the oblique view of the end r,

is here omitted to make room for the diagrams of sections, with the hope that its

use, though only partially shown, was there fully explained. Before beginning
the construction of either diagram, it must be noted that as the result of the pre-
ceding operations the points of division at the two ends of the piece do not come
numerically opposite, as they should be placed when conditions permit. In the
latter arrangement points of like number at opposite ends are joined to form the
primary elements, shown by the solid lines of the elevation, while points at one
end are joined with those of the next higher number at the opposite end to form
the secondary elements, shown by dotted lines. The method usually employed in
obtaining the true lengths of the elements, in pieces of this general shape, is that
of assuming a plane passing through the axis of the pipe as a base from which to
measure hights at the two ends. Such a plane is, of course, parallel to the plane
of the view and may be supposed to be the surface of the paper, one-half of the
solid thus bisected being above the surface of the paper and one-half below. This
plane is represented in the profile at the right by the line 0x6 and in that at the
left by the line R/ S, both lines being at right angles to lines normal to the
center of the miter planes, as explained above.
This method has been employed in diagram of secondary elements, which is

constructed as follows : Draw any line, as T V, representing the plane of bisec-

tion, and at T erect a perpendicular, upon which set off the hight of all the points

in the profile x as measured at right angles to the line 0 6. The distances of

points below the bisecting line being equal to those above, three points on the per-
pendicular at T will thus represent all the hights in this profile, placing to each

point numbers represented. From

all the T, on T V, set off the lengths of all

the secondary elements as measured on the elevation, placing the number of the

point at the end of the line, at the points as located, and at each point erect a
left

perpendicular making its hight equal to that of corresponding number in the pro-
file y as measured above or below the bisecting line R S, all as shown above V

in the diagram. It is advisable to repeat the numbers, as the several points are
located at their proper hights, so that no mistake can be made in connecting these
points properly with those on the perpendicular at T. Lines drawn from points on
T to points at the left end corresponding with numbers connected in the elevation
will then give the true lengths of the secondary elements.
Careful inspection of the profile y will show that the point 11 at that end of
the piece comes very nearly opposite point 0 at the right end, and therefore that
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts ai 3

each point at the left will be just as nearly opposite to the point next higher in
number at the right end. Being thus practically opposite, points at the left may
be joined with those at the right in the following order to form the primary ele-

ments: 11 with 0, 0 with 1, 1 with 2, etc. Each primary being also practically in

a plane with the axis of the pipe, the diagram for obtaining the true lengths of the
primary elements may be very simply constructed by using the axis of the pipe as
a base of the sections. The diagram thus becomes a series of radial sections folded

or rotated into one plane, of which X Y is the base line. Therefore project lines
at right angles to X Y from all points in both ends of the piece, cutting XY and
extending somewhat beyond. Since all the points in the miter at the small end
are practically equidistant from the axis, draw a line across the perpendiculars at a

distance from Y
equal to the radius of the profile y as shown at a, numbering
the points of intersection with a to correspond with the points from which they are
derived. For like reason draw the line b across
the perpendiculars near X at a distance from X
equal to the radius of profile x, numbering each
point as before and as shown by the small figures.

As all of the elements in this diagram would, if

Av^L--

Fig. 6

ELEVATION

Enlarged View of Middle Piece, Showing Method of Triangula tion and Pattern

drawn, be practically one line, it is better to use the diagram without the line,
Simply finding the length of the element wanted by means of the figures at its ends
as given on the elevation.
With tile lengths of all the elements now obtained, the method of developing
the pattern does not differ from that explained in the book in connection with
 : .

214 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

many similar cases and need not, therefore, be explained in detail. But on account
of the unusual manner in which the numbers occur, it will be advisable to adopt some
system of coupling the numbers whereby error may be avoided. Thus in begin-
ning the pattern a line equal in length to 11 0, the first primary element is set off,

when it will be noticed that the first secondary element is drawn from 11 at the
left to 1 at the right end in the elevation and that it is set off from a point at the
left in the pattern, so as to determine, in combination with the space 0 1 of pro-
file x, the position of a point at the right which is two numbers higher ;
also that

the following primary element is set off from a point at the right to locate, in com-
bination with 11 0 of profile y', a point at the left which is one number lower.
It will therefore be a great help to arrange the figures, by reference to the eleva-
tion, in the form shown in the two accompanying tables, in which the two num-
bers used to designate each element are coupled and placed in the order to be
used as indicated by the words left and right

TABLE OF NUMBERS TO BE JOINED FOR ELEMENTS

Primary «
Secondary
Right Left Right Left Left Right Left Right
0 . .. .11 7.. . ... 6 11.. 1 5.. ... 7
1 . .. . 0 8.. . ... 7 0.. . 2 6.. ... 8
2 .... 1 9.. . . .. 8 1.. . 3 7.. ... 9
3 .... 2 10.. ... 9
. 2.. . 4 8.. ...10
4 .... 3 11... ..10 . 3.. 5 9.. ...11
5 .... 4 0.. ..11
. . 4.. 6 10.. ... 0
6 5

The several elements can thus be taken from the diagrams by number as
wanted and checked off the table as used. When the pattern has been completed,
as shown in Fig. 6, the points marked 0 at the opposite sides will be the throat
points in the two miters and will meet the points numbered 0 in miters of the
adjacent pieces.
In proceeding with the work it will be necessary to repeat these operations as

described for each of the pieces except for piece B. Since this piece miters with
piece A at 1" of the elevation at a sharp angle, the miter plane of its upper end is

necessarily an ellipse. This makes the piece B a transition from an ellipse at one
end to a perfect circle at the other. In beginning the work on this piece, its axis
is brought into the plane of the view by carrying the point 2 of the plan around 1 as
b
a center to 2 on the center line of the plan, and projecting this point into the ele-
vation to intersect the line from 2 or 2', as shown at 2 d The axis of piece
", . A
being vertical, the position of the miter plane is found by bisecting the angle, as
before explained and as shown at 1 ".
 ,

Special Sheet Metal Layouts 215

The piece A being cylindrical instead of tapering, its pattern is obtained in the
usual manner from points on its profile M, as shown at the left, and the points ob-
tained on the miter line at 1 " in the operation are used in constructing the elliptical

section L in the usual manner. The position of the miter plane at the upper end
of piece B being thus fixed, and being also shown in the profile, it becomes neces-
sary to obtain a view of the miter plane at its lower end, as seen in the plane of its

axis. This is accomplished, as before, by means of an auxiliary elevation shown

at B', thus duplicating the operation performed at the upper end of piece D. At p
is shown an end view of the lower part of piece B, in which p z is equal to 2 3 of
the plan and 2 3 equal to m 5 ", because the twist is the same at all the miters
b '

of the spiral from 2” down. 2 d z" is equal to s w' and z" 3 C is equal to p 3 b .

d d
Thus 2 3°, the axis of piece 3, is brought into the same plane with 2 1", the
d
axis of piece B, when the angle at 2 is bisected, giving the position of the miter
d
plane of the auxiliary elevation. 2 u is drawn normal to the miter plane on
which is placed the profile q, of which 0 is the throat. Point u is transferred to
b
a corresponding position on p 3 ,
as shown by u', and carried parallel to the axis
of B to intersect 3
C
2 "
extended at u", when the line u" 2 d will represent the
position of the normal in the principal elevation. On this last named line, from
any convenient point as center, as q', draw a duplicate of profile q. Now from
points 0 and 6 of profile p project lines to intersect lines from the throat and
heel of the miter at 2 d ,
as shown
and carry these points at 0 and 6, near 2 d ,

d
back to profile q, parallel to the normal 2 u" cutting that profile, as shown at ,

the points bearing the same numbers. With the throat and heel of the miter thus
locatedon the two profiles q and q, the remaining points of division are easily
found and the intersections made in an exactly similar manner to that explained
above in regard to the profiles y and y’, thus completing the elevation with respect
to showing the lower miter plane in the twisted position necessary to produce the
desired miter at 2" of the elevation. In following the points down from profile M
it will be noted that the throat of the upper miter will fall at t on the profile q', thus
showing that the circumferential distance between the throat points at the two ends
of the piece ismore than 90 degrees; and further, that the line i t' of profile q'

represents the bisecting plane from which to measure hights in obtaining the dia-
grams of elements, all as explained in Fig. 5.

PATTERN FOR A FOUR-PRONGED FORK

Probably the best method to pursue in developing the pattern of this nature,
to bring the ends of the several prongs to the required shape is to first cut a disc of
2l6 Special Sheet Metal Layouts
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 317

metal to the exact diameter of the plan of the large pipe, and then to bend two
pieces of wire so as to form exact semicircles of the same diameter as the disc.
The two wires, being crossed and fastened at
right angles in the middle, may now have
their ends soldered to the edge of the disc at

four equi-distant points, when the templet thus

formed will appear as in Fig. 9. Four spaces
will thus be provided to receive the four
prongs of the fork and ;
when the three points
of one of the prongs indicated by 1, 6 of the
Fig. 9. Templet to Show the Shape of the pattern in Fig. 8 have been drawn apart till
Large Ends of the Prongs
they reach the three angles of one of the open-
ings of the templet the curves 1 6, 6 6 and 6 1 of the pattern must coincide with
the corresponding curves of the templet, because in developing the pattern they
have been made equal thereto. When the prong has been thus formed it will

appear as in Fig. 10.

The extra or fourth prong of the model, has been formed to its proper shape
and its lines found to exactly coincide with such a templet and its angles of inclina-
tion to conform to that given in Fig. 7.
In applying the met'
hods described to forks having a greater number of prongs than three, the method
of establishing the joint line between adjacent
prongs demands careful consideration. That the
general section of the several prongs or branches,
whatever be their number, should be as nearly
round as possible throughout their course is quite
a natural idea. In fact, the simplest solution to
the problem that might suggest itself, before
going into detail, is that of bringing together a
number of prongs of a general conical form, by
placing them radially about a common center
and then cutting away as much of their sides as
is necessary to form a miter joint between them,

after the manner of a miter between cylindrical m* 10. iof One of the Branches
Poor-Pronged Fork
pipes. A miter formed between radial prongB
cylindrical in shape would obviously result in a joint line greatly differing from
the quarter circle 1 6' of the elevation in Fig. 7, as will be shown. The methods
ai8 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

explained in the book can without doubt be extended to include any number
of prongs and still satisfy the demands of capacity, since there is no technical reason
for the large end of a prong, in the case of a four-pronged fork, having a greater
capacity than one-fourth of that of the end of the large pipe.
Let it be supposed, for instance, that six prongs or branches are required. A
templet constructed similarly to that shown in Fig. 9 to represent the junction of
six branches would then have six arcs or wires descending from the apex 1 to six

equi-distant points on the perimeter of the disc, when it will appear that while the

sides of the openings still remain quarter circles as before, their lower arcs or out-
lines will be only sixths of a circle, thus narrowing the openings; and further that
the openings would become narrower and more slot like as their number is

increased, which would, if this method be adhered to, result in a corresponding

flattening of the sides of the branches.
The operations of triangulation in their simplest form consist in developing
the shape of a surface which when properly formed will constitute the side walls to
inclose a space between two dissimilar and arbitrary forms the outlines of which can
be properly termed the basis of the solid figure. Inasmuch as triangulation renders
possible the use of arbitrary forms as bases, it thereby opens up the way to a great
chance of error when it becomes necessary, as in the present case, to work to forms
which are assumed instead of those which are the result of some other operation
included in the solution of the problem. In the present case one base only is given
in full, that shown by A B of Fig. 7. The other given base, the end of the large

pipe, must be divided into as many equal arcs as there are branches required. On
the above supposition that six are required, the sixth of the large circle can form
only a part of the base of the larger end of a branch which must obviously also
unite in part with the adjacent branches. In assuming any particular shape of
outline as the remaining part of the required base the draftsman should be able to
form a correct idea at the outset of what the result obtained therefrom will be ;
to
see in his mind’s eye, at least approximately, the shape of the resulting form in its

entirety. This is an accomplishment that can scarcely be taught in books. It

must be developed by exercise, by indulging the imagination, and by storing up a

fund of knowledge which is the result of experience.
To maintain the rotundity therefore of the several branches at their junction
with each other, a plan should first be drawn upon which the desired number of
branches or prongs are shown, and each branch should be drawn with a taper
approximately equal to that shown in its elevation. Fig. 11 gives the essential
features of the parts. The plan of an additional prong is also shown in dotted
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 219

lines, its axial line being placed at an angle of 60 degrees from that of the other
(as when six prongs are required), from which it will be seen that the sides of the
prongs intersect each other at a point E, which is outside the circle of the large
pipe. If a line be erected from E of the plan to intersect any line in the elevation
of the prong which may be supposed to represent its greatest width, as for instance
the line 5 5, it will be seen that the joint line between the prongs in the elevation
must pass through this intersection, F, and must therefore be a much fuller curve
than that originally assumed by the quarter circle 1 6' in the elevation, Fig. 7. If

the prongs of the fork were perfect cones or cylinders in form their lines could then
be prolonged to the miter plane and the joint line developed in the usual manner,
but since the form is irregular the draftsman is thrown upon his general knowledge
of intersections to draw or design such a line as will pass from 1 through F to the

point J of the elevation, Fig. 11.

The problem of a fork having any number of prongs can also be solved by
constituting each branch a section of a perfect cone and extending its sides to inter-
sect as they may with the miter planes 1 6 of the plan, and also with the sides of
the large pipe, which would result in producing a mitered end on the large pipe.
To make this more interesting it is shown how to obtain the miter on the end
of a small pipe to fit down over the intersection of the four prongs, as shown at D,
Fig. 7, as well as the shape of the part to be cut from the pattern of the prong to
form, when all are put together, the round hole to fit the mitered end of the pipe
D. The first step is to draw a perfect plan of the prong, which shall include at

least one set of the lines used in the elevation for the purpose of triangulation, all

as shown in Fig. 11. Extend the center line of the short pipe above A B to cut
the center line of the plan, as shown at C. From C, as center, describe the plan
of the pipe to correspond with that above A B in Fig. 7, and divide it into the
same number of spaces, as shown by the small figures. The points on 1 6 of the
elevation and 1 6 of the plan are made duplicates of corresponding lines of Fig. 7.
Now connect points of corresponding number in the plan, as shown by 2 2, 3 3,

etc. ,
thus obtaining lines upon the plan which exactly correspond with the solid
lines in the elevation of the prong.

Now from G of the plan, as center, describe the plan of the central pipe D, as
shown at D, cutting the several lines in the plan of the prong, as shown at a b and d.
From these points erect lines into the elevation to cut lines of corresponding num-
ber, as shown by the same letters in that view. Should additional points be required
in the miter, as for instance, in the space b d, bisect the spaces 1 2 of the plan G,
and also of the line 1 6 in the plan D', as shown at x and y, respectively, and
 220 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

connect these points by the line crossing the plan D' at c. Project points x and y
into the elevation, as shown, draw x y of that view and erect a line from c of the
plan to intersect line x y of the elevation, thus giving the additional point c in the
elevation of the required miter.

The stretchout of the pipe D may now be taken from the several spaces between
the points a, b, c and d on the plan D' and set off on any line, as S T, drawn at
right angles to the elevation, repeating the same as many times as is necessary $
constitute the complete stretchout of the pipe, remembering that since the spaces .9
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 221

D’ are unequal it will be necessary to reverse their order in each alternate group,
all shown on S T, which is sufficient for a half pattern. Lines from the points
as
a, b, c, d of the elevation may now be projected into the measuring lines of the

stretchout, ali as shown by dotted lines, thus developing the required pattern of

D, one-half of which is shown by S, N, 0, Q, R, T.

To obtain the pattern of the hole or in other words, the shape of the portion
to be cut from the pattern of the prong, so that it shall meet the mitered end of
pipe D, it will be necessary to set off the distances y c and 2 & of the plan Fig. 11,
upon the base line of the diagram H, of Fig. 7, from which the true lengths of the
solid lines of the elevation were obtained. Since, however, only one of the lines

of this diagram is used, while an additional line, x y, has been introduced into the
elevation, this operation is shown separately in Fig. 12, in which points 2 '
and 2
and lines connecting them are duplicates of corresponding parts of diagram H of

Fig. 7. In Fig. 12 M 2" and M

y are respectively equal to 2 2 and x y of the
elevation, Fig. 11. Now from y of Fig. 12 set off on y the distance y c, equal M
to y c of the elevation, Fig. 11 and from 2 on 2 ; M
the distance 2 " b', equal to
2 b of the elevation. At y erect a line y y\ equal to y y of the plan, Fig. 11,
and at M make M x equal to x x of the plan. Draw y x of Fig. 12, and from c
erect a line cutting the same at c ;
then from y of the pattern, Fig. 13, set off on
y x the distance y o' of Fig. 12, and also make 2' b of the pattern equal to 2' b’ of
Fig. 12.
The distance 1' d of the pattern is of course equal to 1 d of the elevation, while
the position of the point a of the pattern is obtained by first projecting the point a
of the elevation to the profile of the joint line 1 6' at the left, as shown thereon at
a, when its distance from either adjacent point may be set off from the correspond-
ing point on the line 1' 6' of the pattern. A line traced through the points a, b, c
and d of the pattern will show the shape of the piece (a d 1') to be cut from the
pattern to insure a miter with the pattern of the pipe D. The position of point y
upon the pattern is obtained by a projection to the the left from y of the elevation
to line 1 6', as shown at y\ etc., all as explained in regard to point a, while the
position of x must be obtained by measurement from an adjacent point on a true
section on A B, if such section is developed or on the miter pattern of the connect-
ing piece, as explained above. Its position on the plan C of Fig. 11 is, however,
sufficiently accurate to serve the present purpose.

An inspection of the pattern of the pipe D, as shown in Fig. 11, will now show
that its shape corroborates the statement above made with reference to the triangu-
lar shape of the large end of the prong, as shown in Figs. 9 add 10. Since the
 222 , , , Special Sheet Metal Layouts

prong is nearly round at A B of Figs. 7, 10 and 11, and quite angular at point 1,

its shape at d of Figs. 10 and 11, which is about one-third of the way up from point
1, can easily be conceived to be that shown at P of the pattern in Fig. 11.

SQUARE TO ROUND TWISTED ELBOW PATTERNS

In this solution it is well to state that the principles as here outlined are

applicable to any number of pieces and for this example a four-piece elbow was
taken. This is a 90-deg. elbow twisting from square to round as shown by the
perspective Fig. 14.
In Fig. 15 let I II III IV represent the side elevation of the four-piece
twisted elbow with an angle of 90 deg.
as shown, the miter or joint lines a b,

c d and e / being drawn toward the cen-

ter II °. The two end pieces of the pat-
terns will be developed by parallel lines
and the two middle pieces by triangu-
lation.

In this case assume that the miter

lines a b, d and e f remain fixed
c

lines, representing the miter planes

when the elbow is viewed from the
Fig. 14. Model of the Completed Twisted Elbow
side. From these planes the miter
lines shown in the front elevation are then projected. By using this method of
establishing straight lines in the side elevation as the miter planes considerable
time is saved when developing the patterns, because no true angles need be found,
and the various operations in projections needed in connection with the true angles
can be dispensed with.
Having drawn the side elevation of the elbow, bisect the miter lines 1 5,
6 11 and 12 13 and obtain the points 3, B and C respectively. Through these
points draw the center line of the elbow shown by the heavy dotted line from A
to D. Extend the line 3 A indefinitely to the left, upon which establish the
point A® representing the center of the round pipe. Using A 1 or A 5 in the
side elevation as radius and A® as center, draw the circle 1 3 5 3' representing
the front view of the upper piece of the elbow marked I in the side elevation,
when it is twisted and turned toward the reader.
 From the center A 3
draw a vertical line until it intersects the line D H
extended from the side elevation at J. At pleasure establish the distance J D°
in the front elevation, which in this case has been made equal to J A 8
. As the
elbow has two pieces between the top and bottom pieces, as shown in the side ele

3
vation, divide the space between J and D in the front elevation in two parts as

shown by j, and from j and D° erect vertical lines until they intersect horizontal
lines drawn from B and C in the side elevation at B° and C° respectively in the
Trace the heavy dotted line as shown from A to B° to C° to
8
front elevation.
 224 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

D° which represents the center line of the elbow in the front elevation shown by
similar letters A 3 B C and D in the side elevation.
Whatever number of pieces are contained in the elbow between the top and
bottom pieces in the side elevation, that number should be divided between J and
D° in the front elevation, so as to establish the center line of the elbow in that
view. Thus if a six-pieced elbow is used, the space between J and D° would be
divided in four parts, which is the number of spaces contained between the top
and bottom pieces.

With A and A 1 as radius draw the semi-

in the side elevation as center,
circle shown, which divide into an equal number of spaces, in this case four as

shown from 1 to 5. In similar manner divide the circle I in the front elevation
in similar number of spaces as shown from lto3to5to3'tol. This semi-
section 1 3 5 in the side elevation represents the half profile for piece I of the
elbow. Below the line h i of piece number IV draw the section of the square
pipe as shown by O P G G 1
,
which represents the profile for piece IV.

As the pieces I and IV will be developed by parallel lines, these two patterns
will be laid out first. Extend the line 5 1 as shown by H I, upon which place
the girth of the semi-section of the round pipe, as shown by the small figures 1 T
to 5\ At right angles to H I through the small figures draw lines, which inter-
sect by lines drawn parallel to H I from similar numbered intersections on the
miter line a b, which were previously obtained by drawing lines at right angles
to 1 5 from the small figures in the semicircle. A line is traced through points
T
thus obtained as shown by the small figures 1 to 5 in T. Then will 1 T 1 5 5 be
the half pattern for piece number I.

For the half pattern for piece number IV, take the girth of the half-square
section F P O E, and place it upon the horizontal line A* B8 ,
as shown by
F° P° 0° E°, and through these points erect perpendicular lines to
A* B* as shown. Measuring from the line h i in the side elevation, take the
hights to points 12 and 13 on the miter and place them in the pattern
line / e

on corresponding lines measuring in each instance from the line A 8 B 8 obtaining ,

the points 12, 12', 13', 13 respectively. Trace a line through points thus
obtained. Then will E°, 13, 12, F° be the half pattern desired.
The next step is to obtain the true sections on the miter lines e f and 0 d.
No true section need be found on the miter line a b because the piece I lies in a
horizontal line, so that when the miter line a b is viewed from the front it will
show a true circle as indicated by I in the front elevation. If, however, the piece
I in the side elevation were other than in a horizontal position, the front view of
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts aa 5

the miter would show an elliptical shape and would be obtained in a manner
similar to that which will be explained in connection with obtaining the front view

of the miter line 6 11 in the side elevation.

As the elbow runs from square to round, a proportional taper must be found
between the square end of piece IV and the round end of piece I. This taper
from the square end to the round end is shown by 3, 9, 12, 13, 8, 3 in the side
elevation and is found as follows: Draw a vertical line of any length as A® B®,
at right angles to which draw the line 12 13, making B® 12 and B® 13 equal to
the miter lines C 12 and C 13 respectively. From 12 and 13 in the true taper,
draw lines to the The elbow having two middle pieces, divide the line
apex A®.
A® B® in two parts as shown by s, through which draw the horizontal line cutting
the aides of the triangle at t and t'. Then s t or s t' is placed from B to 8 and B to
9 in the side elevation and lines drawn from 3 to 9 to 12 and from 3 to 8 to 13.
As the pipe is a true square at one end, this same taper applies to the top and
bottom of the elbow as well as the sides. This taper along the bottom and top of
the elbow shown in the front elevation and is projected to that view as will be
is

described. The true taper being known the true section on the miter line c d is
found as follows: At right angles to c d from points 6, 8, 9 and 11 erect per-
pendicular lines, making the distances 6 6' and 11 11' equal to s t in the true
taper and the distances 8 8 and 9 9 in the side elevation equal to the full width
t t' in the true taper. From 6' and 11' in the side elevation, parallel to c d,

draw lines intersecting the lines 8 8 and 9 9 at r and v respectively. Using r

and v as centers, with a radius equal to r 6', or v 11', draw the quarter circles

shown by 6’, 8 and 11', 9 respectively. Then will 6, 6', 8, 9, 11', 11 be the
half true sectionon the miter line c d.
To find the true section on the miter line f e, draw lines from points 12 and
13 at right angles to f e, as shown by 12, 12 and 13, 13' both equal to the half
'

width of the square pipe shown by 0 E or P F in plan. Draw a line from 12'
to 13'. Then will 12, 13, 13', 12' be the half true section on the miter line f e.

As the quarter section A 1 3 of piece I is divided into two equal spaces,

divide the quarter circles in the half section on c d, also each into two parts as
shown by points 7 and 10, from which points at right angles to c d draw lines
intersecting the miter line c d at 7and 10 respectively. Connect the various
points on the miter lines a b, c d and e f as follows Draw lines from 4 to 7
:

to 13; from 3 to 8 to 13; from 3 to 9 to 12; from 2 to 10 to 12; also dotted

lines from 5 to 7, 4 to 8, 2 to 9 and 1 to 10. These lines represent the bases
of the triangles which will be constructed later on.
226 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

The next step is to draw a correct view of the front elevation, showing the true
position of the miter lines c d and e f in the side elevation. Therefore, from
points 12 and 13 on the joint line f e in the side elevation draw horizontal lines
in the front elevation, indefinitely as shown. Extend the center line D° C° in
the front elevation as shown by D° m. Measuring from this line m D°, set off
the distances m
m 12', 1312,
x
13 and 13* 13' equal to the half width of the
square pipe shown by D h or D i in the side elevation. Draw lines from 12 to
13 to 13' to 12' to 12, which represents the front view of the miter line 12 13 in
the side elevation.
In a similar manner from points 7, 8, 9 and 10, on the miter line c d in
the side elevation draw horizontal lines to the front elevation indefinitely as shown,
and through the intersection B° extend the line j B° as B° l. Measuring from
the line c d in the side elevation, take the various distances to points 6’, 7, 8, 9,

10 and 11' and place them in the front elevation on similar lines previously
X
drawn, on either side of the center line l 6 ,
thus obtaining the points of inter-
sections from 6 to 11 on the right and from 6' to 11' on the left. A line traced
through these points as shown will be the miter line in the front elevation on the
line 6 11 in the side. Connect the various points in the front elevation as fol-

lows: 6, 7 and 8 to 13; 9, 10 and 11 to 12; 6', 7' and 8' to 13' and 9', 10'

and 11' to 12', which is similar to the connections shown in piece III in the side
elevation. Connect the various points in piece II in the front elevation by draw-
ing solid lines from 1 to 11, 2 to 10, 3 to 9, 3 to 8, 4 to 7, 5 to 6; 5 to 6',

4' to 7', 3' to 8'; 3' to 9', 3' to 10' and 1 to IT. Also draw dotted lines
from 1 to 10, 2 to 9; 4 to 5 to 7; 5 to 7', 4' to 8'; 2' to 9' and 1 to 10',
8,

which represent similar connections shown in piece II in the side elevation.

As the seam will be placed in the throat of the elbow, bisect 6 6' and 13 13'
X x
in the front elevation as shown respectively by 6 and 13 and draw the seam
X x
line 5 to 6 to 13 as shown. The horizontal distances between the various
points shown in the miter lines in the front elevation represent the altitudes of tri-
angles, which must now be constructed as follows Through the various intersec- :

tions in the lower and center miter lines in the front elevation, drop vertical lines
indefinitely as shown. In a similar manner through the various intersections in
the center miter line, as well as through the points in the profile of the upper arm,
erect vertical lines indefinitely, as also shown. At pleasure, below the front ele-
vation, draw a horizontal line as K L, and in a similar manner above the front
elevation draw another horizontal line as M N. To find the true lengths of the
lines shown in piece III in both front and side elevation take the various dis-
22J Special Sheet Metal Layouts

tances from 13 to 6, 13 to 7 and 13 to 8 in the side elevation and place them

on lines dropped from points 6, 7, 8, 6', 7' and 8' in the miter line in the front
elevation, measuring in each instance from and below the line K L, as shown
13° to T T
respectively from 13° to 6, 13° to 7, 8, also from 13 to 8", 13 to 7'
and 13 v to 6'. At right angles to X L from points 13 and 13' in the miter

line, drop lines intersecting the line K L at 13 and and from

13' respectively,

the point 13 just obtained in diagram U, draw lines to 6, 7 and 8, and from 13'
draw lines to 6', 7' and 8''. These lines represent the true lengths of lines shown
by similar numbers in piece 111 in the side or front elevation.

U' 12

In a similar manner take the various distances in piece III in the side eleva-
tion, from 12 to 9, 12 to 10 and 12 to 11, and place them on lines dropped
from 9, 10 and 11, also from 9', 10' and 11' in the miter line in the front ele-

vation, measuring in each instance below the line L, as shown respectively K

frqm 12° to 9, 12° to 10 and 12° to 11, also from 12 T to 9', 12 T to 10' and
12 v to 11', and draw the slant lines from 9, 10 and 11 to point 12, and from
points 9', 10' and 11' to point 12', both points 12 and 12' being upon the line
K L, having been previously obtained by lines dropped from points 12 and 12'

respectively in the miter line in the front elevation. These slant lines just drawn
228 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

in diagram U then represent the true lengths of similarnumbered lines shown in

piece III in the front or side elevation. Further procedure would be to find the
true length of the dotted line shown from 8 to 12 in piece III in the side elevation,
accordingly the distance from 8 to 12 is taken and setting it off on lines dropped
from 8 and 8' in the miter line in the front elevation, as shown respectively from
12° to 8* and from 12T to 8' and draw lines from 8' to 12' and from 8a to 12,
which represents the true length of similar numbered lines shown from 8’ to 12' and
8 to 12 in the front elevaion.
Before the patterns for the flat surface 11, 11', 12', 12 in piece III in the front
elevation can be obtained, the true length on the dotted line drawn from 11 to 12'
must first be ascertained, by taking the distance from 11 to 12 in the side elevation
and placing it as shown from 12° to 11 in diagram U and drawing a line from 11
to 12'. This slant line then shows the true length of the line 11, 12' in the front
elevation.
And, in a similar manner before the pattern for the flat surface 6 6, 13, 13' ',

shown in piece III in the front elevation can be obtained, the true lengths of the
seam line 6*, 13 x and lines drawn from 6 to 13 x and 6 to 13 x must first be
,
',

ascertained as follows: Take the distance from 6 to 13 in the side elevation and
in diagram U, as shown, respectively, from 13 a X T
place it to 6 ,
13 to 6' and 13° to
X x x
6, and draw slant lines from 6 to 13 ,
6' to 13' and 6 to 13 ,
representing,
respectively, the true lengths of lines shown by similar numbers in piece III in
the front elevation.
Possessing all the necessary data by the methods explained in the foregoing,
the operation now is to obtain the true lengths of the various lines shown in piece
II in the side elevation. From the various intersections 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4', 3', 2'

shown in the front elevation, lines are erected until they intersect the
in the circle
line M N as shown by similar figures. Take next the various distances of 5 6,
4 7 and 3 8 in the side elevation and place them upon lines drawn from points
6, 7 and 8, also points 6’,
7' and 8' in the miter line in the front elevation,

measuring from the line M N in diagram W, as shown, respectively, from 5° to

T
6, 4° to 7 and 3° to 8, also from 5 to 6', 4 T to 7' and 3 T to 8' and draw
slant lines from 6 to 5, 7 to 4 and 8 to 3, also from 6' to 6, 7' to 4' and 8'
to 3'. These lines represent the true lengths of lines having «i»niW numbers in
piece II in the elevations.
Again take the distances of 3 9, 2 10 and 1 11 in piece II in the side ele-
vation, and place them, measuring from the line M N, upon lines drawn from
points 9, 10 and 11, also 9', 10' and 11' in the miter line in the front elevation
 '

Special Sheet Metal Layouts 229

as shown, respectively, by the distances from 3° to 9*, 2° to 10* and 1° to 11,

also from 3 T to 9*, 2V to 10* and l v to 11', and draw slant lines from 9* to 3,

10* to 2 and 11 to 1, also from 9* to 3', 10* to 2' and 11' to 1, which show
the true lengths of similar numbered lines in piece II. Having carefully followed

the aforesaid instruction, watching particularly the secondary indices, finally take
the length of the dotted lines in the side elevation, from 5 to 7, 4 to 8, 2 to 9
and 1 to 10 and place them, measuring from the line M N, upon lines drawn from
points 7, 8, 9 and 10, also points 7', 8', 9’ and 10' in the miter line in the front
X 4° to 8 X 2° to 9 1° to 10, also
elevation, as shown by the distances 5° to 7 , ,
and
r
from 5 to 7*, 4
*
to 8*, 2 T
<o 9' and 1
T
to 10', and draw slant lines from 7 X to
X
5, 8 X to 4, 9 to 2 and 10 to 1, also from 7 X to 5', 8 to 4', 9’ to 2' and 10'

to 1, which lines show the true distance of similar numbered lines in the front or

side elevation.
As the seam line is shown by 5 6 X in piece II in the front elevation, to find
this true length take the distance of 5 6 in the side elevation and place
on the it
X
line erected from 6 in the front elevation, as shown in diagram W, from 5 X to
X X
6 and draw a slant line from 6 to 5, which is the true length desired. All of
the true lengths having been found, the patterns are now in order. To develop
the pattern for piece II proceed as follows: Take the distance of 5 6 X in dia-

gram W and place it upon the line drawn in Y as shown by 5 6X . With 6 6' in

the semi-section R in the side elevation as radius and 6 X in Y as center, draw

the arc 6, which intersect by an arc struck from 5 as center and 5 6 in W as
radius. Again with 6' 7 in the semi-section R in the side elevation as radius
and 6 in Y as center, describe the arc 7, which intersect by an arc struck from 5
as center and 5 7 X
in the diagram W as radius. Now using the division 5 4 in
the miter cut in the half pattern T as radius and 5 in the pattern Y as center,
draw the arc 4, which intersect by an arc struck from 7 as center and 7 4 in dia-
gram W as radius.
Proceed in this manner, using alternately, first the divisions in the semi-
profile R in the side elevation, then the proper true length in diagram W the ;

divisions along the miter cut in T, then the proper length slant line in W until
the line 1 11 in pattern Y has been obtained. Then with a radius equal to twice
the distance of 11 11' in the semi-section R in the side elevation, and 11 in pat-
tern Y as center, describe the arc IT and draw a line from IT to 1. Now again
proceed as before, using alternately, first the divisions of the proper number in the
semi-section R, then the proper true length in the diagram W ;
the proper divi-
sion along the miter cut in T, then the proper true length in W, until the line 5
 3

*3 ° Special Sheet Metal Layouts

6' in pattern Y has been obtained. Then using 6 6' in the semi-section R as
radius, and 6' in the pattern Y as center, describe the arc 6 X
,
which intersect

by an arc struck from 5' as center and 5 6 1

in W as radius. A line traced
through points thus obtained in the pattern Y, as shown from 5 to 1 to 5' to
6* to 11' to 11 to 6 X
to 5, will be the pattern for piece II of the elbow, to which
edges must be allowed for seaming purpose.
For the pattern for piece number III, Fig. 16, draw any line as 6
X
13 x in X
equal in length to the seam length 6 X 13 x in diagram U. In this case, instead of
using the divisions in the semi-sections R in the side elevation as radius, use the
X X
divisions along the lower cut 6 to 6 of the pattern Y, which were previously taken
from R, and therefore are the same. Then with 6 6 X
in Y as radius and 6* in X as
X
center, draw the arc 6, which intersect by an arc struck from 1 as center and
13 x
6 in diagram U as radius. With 13 13' in the semi-section S or 13 13' in the
half pattern for piece IV as radius and 13 x in the pattern X as center, describe the
arc 13, which intersect by an arc struck from 6 as center, and 6 13 in diagram U as
radius. With radii equal to 13 7 and 13 8 in diagram U, and 13 in the pattern X
as center, describe the arcs 7 and 8. Set the dividers equal to the spaces 6 7 and
7 8 in Y and step from arc 6 to arc 7 to arc 8 in X. Now with 13' 12' in either
the semi-section S or the half pattern for piece IV as radius, and 13 in the pattern
X as center, describe the arc 12, which intersect by an arc struck from 8 as center
and 8“ 12 in diagram U as radius.
Proceed in this manner, using alternately, first the divisions along the lower
cut of pattern Y, then the proper slant line in diagram U, until the line 11 12 in pat-
tern X has been drawn. Then take as a radius, twice the distance of 12 12' in dia-
gram S in the side elevation, or the distance of P G in the plan, which is the same
and with 12 in X as center describe the arc 12', which intersect by an arc struck from
11 as center and 11 12' in diagram U as radius. Now proceed as before, using
alternately, first the divisions in the lower cut of the pattern Y, then the proper
slant line in diagram U ;
the divisions in the semi-section S or the half pattern for
piece IV, both divisions being similar, then again the proper slant line in diagram
U, until the line 6* 13 r in the pattern X has been obtained, which must be similar
to the seam line on the opposite end of the pattern.
A line traced through points thus obtained as shown from 6* to 6 to 11 to 11
to 6' to X r X
6 to 13* to 13' to 12' to 12 to 13 to 13 to 6 ,
will be the pattern for piece
III, Fig. 16, of the twisted elbow. Laps must be allowed on the pattern for seam-
ing purposes. In forming up pattern for piece III, Fig. 16, slight bends must be
made along 8 12 and 9' 13' as indicated on the pattern.
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 23 1

PATTERNS FOR TRANSITION PIECE INTERSECTING CONE

The following instructions are for the proper method of laying out the pat-
terns for a separator involving its intersection by a transition piece, changing from
round to a rhomboid, the sides of which run parallel to the top and sides of the

main funnel or cone.

Referring to the accompanying diagrams, Fig. 17, let A B represent the cen-
ter line of the funnel or cone and C D E F the elevation. At a point below the
elevation in its proper relative position with G on the center line as center, draw
the plan H J and L M, representing respectively the sections through C D and
E F of the elevation. In its proper position draw the rhomboid shown in eleva-
tion by 1 2 4 5. This represents the elevation of the transition piece where it

intersects the cone. Draw also the circle a c e g in its proper position, which
represents a section of the transition piece at the outer end indicated by c g in
plan.
The first step is to find the miter line showing the line of intersection between
the rhomboid and funnel in plan. To do this draw horizontal planes through 1 2
and 4 5 in elevation also establish another plane between 1 and 5, as shown by 3 6.
;

In practice, more planes must be employed to obtain an accurate pattern, but

only three planes are used in this case, to show the principles employed.
Extend the planes 2 1,36 and 4 5 until they intersect the side of the cone
C F at T 2', 3' 6' and 4' 5', from, which intersections vertical lines are drawn
to the plan intersecting the horizontal line i j drawn through the center, Gin
plan, as shown by similar numbers. Then using G as center, with radii equal to
Gl', 3' and 4', draw the circles shown, which represent the various planes in plan.
Now from the intersections 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 in the rhomboid in elevation, drop
perpendicular lines in the plan, intersecting similar numbered planes, as shown by
similar numbers, through which trace the miter line as shown. Establish at its

proper distance from the center line i j, the line c g, upon which obtain the inter-
sections, c, g, c, d, b a e, h j and g, by dropping perpendiculars from similar
lettered intersections in the circle in elevation, all as shown by the dotted lines.
Now connect the various points in the rhomboid and circle both in plan and
elevation as follows : Connect 1 and 2 to a ;
5 and 4 to e ; 5, 6 and 1 to C ; 4,
3 and 2 to g; h to 2; / to 4; b to 1, and d to 5.
Then will the lines in plan represent the base lines of triangles which will be
constructed in X, with altitudes equal to the various hights between similar num-
bers and letters in elevation. As 1, 2 and a in elevation lie in one plane, then
 a3 a Special Sheet Metal Layouts

will 1, 2 and a in plan show the true pattern for that part. As e in elevation lies
above the plane 5 •
4, establish another point between 5 and 4 as shown by 7, and
drop a perpendicular line in plan, intersecting the plane 4' 5' in plan at 7. Connect
FRONT ELEVATION

C A" o

Fig. 17. Complete Process for Obtaining Patterns of Transition Piece Intersecting a Cone

the point 7 to e, both in plan and elevation. From the various points in the circle
and rhomboid in elevation, draw horizontal lines to the right as shown, perpendic-
ular to which draw the line l m.
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts a 33

To obtain the various true lengths of the lines shown in plan, three examples
will be given. Thus, to obtain the true lengths of the lines e 5 and e 4 in ele->

vation, take the distances of e 5 and e 4 in plan and place them in X, measuring
from the line l m, as shown by 5 and 4 on the line drawn through 5 7 4 in eleva-
tion. From X draw lines to where the horizontal line drawn from e in
5 and 4 in
elevation intersects the line m at Then will e 4 and e 5 in X represent the
l e.

true length of e 4 and e 5 in plan or elevation.

Again to obtain the true length of 5 d in plan or elevation, take the length of
5 d in plan and place it as shown from m to 5' in X, and draw a line from 5' to d,

on the line l m, being the intersection where the horizontal line drawn through d
in elevation intersects l m. Then will d 5 be the true length of d 5 in plan or
elevation. In this manner all of the true lengths are obtained.
Before laying out the pattern for the transition piece, the opening in the fun-
nel or cone is first developed as follows : Extend C F of the cone until it inter-

sects the center line A B at N. Then using N as center and radii equal to N C,
N T, N 3', N and N F, draw arcs as shown. At pleasure draw any radial line
4'

as B G 1 1
N. Now measuring from the line B G in plan, step off along the arcs
to points 1 6 and
and place these distances along similar arcs in the pattern Y,
5,

measuring in each instance from the line B 1 G x thus obtaining the points 5 6 and ,

1 in the pattern.
Again measuring from the line B G in plan, step off along the various arcs to
points 2, 3, 4 and 7 and place them in Y, stepping off on similar numbered arcs,
measuring in each instance from the line B G and obtaining points 2,
1 1
, 3, 4 and 7.

Trace a line through points thus obtained, shown shaded, which will be the open-
ing to be cut into the cone pattern, and also furnishes part of the measurements
used when developing the transition pattern.
For the pattern for the transition piece proceed as follows: Draw any line
a 1 in W equal to a With a 2 in plan as radios, and a in
1 in plan. as center, W
draw the arc 2, which intersect by an arc struck from 1 as center and 1 2 in plan
as radius. Using G 1 or G 2 in plan as radius and 1 and 2 in as centers, draw W
arcs intersecting each other in n, which use as a center, and with similar radius,
describe the arc 1 2.
Thus it will be seen that 1 2 a in W is simply a reproduction of 1 2 a in plan,
because 12a lies in the same horizontal plane in elevation, and that the curve
1 2 in W will equal the curve 1 2 in Y. With a h in the circle in elevation
as radius, and a in W as center, draw the arc h, which intersect by an arc, struck

from 2 as center, with radius equal to 2 A in X as radius. Again using h g in the

 ^34 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

circle in elevation as radius, and h in W as center, describe the arc g, which inter-

sect by an arc, struck from 2 as center and 2 g in X as radius. Now with 2 3 in

the opening in cone Y as radius, and 2 in W as center, draw the arc 3, which inter-

sect by an arc struck from g as center and g 3 in X as radius. Again using 3 4 in

Y as radius and 3 in W as center, describe the arc 4, which intersect by an arc

struck from g as center and g 4 in X as radius.
Proceed in this manner, using alternately, first the divisions in the circle in
elevation, then the true lengths in X. The divisions in the pattern for opening
in Y, then again the proper true length in X, until the last line, a' 1 ' in W has been
obtained, similar to a 1. Thus the divisions in the pattern for the transition piece,
which are numbered, are obtained from the spaces in Y ;
while the divisions in W,
which are lettered, are obtained from the spaces in the circle in elevation, while
the true lengths in W are obtained from similar numbered and lettered lengths in X.
A line traced through points of intersections thus obtained in W, will be the

pattern for the transition piece, joining the opening in cone Y.

INTERSECTION OF HOPPER AND A PIECED ELBOW

This problem is : Given a flaring article, the base of which is elliptical and
the top round, intersecting a pieced elbow. Required to find the line of inter-

section and the patterns, the dimensions are : A three-pieced elbow 36 inches in
diameter, the throat of which was struck by an 18-inch radius, while the lower
side of the elbow is intersected by a hopper, the top of which is an ellipse 24 X 42
inches and the base a circle 22 inches in diameter. The hight of the hopper is to
be 30 inches, measuring from the lowest point of the elbow. In this case the
hopper is seen to cross one miter line of the elbow. Whether the number of

miter lines crossed be more than that shown, the principles governing the devel-
opments remain the same.
First draw the plan of the three-pieced elbow in the usual manner, as shown
in Fig. 18 by A B C D E F O H. At right angles to B C construct a part
elevation of the elbow, as shown by P R R' P', letting P R represent the top
line of the elbow. In the required position in the plan draw the elliptical base of
the hopper, 1 3 5 7, which represents a true section on the plane P R in ele-
vation. Also, in the plan draw the circle T 3' 5' 7', which represents the cir-

cular base, or end, of the hopper on a plane parallel to P R in elevation. As

1 1' in plan lies at right angles to B C, extend the line 1 T into the elevation,
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts a 35

and measuring from the line P R, make T X the required hight of the hopper,
and from X draw a line parallel to P R. Through the center of the plan of the

elbow draw the dotted line I J, which represents the highest point in the rounded
surface of the elbow. Tangent to the ellipse and circle draw the line 6 6', ex-
1
tending it until it intersects 1 ' at b. Divide the ellipse from 1 to 6 into any
desired number of spaces, as shown by 2, 3, 4 and 5, from which points draw
lines to the apex b ,
intersecting the opposite half of the ellipse at 7, 8, 9 and 10
and the circle at 1', 2', 3', 4', 5', 6', 7', 8', 9’ and 10'. Then will these lines
represent the planes of the various sections, which will be constructed to determine
how far in each the hopper will be extended beyond the elliptical base before
cutting into the elbow, all of which is necessary before any pattern can be
developed. Now, from the various points 1 to 10 on the ellipse in plan erect
lines at right angles to B C into the elevation, intersecting the line P R, respec-
tively, from 1 to 10. In similar manner from the various points of intersections
1
' to 10' in the circle in plan erect lines at right angles to B C, intersecting the
line X 5' in elevation, as shown from 1' to ,10'.

Parallel to E D in plan draw the line L M, and with K on the center line

I J extended, as center, describe the part section of the elbow, as shown by N,

a ,
O, being careful to have a' of the circle tangent to L M. The line L M will
therefore correspond with P R of the elevation, both lines representing the plane
of the elliptical base in their respective views. Now, to obtain the sections on the
1
various planes indicated in plan proceed as follows : Extend the line ' 1 in plan
until it intersects the center line I J of the elbow at a. From the intersections a
and 1 draw lines parallel to B C, until they intersect the miter line F C, from
which drop vertical lines on to the section N O, as shown by a' and Now, 1".

take the spaces between points and 1 plan and set them off on a horizon-
a, 1 ' in
1
tal line in the diagram S, as From 1 erect the perpendicular
shown by a 1 '. '

1' X, equal to the hight T X in elevation. From 1 in S draw the perpendicu-

lar line 1 1", equal to the distance measured from the line L M to 1" in section.

As the plane a 1' in plan lies at right angles to B C, draw from a in S the per-
pendicular a K, equal to the radius K m' in section. Then using K as center
and K a as radius, describe the arc a b, which will pass through 1", as shown.
Now, draw a line from X through 1 until it intersects the curve a 6 at 1°. As
the line a 1 ' in S is tangent to the highest point of the elbow, corresponding
with P R of the elevation, the plane of the ellipse, then will the distance from 1

to 1° show the amount that the line 1 in plan and elevation must be extended 1'

to meet the surface of the elbow in that section. To obtain this point of inter-
336 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

0
section in plan take the horizontal distance between points 1 and 1 in S and set
1
it off from 1 on the line ' 1 in plan, thus obtaining the point 1 °. To obtain
0
this point in elevation take the vertical distance between the points 1 and 1 in
S, and measuring from and perpendicular to the line P R in elevation, set it off
1
on the line ' 1 extended, thus obtaining the point of intersection 1
°.

Since the method of constructing the sections on the several plane lines before

mentioned is exactly the same in each case ( the difference in result being due
entirely to difference in the relative positions of the several points ) it will not be
necessary to describe each in detail. The method of obtaining the section on the
line 2 10' of the plan is clearly shown at V, at the left in Fig. 18, while that on the
line 3 9’ is shown above at U, and need not be described inasmuch as a full
description of the method of obtaining the section on the line 4 8' is considered
necessary. The reason for this is that the line 4 8' crosses the miter line F C of
the pieced elbow, and in that respect possesses a feature not a part of the sections
previously obtained. The section on this line should be first completed as though
no miter line existed and it was intersecting the piece B extended. CFG
Therefore extend the plane 8' 4 until it cuts G F extended at 0 and also ,

the bottom line E I) of the elbow at h., and from i extend a line parallel to G F,
intersecting 8 o at/'. The point i was assumed at convenience in developing the
section 3 9' simply to get an additional point in the curve a c b of the section U,
and shown at i' . It is used again in this section for a similar reason. From the
several points on 0 8 in plan draw lines parallel to G F until they cut the miter

line F C, from which intersections drop vertical lines, cutting the section N O at

m, i', e, d', 4"' and 8". Set off the divisions on 0 8' on the horizontal line in W,
as shown by 0 , /, 4, e, d, 4', 8 and 8'. From the points and 4' 8' erect the ver-
tical lines 4' X and 8' X equal in hight to T X in elevation. From the points
making 4' 4"',
0 , j, e, d, 4', 8 drop vertical lines 0 m', /, i' e e ,
and 8 8", equal

respectively to similar distances measured from the line L M to points m, i, e,

4"'

and 8" in section N O. As d in plan represents the highest point, then d in W

is in correct position in the section. Through the points m', i', e d' 4"', 8" draw

the curved line vi b, and draw lines X 4 and X 8 intersecting the arc m b at 4*
and 8°, respectively. Now take the horizontal distance between the points 4 and
4* and set it off on the proper plane line in plan, measuring from the point 4, thus
X from 2 through 3° X
locating the poi st 4 . Draw a curved line in plan and 4 ,
which
will cross the miter lin* F C at A°. From A° drop a line into the section N O,
intersecting it at A*. From A° in plan, at right angles to B C, erect a line into
6
the elevation intersecting R P at A, and from A set off the distance A A equal
 138 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

to the distance from Ax to the line L M

Then will A° in in the section N O.
0
elevation represent the position of the point A of the plan. The next step is to
find the intersection of the plane 8 4 with the portion of the elbow shown by
'

F E D C. Therefore, in addition to the spaces on the horizontal line in W, set

off from 0 the distance o h in plan, as shown. From 0 h and 4 drop vertical lines, ,

as shown, making h /<', 0 o', j 3 and 4 4” equal to distances measured from L in M

section to points h', o',f and 4" in N O. Through the points h', o', /'and 4"

draw the curve a d, which will intersect the line X 4 X at 4°. To obtain in plan

the position of points 4° and 8° take the horizontal distances between the points
4 4° and 8 8° in W and set them off in plan on the line 8' h, measuring respec-
tively from the points 4 and 8, thus locating the points 4° and 8°. For their posi-

tions in elevation take the vertical distances in W, between the points 4 and 4°
and 8 and 8°, and set them off respectively on the lines 4' 4 and 8' 8 extended in
elevation, measuring perpendicularly from the line P R, thus locating the points
4° and 8°.

For the section on the plane T 5 in plan, proceed as follows: From the
point 7, parallel to £ C, draw a line intersecting the miter line F C, from which
point, including the points 5 and /, drop vertical lines intersecting the section NO
at 7", f and 5. Now take distances between the points 5, /, 7,
5' and 7' in plan
and set them off on the horizontal line in Y, as shown by 5, /, 7,
5' and 7'. From
the points 5' and 7' erect the perpendiculars 5' X and 7' X, equal to T X in eleva-

tion, and from the points / and 7 in Y drop vertical lines, making/ /' and 7 7",
equal to the distances measured from the line L M to points /' and 7" in the sec-

tion N O. Through the points 5, /' and 7' draw the arc shown. Draw X 5 and
X 7, extending X 7 to intersect the arc 7°. Then will 5 X X 7° be the required

section on the line 5 7' of the plan. As point 5 is at the highest point of the

curve in the plan its position in the elevation will be on the line P R in elevation,

its position thereon being obtained by erecting from 5 in plan a line at right angles
to B C. Now take the horizontal distance between the points 7 and 7° in Y and
set it off on the line 7' 5 in plan measuring from the point 7, thus locating the
point 7°. In similar manner take the vertical distance between the points 7 and
7° in Y and set it off in elevation on tto% line T 7 extended, measuring from and
at right angles to the line P R, as shown by 7°.

As the plane 6' 6 in the plan crosses ftk miter line F C, it will again be
necessary to find at what point between (Nttld 7 the line of intersection between
the hopper and the pipe will cross the flrfter line F C. This point is shown by B°,
and is obtained as follows: First consider this plane as intersecting the continue-
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts *39

tion of the middle piece of the elbow B C. Extend the center line of the elbow,

also the lines drawn through 4' and 7, parallel to B C, until they intersect the
plane line 6' 6 at points t, r and u, and from their intersections with F C drop
lines to N O as before. Take the various divisions t, 6, r, u and 6' in plan and
set them off, as shown by t, 6, r, u and 6' on the horizontal line in Z. From
that point 6' erect the line 6' X, equal in hight to T X in elevation. From the
points r and u in Z drop vertical lines, making r r and u u, equal respectively
to similar distances measured from the line L M to points r and u in the
section NO. As t in plan represents the highest point of the elbow, then will
t in Z be the correct position in the section. Through the points t, r u draw
the curved line t b, and draw a line from X through 6, intersecting the arc t b at
X X
6 . Take the horizontal distance between the points 6 and 6 ,
and set it off in

plan on the line 6' 6, measuring from the point 6, thus locating the point 6 X as ,

X
shown. Draw a curve line through 7° and 6 ,
which will cross the miter line F C
at B°, the point desired. The full curve begins at point 1° and passes through
10°, 9°, 8°, etc., to 6 X
. From B° drop a line into the section N O, intersecting
x
it at B . From B° in the plan, at right angles to B C erect a line into the eleva-
tion, intersecting R P at B, then from B set off the distance B B°, equal to the
distance measured from the Then will B° in elevation
line L M to B x
in N O.
represent the position of the point B° on the miter line. The next step is to find
the intersection of the plane 6 6 in plan with that part of the elbow shown by F E
D C. Therefore extend the line 6' 6 in the plan until it intersects E D at s.

From s drop a vertical line into the section intersecting N O at s. Set off the dis-
tance t s in plan on 6' t, extended as shown at s in Z. From s and 6 drop vertical

lines,making s s' and 6 6 ",

equal to distances measured from the line L M to
points 8 and 6” in the section N O. Through the points s' and 6" in Z draw the
curve a c, which will intersect the line X 6, extended at 6° To obtain this point
in plan take the horizontal distance between the points 6 and 6° and set it off in

plan on the line 6' 6, measuring from the point 6, as shown. For the same point
in elevation, take the vertical distance between the points 6 and 6° in Z and set it

off on the line 6' 6 extended, measuring from and perpendicular to the line P R
in elevation, thus locating the point 6° in the view. The full curve in the plan
above referred to may then be extended through 6® to 5 and on through 4° to A®.
That portion of it shown dotted. This line is also
lying beyond the hopper is

similarly traced in the elevation, as shown. Then will this line represent the in-
tersection of the hopper with the elbows in plan, and the true distances between
the points, to be subsequently obtained, will form the bases of the triangles, which
 2^0 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

must be constructed in developing the pattern of the hopper by the usual opera-
tions of triangulation. It is evident that these distances cannot be measured on
the plan, because of the curved section of the pieces composing the elbows. The
simplest method of obtaining the correct distances between the several points in
the line of intersection is by developing the patterns for the several portions of the

elbow. For this purpose Fig. 19 is therefore presented, in which A B C D E F

G H and the various points of intersection 1°, 2°, 3°, A°, 4°, 5°, 6°, B°, 7°, 8°
9° and 10°, also the points of intersections on the circle 1 to 10', are reproduc-
'

tions of parts bearing similar letters and figures in Fig. 18. For the pattern for
one-half of the lower piece of the elbow proceed as follows : Draw its half section
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 241

W on the line E D, as shown by E 5 D, and from the various points of intersec-

tions A°, 4°, 5°, 6° and B° drop lines intersecting W, as shown. Establish at
pleasure the points a, d and c, and from them erect lines cutting the miter line F
C, as shown. Extend E D, as shown, by J K, upon which place the stretchout
of W, using the spaces contained therein, as shown, and from the several points
erect lines at right angles to J K, which intersect by lines drawn at right angles to

C D from points of similar number in plan. Trace a line through points thus ob-
tained, then will b b' A' 5' B' e' e be the pattern for the half of the lower part of
the elbow, to intersect with a portion of the hopper. Thus the various distances
between point A ,
4', 5', G' and B’ are the true distances between similarly num-
bered points in plan. For the pattern for the center part of the elbow, draw the
half section X in line with the center part, as shown, and from the various points
on the miter line F G and the points 7°, 8°, 9°, 10°, 1°, 2° and 3° draw lines
parallel to B C, intersecting the half section X, as shown. At right angles to B C
draw any line, as L M, upon which place the stretchout of all of the spaces con-

tained in the half section X, as shown by similar letters and figures, and through
the points thus obtained draw lines at right angles to L M, which intersect with
lines drawn at right angles to B C from points of similar number in plan. Trace
a line through points thus obtained, as shown by b ", A ", 10”, IV" and e", which
will represent the miter cut to join the lower piece and also the opening to be cut
into same to admit the remaining portion of the hopper. Thus the various distances
between the points A ", 3 ", 2", 1", 10", 9", 8", 7" and B" are the true distances
between similar numbered points in plan.
The method of triangulating the body of the shown by the dotted
hopper is

lines connecting points of similar number in the two bases and the dotted lines
drawn between. The altitudes of the triangles must be obtained from the eleva-
tion in Fig. 18, as shown in the diagram Y of Fig. 19, showing one pair of
triangles, which may be identified by the reference letters and figures. With the
several points in the elliptical base of the hopper determined, those of the circular
base given and the method of obtaining the hypotenuses of the triangles indicated,
those who are familar with the usual operations of triangulation will find no diffi-

culty in developing the pattern.

PATTERNS FOR BRANCH INTERSECTING SIDE OF ELBOW

A problem was submitted involving a connection, as shown in Fig. 20, in
which A B in the end view represents a branch pipe intersecting the side of a
242 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

five-pieced elbow, as shown in the side view by C, the branch having the same
diameter as the elbow.
In this connection it may be proper to say that the miter line a b c in the
end view in sketch does not represent

A the true line of intersection between

the branch and elbow ;
and as this

intersecting line is not necessary in the

development of the patterns, the
method of projecting this miter line
END VIEW will be omitted in the drawings, which
Fig. 20 . Sketch of Submitted Problem are given in Fig. 21, as all that is

required is the side elevation of the elbow.

Let C D E F represent the side elevation of the five-pieced elbow, and A
the section of the elbow on the line E F. Divide A into any convenient number
of spaces, in this case from 1 to 7 to 1. Through these points erect vertical lines
until they intersect the first miter line as shown. From these intersections,
parallel to the sides of the lower piece S, draw lines to the second miter line, from
which points, parallel to the sides of piece B, lines are drawn to the third miter
line and continued in manner until the line C D has been intersected.
this

As the branch is to come directly over the middle piece of the elbow, draw a
center line through the middle piece B as shown by 1 7, and where it crosses the
center line 4 4 at X becomes the center point with which to strike the profile of
the branch B. This profile will intersect the various lines at points numbered 1

to 7 on both sides as shown. Where the profile B crosses the miter line at a,
establish another line in elevation as well as in plan as shown in both views by the
letter a.

Establish at pleasure the length of the branch 1 H and 7 J. Extend H J

as H K and obtain the pattern for the branch as follows : Take the stretchout of
the profile of the branch B in elevation from 1 to 7 to 1, including the point a,

being careful to measure each space separately, as they are all unequal, and place
it as shown by similar letters dnd figures on J K. From these points erect per-
pendiculars to J K and intersect them by horizontal lines drawn parallel to H K
from similar numbered and lettered intersections on the lower half of the profile A.
Trace a line through points thus obtained, then will 1 c d e 1 be the full pattern
for the branch B, with seam at 1 in side elevation.
As the branch comes directly in the center of the three pieces of the elbow,
then the pattern for the lower piece 8 will also answer for the upper piece S. At
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts * 43
right angles to the side of the lower piece S draw the line N P, upon which place
the girth of the profile A, including the point a between 5 and C>, as shown by
similar numbers on N P. Through these points, at right angles to N P, draw
perpendiculars, which intersect by lines drawn parallel to N P from the various
intersections on the miter line T R at the bottom and U 2 a V at the top. A
line traced through points thus obtained, as shown by m , n, o, r, s, t, u, will be
the pattern for the pieces marked S in elevation.

Fig. 21. Elevation, Sections and Patterns for Branch Intersecting Side of Elbow

For the pattern for the middle piece it will only be necessary to take the girth
from 2 °
to 1 to 7 to a in the profile A
and place it on the line L M, drawn at
right angles to the middle piece of the elbow in elevation. Through the various
points on L M draw perpendiculars which intersect by lines drawn parallel to L M
from the various intersections on the miter lines 2 U V a and 2 Y a. A W
line traced through points thus obtained, as shown by 1, g, f, 7, h, i, will be the
 *44 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

pattern for the middle piece. Laps must he allowed on the elbow pieces for seam-
ing and on the branch for riveting.

PATTERNS FOR ELBOW MITERING AGAINST SOFFIT OF

WINDING CHUTE
The following is a method of developing the patterns for an elbow mitering
against the soffit of a winding chute. The drawings show a plan and elevation
representing each of the four sides of the article in question, a portion of which are
reproduced in Fig. 22 of the accompanying diagrams, while Fig. 23 is a perspective
of the article in question. The rear and one of the side elevations are omitted in
Fig. 22, for the reason that they show nothing not, given in the other views.
The elevations being projected from the plan necessarily have their tops
s - 6 \ 0 -- --- turned toward the same,
but as the side view is

in this case the one

most useful in obtain-
ing the patterns, the
drawings are turned on
the page so that this
view occupies an erect
position.

Fig. 23. Perspective View of Article

Fig. 22. Sketch to Give an Idea of Problem Shown in Fig. 22

The drawing of Fig. 22 is not correct and as the operation of projecting cor-
rectly the several elevations from the plan and one given elevation is of prime
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts *45

importance in the solution of many problems, the method by which the several
elevations may be made to correspond in every particular is briefly given. If the
curve A B of the side elevation in Fig. 22 is accepted as correct, it must first

be divided into convenient spaces and lines from the several points of divisions
dropped vertically upon the corresponding line A B 1 1
of the plan. If a front ele-
vation is desired, lines must now be carried from the several points on A B
1 1
toward
the front of the plan indefinitely —that is, at right angles to the first set of lines
drawn —upon which the hights of the several points on A B must be set off from
any horizontal line, as the line of the top. A line traced through the points thus
obtained in the front elevation will then exactly correspond with A B of the side
elevation. The line obtained by the foregoing process from A B would be very
much different from the line A* B* already drawn in front elevation, as will pres-
ently be shown.
While only one view, when corrected, is necessary in obtaining the pattern,
the above operation will greatly assist in completing the design, from the fact that
neither elevation will in the present case present such outlines as will be apparent
to the eye in the finished article. For instance, any
point, as a, be assumed
if

upon the inner curve of the plan somewhere near the 18 X 18 inch opening and
lines be projected therefrom in both the elevations, as shown dotted in Fig. 22, it
will be discovered that the intersection with A B of the side elevation at a is much
nearer the top line or point b than is the intersection a" of the front elevation as
drawn, the difference being there shown by a' a". This is because the sides of
that portion of the chute near the 18-inch opening are very oblique to the plane of
the side view, and therefore do not present the outlines of the soffit as they really
are; in other words, the point a is much further back of A than it appears, while
those portions of the curve nearer the larger 6-foot opening are more correctly
shown in the side view, and for the same reason would, if correctly drawn, be cor-
respondingly distorted in the front view. then becomes apparent that the outline
It

in one or the other, or perhaps in both views, is wrong, and that as a matter either
of design or of utility, as the case may
view from which the patterns are to
be, the

be obtained, in this case the side view, should be so corrected as to produce the
desired result. That is, if a line drawn through points A® and a of the front ele-
vation ( not shown ) be considered as having the proper pitch or slant, then the line
from A to B, passing through a' of side elevation, may be assumed as correct;
but if such pitch, when shown in the front view, be not deemed sufficient, then a
point somewhere below a' of the elevations, as c or a ", must be assumed and the
curve A B so drawn as to pass through it.
246 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

To assist the reader in forming a correct idea of the figure under consideration
Fig. 23 shows a perspective view of the same as it would appear if made approxi-
mately from the plan and side elevation shown in Fig. 22, from which the inclination
of the soffit at all parts of its course may be seen.
Before the operations of the pattern development can be begun one other
matter must be determined — viz. ,
the exact nature of the soffit or curved surface
forming the bottom (and in its lower part the back) of the chute. This surface, as
shown in plan by A B D C
1 1 1
and in the side elevation by A B C, is similar to the

soffit of an arch in a circular wall.

In the treatment of
this surface, in view of subsequent operations, the pattern cutter, as in many other
instances, is called upon to choose between the method which adheres strictly to the
drawings as given him, and thereby leads him into intricate complications, and a
course which is very much simpler and more practicable, though not following out
the design to the letter. Since it is against this surface that the elbow, partially
outlined in Fig. 22, is required to miter, and since the pattern for such a surface
can only be developed by triangulation, it will be seen that the several triangles

into which its surface is divided by the operation of obtaining its patterns are all

small planes, each slanting at a different angle, and that to obtain with accuracy the
intersections of the different pieces of the elbow with the several triangular planes
which may lie in the path or course of each would involve much labor. There is

no limit to the intersections which it is possible to obtain if necessary, so long as

the surfaces or figures involved and their relative positions can be geometrically
defined. Such operations would no doubt be more interesting and instructive than
practicable. In view, then, of the above mentioned conditions, so far as obtaining
the patterns is concerned, the intersection of the elbow can be greatly simplified by
considering the soffit as a portion of a somewhat cylindrical surface, having a profile
A B of the side view, Fig. 22, thus doing away with the line C B. At all
events, if a single line be used from B to a point above where the 10-inch elbow
enters, the further outline may
then be allowed to deviate to the point C, as shown
in Fig. 25, if it is desirable to adhere to the original character of the design as given

in the side view of Fig. 22. This arrangement reduces the intersection of the
elbow with the curved soffit, shown in detail in Fig. 26, to a problem in miter cut-
ting so simple as to scarcely require demonstration ;
and if, as above mentioned, the
single line A B be adopted as the profile of the soffit, the same may be said of the
remainder of the work.
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts *47

The method of obtaining the pattern of the soffit upon this supposition is shown
upon the plan of Fig. 24. Since that portion of the pattern corresponding to C A
of the profile, which is horizontal, must be the same as shown in the plan, the
remaining portion of the profile A B is divided into any convenient number of

equal spaces, as shown by the figures 1 to 7 at the right, and a stretchout of the

same, beginning at A 1
,
is set off on C 1
A 1
of the plan, extended as shown by A 1
E.
Lines from the several points on A B are then carried upward to intersect with the

outlines of the sides A B 1 1

and C 1
D of the plan, from which points of intersection
lines are carried into the measuring lines of corresponding number of the stretch-
out in the usual manner. Then will A 1
B® D* C 1
be the pattern of a soffit of which
C A B is the profile. That portion of the pattern corresponding to C A of the

profile, being horizontal, is obviously the same as C 1

A 1
c of the plan itself, to
which the remaining portion corresponding to A B of the profile, is added, as above
described. The intersections are not numbered on the sides of the plan to avoid
confusion with another set of numbers on each, which will be used in obtaining the
patterns of the sides.
If, however, it is desirable, as before described, to adopt the line C B as drawn
in Fig. 25 as the further outline of the soffit, the pattern must be obtained by tri-
 248 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

angulation. As its sides must correspond in length, respectively, with the lower

edges of the two side pieces of the chute, it will be most convenient to develop the
patterns for the side pieces first.

Therefore divide A F 1
of Fig. 24, the plan of the inner side, into any con-
venient number of equal spaces, as shown by the small figures 1 to 8, and set off a
stretchout of the same on the top line of the elevation, extended as shown by M
N, and draw the usual measuring lines. From the several points on A F drop
1

lines, cutting the line A B of the side, as shown by the small figures on the left of

A B, and from the several points of intersection carry lines horizontally, cutting
measuring lines of corresponding numbers, and trace a line through the several
intersections as shown by P Q R. Then will P Q R N M be the pattern for the
inner side. It will be noted that a line from point B of the side must be projected
onto the plan, where it is designated as 6. It must then be correspondingly located
on M N, so as to determine the position of point Q of the pattern. The pattern
for the outer side is obtained in exactly the same manner by dividing its profile or
plan C G
1
into spaces, which are set off on the line S T for a stretchout. Lines
from the points on C G1
are then dropped into the line G B of the side view and

are carried thence into the measuring lines, all as shown at the left in Fig. 24.

The line CAB may be used instead of C B if the mitered pattern above obtained
is to be used.

The triangulation of the soffit piece is shown in Fig. 25, but the pattern as

obtained therefrom is shown in the upper part of Fig. 24 at the left. Since from
the nature of the design there is no view in which the full length of its sides can

be given, any method of dividing them into spaces may be adopted which is most
convenient. The line A B of Fig. 25 is therefore first divided by the points j, i,

h and g into equal spaces down to the point g, which corresponds with the point
4 of the first division of A B, Fig. 24, used in obtaining the first or mitered pattern
of soffit, and which also represents the point of deviation between the line of the

inner side B A of the soffit and that of the outer side B C. On account of the
coincidence of the two lines from B up to this point it is evident that the two
patterns must be alike for the Bame distance, therefore in beginning the triangu-

lated pattern first transfer a duplicate of that portion of the mitered pattern from
the measuring line 4 of the stretchout A E of Fig. 24
1
to the end B* D 8
to any
convenient position, as shown by f g B D at the left.
8 8

Now erect lines from points in A B of Fig. 25 to cut line A B1 8

of plan,
after which it will appear that a very long space occurs from A 1
to point j of the
 ,

Special Sheet Metal Layouts *49

plan. This space may be further divided by points k and l, and lines from these
points of division carried back to the side view and correspondingly lettered, as
shown. From the several points g to l of the side view carry lines horizontally
across, cutting the outer line 0 B at points a to /, and from these points erect

lines, cutting the outer line of the plan C 1

D 1
,
as shown by corresponding letters.

Connect points on the inner with those on the outer line of the plan with solid
lines corresponding with those just drawn across the side view, as / g, e h, etc.,

and divide the spaces so obtained by means of dotted lines drawn through the
shorter diagonal of each, as e g, <1 h, etc. In determin-
ing the true lengths of the sides of the several triangles
into which the plan of the soffit has thus been divided
it will be seen that the lengths of the solid lines and of
the dotted line C 1
l may be taken directly from the plan
as given, because they represent the horizontal lines

Fig. 25 Fig. 26

Process for Obtaining Patterns of Elbow

of the side view, but that the true length of the dotted lines must be obtained by
constructing a diagram of triangles, as shown below in Fig. 25. Therefore, from

each of the various points g, h, i, etc. ,

on the line A B draw a horizontal line to a
point directly below the next higher point on the line C B, from which drop a per-
pendicular. Then will the several perpendiculars g' e, h' d etc., be the altitudes of
the right angled triangles of the diagram, of which the dotted lines will be the bases.
In constructing the diagram of triangles the several hights X a, X b, X c, etc.

are made equal to k' a, j' b,i c, etc., of the- side elevation, while the bases XI, X j,

X i are made equal to the dotted lines a k, b j, c i, etc., of the plan. The
250 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

several hypotenuses a k, b j, c i, etc., of the diagram will then be the true

lengths of the dotted lines of corresponding letters in the plan.
In order to find the true lengths of the spaces a b, b c, etc., of the outer side
and 1 k, k i, etc., of the inner side it will be necessary to find points exactly cor-

responding to them on the outlines or miters, U V and P Q of the patterns of

the side pieces previously obtained in Fig. 24. Therefore from the points 1, 2, 3
and 4 numbered on the right of A B of Fig. 24, which correspond exactly
as
with points j, i, h and of A B, Fig. 25, project lines in either direction, cut-
<7

ting the lines U V and P Q of the patterns, as shown, and lettered to correspond
respectively with the points on C B and A B of Fig. 25. Then will the spaces

g h, h i, etc. ,
and / e, e d, etc. ,
be the correct lengths of the spaces bearing corre-
sponding letters of the plan, Fig. 25.

To complete the pattern as shown in the upper left hand corner of Fig. 24, of

which the portion g f D B

3 8
has already been obtained as described above, take
first the distance e / of the pattern of side just below, and from / of pattern as center
describe a small arc near e, which intersect with another arc the center of which is

g of the pattern and the radius of which is g e of the diagram of triangles in Fig. 25,
thus locating the point e. In the same manner, with radii respectively equal to the
spaces g n of the pattern of the inner side and e n of the plan in Fig. 25, describe

arcs intersecting at h. So continue, using the spaces upon the pattern of the outer
side piece for distances on the outer side of the pattern and those from the pattern
of inside piece for distances on inner side of pattern ;
also lengths from plan in
Fig. 25, for distances on the solid lines across the pattern and lengths from the
hypotenuses of the diagram of triangles for distances on the dotted lines of the
pattern, all as shown. Having carefully followed the foregoing instructions, lines

traced through the intersections of arcs, as shown by A 8

g and CB /, will complete
the pattern. That portion of the curve from C 3
to a of the pattern may be trans-
ferred from the corresponding arc of the plan, since the surface of the soffit at that

part is practically horizontal and therefore correctly shown in the plan, a fortunate
saving of tedious triangulating.
The intersection of the elbow with the cylindrical surface at B
g of Fig. 25 is
shown somewhat enlarged in Fig. 26. The elbow, as if completed, is there drawn
in five pieces, but any number of pieces desired can be used. As will be seen,
piece 1 is entirely e liminated by the intersection, while pieces 2, 3 and 4 miter
against the surface of the soffit. The operation of developing the pattern of piece
3 is first shown as though it were an entire piece. The intersections of the miter
line A B with pieces 2 and 4 have been transferred to corresponding points on
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts a5 i

piece 3, as shown at a 6 and c d, so that the operation of developing the patterns for the
three pieces is performed at once, a half pattern of all the pieces being shown, from
which the full pattern for each piece may be traced, making the joint either at the
throat or at the back, as described. As should be readily understood, these operations
can be performed while transferring the patterns to the sheet metal. The stretchout
is obtained from a profile of the elbow placed in line with piece 3 of the elevation,
and the subsequent operations are so fully shown in Fig. 26 as to require no further
demonstration.
The length of the opening in A B to receive the elbow is equal to e f and
its stretchout may be taken from the points of intersection on A B for piece 3,

to which is added above that of a b for piece 4 and below that of c d for piece 2.

The width of the opening, at the several points is equal to that of the profile on lines
of corresponding number. Naturally, said opening would be drawn in its correct
position on the pattern for the soffit of the chute.

PATTERNS FOR INTERSECTION BETWEEN CYLINDER

AND TRANSITION PIECE
The following deals with the method of obtaining the patterns for the intersec-

tion between a cylinder and transition piece, as is shown in Fig. 27. A B C D

E F in Fig. 28 represents the front elevation, and G H I J the section in plan

on the line F C in elevation and K L M N in plan the horizontal projection of

the section on the line E D in elevation.

Through the center O in plan draw the two diameters G I and H J at right
angles to each other. Draw the lines of transition
N to J to M to I to L to H to K to G to N. From the
front elevation construct one-half of the side elevation
as follows: Draw the center line B G 1 1

,
as shown, and
take a tracing of the half plan GN M I O J and place
it, as shown, opposite the center line B G by G N
1 1 1 1

M 1
l
1
O 1
J 1 placing the line
,
G 1
I
1
on the center line
B G 1 1
,
as shown. From the points F, D and E in front
elevation project lines to the left. Extend the line N 1
M 1
in plan, intersecting the lines drawn from E and D

Pig. perspective View of

27.
at N * and M *> respectively. From J 1
in plan parallel
Cylinders and Transition Piece draw a
t ^ e center line line intersecting the line
drawn from F at 6. Extend 6 A 1
and draw lines from 6 to M* to N 8
to 6. Then
will A B E N8 M
1 1 1 8
6 A 1
be the pne-half side elevation. The reader should
 .

Special Sheet Metal Layouts *53

understand that the point N* is the lowest point of the transition piece and is rep-
resented in plan by N while 1
,
M 2
in elevation is the highest point and is represented
in plan by M l
.

The first step is to obtain the radial lines in both plan and elevation of the

partial scalene cones. Divide the two quarter circles I

1 1
J and J 1
G 1
in plan both
into the same number of equal parts, as shown by the small figures 6, 7, 8 and 9
on both sides. From these points draw radial lines toward the apexes N 1
and 1 M ,

respectively. Parallel to the center line B G and

1 l
from 6, 7, 8 and 9 erect lines
intersecting 6 9 in side elevation at 6, 7, 8 and 9. From these figures draw radial
lines to the apex M 2
,
and from similar figures to the apex N 2
.

From any desired point, as 6 in the side elevation, at its proper angle, draw
the center line of the branch pipe, as With Z as center describe shown by 6 1.

the profile P. Then through Z at right angles to 1 6 draw the diameter 3 3'.
Divide the profile Pinto any number of equal parts, as shown by 1 2 3 4 5 4' 3' 2'.
Parallel to 3 3' draw at pleasure the line U V.
It will be noticed that the upper part of the pipe from X 3
to X 4
,
points which
will be established later, intersects the vertical round pipe, while the lower part of
the inclined pipe, X 8
3 X 4
,
intersects the transition piece. Before obtaining the
intersection or miter line between part of the inclined pipe and the transition piece
horizontal sections must be obtained in plan. Assume that the inclined pipe will
not cut any deeper than to the radial lines 8 N 2
and 8 M 2
in side elevation. Then at
right angles to U V and from the small figures in the profile P draw lines intersecting
the radial lines 6, 7 and 8 in 6 9 M 2
and 6, 7 and 8 in 6 9 N 2
,
as shown by R, S
and T. Thus the lines drawn from 1 5, 2 4 and 3 in the profile P intersect the
radial lines in 6 M 2
8 at 6, a, b; c, d, e; and/, h ,
i, respectively, while similar lines
intersect the radial lines in 6 N 2
8 at 6, j, k; l, m, S; and n, o, T, respectively.

From the intersections 6, c, / on the radial line 6 M 2

in side elevation drop lines
intersecting the radial line 6 M 1
in plan at 6, c and/', respectively. Then from
the intersections a, d and h on the radial line 7 M 2
in elevation drop lines inter-
secting the radial line 7 M 1
in plan at a' d\ and h . Finally from the intersec-
tions b ,
e and i on the radial line 8 M* in elevation drop lines intersecting the
radial line 8 M 1
in plan at b', e' and i' From the intersections 6, l and n on the
radial line 6N* in elevation drop lines intersecting the radial line 6 N in plan at 1

6, V and ri. Then from the intersections /, m and o on the radial line 7 N* in
elevation drop lines intersecting the radial line 7 N 1 in plan at /, m' and o'.
Finally from the intersections R, S and T on the radial line 8 N* in elevation
drop lines intersecting the radial line 8 N 1
in plan at R\ S and T l 1
.
 254 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

Now through the points of intersections i\ k', /', n, o' and T 1 draw the section
line T T2 which will
1
,
represent the horizontal section on the line /T in elevation.
In similar manner in plan through the intersections e ,
d', c f, m and S draw the
1

l 2
section line S S ,
which will represent the horizontal section on the line c S in

elevation. Finally, through the intersections in plan b' t a, 6, j and k' draw the
section line R R
1 2
,
which represents the horizontal section on 6 R in elevation.

In the desired position in plan next draw the center line of the inclined pipe,

as shown by J 1
3". With any point as Z 1
,
as center, describe a duplicate of the pro-

file P in elevation, as shown by P 1

. Divide the profile P 1
into the same number of

spaces as the profile P. As the points 3' and 3 in the profile P represent the top and
bottom of the inclined pipe respectively, then must the points 3 and 3” in the profile
P be placed in the position shown, so that if the circle was turned on the line 1 5 the
1

points 3 and 3" will represent the top and bottom respectively of the inclined pipe
in plan.
Parallel to 3" 3 in plan P draw
1
and from the small figures in the profile lines

intersecting similar section lines in plan, as follows: As the point 3 in the profile
P in elevation cuts the section line T, then must the point 3 in the profile P in1

plan intersect the section line T T21

,
as shown by 3*. Then as the points 2 and 4
in the profile P in elevation intersect the section line S, then must the points
2 and 4 in the profile P 1
in plan intersect the section line S 1
S 2 as shown by 2 X
,

X
and 4 . Finally, as the points 1 and 5 in elevation intersect the section line R,

then must the points 1 and 5 in the profile P 1

in plan intersect the section line

R R 1 2
in plan, as shown by l
x
and 5 X
.

It will now be necessary to find the point of intersection between the inclined
pipe in elevation and the joint line 6 9 of the transition piece. Therefore, at
right angles to 1 5 in plan and from points 2", 3 4" and 5 draw lines inter-
1, ",

secting the semicircle l

1
J 1
G* at 1°, 2°, 3°, 4° and 5°, respectively. From
these intersections and parallel to the center line erect lines intersecting lines hav-
ing similar numbers drawn from the points 1, 2', 3', 4’ and 5 in elevation in pro-

file P at right angles to 3 3', thus obtaining the intersections 3 " 2"', 4"' and
1"' 5'”. Trace a line through points thus obtained, as shown from 1'" to 3'”,

intersecting the joint line 6 9 at X. From X at right angles to UV draw a line

intersecting the profile P at X 3

and X 4
. Now, from X at right angles to 6 9

drop a line intersecting the half circle in plan at X 1

and X 2
. From these two
points at right angles to the center line draw lines intersecting the profile P 1
at
N 6
and X®, which will give the same location as similar points in the profile P.
Through the points in plan X 1 5 1 4 X 3 X 2 X l x and X* draw the miter line. , , , ,
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts *55

The next step is to obtain the miter line in elevation between the inclined
pipe and transition piece. To avoid a confusion of lines, which would otherwise
occur, a tracing is made in Fig. 29 of the plan and elevation in Fig. 28. In Fig.
29, from the various points of intersections in the miter line in plan, X 1
3* X 2
,

erect lines parallel to the center line, intersecting lines drawn from similar numbers
in the profile P at right angles to U V, thus obtaining the points X, 1, 2, 3, 4
and 5 in elevation. Trace a line through points thus obtained; then will 3' X
3 X 3' be the miter line between the inclined pipe, the transition piece and the
main pipe.
For the pattern for the inclined pipe proceed as follows: On the line V U
extended, as U D, place the stretchout of the profile P, introducing the extra
points X and X, as shown. At right angles to D U and from X and X and the
small figures draw lines, which intersect with lines drawn from points having
similar numbers in the miter line 3 X3 parallel to U V. A line traced through
points thus obtained, shown by T L H F W K, will be the pattern for the cylin-
der branch, with the seam at V 3' in elevation.
For the pattern for the opening, to be cut into the main pipe ABCX 3' to

receive part of the branch pipe, draw at right angles to the center line any line, as

A B 1 1
,
upon which place the stretchout of that portion of the plan in Fig. 28 which
is intersected from points in the profile P 1
,
as shown by X a 2° 3° 4° X 1
. These are
shown by similar figures on A B 1 1
in Fig. 29. At right angles to A B 1 1
and from
the small figures draw lines, which intersect with lines drawn from points having
similar figures in 3' X in elevation at right angles to the center line. A line

traced through these points, as shown by C 1

D E
1 1
,
will be the required cut.

Only one-half of the pattern for the transition piece will be developed, as both
halves are symmetrical, but diagrams of triangles must first be constructed as fol-

lows: In Fig. 30 draw any horizontal line, as & A, upon which place the various
lengths M 9, M 8, M 7 and M 6 in plan in Fig. 29 as shown by & 9, & 8, 7 & and
6 <fc on &A in Fig 30. At right angles to &A erect & M, equal to & C in eleva-
tion in Fig. 29. Then from the points 6 9 and 7 8 draw lines to M in Fig. 30,
which will represent the true lengths on similar lines in plan in Fig. 29.
In similar manner draw any horizontal line, as E A in Fig. 31, upon which
place the various lengths N 6, N 7, N 8 and N 9 in plan in Fig. 29, as shown by
E 6, E 7, E 8 and E 9 on E A in Fig. 31. At right angles to E A draw E N,
equal to E C in elevation in Fig. 29. Then from 6, 7, 8 and 9 in Fig. 31 draw
lines to N, which will represent the true lengths on similar lines in plan in
Fig. 29.
*5 6 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

LINE

CENTER
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts *57

For the pattern for the transition piece draw in Fig. 32 horizontal line N M,
equal to E D in front elevation in Fig. 28; then using M 6 in Fig. 30 as radius
and M in Fig. 32 as center describe the arc 6, which intersect by an arc struck
from N as center and N 6 in Fig. 31 as radius. Draw a line from N to 6 to M
in Fig. 32. Now, with N as center and radii equal to N 7, N 8 and N 9 in Fig.
31, describe the arcs N 7, N 8 and N 9 in Fig. 32. Now set the dividers equal

to the spaces into which the half plan I J G in Fig. 29 is divided, and, starting
from 6 in Fig. 32, step from one arc to another, thus obtaining the intersections
7, 8 and 9. Draw a line from 9 to N. Now, with 9 as center and E F in the
front elevation in Fig. 28 as radius, describe the arc S in Fig. 32, which intersect
by an arc struck from N as center and N S in plan in Fig. 29 as radius. Draw
a line from 9 to S to N in Fig. 32 and trace a line from 9 to 6. With radii

equal to M 7, M 8 and M 6-9 in Fig. 30 and M in Fig. 32 as center describe

the arcs 7', 8' and 9'. Set the dividers equal to one of the spaces in the half plan
I J G in Fig. 29, and, starting from the point 6 in Fig. 32, step from one arc to
another, thus obtaining the points 7', 8' and 9. Draw a line from 9' to M. Now,
with M R in plan in Fig. 29 as radius and M in Fig. 32 as center, describe the arc R,
which intersect by an arc struck from 9' as center and C D in front elevation in
Fig. 28 as radius. Draw a line from M to R to 9' in Fig. 32 and trace a line from
9' to 6. Then will 9 6 9' R M N S be the half pattern for the transition piece.

For the pattern for the opening to be cut into the transition piece proceed as
follows: As the point of intersection 5* in the miter line in plan in Fig. 29 inter-
sects the radial line 7 M, then take the distance from M to 5 1
and place it in

Fig. 30 on the line & A from & to 5 X

. From 5* erect a perpendicular line inter-

secting the slant line M 7 at 5. Take the distance from M to 5 and place it on
the line M 7' in Fig. 32 from M to 5, as shown. Now through the points of
x X
intersections in the miter line in plan in Fig. 29, l and 2 ,
draw lines to the apex
N, extending them until they intersect the half circle at X 8
and Y, respectively.

Take the distances of N X 2 and N Y and place them on the line E A in Fig 31
from E to X 8 and E to Y, respectively, and draw lines from X* to N and Y to
N, which will represent the true distances on similar lines in plan in Fig. 29. Now
take the distances from N to l
x
and N to 2
X
and place them from E to l
1
and 2 X ,

x X
respectively, in Fig. 31. From l and 2 erect perpendicular lines intersecting

the hypotenuses X N s
and Y N at points 1 and 2, respectively, as shown. Take
the distance from 6 to Y and 7 to X 8
in plan in Fig. 29 and place it, as shown,
from 6 to Y and 7 to X respectively,
8
,
in pattern in Fig. 32. From the points Y
and X* draw lines toward the apex N. Then with N 1 and N 2 in Fig. 31 as
358 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

radii and N in Fig. 32 as center intersect the radial lines X N

2
and Y N at 1 and
X
2, respectively. Through the intersections 3 and 4* in the miter lines in plan in

Fig. 29 draw lines to the point 6, extending them and intersecting the line M N
at points 11 and 10, respectively. Take the distances from N to 11 to 10 to M

and place them in the plan in Fig. 28, as shown from N to 11 to 10 to M. At

right angles to N M draw the lines 11 11" and 10 10",
intersecting F C and E D
in front elevation at 11" 10” and 11' 10', respectively.

It will now be necessary to construct an extra set of triangles on 10 6 and

11 6 in plan in Fig. 29. In Fig. 33 draw any horizontal line, as A B, upon
which place the lengths of 6 10 and 6 11 in plan in Fig. 29, as shown by 10 10'
and 11 IT, respectively, in Fig. 33. At right angles to A B and from IT and
10' draw IT 6 and 10' 6, equal in hight to IT IT' and 10' 10", respectively,
in front elevation in Fig. 28. Draw lines from 6 to 11 and 6 to 10 in Fig. 33,

and place them in Fig. 33 on the line A B,

X
as shown from 11 to 3* and 10 to 4 ,

X X
respectively. From 3 and 4 erect lines
intersecting the slant lines 6 11 and 6 10
at 3 and 4. Take the distances in front
elevation in Fig. 28 from E to IT to 10'

to D and place them in Fig. 32 from N to

11 to 10 to M, as shown. From 10 to
11 draw lines to the point 6. Then take
the lengths from 11 to 3 and 10 to 4 in Fig. 33 and place them in Fig. 32 from
11 to 3 and 10 to 4, respectively, as shown Take the distances from 7 to X 1
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts *59
and 7 to X s
in plan in Fig. 33 and place them, as shown, from 7 to X 2
and 7'

to X 1
in Fig. 32 respectively. Through the points of intersections X 2
, 1, 2, 3,

4, 5 and X 1
trace a line, as shown. Then will the shaded portion be the part to
be cut out of the transition piece to receive the inclined pipe.

PATTERN FOR TRANSITION PIECE OF PECULIAR FORM

It may be stated that in this, as, in fact, in all cases where more than one view
of an object is required, “getting the correct views” —that is, the question of draw-
ing — is of the utmost importance. A sufficient number of views which correspond
with each other in every respect must be obtained before the patterns can be

developed. The drawings which are shown to a reduced scale in Fig. 34, are in
the preliminary work correctly projected. The 18-inc.h opening, however, in the
front elevation should show elliptical, and the same may be said of this opening as
it appears in the plan.
In Fig. 35 isshown another method of projecting the several views, from an
inspection of which the method of arriving at the widths of the ellipses will be
seen. Since the side elevation is, in this case, the principal one, the plan should
first be drawn in such a position that the side of which the elevation is required will
be turned toward the bottom of the paper, after which lines are carried upward
 a6o Special Sheet Metal Layouts

from its several points, as shown With the plan and one
at the right in Fig. 35.

elevation complete, the other elevation should be obtained by projections from

both the other views. Although in this case the other or front elevation is not
necessary so far as obtaining the patterns is concerned, it is here explained, since
the method of obtaining it may be readily applied in numerous other instances.
The front elevation may, of course, be obtained by projecting it from the plan
at right angles to the other elevation, as it is in Fig. 34 ;
but if obtained by hori-
zontal projections from the front elevation, as shown at the left in Fig. 35, the
relative hights of the corresponding parts are more easily seen and obtained, as
will be presently shown. This course will require either the drawing of another
plan turned one-quarter around (that is, with its front toward the bottom of the
paper), or the obtaining of the lateral widths by some other method. They may
be obtained either by measurements made vertically across the plan and transferred
to the front elevation, or by projection from the plan in the following manner, as
shown in Fig. 35. Lines from the several points of the plan are carried horizon-
tally to the left until they intersect a vertical line, A B, drawn at any convenient

point, and are then carried around a quarter circle, the center of which, A, is taken at
convenience on A B. Having thus reached the horizontal line A C, they are
continued upward into the front elevation, as shown. In the construction of the
drawings now, the lines a b of the side elevation and c d of the plan are each
made equal to the full width of the small pipe ( 18 inches), the line c d being pro-
jected from the middle point of a b. Lines from a and h are now projected to cut
the center line of the pipe in plan at a and b', thus giving the correct width of the
ellipse in plan. Lines from c and d of the plan are also carried into the front

elevation by the course above described, where they cut the horizontal line from
the center of a b, as shown at c and d', giving the length of the ellipse, while
lines from a and b are carried this time horizontally to the front elevation, to cut
the center line of the pipe brought from a' b' of the plan, thus giving the correct
width of the ellipse in the front elevation.

Lines drawn from b to f and from a to e will complete the general outline
of the transition piece. The position of the lines diverging from g will be deter-
mined in the subsequent process of triangulation.

A transition piece forming a connection between a round and a rectangular

opening, under ordinary conditions, consists of four plane triangles and four
quarter cones, more or less oblique, according to circumstances. The great differ-
ence, however, between the case under consideration and that of an ordinary
transition piece lies in the fact that what in the present case has been called a
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 261
rectangular opening is, in fact, only rectangular as it appears in elevation. Since
it is an opening in the side of a large cylinder, its ends are curved to the radius of

the cylinder, and, furthermore, the position of the smaller pipe is found to be so
very oblique with reference to the opening that, should an attempt be made to tri-

Fig. 36. Elevation and Plan of Transition Piece with Diagrams of Triangles Showing Method of Triangulation

angulate it according to the above subdivision, the curve of the cylinder would cut
into the sides of two of the cones. This will be seen by reference to Fig. 36, in
which E F G H shows to an enlarged scale the opening b f g h of Fig. 35, while
D C, with its profile, A, corresponds with a b of the latter figure. In the plan
the curve P K of the large cylinder has been drawn with a slightly shorter radius,
comparatively, than in Fig. 35, so as to avoid confusion of lines.
A correct projection of the opening of the 18-inch pipe, as shown at L M of

the plan, must be obtained before the work of triangulation can be begun, which
262 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

can he done in the following manner : First draw a profile of this opening in line
with L M, as shown at B, and divide both profiles, A and B, into the same
number of equal spaces, as shown by the small figures, being careful that point 1,

the highest point of the opening, is correspondingly located in both, as shown.

From the several points in profile A project lines at right angles to C D, cutting
the same as shown. Now, from the several points in profile B project lines at
right angles to L M indefinitely, which intersect with lines of corresponding
number dropped vertically from the points previously obtained on D C. A line
traced through the points of intersection, as shown by the corresponding small
figures in L M, will give the required view of the opening in plan.
It will now be seen that the triangulation of the transition piece can be most
conveniently accomplished by first dividing the circular opening into four equal
parts, by the points 1, 5, 9 and 13 of profiles A and B, with a view of making
each quarter the base of an oblique cone with an apex at the nearest angle of the
large, or so-called rectangular, opening. Thus, that quarter between points 1 and
13 will form the base of a quarter cone, the apex of which is at E of the elevation

or N of the plan, while that quarter from 13 to 9 will be the base of a cone the
apex of which is at H of the elevation and which appears also at N of the plan.

These two conical surfaces are connected by the plane triangle shown by J E H
of the elevation and by L N of the plan, all these parts or elements forming what
may be termed the back of the transition piece. If now it be attempted to carry
out this method in the treatment of the front part, the quarter 1 5 would be taken
as the base of a quarter cone the apex of which is at F of the elevation, and the
cone would be shown by points 1, 5, K of the plan; but if a line be drawn from
1 to K of the plan ( not shown ), it will be cut by the circle P N K of the large

cylindersomewhere near the point N, thus mutilating this conical portion, as

above mentioned. The same may be said of the fourth conical surface, which
would be shown by 9 5 K of the plan. It will therefore be better to consider
that portion of the transition piece from 1 to 5 at its round end to E F of the ele-
vation at- the other end, as one irregular piece or element of the whole ;
and like-
wise that portion from 5 to 9 at the round end to G H at the large end as
another similar element, thus leaving the large plane triangle J F G of the front
side to complete the pattern.
With this separation of the transition piece into its elementary parts the oper-
ations of triangulation may be completed as follows : First draw lines from points
9, 10, 11, etc., to 1 of L M, to the point N of the plan. These lines will repre-
sent the horizontal distances of points 9 to 13 from H of the elevation, and of
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 363

points 13 to 1 from point E, and will be used as the bases of a series of right
angled triangles, the hypotenuses of which, when obtained, will be the true dis-
tances between points of corresponding number on the finished article.

The triangles for the conical portion, the apex of which is at E, may most easily
be obtained by extending E C of the elevation in either direction, as shown at the
left of A, upon which set off from any point, as E 1
,
the lengths of the several
lines in the corresponding quarter of the plan just drawn to point N, as shown by
E 1
13, E 1
14, etc. Now, from the several points 13, 14, 15, etc., thus obtained,
drop perpendiculars, which intersect by horizontal lines drawn from points of cor-
responding number on J 0, previously obtained from profile A. Lines drawn
from the several points of intersection to E 1
,
as shown, will be the required
hypotenuses. The triangles for the lower conical portion may be obtained in a
similar manner by using an extension of H G
The lengths of the as the base.
lines N 9, N 10, etc., of the plan are set off from any point, as H 1 as shown by ,

the small figures 9 to 13, from which perpendiculars are erected and intersected
by horizontal lines projected from points of corresponding number on D J. Lines
drawn from the several points of intersection to H will be the required hypote- 1

nuses for the lower cone.

To triangulate the lower irregular element above described, the line N K of the
plan must first be divided into as many equal spaces as either quarter in the front
half of L M—that is, into four spaces —as shown by the points 6', 7 and 8’
between N K or 5' 9' of the plan. Solid lines may now be drawn between

points of corresponding number on L M and N K, and dotted lines from points

5, 6, 7 and 8 on L M, respectively, to points 6', 7' 8' and 9' on N K
The triangulation of the upper irregular piece is accomplished in exactly the
same manner, and to avoid a confusion of lines its plan is shown at the right of the
main plan, of which its curved lines are duplicates. The points in N K are 1 1

numbered from 1' to 5' to correspond with those in the adjacent quarter of L 1 M 1
.

The several solid lines here shown together with those previously obtained on
the main plan form the bases of the triangles in the diagram at the right of the
elevation, while the triangles to be formed upon the several dotted lines of the
plans are shown in a separate diagram in Fig. 37.
Since E F of the front elevation is an oblique line it will be necessary, in

constructing a diagram of triangles for the upper irregular element of the transition
piece, to project lines horizontally from each of the points on E F indefinitely to
the right, as shown in diagram of triangles 2, upon which the lengths of the

several solid lines of corresponding number of the plan are set off from the inter-
 264 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

section of a common perpendicular E® G 1

,
shown at
thus locating points 1 to 5,
the right of E*. Horizontal lines are now projected from points on J C as
obtained from profile A, cutting E® G\ as shown by the small figures. Lines
drawn from these points of intersection to points of corresponding number at the
right will give the hypotenuses for the solid triangles. Diagram 3 should proper-
ly be constructed at the right of diagram 2, the points on E 3 G® being obtained
by a continuation of the projections from the elevation used in obtaining the points
on E® G but for lack of space it is shown separately in Fig. 37. The hypote-
1
,

nuses in Fig. 37 are drawn between numbers corresponding with those of the

In consequence of the obliquity of E F above mentioned it will be necessary

to construct a small diagram, numbered 4 in Fig. 34, in order to ascertain the true
distances between its points. Therefore on any line, as R S of diagram 4, set off
a stretchout of N K just below, as shown by the corresponding figures, from
l 1

each of the points in which erect a perpendicular. The hight of each perpendicu-
lar is made equal to the hight of corresponding points on E F above a horizontal

line drawn from F but not shown, or is obtained from the projection of those

points on E* G as above described, and as also shown at T of diagram 3.

1
,

For convenience in laying out the pattern from the various dimensions now
obtained it will be considered that the joint is to be made upon the line C E of
the elevation ;
although the size of the piece will require several joints, the posi-
tions of which can most easily be determined after the pattern is developed as a
whole. Therefore construct first the triangle J F G of the pattern, Fig. 38,
which is an exact duplicate of the triangle designated by the same letters in the
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 065

elevation, Fig. 36. Now, with 5 4 of diagram 3, Fig. 37, as a radius and J of

the pattern as center describe a short arc near 4" of the pattern, which intersect
" "
with another arc the radius of which is 5" 4 of diagram 4, thus locating point 4 of
the pattern. With a radius equal to 4 4 of diagram 2 and from 4" of the pattern

as center describe a short arc, which intersect with another arc drawn from point J

(5) of the pattern as center and with a radius equal to 5 4 of profile A, thus
locating the position of point 4 of the pattern. Continue this operation, using the
spaces of profile A in numerical order, as shown, for the side J C of the pattern,

and those of V S of diagram 4 for the side F E, while the measurements across
are taken alternately from the upper parts of diagrams 3 and 2, all as shown.
The lower irregular element of the transition piece may now be added to the
pattern in exactly the same manner as above described for the upper part, begin-
ning with J G of the pattern as a base, and using the lengths of the dotted
hypotenuses from the lower part of diagram 3 with the distances from N K of the
plan as radii to develop that part of the pattern from G to 11, and the hypote-
nuses from the lower part of diagram 2 with the corresponding spaces on profile A
as radii to develop that pattern from J to D, all as shown by the corresponding
figures in the several views mentioned.
The lower conical element of the pattern may now be added by first describ-
ing arcs from H of the pattern as center with radii equal to the lengths of the
several lines converging at H 1
of diagram 1, afterwhich the spaces from 9 to 13
of profile A may be set(9) of off from D the pattern upon the several arcs,
measuring or stepping from one arc to the next in numerical order, thus develop-
ing the line from D to J 1 . The large triangle forming the back of the transition
piece, shown by J E H of the elevation, may next be added in the following
manner: From J of the pattern as center, with a radius equal to E 13 of dia-
1 1

gram 1, describe a short arc, and intersect the same with another arc, the radius of
which is equal to H E of the elevation, thus locating the point E of the pattern.
1

The upper conical element is finally added, using as radii the lengths of lines con-
verging at E* in the upper part of diagram 1 with the spaces from 13 to 1 of
profile A, all as shown from J to C
1 l
Lines traced through the several inter-
.

sections of arcs from C to C

1
from E to F and from G to H will complete the
,

pattern
2,66 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

PATTERN FOR A SPOUT HOPPER

Problems of this nature are termed transition pieces because,
being usually made to form an intermediate joint or section between two pipes of
different plans or profiles, they form a transition from one form to the other, and
the principles involved in obtaining the pattern of any such piece are applicable to
any other of that class.
If in making the joint at the bottom the vertical pipe is cut off square, the
lower base of the transition piece will, of course, be a simple circle, but if it is cut
offby an oblique plane, making the angle with the inclined and with the vertical
portions approximately equal, as in an ordinary elbow, then a little more prelimi-
nary work will have to be done before the work of triangulation can be begun. In
that case the ellipse produced by cutting the round pipe obliquely will have to be
first developed.

Fig. 89. Plan of Hopper, Indicating the Manner in which the Oblique Elevation and
Diagrams of Triangles are Obtained

In Fig. 39 of the diagrams, A B C D represents a plan of the upper rectangular

end of the hopper, while FG H J shows the relative position of the vertical pipe
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

with which its lower end is to miter. The proper way to obtain the correct angle
of the miter between the hopper and the vertical pipe is to first construct an oblique
elevation on a plane parallel to a line joining the centers of the two ends or bases
in plan. Therefore, find the center of AB C D, as shown at K, and draw a line
from K through the center of the round pipe shown heavy on the plan. Now, at
any convenient position below the plan draw a line, as M N, parallel to the heavy
line, and from each of the points A, B, C, D and K drop lines at right angles to

M N, cutting the same, as shown. Also drop a similar line from the center of the
round pipe of indefinite length, upon which set off from M N the required vertical
hight of the hopper, as shown by M L, and draw L K
The angle K'L P will
1
.

then be the correct angle between the vertical pipe and the hopper, and the miter
line may now be drawn through L, so as to bisect this angle, just as though both
arms of the miter were tc be The lines of the sides of the pipe
of the same profile.

may now be projected from the plan, as shown, and from their intersections with
the miter line, lines are drawn to the points O and N, corresponding to the angles
A and C of the rectangle. This completes the general outlines of the elevation.
In completing the plan and determining the method of triangulation the plan
of the round pipe must first be divided into quarters by the lines F H and G J,

each quarter of which will form the base of a quarter cone the apex of which is at
the corresponding corner of the rectangle. Thus, F G S is the base of one quarter
of an oblique or scalene cone, the apex of which is at A, while GH S is a quarter
of a different scalene cone, having its apex at B. In like manner J S H C and
FSJ D are the two remaining cones, each of the four differing from the others in
the amount of its obliquity or slant. Between the envelopes or outer coverings of
these four quarter cones four plane triangles exist, the bases of which are the four
sides of the rectangular base and the vertices of which are at the points G, H, J
and F ;
as AG B, B H C, etc. The triangles which form the sides of the transition
piece may be said to be inverted with reference to the cones, the envelopes of
which form the angles or rounded corners of the same.

Now, divide each quarter of the plan of the round pipe into any convenient
number of equal spaces, as shown by the small figures, and draw lines from the
points of division in each quarter to the corresponding apex, as shown. These lines
represent in plan the division of each conical surface into three plane triangles, and
the true lengths of these lines may be obtained by using them as the base of a series of
right angled triangles, the hypotenuses of which when found will be the true distances
as measured between corresponding points of the finished article. These triangles
maybe most easily constructed by projecting the hights from the oblique elevation,
as shown at eace side of the same, one group being made for each of the four cones
to avoid confusion of lines. First drop lines from all of the points of division in
F G H J parallel to M L, cutting the miter line drawn through L, and from the
points on the miter line thus obtained draw horizontal lines (parallel to M N) in-

definitely to each of the diagrams, as shown. From any points, as A B 1

,
1
,
etc. ,
on
M N extended, draw perpendiculars, as shown, cutting the horizontal lines just
drawn, and from their intersections with the perpendiculars set off on each the
length of corresponding line of the plan. Thus, upon the lines drawn from points
1, 2, 3 and 4 on the miter line set off on each from the perpendicular B the lengths 1

1 B, 2 B, etc;, of the plan, as shown in the diagram, and finally draw 1 B 1

,
2 B 1
,

etc., which distances will be the true distances across the pattern.
Had the vertical'pipe been cut off square at L instead of obliquely the lengths of
the several lines of the plan would have been set off from their respective perpen-
diculars upon a single line drawn
through L, forming the bases of the
several diagrams of triangles, and the
hypotenuses drawn as before. In
that case also the measurements for
the lower edge of the pattern could
have been taken directly from the
spaces on plan F G H J. But since
the oblique section necessarily has a
longer perimeter than a right section,
a true section on the miter line
through L must be obtained.
To develop the section on the
miter line first draw any line, as
Fig. 40. The Pattern
T V, parallel thereto, and from the
on the miter line drop lines at right angles to T V, cutting the same,
several points
and extend them to one side or the other of T V to correspond with the lines of
the plan F G H J with reference to the heavy center line. The lengths of the
several lines are then made equal to corresponding lines of the plan, when a line

traced through the several points thus obtained will give the required section.
To develop the pattern it is simply necessary to combine the dimensions now
obtained, those of the elliptical section forming one side of the pattern and those of

the plan of the rectangular base forming the other, while the distances across the
pattern are taken from the diagrams of triangles. This part of the work will be
very briefly described, because many patterns of this class have been given in the
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 269
book and all patterns obtained by triangulation are developed in the same
,

general manner after the preliminary dimensions have been obtained. The pattern
may be begun with either of the large intermediate triangles, as that shown by
B H C of the plan. First draw C B of the pattern, equal to C B of the plan then ;

with B 4 of the diagram of triangles as radius and C of the pattern as center des-
1

cribe a small arc, which intersect with another arc drawn from B of the pattern as
center with a radius equal to B 1
4 of the diagrams, thus locating the point 4 of the
pattern. The three adjacent triangles on either side of C B 4 have their apexes at
C and B of the pattern. Therefore, from C of the pattern as center describe three

arcs the radii of which are respectively C 1

5, C 1
6 and C’ 7 of the diagrams. Now,
from 4 of the pattern as center describe a small arc with a radius equal to 4 5 of the

section T V, cutting arc 5, and from the point 5 thus obtained in the pattern describe
a small arc with a radius equal to 5 6 of the section T V, cutting arc 6, and estab-
lishing the point 6 of the pattern. In the same manner the point 7 of this group
is obtained and also 3, 2 and 1 of the group on the other side of C B 4, the dis-
ances of which from B of the pattern are equal to B 1
3, B 1
2 and B 1
1 of the
diagrams. The large intermediate triangles corresponding to the sides C D and
B A of the plan are next constructed in the same manner as C B 4, after which
the two conical surfaces the centers of which are at D and A of the pattern are

described in the same manner as those centering at C and B, and the pattern is com-
pleted by the addition on either side of one-half of the triangle corresponding to
A F B of the plan, the joint being made on the line E F.

PATTERNS FOR SHIP’S VENTILATOR OCTAGON IN SECTION

This article explains how to develop the patterns for a ship’ s funnel or venti-

lator made from lateral pieces, similar to the perspective view shown in Fig. 41.
First draw the outline of the side elevation as shown in Fig. 42 by 1, 6, 19, 24,
and divide at pleasure the heel and throat lines of the ventilator into any number
of equal spaces, in this case five on the heel, as shown by 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, and
five in the throat, as shown by 20, 21, 22, 23 and 24. Connect these points, as
shown from 2 to 23, 3 to 22, 4 to 21 and 5 to 20. These lines represent a series of

planes on which true sections must be found. Knowing these true sections, assume
that each section as 1, 2, 23, 24 ; 2, 3, 22, 23 ; 3, 4, 21, 22 ; 4, 5, 20, 21 ; 5, 6, 19, 20
in the side elevation is a transition piece, with the various semi-profiles on either
end. The true section on the line 1 24 in the side elevation in Fig. 42 is shown
2JO Special Sheet Metal Layouts

drawn m its proper position by C D E F 24, 13, 12and 1. Through the center
of this section draw the two diameters as shown, and directly in the center of
these two lines draw the true octagon G H I J 19, 18, 7, 6, which
represents the true section on the line G 19 in the side elevation.
In practice it is only necessary to draw the half sections.
Now draw lines from the corners 1 to 6, 12 to 7, 13 to 18 and
24 to 19. Bisect each one of the planes in the side elevation, as
shown by a b c d e and/. Take the distances from b to 2, c to 3, d
to 4 and e and place them on the center line A° E° in the
to 5

sections, measuring from and above the center point h and draw
Fig. 41
horizontal lines until they intersect the line 1 6 at 2, 3, 4 and 5
Perspective of
Ventilator
respectively. In a similar manner take the distances in the side
elevation from b to 23, c to 22, d to 21 and e to 20 and place them on the center
line A° E° measuring from and below the point h, and draw horizontal lines until

they intersect the line 19 24, at 23, 22, 21 and 20 respectively.

Before the widths through the center points bed and e in elevation can be
found, a one-half vertical section through a f in elevation must be found as fol-

lows : At pleasure draw any vertical line alongside of the side elevation as shown
by A B
1 1
and from the various intersections abode and/ draw horizontal lines
intersecting the vertical line A B 1
Take the distances from h to a
1
as shown.
k to /in the sections, and place them as shown respectively by A 1 a and B / in 1

the vertical section. At pleasure draw the curved line from a to /, intersecting
the horizontal lines previously drawn at bed and e. These points, when
measured horizontally to the center line A B
1 1
,
give the true semi-widths through
similar lettered points in the side elevation.
Measuring from the center line A B 1 1
take the various distances to points
bed and and place them in the sections, measuring from the center point h, as
e

shown by b c d and e. Through these points at right angles to ha draw lines in-
tersecting the line 12, 7 from 11 to 8 and intersecting the line 13, 18, from 14 to
17 respectively. From the various points on the line 12, 7, connect lines to the
points on the line 1, 6. In a similar manner from the various points on the line
13, 18, connect lines to points on the line 24. 19. This diagram of sections then
represents a series of 6 sections on the 6 planes shown in the side elevation by
similar numbers.
The next step is to obtain the miter lines 7 12 and 13 18 in the side eleva-
tion. These are obtained by taking the distances in the diagram of sections from
6 to 11, c to 10, d to 9 and e to*8 and placing them on the planes in the side eleva-
Special Sheet Metal Layouts
2J2 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

tion from b to 11, c to 10, d to 9 and e to 8 and tracing a curved line as shown from
7 to 12. In a similar manner take the distances in the diagram of sections, from
b to 14, c to 15, d to 16 and e to 17 and place them in the side elevation as shown
from b to 14, c to 15, d to 16 and e to 17 and trace a curved line from 13 to 18.

This completes the side elevation of the ventilator.

Draw the diagonal connecting lines in the side elevation as shown from 2 to 12,
3 to 11, 4 to 10, etc., until the last line 14 to 24 is drawn. The various solid and
dotted lines in the elevation must then be considered as bases of sections the al-

titudes of which are found in the various horizontal distances in the diagram of
sections to the right of the center line A° E. The true length of the curve 1 6 in the
elevation on its miter line will be found when the pattern for the top is developed,
while the true length of the curve 19 24 on its miter line will be found when the
bottom pattern is laid out.

To obtain the pattern for the top of the ventilator marked A° in the diagram
of sections proceed as follows : Take the girth of the outer curve 1 to 6 in the side
elevation, and place it on the vertical line K L as shown by similar numbers,

through which points, at right angles to K L, draw lines indefinitely. Measuring

from the center line A° E° in the diagram of sections take the various distances to
points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 and place them on similar numbered lines in the pattern
for top, measuring on either side of the center line K L. A line traced through

points thus obtained will be the pattern for the top of the ventilator and the miter
cut shown from 1° to 6° will give the true edge line of the upper curve of the lateral

piece B in the side elevation.

To obtain the pattern for the bottom of the ventilator, take the girth of the
lower curve 19 24 in the side elevation and place it on the line MN as shown by
similar numbers, through which draw the usual measuring lines. Measuring from
the line A° E° in the diagram of sections, take the various distances to 19, 20, 21,

22, 23 and 24 and place them on similar lines in the pattern for the bottom, meas-
uring on either side of the center line M N. A line traced through the various
intersections will be the pattern for the bottom marked E° in the diagram of sec-

tions and the miter cut 19° 24° in the pattern for bottom will be the true edge line
of the lower curve of the lateral piece marked D in the side elevation.
To obtain the true lengths on the miter line 7 12 in the side elevation, take

the distances from 7 to 8, 8 to 9, 9 to 10, 10 to 11 and 11 to 12 and place them on

any horizontal line as a 6, as shown from 7 to 8, 8 to 9, 9 to 10, 10 to 11 and 11
to 12. It will be noticed that the lengths are placed backward and forward over
one another, so as to take up little space. At right angles to a b through the var-
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts *73

ious points 7 to 12 erect perpendiculars as shown, making them equal to the hori-
zontal distances in the diagram of sections, measuring in each instance from the
line A° E° to points 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 respectively. For example, to make
this perfectly clear, the distance of 7 8 in the side elevation has been placed on
the line a b as shown from 7 to 8 in R. From points 7 and 8 in R perpendiculars
are erected as 7 7° and 8 8°, equal respectively to the horizontal distances meas-
ured from the line A° E° in the diagram of sections to points 7 and 8. The dis-
tance from 7° to 8° in R then represents the true length of the line 7 8 in the side

elevation. In precisely the same manner obtain the true lengths of the miter line
13 18 in elevation, as shown in the diagram S, by similar numbers on the line
c d, the various hights in S are obtained from the horizontal projections measured
from the line A° E° to similar numbers in the diagram of sections.

To obtain the true lengths in the lateral side B in the side elevation, take the

various distances from 12 to 2, 2 to 11, 11 to 3, 3 to 10, 10 to 4, 4 to 9, 9 to 5,

5 to 8 and 8 to 6 and place them on the line a b in T, as shown by similar num-

bers, placing one distance over another as from 12 to 2, 2 to 11, 11 to 3, etc., so

as to save space. From the various points vertical lines are erected, equal to the
horizontal distances in the diagram of sections, when measured from the center
line A° E° to similar numbers. For example, to find the true length of 4 10 in
B in the side elevation, take this distance and place it as shown by 4 10 in T,
from which points erect the perpendiculars 4 4° and 10 10°, equal respectively
to the horizontal distances measured from the line A 0
E° in the diagram of sec-

tions to points 4 and 10. The distance 4° 10° in T then becomes the true length
of similar numbered line in the side elevation. In this manner all the true
lengths in B are obtained.
The true lengths in the lateral pieces C and D in the side elevation are ob-
tained in a similar manner asshown by similar numbers on the line e f° in the
diagrams U and V respectively. The true lengths having all been obtained, the
patterns may now be laid out.
To obtain the pattern for the lateral piece shown by B in the side elevation
or B° in the diagram of sections proceed as follows: Take the distance from 1 to
12 in the diagram of sections and place it on any line as 1° 12° in the pattern for
side B, which will hereafter be called X. With 1° 2° in the pattern Y as radius,
and 1° in X as center, describe the arc 2° which intersect by an arc struck from
12° as center, with 12° 2° in the true lengths in T as radius. With a radius equal
to 12° 11° in R, and 12° in X as center, describe the arc 11°, which intersect by
an arc struck from 2° as center and 11° 2° in T as radius. Proceed in this man-
*74 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

ner, using alternately first the divisions in the miter cut in Y, then the true length

of the proper number in T ;

the true length of the proper line in R, then the
true length of the proper number in T ;
the true length of the proper line in R,
then the proper length from T, until the last line 6° 7° in X has been obtained,
which is taken from 6 7 in the diagram of sections. A line traced through points
thus obtained as shown from 1° to 6° to 7° to 12° in X will be the pattern for the
two sides marked B in the side elevation.

When obtaining the pattern for the side C, the outer edge lines from 7° to
12° in C are obtained from similar numbers in the pattern X, while the lower edge
lines 13° to 18° in pattern for side C are obtained from the true lengths in diagram
S and the lengths of the connecting diagonal lines in the pattern for side C are
obtained from the true lengths in diagram U. The edge lines from 13° to 18° in
the pattern for the side D are obtained from similar numbers in the pattern for
C. The edge lines from 19° to 24° in the pattern for side D are obtained from
similar numbers in the miter cut in the pattern for the bottom E°, while the lengths
of the diagonal connecting lines in the pattern for the side D are obtained from
the true lengths in the diagram V. In both the patterns C and D the lengths of
12° 13° and 7° 18° in the former, and 13° 24° and 18° 19° in the latter, are ob-
tained respectively from lines having similar numbers in the sides C° and D° in
the diagram of sections.
Laps must be allowed mouth as well as for riveting the lateral
for wiring at the

pieces together, and if it is desired that the ventilator be made from round to ellip-
tical, then the various patterns can be raised by means of the raising hammer to

the desired shape, as is shown by the dotted lines in the diagram of sections.

PATTERN FOR A DIAMOND BOSS

The following deals with the method of how to obtain the pattern for the
diamond boss shown in Fig. 43. B D shows part of the can, F E the diameter
of the faucet and T U the extreme length of the boss. Directly below the eleva-
tion is the plan view of the boss, as shown by G C U J. Draw G U and C J.
From K, as a center, draw the circle L S P N, representing the section on F E.
Draw the diagonals T O and R M. As the four sides are alike it will only be
necessary to develop the pattern for C S P U. Therefore divide the quadrant S P
into four equal spaces, as shown by S 1, R 2 and P. In similar manner divide
the profile of the can C U in elevation into equal spaces, as shown by C, 3, 4 and
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts *75

U, and from these points drop lines intersecting C U in plan at C, 3, 4 and U.

Draw lines from C to 1 and R; from R to 3, 4 and U, and from U to 2 and

P. Then will these lines represent the bases of triangles which will be constructed
with altitudes equal to various bights in elevation.
The reader should bear in mind that all the spaces contained in the circle in
plan are on F E in elevation, while all the spaces contained in the side of the
boss C U in plan are C U in elevation. Extend F E as F U and from the 1
,

various points C, 3, 4 and U in elevation draw horizontal lines, as shown. Take

the various distances in plan as C h, C 1 and C R, and place them on F U, as
shown by C S, C 1 and 0 R. From. C erect C C\ intersecting the line drawn
from C in elevation. Draw lines from l 1 to S, 1 and R, which lines are the
true lengths on similar numbers in plan. At any point, as R on the line F U 1 ,

erect R R cutting the line drawn 1

,

from U in elevation. Take the

various distances in plan from R to 3,

R to 4 and R to U and place them

in the diagram of triangles, measur-
ing in each instance from the line
R R 1
to similar numbered lines, as
shown by 3, 4 and U, from which
points draw lines to R. In similar

PLAN

Fig. 43. Preliminary Work Fig. 44. The Full Pattern

manner erect U U
1
and set off U P1
and U 1
2, equal in length to U P and U 2
in plan. Then draw lines in the diagram of triangles, as shown, from 2 and P
to U. This completes the triangles necessary for the development of the pattern.

The next step is to obtain the true length on C U in elevation, for which pro-
ceed as follows: Extend G U in plan as C U, upon which place the stretchout
of C U in elevation, as shown by similar figures on U V. From C, 3, 4 and U
on U V erect lines which intersect by horizontal lines drawn from C, 3, 4 and
U in plan, resulting in the intersections C 1 3 1 4 1 and U Connect these
, ,
1
.

points, obtaining the true length on C U in elevation.

 276 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

For the pattern draw any line, as C 1

S, in Fig. 44, equal to C 1
S in the dia-
gram of triangles in Fig. 43. With radii equal to C 1
1 and C R and C
1 1
in Fig.
44 as center, describe the arcs 1 and R. Set the dividers equal to the spaces in
S R in plan in Fig. 43, and, starting from point S in Fig. 44, step from S to arc 1

to arc R and draw lines from 1 and R to C 1

. With radii equal to R 3, R 4
and R U in the diagram of triangles in Fig. 43 and R in Fig. 44 as center,
describe the arcs 3 1
,
4 1
and U 1
. Set the dividers equal to the various spaces
C 3, 3 4 and 4 U in plan in Fig. 43, and, starting from C 1
in Fig. 44, step to
arc 3 1
,
4 and U 1
,
respectively, and draw lines from these points to R. Finally,
with radii equal to U 2 and U P in the diagram in Fig. 43 and U 1
in Fig. 44 as
center, describe the arcs 2 and P, which intersect by lengths obtained from the
divisions in R P in plan in Fig. 43. Draw lines from 2 and P to U in Fig. 1

44. Then C U P R S is the one-quarter pattern. If the pattern is desired in

1 1

two parts trace opposite the line U P, as shown by C° S°. If the boss is desired 1

in one piece, with a seam at J N in plan in Fig. 43, trace the half in Fig. 44
opposite C 1
S, as shown.

PATTERN FOR A GARBAGE CHUTE

The following is the method of developing the pattern, in one piece, with
seam on S T, having the square and round bodies in one piece, of what is termed
a garbage chute. The square opening is to have a lid.
In connection with this problem, it must be said that while the pattern can be
in one piece, another seam is necessary as at A* 4". Only the manner of obtain-
ing the net pattern is exemplified. The allowing of laps for seams and method of
joining the round collars and the making of the lid are governed by the gauge of
material and the mode of manufacture. The lid pattern is simply a rectangular
piece large enough to cover the 9 X 12-in. opening.
The procedure is as follows : Draw a 9-in. circle W to represent the pipe in
plan. As the square body will be 9 in. wide, extend lines from the side of the
circle. Project lines upward from the circle to be the sides in elevation of round
body. From the center point o' on the line S 4' with the 45-deg. triangle draw
the line O' B ' indefinitely. Placing the triangle opposite to the position it had
when drawing line O' B', move the triangle along till a point as A' is 12 in.
from B' and outside the side line 4' 4" of the round body. It is understood, of
course, that the design of this square body is a matter of choice, guided only by
the requirement that design must permit of being made in one part. Connect
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts *77

point A' with 4" and point B' with 4', thereby completing the elevation. Drop
lines from B' and A' to the plan and connect points B" and C with O; also
points A and D with 4, giving the plan.
Divide circumference of circle into equal parts as shown, and project these
points to the elevation. The
next step is to ascertain the true
length of lines, as B 1, A 7, etc.

Therefore project lines to the side

as indicated from points 4" and
A' and from B' and 4'. Place
points B", X, A" and Y on the
line from X and Y, place the
distances in plan as B 1, A 7,

etc. Connecting in diagram M

and P with points B'' and A"
gives the true lengths of the lines.
For the pattern draw any line
as 4 B of Fig. 46, of a length

equal to 4" B" of diagram M,

Fig. 46. On the compasses take
the distances in plan B C and
from B of the pattern draw an
arc. Swing line B 4 to this arc,
which gives point B'. With
Fig. 45. Method of Obtaining Measurements for Patterns
points B and B' as centers and
the compass set to diagram M, strike small arcs, and on these arcs with the bow
dividers adjusted to the space 0 1 of the plan step the stretchout of the profile W.

The distances O B and 8 B' was taken from 0' B' of the elevation.

With compasses set to B' 8' of the elevation and from points B and B' strike
small arcs. From 0 and 8 on these arcs place the distance 0' 8' of the elevation,
giving in the pattern a duplicate of 0' B' 8' of the elevation.

At right angle to the lines 0 0 and 8 8 draw on which are stepped the
lines
stretchout of profile W from 0 to 9, which can be accomplished in this case by
using the space 0 1 four times.
From points 0' and 8' on lines 8 B' and B 0, place the distances 8' A' of
the elevation. With these points A and A as centers and compass set to dia-
gram P strike arcs on which are stepped the distance 0 1 of profile W. From
 2j8 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

"
4' and 4' draw arcs, taking the distance 4 A' of the elevation. From A and
A, with the dividers spanning B K of the plan, prick the space on the arcs

obtaining points K and K'. This now is the pattern in one piece of the required
article.

PATTERN FOR A CONCAVE SPIRAL CONVEYOR

The helical slide problem is of great interest to pattern cutters, and the follow-

ing tells how to obtain the patterns for a concave so-called spiral conveyor when
the center shaft is 8 in. in diameter as shown in the finished view in the accom-
panying illustration, Fig. 47 and the spiral conveyor has a projection of 18 in. with
the surface concave upward as shown, with a vertical ledge 6 in. high. The hight
of one revolution indicated by A has not been given, which can, however, be any
desired measurement.
 :

Special Sheet Metal Layouts *79

In this connection it is proper to say that the various lines of curvatures in

the spiral represent various sections through a solid, and therefore only an approxi-
mate pattern can be developed, which will require some considerable skill

with the stretching hammer to bring it to the desired shape.

As the diameter from outer to outer edge of the conveyor
measures 3 ft. 8 in., it is advisable to make a small model of
clay, taking in, say, one-eighth of a revolution of the helix,

and from this clay model make a female die of plaster paris.
This plaster paris model is given a coat of shellac, when it can
be sent to the foundry and an iron model cast, or if sufficient

scrap zinc is at hand a die can be cast from zinc. After having
the iron die made a male die is cast of lead.
Then, using the lead die as the base and the iron die as
the top, the various pieces can be stamped, using a hard piece
of a wooden slat to lay over the iron die, while a small sledge
Fig. 47. view of finished furnishes the stamping power. While this method is crude,
Concave Conveyor . . , . . , . ,,
it answers the purpose when the job is small.
Of course where a considerable number of revolutions are needed, the work
can be done more cheaply and accurately by sending measurements to any sheet
metal stamping concern who will furnish estimates and guarantee an accurate fit

along joints and intersections.

Assuming that the job is small and that it is desired to hammer up this work
by hand in short sections, with the 6-in. vertical ledge in long sections, the
method of obtaining the approximate pattern for the helix and the accurate pattern
for the ledge is as follows

Using A in plan as center, Fig. 48, describe the 8-in. circle, .make the dis-
tance from 8 to 8' 18 in., and with A as center and A 8' as radius describe the
outer circle. Divide the outer semi-circle in equal spaces ( the closer the spaces
the more accurate the pattern ), in this case 8, as shown from 0' to 8', from which
points draw radial lines to the center A, cutting the inner circle, as shown, from
0 to 8.

Draw the elevation of the center shaft as shown, and parallel to it draw any
line as B C. As only a one-half revolution of the spiral will be shown in eleva-
tion, set off on B C, a distance 0 8, which will be equal to the hight of the
desired half revolution, such as indicated by B in the finished view. As the
semi-circle in plan has been divided into eight parts, then also divide the half revo-
lution 0 8 on the line B C into eight equal spaces as shown.
 a8o Special Sheet Metal Layouts

From these points 0 to 8 at right angles to B C draw horizontal lines as

shown, which intersect by lines drawn vertically from points 0 to 8 in the plan
of the shaft. Trace a line through these intersections, as shown from D to E,

bEVE^OPMENtOF PITCH
OF ONE HALF REVOLUTION
Ofc SHAFT

APPROXIMATE
PATTERN FOR ONE*
QUARTER R EVOLUTION
of coNveyoR

Fig. 48. Details of Pattern for a Concave Spiral Conveyor

which will, as can be seen, indicate the intersecting joint between the shaft and
helix. Continuing further, from D draw the profile of the conveyor as shown
from D F to i.
to
From F draw a horizontal line, cutting the line B C at 8', and from 8' set

off on the line C B the eight divisions from 8' to O', equal to the divisions from
8 to 0, also on C B. At right angles to C B from points 0' to 8' draw hori-
zontal lines, intersecting vertical lines erected from 0' to 8' in plan. A line traced
from F to G will show the outer edge of the helix in elevation along the lower
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts a8i

edge of the ledge at F. If the hight from F to i is set off on the vertical lines

just erected from the plan, as from G to i', and as indicated by the point i', they
will give the upper line of the wired edge of the ledge in elevation. These helical
lines just obtained are not necessary so far as the pattern is concerned, but are
shown here, so that in case, which is seldom in practice, it becomes necessary to
make a completed view, as shown in the illustration, the method of projection

will be understood.

As this concave helical surface is, in a measure, similar to a curved molding, a

line must be averaged through the profile D F, which will give the proper flare

and the proper girth or amount of material to make up the mold or concave D F.
In drawing the averaged line or flare no rule can be given, as the nature of the
mold must determine the pitch of the line d f. In this case the pitch or averaged
line has been drawn as shown by d /, touching the mold at a. Measuring from
a, obtain the girth of a D and a F, and place it as shown respectively by a d
and a f.

In developing the approximate pattern, triangulation will be employed; there-

fore the length of d f in elevation shows the true length of the solid line shown
ip plan. The true length to opposite points in plan, as from 0 to 1', must now
be found by taking the distance of 0 to 1' in plan and placing it in diagram H, as
shown from 0 to 1'; from 0 erect the perpendicular 0 1", equal to the vertical
hight 0 1' or two spaces on the line B C in elevation. A line drawn from 1' to
1” in H will be the true length of the dotted line in plan.
The next step is to find the true pitch of the one-half revolution of the helix
around the shaft. On any horizontal line, as K L in diagram J, place the girth
of the small semi-circle in plan, as shown by similar numbers on K L, at right
a
angles to which, from point 8, erect the perpendicular 8, 8 ,
equal to 0 8 on the
line B C. Draw a line from 8“ to 0 in diagram J and from point 1 erect the
a
perpendicular, cutting the pitch line at l . 0 l
ft
then gives the true length of one
of the spaces against the shaft in elevation as E to 1. In diagram J perpendicu-
lars have also been drawn from points 6 and 7, giving the intersections 6* and
7* and shows that but one space is necessary, as they are all equal to l a 0.
The true length along the outer edge of the helix from F to G in elevation
must now be found as follows Upon any horizontal line as M N in diagram P,
:

place the girth of the large semi-circle in plan (which represents the plan view of
this outer helical edge), as shown by similar numbers from 0' to 8'on M N.
From 8' at right angles to MN erect the line 8' 8 b
equal to 0' 8' on the line
b
B C in elevation. Draw a line from 8 to 0' in diagram P, and from points 1',
 282 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

6' or T on the line M N erect perpendiculars, cutting the pitch line 8b 0' at
b b
l ,
6 b
or 7 . Any one of these spaces will give the true distance of the spaces

along the outer edge line of the spiral F G in elevation.

From this diagram P, the pattern for the vertical ledge for a one-half revolu-

tion can be obtained. Simply take the hight from F to % in elevation and place

it on the two perpendiculars erected from 0' and 8 b in diagram P, as shown by

f" and /' respectively. Draw a line from /' to /", and allow an edge for wiring
as shown. Then /' 8 b 0'
f" is the desired pattern.
The approximate pattern for the concave spiral is developed as follows : Take
the distance from d to / in elevation and place it in diagram R on the vertical
b and
line from 0 to O'. Now, with radius equal to 0’ l in diagram P, O' in

diagram R as center, describe an arc, which intersect by an arc, struck from 0 as

center and 1' 1" in diagram H as radius. Now, with 0 1 “ in diagram J as
radius, and 0 in the pattern R as center, describe an arc, which intersect by
another arc, struck from l
b
as center and 0 0' in R as radius. Trace a line
b
through points thus obtained, then will 0' l l
ft
0 be the pattern for one part or
one-sixteenth of a full revolution shown in plan by 0' 1
’
1 0.

In the pattern R four of these parts have been joined, thus giving an approx-
imate pattern for a one-fourth revolution of the helical slide. As previously
explained, it depends upon the diameter and shape of the conveyor to determine
in how many sections the full revolution will be made up. The development ob-
tained in diagram J is also used to obtain the intersecting line D E in elevation,
by rolling up K L to an 8-in. semi-circle and placing 8 8“ vertically against the

shaft, and scribing a line on the shaft, along 8“ 0 of diagram J. The line then

obtained as shown from D E in elevation forms a guide line when hammering

the short sections or stamping the one-eighth revolutions. If M N in diagram P
0'
is rolled up to a semi-circle (in this case to 3 ft. 8 in. diameter) the slant line
8 b
will show the true edge line, indicated by F G in elevation, after which the
outer edge of the conveyor can be trimmed if made by hand. The vertical ledge

pattern is first wired, then rolled up in the rollers to the proper diameter, placing
b
the ends 8 /' or f 0' parallel to the lines of the rollers when rolling.

PATTERN FOR CANOPY IN A PARABOLIC REFLECTOR

This is a problem of a canopy having an elliptical base in which dimensions
are given. The small end of the canopy is to fit the hole in the side of a parabolic
reflector made by the intersection of a 2 1-16 in. circular cutter. To obtain the
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 2,83

pattern for the canopy, the following interesting study of the problem has been
made.
In the left half of the elevation of the accompanying illustrations, Fig. 49, the
outlines are given of the submitted diagram, that is, the curve A B, the line A C,
the position and size of the intersecting circular cutter, marked “profile of cylin-
der’’ and the included outline of the canopy. To the original drawing was ap-
pended the statement that the base of the canopy is an ellipse 2%x4% in. The
diagram was carefully drawn to full size, but for convenience it is here reproduced
to a scale of two-thirds its size, so that the full length of any dimension can be
determined by adding to the same one-half itself.

As the parabolic curve is employed as the profile of reflectors, it is inferred

that the curve A B of the diagram is one-half the profile of a concave reflector,
and that the purpose of the canopy, which is placed within the reflector, is to
carry away the gases or heat of a flame or other source of light placed immediately
below it and in the optical focus of the reflector. Under these conditions the axial
line A C of the reflector would no doubt, when in use, occupy a horizontal posi-
tion, in which case the left side of the drawing would then represent the top. For
convenience in representation and description the position shown has been taken.
Since the profile of a concave reflector is necessarily the same in all directions
from its axis, its surface is such as would be generated by the curve B A by re-

volving the figure B A C about the line A C as an axis. The volume thus gen-
erated would be geometrically termed a solid of revolution. Considered as such it
belongs to a class of figures termed conoids, from their somewhat conical shape, which
figures have special names according to the character of the curves of their profiles.

The reference to the circular cutter leads one to suppose that the opening in

the side of the reflector is made by mechanical means, as by the passing of a mill-

ing tool in a straight line across one side, cutting into the reflector to the depth
shown by that part of the circle which lies inside the curve A B. In this respect
the action of the cutter upon the reflector becomes, geometrically speaking, the
intersection of a conoid by a cylinder. The development of the shape of the open-
ing in the conoid, then forms the first requirement of the problem. This having
been accomplished the second operation is the construction of a canopy, one end

of which shall fit this opening, while the other end is an ellipse of the dimensions
given above. In this respect the canopy is -simply what, in ordinary pattern work,

would be termed a transition piece, in shape somewhat resembling the frustum of

a cone the axis of which is at right angles to the axis of the conoid, and the
pattern must be developed by the methods of triangulation.
 284 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

The curve A B—that is, any parabolic curve —may be extended indefinitely,
but for the purpose of representation it has been terminated at B, drawing the
horizontal line B D, representing a base of the conoid. In constructing a plan of

the several parts, first carry lines from the points B and A to intersect the center

line of the plan immediately above at B and A

1 1
,
and from A 1
as center draw the

arc B 1
E, which will represent a portion of the circumference of the base, while
the broken line E F will include in the half plan a sufficient portion of the conoid
to show the hole made by the intersection of the cylinder or cutter.
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 2,85

The first part of the operation will consist in locating the points of penetra-
tion. In the revolution of the figure A B C on its axis, A 0, previously referred
to, it will be seen that each point in the curve A B will describe a circle. Divide
that portion of the profile of the cylinder which passes inside the curve A B into
any convenient number of equal spaces, as shown by the small figures, 0 to 8.

Horizontal lines drawn through each one of these points crossing the elevation
and continued to intersect that portion of the curve A B, lying between the points
0 and 8, will represent in the elevation the lines of a certain number of horizontal
sections or circular planes, the positions of which in the plan it will be necessary to
find. These positions may be determined by projecting lines from each of the inter-
sections on A B, between 0 and 8, to the center line B A 1 1
of the plan above, as
shown by the small figure- 1 . These sections may be completed in the plan by de-
scribing circles through each one of these points on B A from
l 1
the point A 1
as
center. Portions of the circles only are shown in the plan, which are produced
only far enough to receive the necessary intersections.
Project lines upward into the plan to intersect circles of corresponding number.
Thus, a line erected from point 1 of the elevation will intersect the circle marked 1
1 Lines from points
in the plan at point '. 2, 3, etc. ,
on the profile of the cylinder
will intersect circles of corresponding number at 2', 3', etc., of the plan. Aline
traced through these points of intersection will then give the true plan of the
opening made in the side of the conoid by the circular cutter referred to.

The lines 8 H G O of the elevation represent the side or narrow view of the
canopy as given in the problem and referred to above. As itwas explained that
the elliptical base of the canopy is 2% X 4% in., if desired, in the problem one-half
the wide view of the canopy may now be constructed by continuing the line
G H into the plan and setting off thereon from the center line one-half the long
diameter of the ellipse, 2% in., a9 shown by the line K J, drawing a line from J
tangent to the curve of the opening just developed in the plan, which it touches
near point 4'. This view of the canopy, the outlines of which are shown dotted,
being beneath the shell of the reflector as viewed from above, is not absolutely
necessary in obtaining the pattern, but will assist the eye in forming an accurate
conception of the relative positions of the several parts.
What may be termed a plan of the ellipse is shown at the right in the elevation

by the curve designated by the small figures 0 to 8 at the right of the center line

A C. It is scarcely necessary to refer to the method of describing this curve, since

it is required to be a true ellipse, and may therefore be described by any regular

method for drawing an ellipse. For the purpose of completing a view from which
 *86 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

the pattern for the canopy can be obtained, it will be necessary to obtain in connec-
tion with this a correct plan or view of the opening in its correct relation to the
elliptical base. To do this carry lines from each of the points 1, 2, 3, etc., on the
profile of the cylinder to the right, crossing the center line A C and extending them
indefinitely. The position of each one of the numbered points in this curve will be

derived from the plan of the opening previously obtained above by measuring the
distance of each point from the center line B A 1 1
of the plan and setting off the

same distances on horizontal lines of corresponding number, measuring from the

center line A C to the right as shown by the points marked T, 2', 3', etc. ,
in this view.

While the curve BAD, with the base line B D, gives a general elevation of
a conoid, that portion of the elevation to the left of the center line A C may for

convenience be termed a front elevation of the conoid, and that portion to the
right of the center line may represent a side elevation of the same as viewed from
the left, or, in other words, as looking from the left through the opening in the
side of the conoid, showing what may be termed a plan of the canopy, and is,

therefore, a projection in a vertical plane at right angles to that of the view shown
at the left.

Having now completed the plan and elevation of the opening in the conoidal
surface, the second part of the problem is reached, viz. : developing the pattern for
canopy, and the view just completed and termed its plan will be the most suitable view
for this purpose. The plan view of the opening in the conoid, as developed from
the points upon the profile of the cylinder, contains eight spaces, but as the result
of the intersections the space from 0 to T and the space from 7' to 8' are very much
greater than the other spaces along this. It will, therefore, be advisable to divide
each of these spaces into two equal or nearly equal parts. Owing to the peculiar
character of this opening neither one of the views thus far obtained shows a full view
of both these parts of the opening. That part of the curve from 8' to 7' of the plan
is more fully shown in the plan of the conoid above the elevation from 8 to 7, and
may be there divided into approximately equal spaces by the point b' as shown, and
the position on this point b' may be transferred to the plan of the canopy in the
same manner as previously described for the other points —that is, by measuring its
distance from the line B A and
1 1
setting the same distance off from line A C on a
corresponding line in the plan of the canopy, which has been obtained by first drop-
ping a line from the point b in the plan above to cut the profile A B of the elevation,
as shown at b", and carried thence into the plan of the canopy at the right. That
portion of the curve from 0 to T in the plan of the canopy is shown in the
fully
plan, and may be divided in that view into equal spaces as shown by the point a'.
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 2,8 y

The result of these operations is to give 10 spaces upon the outline of the opening
forming the top of the canopy.
Divide the elliptical base into 10 equal spaces as shown by small figures and
the letters a and b. To avoid confusion in the operations of triangulation it will be
advisable to number these points to correspond with those opposite in the plan of
the top as shown. The triangulation may then be shown in this plan by first con-
necting points of like numbers or letters by the solid lines a' a, 1' 1,2' 2, etc., as
shown. This divides the surface of the canopy into a number of four-sided figures,
which figures may be further divided into triangles by simply drawing diagonals,
as shown by the dotted lines a O', 1 a', 2 T, etc. As is usual in these operations
these four-sided figures are irregular in shape, and it is advisable for accuracy’s sake
to employ the shorter of the two diagonals and, if possible, to maintain the same
order or direction throughout the course. In this case the diagonals were drawn
from each figure on the ellipse to the next higher figure on the upper outline.
This course, it will be seen, when continued beyond the points 6 6' will necessitate
drawing the diagonal the longer way. The order can be changed at this point if
necessary, but is apt to cause confusion, and if the difference is not too great it is

Usually advisable not to reverse the order.

Two further operations are now necessary before the correct lengths of the
various measurements indicated on the plan of the canopy can be obtained. First,

a correct development of the opening in the side of the conoid (represented by the
inner line of the plan of the canopy ) must be obtained as a means of obtaining the
correct stretchout of the pattern along its upper edge. This is shown in the small

diagram at the right of the general plan, and is obtained by setting off on the center

line B A1 1
of that view extended, as shown toward L, a correct stretchout of that
portion of the cylinder indicated by the points 0 to 8, all as shown by the points
0 to 8 in the diagram referred to and designated as an extended view of the open-
ing in the conoid. From each of the points on the line A' L drop perpendiculars,
as shown, and intersect them with lines carried horizontally from each of the points

in the previously obtained plan of the opening in the conoid, as shown. The re-

sulting curve 0, a, 1, 2, etc., will be the correct stretchout for what may be termed
the upper edge of the pattern of the canopy. This would constitute a true pattern
for the opening in the side of the cylinder were it necessary to obtain such a pattern.
As means now of obtaining the correct lengths of the several solid and
a
dotted lines drawn across the plan of the canopy it will be necessary, in the second
place, to construct two diagrams, as shown immediately below the canopy at the
left of the drawing. For this purpose extend the line G H downward, as shown,
 *88 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

toward M, and at any convenient points, as N and P, draw the lines N Q and
P R at right angles, as shown. From each of the points on the profile of the

cylinder from 0 to 8 drop lines cutting these two perpendiculars, as shown by the
small figures on each and partially indicated by dotted lines. From the point N
on the line N M set off the lengths of the several solid lines of the plan of the

canopy, as shown by the distances N a, N 1, N 2, N 3, etc., as shown by the

small figures. By joining points in the line N M with those of corresponding
number in the line N Q, the several oblique lines there shown will be the correct
lengths of the primary elements. For obtaining the true lengths of the secondary
elements set off from the point P on the line P M the lengths of the several
dotted lines of the plan, representing the secondary elements in that view, making
the distance P a, P 1, P 2, etc., equal to the distances a O', 1 o', 2 1', etc., of

the plan, being careful that the designating figure on P M corresponds with that
end of the line which intersects the base of the canopy. In this diagram the
points on the line P M must be connected with points on the line P R, corre-
spondingly with the connections made by the dotted lines of the plan, thus a' on
P M is connected to point 0 on P R, 1
' on P M is connected with o' on P R,
2' on P M is connected with 1' on P R, etc. These lines shown dotted in the
drawing will then represent the correct lengths of the secondary elements.
All the means necessary to develop the pattern for the canopy have been
obtained, which may be accomplished in the following manner Upon any con- :

venient line, as A B, set off the distance 8 8 in the diagram of the primary ele-

ments, as shown by points 8 8' in the pattern. From 8 of the pattern as center,
with a radius equal to 8 b' of the diagram of secondary elements, describe a small

arc near b' of the pattern, which intersect with a small arc drawn from 8' of the
pattern as center, with a radius equal to 8 b of the extended view of the opening,
thus obtaining the point b' of the pattern. With this point b' as a center, with a

radius equal in length to the line b b of the diagram of primary elements, describe
an arc near b, which intersect with another arc drawn from 8 of the pattern ah a
center, with a radius equal to 8 b in the plan of the canopy, thus locating the
point b of the pattern. Continue this operation using the lengths of the secondary

elements in connection with the distances upon the extended view of the opening
to determine the points on the upper edge of the pattern, and the lengths of the

primary elements in connection with the spaces on the babe of the canopy to
determine the location of the points on the base of the pattern, until the points 0 0
have been reached, all as shown. Curves traced through the points successively
obtained, as shown by B C and A D, will give the required pattern.
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 289

PATTERNS FOR SPIRAL INSIDE A CONE

To produce the pattern of a spiral on the inside of a cone revolving around a
shaft, such as those used on the inside of a dust collector, to settle and draw the
dust down to the receiver, proceed as follows :

As the various lines of curvature in the spiral represent various sections

through a solid, only an approximately correct pattern can be obtained, the edges
of which must be stretched with the stretching hammer to obtain the proper
curvature, as shown by the elevation in the accompanying illustration, Fig. 50,

similar to the thread of a screw.

The first step is to draw the plan and elevation as follows: Let A 3T 7T
represent the elevation of the cone, and B C D E the shaft, the plans of both the
cone and shaft being shown below. In this case it is assumed that the spiral

is to make two revolutions in the vertical hight from 1 to 1 in elevation, although

the same principles apply to any number of revolutions in a given hight.
Divide the plan of the cone into any desired number of equal spaces, in this
case eight, bearing in mind, however, that the greater number of spaces employed
the more nearly accurate will be the pattern. Number the various points in the
plan of the cone from 1 to 8, from which points draw radial lines to the center
A°, intersecting and dividing the plan of the shaft, also from 1 to 8. As the plan
is divided into eight parts and there are to be two revolutions in the elevation,
divide the vertical hight 1 1 in elevation into 2X8 or 16 parts, from 1 to 1° to

1, from which draw horizontal lines in the cone and intersect these by vertical
lines erected from similar numbers in the plan of the shaft. A line traced through
x T
these intersections, from l 1* to 1 will show the line of the spiral around the
shaft. From the intersections in the plan of the cone, erect vertical lines inter-
T T
secting the base of the cone in elevation from 1 to 8 ,
from which points radial
lines are drawn numbered horizontal lines.
to the center A, intersecting similar

A line traced through these points of intersections by l x 7 X 3 X l 4 7*, 3‘, 1 T , , , ,

will be the line of the spiral around the inside of the cone, making two revolutions.

This completes the elevation of the spiral which, however, is not necessary in the
development of the pattern and may be omitted in practical work.

The plan of the spiral will be necessary, in the development of the pattern,

and is obtained as follows: As the elevation contains 16 spaces, divide the line
from 3* to 3 in plan into 16 parts, as shown by the small dots, and using A as
b 0

center and the distances to the various dots as radii describe circles which intersect
the various radial lines in rotation at 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2° 3° 4° 5° 6° 7° 8°

and 1, through which the spiral curve of the two revolutions are drawn. Draw
29°
-
Special Sheet Metal Layouts
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 291

the solid lines in the plan of the spiral which show their true lengths and carefully
note how the dotted lines are drawn for the upper and lower revolution. Taking
the space between 7 and 8 as an example, a dotted line is drawn from 8 to 7°
for that space in the upper revolution, while a dotted line is drawn from 8 to 7

for the lower revolution, and so on until the last line from 2 to 1 is drawn. As
the pattern will be developed by triangulation, then will these dotted lines in plan
represent the bases of triangles, which will be constructed in T ;
the altitude of
each will be equal to either one of the vertical spaces in the elevation which are
shown by b, c, d and e in T. For example, to obtain the true length of the

dotted line 7 8 in plan, take this distance and place it from 7 to 8 in T. From
8 erect a vertical line equal in hight to c and draw the slant line to 7, which
represents the true length. In this manner are all the true lengths found in T as
shown by similar numbers. In practice separate diagrams need not be made for
each line, but it is done here to make each step clear. The next step is to find the

edge line of the spiral around the shaft, as follows: As the spiral makes two revo-
lutions, place double the girth of the shaft in plan on any horizontal line in X, as
shown. From 1 erect the vertical line 1 1 equal to the vertical spaces in eleva-
e
tion, and draw a line from 1 to l ,
which represents the developed spiral line,

which could be rolled around the shaft and marked, thus giving the exact line of

the spiral around the shaft in elevation. In X all of the horizontal lines have
been carried over to the developed spiral line, which is not necessary in practice,
e
one line being sufficient to give the true edge line as indicated from l to 2®, in

developing the pattern.

The edge line of the spiral on the inside of the cone must now be found as
follows: Using A in elevation as center, with radii equal to A 3 T
and A l
r
,

h r h
draw the arcs 1 l and l 1, respectively. Set off on the outer arc 1 l the
girth of the plan of the cone, as shown by similar numbers, and draw radial lines
to the apex A. Where the various lines, drawn from the vertical hights on 1 1
r V
in elevation, intersect the side of the cone l 3 ,
use these points as radii, and
with A as center, describe arcs intersecting similar numbered radial lines in the
pattern for cone, as shown by similar numbers. A line traced through these
points will give the pattern for the cone, as well as the developed line of the spiral
on the inside of the cone, for both revolutions. The pattern for the lower revolu-
tion of the spiral is obtained as follows : Take the distance of the solid line 1 1

in plan and place it, as shown by V 1 in V. Now set the dividers equal to
1" 2® in X, and using 1 in V as center draw the arc 2 r
,
which intersect by an
r
arc struck from l as center, with radius equal to the slant line of the triangle 1 2
 ^9 2 ' Special Sheet Metal Layouts

in T. Now set the dividers equal to the distance 1 2 in the developed spiral line
for the lower revolution in Y, and with V in V as center, describe the arc 2.
Now with radius equal to the true length of the solid line shown by 2 2 in plan,
and 2 T in V as center, intersect the arc 2 as shown. Proceed in this manner
until the lower revolution in Y and the upper revolution in W are developed.
In both patterns the measurements along the inner curves are obtained from
1® 2® in X; the true lengths of the dotted lines in the patterns are obtained from
the hypotenuse of the proper numbered triangle in T ;
the measurements along the
out . curves in the patterns are obtained from the proper numbered developed
spiral lines in Y, while the solid lines in the pattern are taken from the proper
solid lines in plan. Thus V and W show, respectively, the patterns for the lower
and upper revolutions of the spiral. Laps are allowed for joining, as shown by
t u in W. As before mentioned the outer and inner edges will require stretch-
ing to bring out the proper curvatures in the spiral.

CYLINDER INTERSECTING A CONE

The following method of determining the miter line of this problem will be
found to be accurate. Let A B C be the elevation of a right cone, which is inter-

sected at right angles to one of its sides by the cylinder D E F G, which is of less

diameter than the cone. Beneath the elevation draw a plan of cone and cylinder,
as shown. At the outward end of the cylinder in both plan and elevation draw the
profiles, which divide into space's, as shown in Fig. 51. It is evident that the lines
D E and G F intersect the cone respectively where these lines intersect the line
A C, or at the points D and G. These points have also been numbered 1' and 5'

to agree with the numbers in the profile. From the other numbers in the profile
in the elevation draw lines parallel with the axis of the cylinder, intersecting A C.
Continue these lines until they intersect the center line of the cone at the points
2 3", 4". From these points draw lines parallel with the base of the cone, inter-
",

secting the side A B, as shown.

Next locate the points T and 5' in the plan. This is done by dropping per-
pendiculars from these points to the line 0 X. It is necessary to locate the points
2 and 8 in plan, therefore from the point 2’ in elevation drop a line intersecting
O X at 2' in plan. Transfer the distance 2" 2'"
in elevation from O 2"' on the line
0 A. Then, using 0 2' as the semiminor axis and O 2"' as the semimajor axis,
draw the elliptical arc 2"' 2' 2 V
,
which intersect by lines drawn parallel to O X
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 293
T
from the points 2 and 8 in the profile in plan, thus locating the points 2 8T .

V T V T
Locate the points 3 and 7 and 4 and 6 in the same manner. Connect these
A
 *94 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

plan until they intersect lines drawn from the points in the profile in elevation
bearing similar numbers. At shown by
these intersections locate the points, as
V T T T
2 V
3 and 4\
,
The locations of the points 8 7 and 6 are respectively the same ,

as shown by 2
T T
3 and 4\ Draw the miter line T 3 T 5’, as shown in elevation.
,

The patterns for the cone and for the cylinder may now be obtained by the usual
methods.

A CONE INTERSECTED BY A HORIZONTAL CYLINDER

The first step in making the drawing of the object shown in perspective in Fig.

52 is to draw the front elevation of the right cone, as is shown by A B C in Fig.

53 in which A B is the base of the cone and C D the altitude, hi ext draw the
side elevation, as shown by E F G.
To find the line of the axis of the cylinder, produce A B
making B Ito I,

of the required length. At I erect I R perpendicular to A I, making I R

equal to the radius of the cylinder. Through R draw a
horizontal line, as shown by 32 R 3. It is now desired to
find the line of the axis in the side elevation. To do this

bisect G E F, and where the line of bisection intersects with

R 3 is the projection of the center of the cylinder. From K

drop the perpendicular lv 5, then with a radius equal to K
Fig. 52. Perspective View
5 describe the circle 5 7 2; divide this circle into a number
of Cylinder and Cone shown by the small figures, locating another
of equal parts, as

point, x, at the point of tangency between the cone and the cylinder. From these
points draw horizontal lines intersecting B C and C D, as shown by similar
figures. Continue the line I R until it intersects 1 1' at H, then will
5* I H l
2
represent the front elevation of the cylinder.
To draw the plan directly under D, with 0 as center and with a radius,

O E', equal to I) B, draw a circle. From E' on the vertical line 0 E' lay off

E' 5
2
,
equal to E 5 in the side elevation. Through 5* draw a horizontal line to
K', on which point with a radius equal to K 5 in the side elevation, draw a
circle, as shown, which divide into the same number of parts as was the circle in

the side elevation, taking pains to locate the point 1 at 90 degrees to the left of

where it is located in the side elevation. Locate the point x at its proper distance
between the points 7 and 8, as shown. From these points on the profile draw
lines into the plan, as shown. Draw M N directly under H I, then will
3* M N T be the horizontal projection of the cylinder.
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts *95

To find the miter line between the cone and the cylinder, project onto the

horizontal line 0 5' in plan the points T, 2’, x, 3', 4' and 5', in front eleva-

tion, as is shown by similar numbers in plan. Through these points, and with O
as center, draw arcs, as shown, intersecting the lines bearing similar numbers
drawn from the profile K'. At the points where the lines of the same number
intersect, locate the points as shown by the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, x and 8.

Trace a curve through these lines, as shown, then will this curve be the plan view
of the miter line.

To find the elevation of the miter line erect perpendiculars from the point on
the miter line just obtained into the elevation. Where these points intersect the
horizontal lines drawn from the points in the circle K bearing the same numbers,
296 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

locate similarly numbered points as shown by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, x, 2 and 8,

tracing a curve through these points, then will this curve show the front elevation
on the miter line. To develop the patterns for the cylinder and cone, proceed
according to the usual methods.

INTERSECTION OF ELLIPTICAL PIPE AND SCALENE CONE

This is a solution of ^he intersection of an elliptical pipe and a scalene cone, as
in Fig. 54, where A B C is the elevation of the scalene cone, and D E F G its

H_ 1 2 8 4 5 6 7 H 7 6 .*> 4 8 2 1 R

PATTERN FOR PIPE

Fig. 54. Method of Obtaining Miter Lines and Pattern

plan, taken on the line B C of the elevation,

while H I J B shows the outline of the ellip-
tical pipe placed in plan, as shown by KL M F.
To obtain the miter line in elevation between
the pipe and cone proceed as follows Divide :

one-half of the plan F G D into equal spaces,

as shown by the small figures 1 to 8, and draw
lines to the apex F in plan, intersecting the

half plan of the pipe F K L at points 1, 2', 3',

4', 6', 6', T and 8'. At right angles to F D

and from points 1 to 8 on F G D erect lines intersecting the base line of the cone
in elevation, as shown, from which intersections draw lines to the apex A. Next
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts *97

intersect these radial lines in elevation with others ( not shown ) draw from the
intersections 1, 2', 3', 4', 4', 5', 6', 7' and 8' on F K L in plan at right angles to
F D, intersecting similar numbered lines in elevation shown by 1” to 8". Trace a
line, as shown by B J, through points
thus obtained, which will show the
miter line or intersection between the
scalene cone and elliptical pipe.
Parallel to A B draw the line V W,
upon which place the various hights
of the intersections in the miter line

B J from points 1" to 8" at right

angles to A B, as shown from 1° to

8° on V W. This will be used in

the diagram of triangles in Fig. 54.
For the pattern for the elliptical

pipe draw any line, as P R, in line

H I, upon which place the stretch-
put of the elliptical section F KLM
in plan, being careful to carry each
space separately onto the line P R,
as shown from 1 to 8 to 1, because diagram
the spaces in F K L M in plan are OF
TRIANGLES
unequal. At right angles to P R
and from the small figures draw
lines, as shown, which intersect with

others (not shown) drawn at right

angles to H B in elevation from
I5S3
BB1WB!9
Ini
similar numbered
the miter line B
through points of intersection thus
obtained ;
then will
intersections
J. Trace a line

P R S T U
on

be Fig. 06.
ss
I EM r
HALF PLAN
111
S'
8

Method of Obtaining Scalene Cone Pattern

the pattern for the elliptical pipe.
Before obtaining the pattern for the scalene cone it will be necessary to obtain
a diagram of triangles from which the pattern is obtained, for which proceed as fol-
lows : Let the triangle ABC and the half plan FG D, with the various inter-
sections on same in Fig. 55 be a reproduction of the triangle and half plan having
similar letters in Fig. 54. Now, with F as center, Fig. 55, and radii, equal to
 ^9 8 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

F 2, F 3, F 4, F 5, etc. ,
to F 7, draw arcs intersecting the line F D at points
2' to 7'. These various lengths represent the base lines of the various triangles

which will be constructed by erecting lines at right angles to F D from points 1,

2', 3' 4', 5', 6', 7' and 8, intersecting the base line B G at 1", 2", 3”, 4",

5", 6", 7" and 8"; from these intersections draw lines to the apex A. Take the
various hights on V W in elevation, Fig. 54, and place them on the line A B of

Fig. 55, placing the point 1° on the point 1" on the base line B C. Then at

right angles to A B and from the various points 1° to 8° draw lines, as shown,

intersecting the hypotenuses of triangles having similar numbers, as shown by inter-

sections 2 to 8
X X
. With A as center and radii equal to A 1
", A 2
", A 3", etc. ,
to A
8", draw arcs, as shown. Now set the dividers equal to the spaces contained in
the half plan F G D, and, starting on the arc 1" at 1, step from one arc to

another, or, in other words, starting on the arc 1" at 1, step to arc 2", then to
3", until the point 8 is obtained on arc 8", which repeat, going backward, until

the point 1 on the arc 1" is obtained. Trace a line, as shown by H I J. Again
using A as center and A 2X ,
3X ,
4X ,
5X ,
6X ,
7X and 8 X as radii, intersect radial

lines in pattern drawn from the small figures on H I J to the center A, thus ob-
taining the intersections 2"' to 8"' to 2" in pattern. Trace aline, as shown by
J K L M H, and H I J K L M H will be the pattern for the scalene cone.

INTERSECTION OF RIGHT CONE AND ELLIPTICAL PIPE

Herein is a solution of a problem based upon the intersection of an elliptical

pipe and a right cone, as shown in Fig. 56. Here A B C is the elevation of the
cone and D E F G its plan struck from the center P, while H I J K is the out-
line of the pipe in elevation meeting the cone at J and K, the plan being L M
N 0. The first step is to obtain the miter line between the cone and pipe.

Therefore divide the half plan, F G D, into equal spaces, as indicated by the
small figures 1 to 9. From these small figures draw radial lines to the center
P, intersecting half of the elliptical pipe L M N at T, 2', 3', 4', etc., to 9'. From
the intersections 1 to 9 on F G D, and at right angles to F D, draw lines inter-
secting the base of the cone B C. From these intersections draw lines to the
apex A, which intersect with vertical lines ( not shown ) drawn from intersections
having similar numbers on L M
N in plan, as shown by 1", 2", 3", 4", 6", 7", 8"
and 9” in elevation.
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts a 99

To obtain the intersection 5 ", use 1’ in plan as center and P O or P 5' as

radius, and strike the arc O 5, intersecting the line F D at 5. At right angles to

F D, and from 5, erect the vertical line intersecting the side of the cone A C at 5 ".
"'
From 5 ", at right angles to 5 5, draw a line intersecting the radial line 5 in
elevation at 5". Then through the intersection obtained in elevation trace a line,
as shown by K J, which will represent the line of joint or miter between the
elliptical pipe and cone.
For the pattern for the pipe, draw any line, as R S, in line with H I of the

elevation, and upon the line R S place the stretchout of the elliptical pipe L M
R 1 34567 8 US 76 5 43

ELEVATION

PATTERN FOR PIPE

NO in plan, being careful to carry each space

on L M N separately on R S, as shown by
the small figures 1 to 9 to 1. At right
angles to R S, and from these figures, draw
lines, as shown, which intersect with others
( not shown ) drawn from intersections having
similar numbers on the miter line K J at
right angles to A G. A line traced through
points thus obtained, as shown by R S T
U V, will be the pattern for the elliptical

pipe joining the right cone.

For the pattern for the cone proceed as
Fig. 56. Obtaining Miter Lines and
Pattern for Pipe follows: At right angles to A G in ele-

vation, and from the various intersections in the miter line K J, draw lines
until they intersect one Bide of the cone, as A B, as shown by 1 9, 2 8, 3 7,4 6
and 5. Now, using A B as radius and A in Fig. 57 as center, describe the arc
1 1', upon which place the stretchout of twice the amount of the half circle in plan,
 300 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

Fig. 56, as shown from 1 to 9 to 1' of Fig. 57. From these points draw radial
lines to the center A, as shown, and with radii equal to A 1 9, A 2 8, A 3 7,

A 4 6, and A 5, and A of Fig. 57 as center, describe arcs intersecting radial lines

of similar numbers, as shown. A line traced through the points of intersection

Fig. 57. Obtaining Pattern of Cone

thus obtained, as shown by B C B 1

,
will be the miter cut joining the elliptical

pipe, while 1 B C B
1 1' 9 1 will be the pattern shape for the right cone.

PATTERNS FOR INTERSECTING ELLIPTICAL CONES

In Fig. 68 there is presented an interesting problem in intersections. In Fig.
59 is shown an enlarged view, and the method of drawing the plan elevation and
miter lines. Let A, B, C, D be the side elevation of the frustum of an oblique
cone and E F G H a side view of the frustum of a right elliptical cone. Let O
P W S represent the plan view on the lines of base, D C, of the elevation struck
from the center V, and K L M N a section of the line G F in elevation, the
ellipse being drawn by any convenient method. Extend the lines C B and D A
of the elevation until they meet, thus locating the apex J. Divide the plan O P
W S into any number of equal spaces as shown by the small figures 8 to 16 and
as 15 or W represents the apex of a cone in plan, draw lines from the spaces
obtained, O P W 8, to 15 or W as shown. At right angles to O W and from the
divisions in O P W draw lines upward intersecting the base line D C in elevation
at points 8' to 15'. From these points on the base line P C draw lines to the apex
J cutting the line of the upper base AB at points shown from 8" to 15". A plan
view of the upper base of the frustum A B may be obtained if desired in the
following manner: From the intersections 8" to 15" and at right angles to DC
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 3°i

draw lines (not shown in diagram) intersecting radial lines of similar number in
plan, as shown by the small dots. The line TVUW traced through these points
will give the required plan.
Extend the lines G H and F E in elevation until they meet in the apex I
which will be directly in line with Q, the center of the ellipse K LM N. Divide
one-half of this ellipse into
equal spaces as shown by
the small figures 1 to 7.
Through the small figures
and at right angles to K
M draw lines intersecting
the base line G F as
shown from T to 7'. From
these points draw lines
to the apex I, cutting the
radial lines in the oblique

cone as shown. The next

step will be to obtain
sections of the oblique
cone on the radial line
drawn to I. It should be
understood that the sec-

tions of the oblique cone

need be extended only to
the line 10' 10" in eleva-

tion or 10 W in either
side of the plan, as they
will then be sufficient to
obtain the intersection in
plan between the ellip-

tical and oblique cones.

If, however, the elliptical

cone was wider and longer

on H E in elevation, thus
Cutting deeper into the ^ *>rooe<^ ure *or Obtaining Lines of Intersection

oblique cone, the section lines in plan could be extended as much as required by
the same method. To obtain the lines of these sections and plans proceed as
3°a Special Sheet Metal Layouts

follows: As the sides of the elliptical cone G H and F E intersect the side of
the oblique cone at H and E, and as the line D A is shown in plan by O V, then
at right angles to and from the points A C H, H and E E,
DC 1
,
l
,
1 1
,
K 1
,
drop lines
as shown, intersecting O V in plan from E to H
2 2
.

6'
In the same manner from the point where the radial lines 2' I to I of the
elliptical cone in elevation intersect the radial lines 9' 9" and 10' 10" of the oblique

cone, drop lines intersecting radial lines of similar number in plan, as 10 W and

Fig. 60. Procedure for Obtaining Pattern of Right Elliptical Cone

9 W. Trace lines through these intersections as shown ;

then will the section line
L* K* L* represent a plan view of this section K' L' of the elevation; also the
section lines J* H* J*, F* E8 F E 2
2
,
C* D2 and B 8 A 2 B 2 will give the plan view
of sections taken on the lines J 1
8 1
,
F E
1 1
,
D C B A
1 1
,
1
,
1
,
respectively of the
elevation.
Having obtained the section lines and plans the next step is to obtain the
intersections of the radial lines of the elliptical cone in plan, so that the miter line
between the elliptical and the oblique cone can be obtained in elevation. First
obtain this miter line or intersection line in plan as follows Extend the center :
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 3°3

line O Win plan either way as shown by K 8 X. At right angles to D C in elevation

from the apex I and from the line G F in elevation drop lines intersecting the

center line K X8
in plan at X and 1' extending the lines to 1' indefinitely. Take
a tracing of the half ellipse in elevation N K L and transfer to the line L N 1 1
in

plan as shown by N K L care being taken to place the point K on the center
1 3 1
;
3

line as shown. Now from the divisions on the half ellipse in plan (which corres-
pond in spaces and number to those in elevation) and at right angles to L N 1 1

draw lines intersecting the base line L N at points 5' 3' 6' 2' and 7' From l 1
1'.

these intersections draw lines to the apex X as shown. As the section line E F 1 1

in elevation is taken on the radial line 4' I, then must the corresponding section,
F E F
2 2 2
,
in plan be cut by the corresponding radial lines 4 X at the points S 1 S1 .

As the section lines A B 1 1

,
C 1
D 1
,
H 1
,P and K L 1 1
in elevation are
taken on the radial lines 2' I, 3' I, 5'
1, and 6' 1 respectively, then must the
section lines of similar letters in plan B A B
2 2 2
,
D C D
2 2 2
J 2
H 2
J
2
K L
and L 2 2 2
be
cut by the radial lines 2'
X, 3' X, 5' X, 6’ X, on either side of the center lines K 1
X,
as shown by the points Z 1 ,
X 1
,
P and 0\1
the points E and II having been
2 2

previously obtained. Trace a line through these points, when E 2 O P S X Z 1 1 1 1 1

H 2
will be a half plan of the miter line. The opposite half can be obtained by
tracing if desired.

Having obtained this miter line in plan, the next step is to develop the same
in elevation. At right angles to K 8 X in plan and from the intersections O P etc. 1
,
1
,

carry lines upward, intersecting corresponding section lines, K L H

1 1
,
1
J 1
,
etc. in
elevation as shown by O P
2
,
2
,
S 2
,
X 2
and Z 2
. A line if traced through the points
will constitute the miter line in elevation showing the intersection between the
elliptical and the oblique cones.
In Fig. 60, E F G H I is a reproduction of E F G H I of Fig. 59 and is

carried forward so as to avoid a complication of lines in the development of the

pattern for the right elliptical cone. In the Fig. 60, H Z X S P O E is a repro-
duction of H Z 2
X 2
S* p* 0 E s
of Fig. 59, as is the half elliptical section with the
divisions on same a reproduction from Fig. 60. As the apex of a right elliptical
cone is directly central over its base, then from the divisions 1, 2, 3 and 4 in the
half ellipse Fig. 60, draw lines to the centre R. These lines will then represent
the bases of the triangles to be constructed as follows : Parallel to R I draw any
line, asA B. At right angles to R I and from points and I draw lines inter- 4'

secting A B at A and B. At right angles to A B draw the line A C. Take

distances R I, R 2, R 3 and R 4 setting them off on the line A C, measuring
in every instance from point A, as shown by the same figures. As the distances
 :

3°4 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

R 5, R 6, and R 7 are equal to R 3, R 2, and R 1, then add thesfe figures as

9 hown on the line A C. From the points on A C draw lines to the apex B ;
then
will ABC represent the diagram of triangles used in the development of the plan.
At right angles of R 1 and from the intersections H, Z, X, S, P, O and E on
the radial lines draw
lines intersecting
those of similar num-
bers in the diagram
of triangles as shown
by the points 1 to 7.
For the pattern
proceed as follows
With B in the dia-

gram of triangles as
center and with radii
B 7, B 6, B 5 and
B 4 on the base line
A C draw arcs, as

shown. In this case

the seam is placed at
the point 7 at the
bottom of the cone.
Starting at the point
7 on the arc 7 7,

take the distance in

the dividers equal to
the spaces into which
the half ellipse K L 1 1

M 1
has been divided
and step from one arc
to another placing the
division 6 of the plan
on the arc 6 5 of
the plan on the arc
5, until all of the divisions necessary to complete the full pattern are obtained.
A line traced through the points just obtained as shown from 7 to 7 will be the
outline of the base of the pattern. For that portion of the. pattern adjoining the
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 3°5

oblique cone draw lines from the intersections on the pattern lines 7 7 to the apex
B, intersecting arcs of similar numbers struck from the center B, with radii equal
to B 1, B 2, B 3, etc. in the diagram of triangles, as shown from 7' to 7' of the

pattern. Then will DTN J be the pattern for the right elliptical cone to intersect
the oblique cone.
In Fig. 61 J D C is a reproduction of J C D of Fig. 59. The half plan 8 12

15 in Fig. 61 is also a reproduction of the lower half plan of Fig 59, as is the miter
line H Z X S P O E in Fig. 61 a reproduction of the lower half of the miter line

in plan in Fig. 59. To obtain the diagram of triangle with which to develop the
pattern proceed as follows: With 15 in plan as the apex or center, and with radii
15 14, 15 13, 15 12, etc. describe arcs intersecting the center line 8 15, as shown.
From the intersections thus obtained and at right angles to 8 15 in plan, erect
lines intersecting the base lines as C I) at 8', 9', 10', etc. From the various intersec-
tions on the line C D draw lines to the apex J : then will these lines represent the
hypotenuses of the triangles, bases of which are shown by the straight lines of similar
2
numbers in plan. Parallel to ,T C in Fig. 59 draw the line J Cs . At right angles
to J
2
C and3
from the intersections 8” to 15" on the line A B of the oblique cone
8'"
draw lines intersecting the line J
2
C from
8
to 15'", as shown. In like manner
from the intersections on the miter line H S'E and from the points J and C draw 1

horizontal lines cutting the line J* C8 at J

2
,
H 3
,
Z3 ,
X 3
,
S8 ,
P3 O 3 , ,
E and C 3
3
.

2 3
Transfer the points from the line J l) to the line J I) of Fig. 61. At right angles

to J D, and from the small figures on Bame, draw lines intersecting the hypotenuses

of similar figures, as shown by 8" to 14" of Fig. 61.

For the pattern for the With J in the

oblique cones proceed as follows:
diagram of triangles as center and radii equal to J 8', J 9', J 10', etc. on the line
C D draw arcs indefinitely, as shown. In this case assume that the seam will come
at the point 15 in plan. Take the distance in the dividers equal to the spaces into

which the plan is divided, and commencing on the arc 15 15 in pattern step from
one arc to another, placing the division 14 of the plan on the arc 14 13 of the
plan on the arc 13, until all of the divisions necessary to complete the full pattern
are obtained. Through the points thus obtained trace a line, as shown, from 15 to
15, which will be the lower pattern cut. For the upper pattern cut, first draw lines
from the intersection on the base line of the pattern 15 to 15 toward the apex J,
intersecting arcs of similar numbers struck from the center J with radii equal to J
8", J 9" or J 10", etc. in the diagram of triangle, as shown by the intersection from
C 1
to B 1
. A line traced through these intersections will give the upper cut of the
pattern. Then A B C D
1 1 1 1
will be the pattern for the frustum of the oblique cone.
 306 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

For the shape of the opening to be cut into the oblique cone to admit the ellip-

tical cone proceed as follows: From the center point 15, draw lines through the
intersections in the miter lines in plan H S E, continuing them until they intersect
the plan of the base at Z
1
,
X 1
,
S 1
,
P and O
1 1
. With 15 in plan as centre and with
radii equal to 15 O 1
,
15 Z 1
,
etc. describe arcs intersecting the line 15 8, as shown.
At right angles to 15 8 and from intersections just obtained erect lines intersecting

the base line C D at O, Z, X, P and S. From these intersections draw lines

toward the" apex J, to intersect the horizontal lines with similar letters drawn from
the points on the J D, as indicated by the dots between H a
and E2 . Take the
distance 8 to O l
in plan in the dividers and placing one point at 8 in the lower

line of pattern, set off the distance on either side toward shown by O 0. In
9, as
the same manner set off the distance from A to Z 1
of the plan on either side of the
point 8 in pattern, as shown by Z Z ;
finally take the distances 9 to S1 and 9 to

X 1
P 1
in plan and set them off in pattern, measuring on either side from the point
9, as shown by S, X P, on either side of the pattern. From the points S, X P,

Z, O, draw lines toward the apex J, which intersect with the arcs of similar letters

struck with the apex J as centre, from H 2

,
Z2 ,
X 2
,
S2 P 2 ,
O ,
2
and E 2 in the diagram
of triangles, as shown in the pattern by H 8
,
Z3 ,
X3
,
S3 ,
P O
8
,
3
and E A line traced
3
.

through these points will give the shape of the opening to be cut out of the oblique
cone to admit the elliptical cone.

ENVELOPE OF SCALENE CONE WITH FLAT SIDE AND TOP

The subjoined paragraphs tell how to describe the pattern for the frustum of a
cone which is flat on one side, the top opening to be perpendicular to the flat side,
as shown in Fig. 62, in which A B C D shows the side elevation of the cone, E
F G in plan being the section on D C in elevation and struck from the center H,
while I J K L is the plan on A B in elevation and is struck from the center M.
EG in plan shows the flat side, on the line DA in elevation.

With H in plan as center, complete the full circle of the base, as shown by G
N E, and draw the center line in plan N F. Likewise in elevation extend the base
line C D, as shown by C 0, which intersect with a line drawn from N in plan at

right angles to F N, thus obtaining the point 0 in elevation. From 0 draw a line
to A, extending it indefinitely, as shown by O P. In similar manner extend the
line CB until it intersects 0 P at P. At right angles to N F in plan and from the
center H draw a line intersecting the base O C in elevation at R. In similar
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 3 °7

manner from M, the center of the circle of the top I J K L in plan, erect a line
at right angles to N F, intersecting the top line A B in elevation at S.Draw a
line through R and S, which must meet the apex P, as shown, thus making P O C
a scalene cone. From P at right angles to 0 C drop a line intersecting the line
N F in plan at T, which is the apex in plan of the scalene cone. Now divide the
half plan N 4 F into equal spaces, as shown by the small figures 1 to 7 ;
from
these small figures draw lines to the apex T in
F>

plan, the radial line 6 T intersecting the flat

side E G in plan at 6'". From 0 erect the
vertical line intersecting the base line C O in
elevation at 6', from which draw a line to the
apex P, intersecting the side A D at 6".
For convenience, when getting out the
pattern for the flat side establish any point, as

a, on the line A D in elevation. From a

draw a line to the apex P, extending it down-
ward until it intersects the base line OC at a .

From a at right angles to O C drop a line,

intersecting the circle at a", from which draw

a line to the apex T in plan, intersecting the
flat side E G at a". All of these points
represent the basis of all measurements
required for the patterns.
Before obtaining the pattern for the sca-
lene cone, first construct the diagram of tri-

angles shown in Fig. 63, in which 1 T 7 4 is

a reproduction of 1 T 7 4 reversed in Fig. 62.

Take the various divisions 6 a" E 5 4 3 2 1

and place them as shown by 6 « E 5 4 3 2 1

Fig 62 Completing the Problem as Presented
in Fig. 63. From these points draw lines to

the apex T in plan. Using T as center and radii equal to T 7, T 6, T a, T E,

T 6, T 4, T 3 and T 2, draw semicircles, as shown, intersecting the center line
1 7, as shown. From these intersections and at right angles to 7 1 draw lines

intersecting any horizontal line, D 1, at points D, 7, 6, a, E, 6, 4, 3, 2 and 1.

Extend the line T D indefinitely to P, as shown. Take the distance from U to P

in Fig. 62 and place it as shown from D to P in Fig. 63. Then from the various
intersections on D 1 draw lines to the apex P, as shown. Take the various hights
 in Fig. 62 from 1) to a to 6" to A and place them in Fig. 63 on the line D P,
as shown from D to a to 6 to A. At right angles to D P and from A draw the
line A B, which rep-
resents the top of the
opening.
In similar manner
at right angles to D P
and from the intersec-
tions 6 and a draw lines
intersecting hypote-
nuses having similar
numbers, as shown by
the intersections 6' and
a respectively. Then
will these lines repre-

sent the diagram of

triangles used in the

development of the
patterns. For the pat-
tern shape use P as
center, and with radii

equal to P 7, P 6, a,

E, 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1,

strike arcs indefinitely,

as shown. Set the di-

viders equal to the divi-
sions into which the
plan is divided, and
starting from the arc 7
step to the arc 6, then
to the arc 6, then to 4,

3, 2 and 1, and reverse

the operation and step
Fig. 68. Obtaining the Diagram of Triangles and Pattern
to arcs 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and
7, as shown. From these points draw lines to the apex P. Next set the dividers

equal to the distance 6 a in plan, and step from the arc 6 in the pattern to the arc
a ,
as shown by a on each side. In similar manner take the distance from a to E
 :

Special Sheet Metal Layouts 3°9

in plan, and step from arc a to arc E in pattern on either side. From the points a
E and E a in the pattern draw lines to the apex P. Now with radii equal to P 6
and P a' draw arcs intersecting the radial lines in the pattern drawn from points a
a and 6 6, thus obtaining the intersections a "
a” and 6" 6". Finally, with P as
center and radii equal to the various numbers 1 to 7 on A B (not shown), draw
arcs intersecting radial lines having similar numbers,
as shown, thus obtaining the points 7' to V to 7'.

Trace a line through points thus obtained ; then will

7' 6” a E 1 E a' 6" 7' 1' 7' be the pattern shape
for the scalene cone.
For the pattern for the hat side draw any line, as

BC in Fig. 64, upon which place the distances A 6

a D, equal to A a6” T) in elevation in Fig. 62. At
right angles to B C in Fig. 64 and through the points
6 a and 1) draw lines, as shown. Now, measuring in

each instance from the line N F in plan in Fig. 62,

“
take the distances to points 6"', a’ and E and place .

pg 64 Pattern 0 f the Vertical Side

them in Fig. 64 on lines having similar letters and
figures, measuring in every instance from the line B C on either side, thus

obtaining the intersections 6' 6', a a and EE. A line traced through points
thus obtained, as shown by E A E, will be the pattern for the vertical side of
the cone.

INTERSECTION OF SCALENE CONE AND CYLINDER

The procedure for obtaining the miter between a scalene cone and a 22 inch
cylinder, also the patterns, a sketch of shown in Fig. 65 is as follows
which is

Here A B C D represents the 22 inch cylinder and E F H J the scalene cone,

the intersection between the cone and cylinder being shown by J T E. The dia-
meter of the cone on the line H F which is shown by K L M N is 12 inches and
O P R S shows the diameter of the cone on the line J E which is 18 inches, the
length of the horizontal arm H J being 15 inches. Draw the plan of the article,
placing it under the elevation in its proper position, as shown by the dotted lines,
makin g A B 1 C 1 D1 the plan of the cylinder. Through the center point X of
1

the circle in plan draw the center lines K 0\ as shown. On either side of the
1

center line in plan, in their proper positions, as shown by the dotted lines locate
 3 IQ Special Sheet Metal Layouts

H F equal to 12 inches and J E equal to 18 inches. Draw lines from H to J

1 1 1 1 1 1

and F to E extending them until they intersect the 22 inch pipe, as shown.
1 1

Then will H B represent the plan of the scalene cone and cylinder corresponding
1 1

to the elevation.

The first step is to obtain the miter line J T E in elevation, for whiph proceed
as follows: Divide the profile K L MN into equal spaces, as shown by the
small figures 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. At right angles to K M and through the small
figures draw lines intersecting the line H F at T, 2', 3', etc. as shown. In the

same manner divide the profile O P R S into the same number of equal spaces as
in K L M N, as shown by small figures 8 to 14. At right angles to O R and
through the small figures, draw lines intersecting line J E as shown from 8 to 14.
Now draw solid lines from 2' to 13', 3' to 12', 4' to IT, 5' to 10', 6' to 9', extending
the lines indefinitely into the cylinder. Take a tracing of the profile K 4 M in
elevation and place it as shown by K 1
,
4" M 1
,
in plan, placing the line K M upon
l l

the center line in plan, as shown. In the same manner take a tracing of the
profile O 11 R in elevation and place it as shown by O 1
11" R 1
in plan, placing
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 3 ]

the line O R upon

1 1
the center line in plan. Parallel to K M 1 1
and through the
small figures 2", 3 ",
etc. in the half profile draw lines intersecting the line H 1
F 1
as
shown. In the same manner, parallel to R O
1 1
and through the small figures 9",
10", 11", etc., in the half profile draw lines intersecting the lines J 1
E 1
as shown.
From the various intersections on the line H F 1 1
draw lines through the points on
E shown, continuing them until they intersect the quarter C at 8"
1 1 1 1
J as circle I)

14", 9" 13" 10" 12" and 11". At right angles to the center line in plan and from the

Fig. 66. Pattern of Opening in Cylinder Triangles

intersections on the quarter circle D C1 1

carry lines upward intersecting those of
similar numbers previously extended into the cylinder, as shown by the points 14",
13", 12 11", 10", 9" and 8".
,
A line traced through these points, as shown by J T E
will represent the miter line between the scalene cone and cylinder.

The next step is to obtain the opening to be cut into the cylinder. In Fig. 66
let A B C D E J and with the miter line and the various intersections on it be

a reproduction, partly broken, of A B C D E J of Fig. 65. On D E of Fig. 66

extended, C A 1 1
,
place the stretchout of the half circle in plan, Fig. 65 as shown
by the small figures. Now at right angles to C A and through
1 1
the small figures
draw lines, which intersect with those of similar numbers drawn at right angles to
A D from the points on the miter line J T E as shown. A line traced through
these points from 8" to 14" will be the opening to be cut into the cylinder.
The pattern for the scalene cone will be developed by triangulations, and dia-
grams of sections will be required. Connect points in H F, Fig. 65, with points
on the miter line by dotted shown from
lines, as to 14, to 2'
to 12’, etc. 3' 13", 4'

Draw; any horizontal line, as A B in Fig. 67, upon which the various lengths of

the solid lines in scalene cone in elevation Fig. 65, as shown by lines of similar
 \

3 12 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

numbers A B of Fig. 67 At right angles to A B and from the small figures :

draw lines, making them equal in hight to vertical lines of similar numbers in the
half profile K 1 4" M and the quarter circle X D C in plan, Fig. 65. From the
1 1 1

points thus obtained in Fig. 67 draw slant lines as shown. For example, take the
length of the line 4' 11' in elevation Fig. 65, and place it as shown by 4' 11' on
the line A B of Fig. 67. At right angles to A B draw perpendicular lines 4' 4”

and 11' 11" equal in hight, when measuring from the center line in plan of Fig. 65,
to 4" in the profile K M 1 1
and 11” in the quarter circle X I)
1
C 1
. Now draw a
line from 4" to 11” in Fig. 67, which will be the actual distance on the finished
article on the line 4' 11" in elevation Fig. 65. Proceed in the same .manner for

sections on dotted lines. Draw any line in Fig. 68, as A B, upon which place the
lengths of the dotted lines in the scalene cone in elevation, Fig. 65, as shown by
lines of similar numbers on A

" n" B in Fig. 68. At right angles

to A B and from the small
iki "

\9/ V \\ \
3
—”1.— figures draw lines, making
N. them equal in hight to vertical
\ m A A / 8
„

\ \\ \ \ ! \ j I / / lines of similar numbers in

\V\A V\ \j \ j \/ / half profile K 1
4" M 1
and the
MV \ \l |_J 1
/ quarter circle X D C 1 1
in plan
4^^*
1

® 3 ' 1
^^>4 Fig 65. From the points thus
7 *
Fig. 69. Full Pattern of Scalene Cone
‘
obtained in Fig. 68 draw slant
lines as shown. For example,
take the length of the line 5' 11' in elevation, Fig. 65, and place it as shown by
5' 11' on the line A B of Fig. 68. At right angles to A B draw vertical lines 5'
5" and 11' 11", equal in hight, when measuring from the center line in plan, Fig. 65
to 5" in the profile K M 1 1
and to 11” in the quarter circle X D C 1 1
. Draw a line
from 5" to 11" in Fig. 68 which will be the actual distance on the finished article on
the dotted line 5' 11' in elevation Fig. 65.
These are now the diagrams of sections in Fig. 67 and 68, the half profile of the
narrow end of the scalene cone K M1 1
and the various divisions in
in plan Fig. 65

the pattern in Fig. 66, from which to obtain measurements for developing the pattern
for the scalene cone, for which proceed as follows: Draw any vertical line, 1" 14"

of Fig. 69, equal to 1' 14 or H J in elevation, Fig. 65. With 1" 2" in the half
profile K 1
M’ in plan as radius, and 1" of Fig. 69 as center, describe the arc 2 ".
Then, with 14 2" of Fig. 68 as radius and 14" of Fig. 69 as center, intersect the arc
previously described at 2". Now with 14" as center, and 14", 13" of the pattern,
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 3I3

Fig. 66, as radius, describe the arc 13" in Fig. 69. Then with 2" as center and 2"

13” of Fig. 67 as radius, describe an arc intersecting the previous arc 13" of Fig. 69.

Proceed in this manner, using alternately first the spaces in the half profile K M
1 1

in plan Fig. 65, then the lengths of the dotted lines in Fig. 68, then the spaces in
the pattern of Fig 66 and the lengths of the solid slant lines in Fig. 67, until the
last line 7" 8" of Fig. 69 is obtained equal in length to 7' 8 or F E in elevation,
"
Fig. 65. Then will 1
"
7 8” 1
1" 14" be the half pattern which can be duplicated,
as shown by similar figures to make the whole pattern. Allowance should be
made for edges for seaming and riveting.

INTERSECTION OF AN IRREGULAR SCALENE CONE

WITH A CYLINDER
The subjoined paragraphs tell how to obtain a pattern for a scalene cone
mitering into a cylinder, the under side of the cone being horizontal. The inter-
section between the cone and outer line of cylinder is to be 22 inches and diameter
of the cylinder, 20 inches, as shown in Fig. 70, in which ABCDEFGHis
the side view of the article and O P R D E the plan. As C F in elevation is 1 1

a given width, or 22 inches, and is wider then the diameter of the cylinder, which
is 20 inches, the section at the base of the cone becomes an ellipse and therefore

constitutes an irregular form and may be constructed as follows : Bisect the width
of the cylinder A B or H G by the center line L M. Extend the sides of the
cone D C and E F until they meet the center line L M at K and J respectively.

Then will K J be the length of the base of the cone and the width of the cylinder
that of the base. Parallel to A H draw the line T U, making it equal in length
to K J as shown by the dotted lines. Bisect the line T U at the point T 1
.

Through T 1
,
and at right angles to T U, draw the line W V, making it equal to
the diameter of the cylinder, as shown. Then through the points T, Y, U, W
draw any oblong figure as shown, which will represent the base of the cone. In
the same manner, at right angles to I) E, and from points D and E, draw lines, as

shown, intersecting the line T U at X and U. Bisect X U at X 1

. Then, with
X 1
as center and X X
1
or X U
1
as radius, describe the circle X Y U Z which
represents the section on line I) E in side elevation.

The next step is shown by C J 1 F in

to obtain the miter line or line of joint
elevation, for which proceed as follows Divide one half of the outer curve, shown :

from T to U, into any number of equal spaces as shown by the small figures 1 to
3 I4 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

9. In the same manner divide one-half the inner circle into the same number of
spaces, as shown from 9 to 17. Draw solid lines from 1 to 17, 2 to 16, 3 to 15,
etc., until the last line 8 to 10 is obtained. At right angles to T U and from
spaces 1 to 9, draw lines intersecting L M at points l
1
to 9
1
. In the same
manner, at right angles to T U and from points 9 to 17, draw lines inter-
secting D E in elevation at points 9 1
to 17
1
. Connect similar points with solid
1
lines, as in section, thus: l to 17 1
,
2 1
to 16 1
,
etc., until the last line 9 1 to 9 1 is

obtained.
Now extend the line S P in plan as shown by S T 1
. Upon this line place a
duplicate of one-half of the sectional views with the solid lines connecting the same,

ALB as shown by T V 1 U 1 Z
in plan. At right angles
1 1

to O R and from the

various spaces on the
outer curve T 1
VU 1 1
,

draw lines intersecting O

R, or base of cone in
plan, at points 1 to 9.

In the same manner, at

right angles to D E 1 1
,

and from points in the

half circle 9 to 17 draw
lines intersecting D E 1 1

at points 9 to 17. Con-

nect similar points with
solid lines, as in elevation

thus: 1 to 17 and 9 to 9,
2 to 16 and 8 to 10, 3
to 15 and 7 to 11, 4 to
14 and 6 to 12, and 5 to
13, intersecting the circle
P R S O at S, A 1
,
B 1
, C and
1
R. Now at right angles to S P and from the
various intersections on the quarter circle S R, draw lines upward, intersecting
lines in elevation the numbers of which are similar to those in plan, as shown by
the points C, F\ G H 1
,
1
,
J 1
,
K L M F
1
,
1
,
1
,
1
. Trace a line through these points,
which will represent the miter line, or line of intersection between the irregular
scalene cone and cylinder.
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 3 I5

For the pattern of the opening to be cut in the developed cylinder proceed as
follows: Duplicate A B C F G H of Fig. 70, as shown by A B C F G H in
Fig. 71 ;
also duplicate the plan O P R S with the various intersections, which
have been numbered from 1 to 6 as shown. On the line G H extended, as O 1

R 1
,
place a stretchout of the half circle in plan, transferring each space separately,
as shown by R 1
1 2 3 S 1
4 5 6 O 1
. At right angles to R 1
0\ and from the small
figures, draw lines, which intersect with those of similar numbers drawn from the
miter line C O F 1
at right angles to A H. Trace a line through the various inter-

Fig. 72. Diagram of Triangles

of Solid Lines

Fig. 78. T
Diagram of rianglee
of Dotted Lines

sections. Then will T TJ V W be the shape of the opening to be cut into the
surface of the developed cylinder.
For the pattern for the irregular scalene cone proceed as follows : From points

in the base, Fig. 70, draw dotted shown from 2 to 17, 3 to 16,
lines to the top, as

4 to 15, etc. until the last line 9 to 10 is obtained.

,
Draw any horizontal line,
as J E in Fig. 72, equal to J E in elevation, Fig. 70. At right angles to J E in
Fig. 72 draw the vertical line J X, upon which place the various lengths of the
solid lines shown in sectional views Fig. 70, as 17 1, 16 2, etc., measuring in

every instance from the point J in Fig. 72, as shown by the small figures 1 to 9.
From the small figures draw solid lines to the point E. Then will these solid lines
 3 x6 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

represent the hypotenuse of the triangles, the bases of which are shown in the
sectional views, Fig. 70, by solid lines of similar numbers. In the same manner
draw any horizontal line, as J E in Fig. 73, equal to E in Fig. 70. At right .1

angles to J E in Fig. 73 draw the vertical line J X, upon which place the various
lengths of the dotted lines shown in sectional views in Fig. 70, as 17 2, 10 3, etc.,
measuring in every instance from the point in Fig. 73 as shown by the small .J

figures 10 to 17. From the small figures draw dotted lines to the point E. Then
will these dotted lines represent the hypotenuses of the triangles the bases of which
are shown in the sectional views in Fig. 70 by dotted lines of similar numbers.
Draw any vertical lines 1 17, in Fig. 74 equal in length to l 17 of Fig. 70 or 1 E 1 l

of Fig. 72. Then with 1 2 of the sectional views, Fig. 70, as radius and 1 of
Fig. 74 as center, describe the arc 2. Now with 17 E of Fig. 73 as radius and 17
of Fig. 74 as center, de-
scribe an arc intersecting
the previous arc at 2.

Then, with 17 1(> of the

sectional views of Fig. 70,
as radius and 17 of Fig. 74
as center, describe the arc

16, which intersect by

another arc struck from 2
as center and E 2 of Fig.
72 as radius. Proceed in
Fig. 74. Procedure for Obtaining Pattern for Irregular Scalene Cone
this manner, using alter-

nately, first, the spaces on the outer curve in the sectional views of Fig. 70, then the
hypotenuses of the triangles of Fig. 73, the spaces on the inner curve in the sec-
tional views of Fig. 70, then the hypotenuses of the triangles shown in Fig. 72,
1
until the last line 9 9 of Fig. 74, has been obtained. Trace a line through points
of intersections thus obtained. Then will 9 9
1
17 1 be the half pattern for the
irregular scalene cone shown in the side elevation Fig. 70. by K D E J.

To obtain the cut or intersection with the cylinder proceed as follows : From
the points of intersection C, F 1
,
G H
1
,
1
,
J 1
,
K L M\
1
,
1
,
F in side elevation Fig. 70,
draw horizontal lines at right angles to L M, as shown. Take the distance of these
horizontal lines, measuring in each and every instance from the line L M to the
on the
intersection solid lines, and transfer these lengths on to solid lines of similar
numbers shown in Fig. 72, measuring in each and every instance from and at right
angles to the line J X, obtaining the points C, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, F 1
. On the
 :

Special Sheet Metal Layouts 3*7

lino 17 1 of Fig. 74, measuring from 17, set off the distance E C of Fig. 72, as
shown at C, and from 16 on the line 16 2 set off the distance E F of Fig. 72,
locating the point F. In the same manner set off E G of Fig. 72, on the line 15
3 and E H on the line 14 4, etc., proceeding in this manner until the point F 1

in the pattern has been obtained. Trace a line through points thus obtained, as
shown. Then will F 1
,! G 17 '.6 be the half pattern. Transfer a duplicate opposite
the line G 17, as shown. Then will F 1
,J C J
1
F 2
9* 17 9 1 be the full pattern for
the irregular scalene cone mitering against the cylinder.

PATTERN FOR AN IRREGULAR BOSS

To cut the pattern for an irregular boss, where the branch pipe is less in

diameter than the main pipe, the following has been prepared. The branch, it

should be stated, intersects the main at other than a right angle. Proceed as
follows
Let ABCDEFGHin Fig. 75, be the side elevation of the two pipes.

At pleasure locate the points 1 and 7, giving the extreme length of the boss at the
bottom, also locate the points 8 and 14, giving the horizontal line at the top.
From the side elevation construct the end elevation, K representing the section of
the main pipe, and 11 11° the top line of the boss. From 11 and 11° draw lines
tangent to the circle K at 4 and 4°, respectively. The distance 4 4° and 11 11°

represent, respectively, the widths at the bottom and top of the boss.

In line with the branch pipe in the side elevation draw the profile J, which
divide into equal parts, as shown by the small figures 8 to 14. From these points
parallel to B C draw lines intersecting the top line of the boss as shown by the
figures 8 to 14. As any plane cut through a cylinder at other than a right angle
produces an ellipse, then the elliptical section must be found through 8 14 in side
elevation as follows: From the various intersections 8 to 14 on the top line of the
boss draw vertical lines crossing the horizontal line S T in plan*as shown. Now
measuring from the line 8 14 in the profile J,- take the various distances to points
9 to 13 and place them on each side of the line S T in plan on lines drawn
from similar numbers measuring in each instance from the line ST. A line traced
through points thus obtained will give the true section through the top of the boss,

to fit around the cylinder B C D E at the angle shown.

3 l8 Special Siieet Metal Layouts

From points 1 and 7 in side elevation project lines to the center line S T in
plan, obtaining similar points 1 and 7. From the point 11 in the end elevation
draw a vertical line intersecting the line 4 4° at a. Take this distance a 4 and
place it in the plan of the side elevation from 11 to 4 on both sides. Through the

points 14 7 trace an elliptical figure at pleasure as shown, which will represent

the miter line in plan between the boss and main pipe.
Take a tracing of this plan and place it below the end elevation as shown.
As both halves opposite the line 1 7 are symmetrical, only one-half of the full pat-
tern will be developed. As one-half of M contains six spaces, thep divide one-half
cf 1 7 also into six spaces as shown from 1 to 7. Draw the solid and dotted lines
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 3*9

in the usual manner, and from points 1 to 7 in plan erect perpendiculars until they
intersect part of the circle K
shown by points 1 to 7. As all the points from 8
as

to 14 in plan lie on a horizontal plane, shown by 11 11° in elevation, this line gives
their proper hight and is so marked 8 to 14.
The obtaining of true lengths of the solid and dotted lines in plan can be
accomplished rapidly by means of the diagrams O and P, the former being the true
lengths on the solid lines and the latter the true lengths on the dotted lines. As
1 14 and 7 8 in side elevation and 4 11 in end elevation show the true lengths of
these respective lines in plan, they need not be found in diagram O. From the
various intersections 2 to 6 on the circle K project horizontal lines to be left as
shown, and at pleasure erect two perpendiculars c d and e f. To obtain the true
length of the line 6 9 in plan, take this distance and place it in 0 on the line
drawn from 6 in the circle K, measuring from the line c d, and draw the diagonal
line from 6 to i, i representing the upper line of the boss for all points from 8 to 14
in plan.
To obtain the dotted line from 3 to 13 in plan take this distance and set it off

on the line drawn from 3 in the circle K measuring from the line e f, and draw a
line from 3 to h; h in P representing the upper line of the boss for all points shown
in plan from 8 to 14. In this manner obtain all of the solid and dotted lines.
Before the pattern can be developed a true section must be obtained on the
curved line from 4 to 1 in K as follows : Take the various distances from 1 7, to

2, to 6, to 3, to 5, to 4 and place them on the horizontal line L 4 in plan, as

shown by similar numbers, through which vertical lines are drawn and intersected
by horizontal lines drawn from similar numbers 1 to 7 in plan. A line traced
through points thus obtained as shown from 1 to 4 to 7 in N will be the developed
section.
Assuming that the pattern is to be made in two halves with seam on 7 8 and
14 1 in plan below the side elevation, take the distance 7 8 in side elevation and
place it as shown by 7 8 in R. With radius equal to 7 6 in the developed section
N, and 7 in R as center, describe the arc 6, which intersect by an arc struck from 8
as center, with a radius equal to h 6 in P. With radius equal to 8 9 in plan M
and 8 in R as center, describe the arc 9, which intersect by an arc struck from 6 as
center and 6 i in 0 as radius. Proceed in this manner in developing the half
pattern, noting the direction in which the solid and dotted lines run in plan M,
obtaining the length of 4 11 and 1 14 in the pattern R, from 4 11 in end elevation
and 1 14 in the side elevation, respectively. Trace a line through intersections
%

thus obtained in R, which will then be the half pattern for the boss.
3 2,0 Special Sheet Metal Layouts
 Special Sheet Metal -Layouts 321

As the branch pipe intersects the main directly in the center it will only be
necessary to develop the one-quarter pattern, the four quarters being alike. There-
fore, divide one-quarter of the main pipe in end elevation into equal spaces, as
shown, from 1 to 4, from which horizontal lines are drawn, intersecting the miter
line in side elevation, as shown, from 1 to 4 to 1. In similar manner divide
one-fourth of the plan G representing the top opening of the branch, also into
similar spaces, as in end elevation, as shown from V to 4', from which perpen-
dicular lines are drawn, cutting 1 A from 1 to 4.
Draw solid lines from 1 to 1, 2 to 2, 3 to 3 and 4 to 4, and dotted lines
the shortest way from 1 to 2, 2 to 3 and 3 to 4. These lines then represent the
bases of sections the altitudes of which are obtained
from the end elevation and from plan G, as will be
explained. As the diameter of the plan G and that
of the end elevation ,1 are equal, and as the number
of spaces in both are alike, the solid lines shown in
the transition piece in side elevation will show their
true lengths, because the various distances, measured
Fig. 77. Process for Obtaining
from the center line T O in plan G to the various Pattern of Irregular Tee

points 2 to 4 ,
will be found similar to the various distances in the end elevation,
measuring from the center line J 1 to points 2 to 4.

The true length on the dotted lines 2, 2 3 and 3 4 in side elevation are 1

found by taking these distances and placing them on vertical lines in diagram (N),
as shown by similar numbers. For example, to find the true length of the line 2 3
in side elevation, place this distance as shown by 2 3 in (N), through which
points draw lines indefinitely. As the distance through 3 of the line 1 A in side
elevation is equal to 3' a in plan G, take one-half of this, as a b or b 3’, and
place it in (
N) on either side of the center line as indicated by 3 3'. In similar
manner, as the distance through 2 on the miter line 1 4 in side elevation is equal
to d 2 in end elevation, then take one-half of this, as d 1 of 1 2, and place it on
either side of the center line in ( N ), as shown by 2 2". Draw the lines 3' 2" and
2" 3', when 3' 3' 2" 2" represents the true section on the plane 3 2 in side elevation.

In practice only one-half of these sections are required in (N).

The next step is to develop the opening in the main pipe, shown at (R),
which will give the true lengths of the miter line and will be used in developing
the branch pipe. On the line C D extended draw
upon which place the D P,
stretchout of the profile J in end elevation, as shown by similar numbers on D P.
Through these figures draw the usual measuring lines at right angles to D P, which
32a Special Sheet Metal Layouts

intersect by lines drawn parallel to D P from similar numbered intersections on

the miter line 1 4 1 in side elevation, and resulting in the intersection shown
from 1° to 4° in (R). Trace a line through points thus obtained and this will
give the pattern for the horizontal pipe, with a seam along C F in side elevation.

The pattern for the branch is now laid out by taking the distance of 4 4 in

side elevation and placing it on the vertical line in Fig. 77 as shown by 4' 4°.

With radius equal to 4° 3° in the pattern (R) and 4° as center, describe the arc 3°,

which intersect by an arc struck from 4', in Fig. 77, as center, and 4' 3", in

diagram (N) in Fig. 76, as radius. Now with 4' 3' in plan G as radius and 4' in

Fig. 77 as center, describe the arc 3', which intersect by an arc struck from 3°, as

center, and the solid line 3 3 in the side elevation in Fig. 76 as radius. Proceed
in this manner, using alternately first the divisions in the miter cut (R), then the
true lengths in ( N ), and the divisions in the plan G, and then the true lengths
shown by the solid lines in side elevation. Through points thus obtained in

Fig. 77 trace the line 4' to T to 1° to 4°, which represents the one-quarter pattern.
the pattern desired in two part, trace this quarter opposite the line 4' 4°, as
If is

shown by 1" l
x
,
which gives the half pattern with a seam on 1 1 and A 1 in side

elevation in Fig. 76.

PROBLEM OF THE PATTERN FOR SPIRAL CONVEYOR

The question has several times been asked, how to cut a pattern for a spiral,

such as is used as a conveyor or for the purpose of bolting in a flour mill, or as a

conveyor for fertilizing compounds, flax and cotton seed and grains, white lead,

concrete and many other materials, and also as a package chute. The question has
always been answered by saying that a correct pattern cannot be cut, for the reason
that the construction of such a spiral requires more or less stretching of the metal.

From the purposes for which it is used it will be seen that when used as conveyors

they must be more or less perfect in their curves and construction, according as the
material to be conveyed offers more or less resistance.
The curved or twisted surface of such a conveyor is geometrically known as a
helicoid, and may be described as a warped surface generated by a line (or some

portion of a line ) placed at right angles to an axial line, one end of which gene-
rating line is kept in contact with the axis, along which it passes at a uniform speed,
while the other end of the generating line is revolved about the axis, also at a
uniform rate of speed. The outline of the helicoid, or the path traversed by the
extreme point of the generating line, is called a helix, and the ratio existing
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 3*3

between the two rates of speed for any given length of generating line constitutes
what in mechanics is called its pitch. Thus the greater the speed of the generating

line along the axis in proportion to the speed of its revolution the greater or higher
will be the pitch and distance traveled by the outer end of the line at each revolu-
tion. The line at the top or bottom of a screw thread is a helix while the bearing
surface (not the cylindrical surface)
of a square thread is a helicoid.

In Figs. 78 and 79 A B are

the axes, B C the generating lines,
and the spirals shown are the paths Fig. 78. Spiral or Helix of Low Pitch

traversed by the points C as they

revolve about the axes, while B C
at the same time moves toward A.
In Fig. 78 the line BC has during
one revolution traveled the dis-

tance B D, while in Fig. 79 it is

represented as having traveled Fig. 79. Outer and Inner Edges of Helicoid of High Pitch
twice as far (B D 1
), thus producing
a spiral or helix of much greater angle of inclination. As intimated above, the
inclination of the spiral also depends upon the length of the generating line or

distance of the point C from the axis. If another point be assumed upon the
generating line nearer the axis than C, as E in Fig. 79, it will be seen that another
spiral will be described, with an inclination greater than that described by the
point C. The helicoid or surface existing between the two spirals in Fig. 79, or,

in other words, the surface generated by the line C E, constitutes in the abstract
that which, if executed in metal, would be required to form the essential feature of
a spiral conveyor.
A helix may also be described as the line traced upon the surface of a cylinder
by a point which is moved at a uniform rate of speed parallel to its axis while the
cylinder is being rotated also at a uniform speed. The angle of inclination of a
helix may be accurately obtained by constructing a right angle triangle the altitude
of which is equal to the distance traversed by the point measured parallel to the
axis of the cylinder at one revolution, as B D in Fig. 80 and the base of which is

equal to the circumference of the cylinder, the hypotenuse of the triangles showing
the required angle. In the triangle X Y Z, in Fig. 80, X Yis equal to the desired
longitudinal distance traveled by a point at one revolution of the cylinder, while

Y Z is equal to the circumference of the cylinder as taken from the plan above.
 3 a4 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

The hypotenuse X Z therefore gives the angle of inclination, and at the same time
the exact distance measured around the cylinder and along the spiral line from B
to D. If such a triangle, the base of which is equal to the circumference of a given
cylinder and which altitude is any desired distance, be cut from paper and wrapped
around the cylinder, having first placed its altitude parallel to the axis, or, in other
words, so that its base shall lie in
a perfect circle, the point Z meet-
ing the point Y, as shown at D in
Fig. 80 ,
then a true helix may be
traced along the hypotenuse upon
the surface of the cylinder.
In Fig. 81 A B C D is the
elevation of a portion of a cylinder
or shaft around which it is required
to construct a helicoid conveyor, E
F being the required outside di-
ameter of the flange, or flight, as

that portion of the conveyor is

some times termed. A half revo-

lution of the flange is also shown in plan by H I J M L K, and in elevation by
D B G E. The method of obtaining a correct elevation of the spiral line in ele-

vation is shown in the left half of the drawing and may be described as follows:

Divide one-fourth or one-half a revolution of the desired spiral line in plan into
any number of equal spaces, as shown between K and L, also divide the same
fraction of the hight of one revolution in the elevation into the same number of

equal spaces, as shown by the points a to e upon the axis, and from these points
draw horizontal lines above that portion of the plan similarly divided. From each
of the points b, c and d of the plan erect a line cutting that of similar number of
the elevation, as shown by the dotted lines. A line traced through the points of
intersection, as shown from E to a, will give the required line in elevation. Lines
drawn from b, c and d to the center P will give points upon other concentric
lines of the plan from which to obtain their respective elevations by means of the

horizontal lines previously drawn. Thus D a is obtained from the points on the
arc H I, as shown.
As stated at the outset, the flange cannot be made without a certain amount
of stretching of the metal to give it the required twist, which will be more or less
according as the angle required is greater or less. If the angle required were lower
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 3*5

than that indicated in Fig. 78 it is possible that the metal might be cut in disks
(one for each revolution) of the diameter shown in the plan, and forced apart
sufficiently with little difficulty. But as the inclination increases the difficulty of

construction increases also. In Fig. 81, therefore, an extremely sharp angle has
been chosen in order to more clearly show the existing conditions and to make
certain differences more apparent. Before these differences can be explained it will

be necessary to first understand certain relations existing between circles and their
diameters. The circumference of every circle, as is well known, is about three and
one-seventh times its diameter. The relation of the diameter to the circumference

of a circle cannot be given exactly in figures, but in all computations requiring

ordinary accuracy 3.1416 is used as the multiplier of the diameter. The semicir-
cumference H I J is therefore equal to one-half the product of the diameter H J
multiplied by 3.1416. In like manner K L M is equal to one-half of 3.1416
 —

Special Sheet Metal Layouts

times K M ;
and since the diameter KM is greater than H J by twice the distance
J M, the semicircle K L M must be greater than the semicircle H I J by an
amount equal to 3.1416 times J M (one-half the difference between the two
diameters).
Following this, if K H or J M be divided into any number of equal spaces,
and concentric semicircles be drawn, the differences between their circumferences
will all be equal, because, as above stated, each difference is the product of 3.1416
by one of the spaces in J M, and the spaces being equal the product must be equal.
The distance J M (or H K) having been divided into four equal spaces and the
semicircles drawn, the circumference of each with those of H I .1 and K L M
have been set off on the line E F extended, measuring each time from the point
N. Thus N 1 is the circumference or stretchout of the line H I J, N 2 is that
of the line 2 2, N 3 that of 3 3, etc., showing what has been proved by figures
viz., that the differences are all equal —that is, 1 2, 2 3, 3 4 and 4 5 are all

equal. What is true of the set of equally spaced arcs of the plan is equally true of
any other similar set of equally spaced arcs including a greater or less number of
degrees than the semicircle, provided the arcs are terminated at either end by radii
(lines drawn to the center from which they were struck) —that is, their differences

would all be equal.

The several dimensions on the line N E having been obtained, the real
stretchout on each of the parallel lines of the completed flight, represented in plan
by the semicircles and in the elevation by the dotted spiral lines, may be easily
obtained by completing the right angled triangle as described in connection with
Fig. 80. Therefore erect the perpendicular N R equal in bight to A I) and draw
the hypotenuses R 1, R 2, etc. ;
then will R 1 be the correct length of the line
D B of the elevation, or 11 I J of the plan, and R 5 the true length of B G of

the elevation, or K L M of the plan. In the same manner R 2, R 3 and R 4

will be the correct stretchouts of the three intermediate parallel lines indicated by
2 2, 3 3 and 4 4 of the plan, and shown dotted in the elevation. A comparison
of these distances, R 1, R 2, etc., will now show why a flat pattern for any portion
of a flight cannot be cut. With R as a center describe arcs from each of the points

1, 2, etc., bringing all to the line R 5, from which it will be found by measure-
ment that 1' 2' is less than 2' 3', 2' 3' less than 3' 4', and it less than 4' 5'. A
comparison given at Q, where the short lines correspond in
of these differences is
length with spaces of similar number on R 5. Any pattern, therefore, for a blank
to form a portion of a flight, supposing it to be drawn to any determined or assumed
radius and terminated at each end, as it must be by radial lines, would have to be
 :

Special Sheet Metal Layouts 3 a7

possessed of stretchouts taken upon equally spaced concentric lines, the differences
of which were unequal, a condition which, as shown above, cannot exist in a flat

pattern.
In determining the proper radius by which to lay out a blank to be raised or
stretched into the required helicoid two methods are open to the mechanic : One
is to obtain as nearly correct a curve as possible of the right length or stretchout
for the inner side of the pattern, then draw the outside of the blank parallel to it,

in width equal to B G or J M, and finish by stretching the outside and inter-

mediate portions with the hammer until they reach the required position, as shown
by E G and the The other method is to reverse
parallel dotted lines of Fig. 81 .

the operation, obtaining first the outer curve and work to the inside. An inspec-
tion of the elevation will show that both of the spiral curves near where they cross
present the appearance of nearly straight lines for a considerable distance. The
central or nearly straight portion of the inner spiral D B, for instance, would, if

prolonged in either direction, cut the outlines of the cylinder around which it is

drawn at the points o and o ;

and as any section of a cylinder taken on an oblique
plane is an ellipse, it will be seen that that portion of an elliptical section of the
Bhaft taken on the line o o and lying
between the points y and z must very
nearly approximate the inner curve of the
spiral. But as the curve of the spiral is

unlike the ellipse, the same at every part,

the required portion of the ellipse having
been drawn, the approximate radius of

that portion can be used in describing

the pattern for the required blank.
This radius can be quite easily

obtained in the following manner

Fig. 84. Method of Obtaining Radius for Outer
Bide of Blank

Draw any line, as A B of Fig. 82, equal in length to o o of Fig 81,

which bisect at C. At A, B and C erect three perpendiculars, which make equal
in bigh t to I P of Fig. 81, the .semi-diameter of the shaft, and draw D F E.
Prolong F C, maki ng C G equal to C F. Divide A C into as many equal spaces
as sets of centers are desired for drawing the ellipse, in this case four, and divide
A D into same number of equal spaces. From points in A D draw lines to point

F, and from G draw lines through the points in A 0 and continue them till they
3 28 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

intersect the first set of lines, as shown. Bisect the distance from the first inter-

section, a, to F and from the middle point draw a line at right angles to a F and
prolong it till it intersects F G (extended if necessary) in H. This will give the
1
radius for that portion of the ellipse from a to a . It will not be necessary to
complete the problem, as the other portions of the ellipse will not be required.
To describe a pattern for a blank, first, with a radius equal to F H of Fig. 82,
draw any arc, as D B of Fig. 83, which make equal in length to R 1 of Fig. 81.
From the center X draw the radii X I) and X B, extending them indefinitely
beyond D and B. Upon X D set off the width of the flange, as shown by I) E,
and draw the arc E G. Then D E G B will be the required pattern for the
blank for one-half a revolution of the flight, as shown by the plan in Fig. 81.
The necessary amount of stretching which the blank will require can be found
in the following manner: First, divide E D into four equal spaces by tbe points

Fig. 85. Pattern for Blank Using Radius Fig. 88. Portion of Helicoid Obtained
Obtained in Fig. 85 by Triangulation

2, 3 and 4, corresponding to those of the plan in Fig. 81, and draw the concen-
tric arcs shown, extending them with the outer arc beyond the line B G. Upon
each of these arcs, measuring from E D, set off their required stretchouts as
obtained from corresponding hypotenuses in the diagram of Fig. 81. Thus make
arc 2 equal in length to R 2 of Fig. 81, arc 3 equal to R 3, arc 4 equal to R 4,
and the outer arc equal to R 5. From this it will be seen that the outer arc E G
of the blank must when the flange is finished be equal in length to E H ;
and that
in like manner the must measure upon each of the intermediate arcs dis-
flange
tances greater than those included between the two radii X E and X G by
amounts equal to the distances of the several points on them beyond the line B G.
The pattern cannot be cut to the points between B and H, but must be cut off on
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 3*9

the line B G and stretched as described. If it be required to place a line of any

given length so as to be entirely over a shorter line it can only be accomplished by
elevating one end more than the other. Thus the stretching of the metal upon
any one line or arc gives it the required elevation or inclination as compared with
the adjacent arc, which is stretched less or not at all, thus producing the twist.
If it be desirable to adopt the second method referred to above — viz., that of
obtaining the outside line of the pattern first —the operation can be performed in
exactly the same manner as above described, using the outer spiral of the eleva-

tion in Fig. 81 instead of the inner one. Continue its central or nearly straight
portion to the outlines of the cylinder in the surface of which it lies, as shown at

to and to, and use the line to to as the major axis of a semi-ellipse and proceed as
described in the case of line o o. This operation is shown in Fig. 84, in which
A B is made equal to to to and A D equal to L P of Fig. 81. Following this
the operation is identical with that described in connection with Fig. 82, and the
same reference letters have been used, so that the description may be followed if

desired. In obtaining the final result in the latter case, however, the point H is

found to fall between C and G, and H F, the radius obtained, is used to

describe the outside line E G of the blank shown in Fig. 85. The arc E G of

Fig. 85 having been drawn and made equal in length to R 5 of Fig. 81, and the
radii E X and G X also drawn, E D is made equal to E D of Fig. 81, and the
pattern for the blank completed by drawing the arc D
The amount of stretch-
B.
ing necessary to bring this blank to its required shape may be ascertained by draw-

ing the concentric arcs as in Fig. 83, and extending them with the arc D B
beyond the line B G, where the several stretchouts, taken from the diagram in
Fig. 81, are indicated by points as before.
In the case of the blank shown in Fig. 83, which is drawn with the longer
radius, the stretching of the metal upon the outer edge shortens or increases its
curve until the line B G is elevated and brougnt into the same vertical plane as the
line E D, while in the case of the one shown in Fig. 85, which is drawn with the

shorter radius, the stretching of the metal upon the inner edge straightens its curve
until the same result is accomplished.
In deciding which of the above methods is to be preferred, the mechanic
should be the judge. It is usually considered easier to stretch the metal upon the
inner side of a curved strip than upon its outer side, but it is possible and even
probable that a middle course would be better than either of those above men-
tioned. For instance, the line 3 3 or 4 4 of the plan in Fig. 81, or any assumed
line, might be made the base of the pattern, in which case the length of the major
 33 ° Special Sheet Metal Layouts

axis of an ellipse from which to derive its radius could be obtained by using a
corresponding spiral line of the elevation the same as D B or E G were used to
obtain the line o o or m m. Such radius having been obtained and the arc drawn,
its length would be equal to a corresponding line of the diagram of Fig. 81 measur-
ing from R. The required portions of the width, K H, could be set off on either
side of the arc drawn, and the pattern completed by drawing the outer and inner
arcs and the radial lines at the ends. Such a blank would then require stretching
some on both edges to bring it to the required shape, the amount of which could
be obtained as described in connection with Figs. 83 and 85.
Any pattern cutter familiar with the possibilities of triangulation in the treat-
ment of irregular surfaces might reasonably ask if the pattern for a helicoid could
not be cut by that method. It is true that a pattern for such a shape could be cut
so as to be correct at its inner and at its outer lines; (see page 278 and279 of this
volume) but, unlike the pattern for an ordinary transition piece, the bends at the

several lines crossing the pattern (that is, the sides of the triangles used in obtain-
ing the pattern) would not merge into one general curve, but the pattern would
have to be really bent on each line to the exact angle existing between the inclin-

ations of the two spirals between which it is contained. A flight completed by

such a method would result in a sort of winding stair, in which the risers assume
the angle of the inner spiral B D while the treads lie at the angle of the outer
spiral E G of Fig. 81. In Fig. 86 is shown a pictorial sketch of a portion of a
triangulated helicoid, from which it will be seen that if so made it would be useless
for the purpose for which conveyors are intended ;
and that if a blank were so cut
the metal (of which there is too much through the center) could not be contracted,
while a pattern which has the right amount of metal in the center, but too little

at the edges, could be stretched to meet the requirements.

IMPORTANCE OF GEOMETRICAL DRAWING

TO PATTERN CUTTERS.
*

In replying to many of the correspondents who have requested solutions to

pattern problems, Metal WorkenhaA had frequent occasion to refer to the necessity
of a more thorough knowledge on the part of the pattern cutter of the principles of
geometrical or linear drawing. An inquiry of this class once came to hand in
which the correspondent desired to know how to develop the complete patterns of
two double pieced elbows as sketched in Figs. 87 and 88, which show what are
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 33 1

really two cases of the same problem. In Fig. 87 the two smaller pipes are placed
in the same horizontal line at the throat, while in Fig. 88 they are in line on the
back. In either case the problem with which the correspondent has to wrestle is

one of draftsmanship rather than of pattern cutting. With two carefully completed

ROUND

Fig 87. Reproductions of Original Sketches Accompanying Inquiry Fig. 88.

elevations and a plan of the desired elbows, as specified in either of the above
sketches, at hand, no doubt any fairly intelligent pattern cutter would have little

difficulty in working out the patterns.

Pattern cutting is simply an adaptation of the principles of linear drawing to the
development of sheet metal forms. That particular branch of linear drawing with
which the pattern cutter has to deal is properly termed orthographic or right line
projection. In accordance with its principles all the points of any one view or
elevation are determined with accuracy by means of parallel lines projected from
one or more other views (elevations or plans).
Thus the draftsman begins the construction of his principal view from given
specifications and proceeds to project therefrom as many other views as possible, or
as he finds necessary to arrive at the results desired. In the evolution of such a
set of elevations and plans new facts are often brought to light as the work pro-
gresses which were unknown at the outset, and which as soon as obtained render

their share of assistance in obtaining the final results. Such a course, supplemented
by the fund of knowledge which comes with experience on the part of the drafts-

man, will often accomplish wonders.

This problem furnishes such an excellent opportunity of illustrating the appli-

cation of the foregoing suggestions that the complete operation of constructing the
necessary plans and elevations and of laying out the patterns for the above, as *ar
33 2 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

as necessary, beginning with the conditions as given in Fig. 87 is here consistently

undertaken.
The principal view taken from first drawing any horizonal line indefinitely, as

C D of Fig. 89, upon which set off at convenience the distance E F equal to 36
inches, the desired diameter of the inlet. From the points E and F set off 12

inches in either direction upon the same line, thus locating the centers G and D,
from which the throat curves are to be struck. Erect perpendicular lines from the
points G and D indefinitely. From G and D as centers, with a radius of 12 inches,
describe arcs from E and F cutting the perpendiculars just drawn in the points M
and K. From M and K set off respectively 22 inches and 30 inches upon the ver-
tical lines, obtaining the points N and L. From D as center, with the radius
D L, describe an arc, L A, indefinitely; and from G as center with G N as radius,

describe another arc, cutting the first one in the point A. This completes the
general outline of the side elevation.
Since three pipes of different diameters are to be joined, it is evident that
there must be some gradations in the width of this elbow at the various points of

its course. It will therefore be necessary to construct a plan or an end view, or

perhaps both, upon which to establish such gradations and to measure width when
necessary. The plan may be begun at once, and all of the views which is deemed
necessary to construct should so far as possible be carried along together, all points
in any one view being projected into the other views as soon as obtained. Since
both halves of the elbow, when divided by a vertical longitudinal plane, are sup-
posed to be alike, half of the plan or end view will be sufficient for all purposes.
Therefore draw C D
1 1
parallel to C D and at any convenient distance away, as the

center line of a plan. From each of the points G, E, F and D drop lines verti-

cally, cutting C D
1 1
at G\ E1
,
F and D
1 1
,
and continue them indefinitely below.

Bisect E F 1 1
,
obtaining the point B 1
,
which will become the center from which
to describe the semicircle E H F1 1
,
representing the half plan of the inlet or
largest pipe.

In drawing the miter line or line representing the junction of the two arms of

the elbow, as seen in the side view, and in determining the shape of the opening
which it represents as it would appear if seen from either end, the reader will have
to be guided by his general knowledge of intersections and the shapes derived
therefrom. Were the two pipes of the same diameter throughout their course, and
brought or mitered together in the general manner indicated in the drawing, the
position of the* miter line would result from the simple operation of bringing together
two sets of lines emanating from corresponding points in their respective profiles.
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 333

If, again, one pipe being larger than the other, both be continued without change
of diameter as before through the several pieces composing the elbow, the position
of the miter line upon which the two would intersect would be the result of a similar
operation. But since the two branches or elbows are required to unite so as to

Fig. 89. Complete Drawings of Double Elbow shown in Fig. 87. One eighth Full Size

form a third pipe of a specified larger diameter than either, the problem consists in
the devising or designing of a transition composed of several pieces which shall
begin at A with a junction of the two smaller pipes and finish at E F with a
perfect circle representing the larger pipe.
In this part of the work the reader will have an opportunity to exercise the
power of his imagination in forming a mental idea of the approximate shapes of
the several intermediate pieces necessary to accomplish the transition, working
upon the supposition that if he can form an idea of the general shape and dimen-
sions of the several parts he will have little difficulty in placing the different views
of them upon paper.
 334 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

In the failure of his power of mental conception he could be materially aided

in his work, should he care to take the trouble, by the construction of a model.
An inspection of the drawing, as thus far constructed, will show at once that those
portions of the branches from A to N and A to L will be the same as ordinary
pieced elbows. Suppose now that these parts have been made in the usual way,
and have been placed relatively in the positions which they are to occupy in the
finished work. Let the reader now cut out a disk of any material and place the
same in the position shown by E F of Fig. 89, then, taking moist clay or rodders’
sand, proceed to fill in the space E P A Q F between the approaching ends of
the elbows and the disk at the base, shaping it so as to meet the curves of the

throats at either end and gradually reducing its width or thickness as it rises till it

meets the circles at A P and A Q. A model so constructed will give the general
shape of the transition, upon which the several pieces of which it is to be con-

structed must be so outlined that they may be made by simply cutting and bending
the metal.
Sooner or later in the solution of every problem in sheet metal work the
question of the method of developing the patterns arises. Is it a miter or miters
between continuous or parallel forms? Are the pieces portions of regular tapering

cones, or are they irregular tapering forms, in which case triangulation must be
resorted to? An inspection of the drawing as thus far developed, or of the model
if it has been constructed, will show that those parts constituting the transition
must be developed by the methods of triangulation, and that therefore their out-
lines may be drawn arbitrarily in accordance with the judgment of the reader, pro-

vided that they are not so drawn as to involve hammering or stretching of the
metal.
To proceed then with the drawing in the light of the above conclusions, the
miter line A B may be drawn straight from A, the point of least or no width, to
B, the point of greatest lateral diameter or width of the united elbows. To be
sure, it might be drawn from A to a point to the right or to ihe left of B if there

were any reason for so doing, or it might be drawn with a general curve composed
of as many straight lines as there are intersecting pieces on either side, but such a
course would only complicate matters to no purpose. The line A B, representing
as it does the junction of two pipes while appearing straight in this view must
necessarily have a profile when viewed from the end. An idea of the shape which
it represents could be obtained by cutting away one portion of the model described
above by means of a thin bladed knife or a wire held taut and passed from the
point A down through to B, the middle of the disk at the base. To obtain this
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 335

line without the aid of the model it will become necessary to construct an end view
of the junction, as shown at the left in Fig. 89.

The end view is obtained by drawing any vertical line, as C N 1

,
representing
the center line of the proposed view. Project the point A upon this line by
means of the dotted horizontal line, as shown at A 1
,
and from C set off on the

Fig. 90. Completed Drawings of Double Elbow Shown in Fig. 88. —One-eighth Full Size
horizontal base line one-half the width of the largest pipe —that is, make C B®
equal to 18 inches. A line drawn from A 1
to B® will then represent one-half the
opening between the two branches of the elbow. This line, so far as the require-
ments of triangulation are concerned, might be drawn perfectly straight between
the two points. But here the knowledge or experience of the reader must be
called into play. Any one who has seen two straight pipes mitered together so as
toform a Y, or has cut any oblique miter upon a cylinder, knows that the shape of
opening so produced is elliptical. It is therefore advisable that the line A 1 B®
should approximate a quarter ellipse in shape, as shown by the dotted line in the
end view.
 33 6 Special Sheet Metal Layouts

This end view may be completed as far as desired, making it an elevation of

the end nearest which it is drawn. Therefore project the points N and M hori-
zontally from the side elevation to the center line of the end elevation, as shown at
N 1
and M 1
. Bisect the distance N M 1 1
,
locating the point A 1
,
which by mere
accident or coincidence falls at the point representing A of the side elevation.

From A 1
as a center describe the semicircle N 0 M
1 1
,
representing one-half the
opening at N M to receive the 22-inch pipe. Lines from ( > toward B 2 may after-

wards be drawn to complete this view if found necessary.

The next matter to be determined will be the number of pieces of which the
elbows shall be made, and the drawing of the divisions upon the elevations in
accordance with the same. The number of pieces will, of course, be determined
in accordance with physical requirements; material to be conveyed, friction, etc.

Having determined A toward G and I), as shown by

this, first draw lines from
A P and A Q. The portions A N M P and A L K Q thus become the
equivalents of ordinary pieced elbows, and the arcs A N and A L being unequal
may each be so divided into equal spaces that the spaces in both shall be approxi-
mately alike. Thus it will be seen that if N A be divided into four equal spaces
and A L into five, they will be nearly alike in both. From the points of division
assumed in N A and A L lines may now be drawn toward G and 1) to the

throat lines, as shown. Connect adjacent points upon the arcs, both of the throats
and the backs, by straight lines, thus completing these parts of the side elevation.
In continuing the division to the part forming the junction, the points of
division corresponding to those already assumed on the backs of the pieces will

have to be established upon the line A B ;

but as A B represents a curved line
it will be better to fix the points of division upon its representative A B2
1
of the

end elevation. Two points upon A B, dividing it into three spaces, will be found
sufficient, since three equal spaces upon each of the remaining portions of the

throat lines P E and Q F will result in an approximate equality of spaces in

M E and K F respectively. Therefore the points a and b may be so taken

upon the curved line A B 1 2
that the space A 1
a will be the shortest and b B 2 the
longest of the three. Connect the adjacent points by straight lines, as shown.
By making the spaces shortest where the curve of A B 1 2
is quickest, or of shortest
apparent radius, the resulting broken line will more nearly approach the curved
line which it takes the place of than if the spaces had been made equal. The
points a and b may now be projected upon the miter line A B of the side eleva-
1
tion, as shown at a and b 1
,
and straight lines drawn from each to the corresponding
points of division upon the arcs P E and Q F.
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 337

In the thus completed side elevation the two upper sections of the tran-

sition piece lying adjacent to the lines A P and A Q have the appearance of being
no wider at their backs than at their throats, but a moment’s reflection or a glance at
the end elevation will show that the
distance of the point a from 1
A is

equal to a A 1
of the end view, and
that it is therefore greater than the
back width of any of the other
pieces except those between it and
the line E F. One might easily have
made the mistake of dividing the
line A B of the side elevation into
three equal spaces had the end ele-
vation, showing the shape of the
sectiou on A B, not been drawn.
This liability to error is, in fact,

shown in the crude outlines of the

original sketches given in Figs. 87
and 88.
Fig. 91. Elevation, Plan and Section of First Piece,
Attention is now directed to the E k b l
B, in Left Side, Duplicated from Fig. 89,
Showing Method of Triangulation.
completion of the plan, upon which
must be obtained a view of each of the several miter or joint lines between
FAQ and E F, including the line A
The positions of the points in
B.
A B upon the plan are obtained simply by projection and measurement. The point
A being upon the longitudinal center may be dropped at once to the center line
of the plan, as shown at J. From each of the points a and b also drop lines to 1 1

the center line, carrying them indefinitely beyond or below. Upon each of these
lines respectively set off from the center line the distances a x and
y of the end
b

elevation, as shown by as and The point B b

2
. being upon the circumference of
the largest pipe may be dropped upon the semicircle representing the same in the

plan, as shown at H. Connect the adjacent points obtained in this operation by

straight lines; then the broken line J a b2 2
H will be the plan of the line A B of

the elevation.
No further drawings will, of course, be necessary in obtaining the patterns of
those portions between P A Q and the outlets. It will be advisable, however,
to represent them in the plan on account of their relationship to the middle and
more intricate portion. Therefore drop vertical lines from M and K through the
 33 ® Special Sheet Metal Layouts

center line of the plan, and make G 1

R 1
and D 1 1
S respectively equal to the semi-
diameters of the outlets M N and K L. From R 1
and S 1
draw lines parallel
to G D
1 1
indefinitely toward the center of the plan.
The next operation will be to obtain upon the plan a projection of the circles
P A and A Q. First bisect the lines representing those circles, as shown at T
and U. Since T and U represent points of extreme
projection or points of greatest transverse diameter,
« i\
/ \ / \ / \ vertical lines may be dropped from them, cutting the
0 * 4 j k
j
lines drawn from R 1
and S 1 ,
as shown at T and
1

Fig. 02. Half Pattern of Piece U 1

;
also drop lines from P and Q cutting the center
Shown m Fig. fii
line of the plan at P and Q
1 1
. Then P 1
,
T and
l

J become three points of a semi-ellipse of which P 1

J is the minor axis ;
and like-

wise J, U 1
and Q 1
are three points of a semi-ellipse of which J Q 1
is the minor
axis. These semi-ellipses may be drawn upon the plan by raking, by trammel
or by any method most convenient which will result in true elliptical curves.
Having now drawn the plans of the circles constituting the upper and lower
sections of the transition portion of the elbow, it remains to fix upon the plan the
sections upon the two intermediate joint lines in each side or branch. Inasmuch
as the method of triangulation admits of working to assumed outlines, the drafts-

man is here thrown upon his judgment as to the shape of and the best method of
obtaining these sections. This can be accomplished by first establishing the

principal points of the curves and then drawing them by eye so as to form in each
branch a gradual transition from the circular profile of the small pipe to one-half

the circle of the large pipe or inlet. The first points to be determined are those

of greatest thickness or transverse diameter in each. The point of greatest trans-

verse diameter in each of the joint lines in the smaller branch pipe is, of course,

at the intersection of each with an arc drawn from G as center and with G R
as radius, that of P A being at T. This arc continued intersects the line E F
at g. But as the greatest transverse diameter of E F is at B the points c and d
must be assumed so as to deflect this line at T toward B. Having determined the
points of greatest thickness upon these lines the question next arising is: “What
shall be the distance across the sections at these points?” This must, of course be
determined upon the plan, where T 1
represents the point T, and H the point B.
The most reasonable solution to the question seems to be to draw a line in con-

tinuation of R T 1 1
,
curving it out to reach the point H. The line R T H
1 1
will
then be a plan of R T B of the elevation. Lines dropped vertically from c and d
1
of the elevation, intersecting this line at c d1 ,
will then locate the desired points in
 Special Sheet Metal Layouts 339

the plan. Next drop lines from h and k to the center line of the plan, as
shown. Then h c1 and a s are three points through which a
1
,
curve, elliptical

in character, must be drawn, establishing a plan of the line h a1 of the elevation.

In the same manner a like curve
drawn through kl d and ,
1
6* will

answer as a plan of the line k b\

The points and curves in the
*
right half of the plan are obtained
by a similar process, which is all

shown by the lines of projection

and the reference letters.
Should it be desired the pro-
jection of all the curves now shown
in the plan could be obtained upon
the end elevation by a process sim-
ilar to that just gone through in
obtaining the plan, simplified,
however, by the fact that no
questions of design can there arise,
the position of all important points
i i , j Fig. 93. Elevation, Plan and Section of Second
navmg been already established in Piece k h a' b', in Left Side of Fig. 89, Showing
Tnanguiation
drawing the plan. Likewise the
projections of the circles represented by the joint lines between A P and N M
could be obtained upon both the plan and the end view by the method employed
in obtaining the semi-ellipse P 1 T 1 J from the line P T A. These operations,
however, would only be valuable as a lesson in drawing, as they are in no way
necessary to obtaining the patterns, though the reader is advised to do so inasmuch
as this is a lesson in drawing.
In preparing drawings of the second case, shown in Fig. 88, the methods
employed in the foregoing demonstration are equally applicable. The completed
drawings of the same are given in Fig. 90, in which corresponding points in the
several views are connected by the lines of projection. The conditions of the two
cases are so nearly alike that the reader will have no difficulty in applying the
demonstration given above to this case. The sketch shown in Fig. 88 differs from
that in Fig. 87 principally in the fact that the two outlets are in line at the back,
which gives a longer throat line to the smaller pipe than in the former case. The
throat proper is confined to a quarter circle the center of which is at G, Fig. 90, as
 : — —

Special Sheet Metal Layouts

in the former case, the line is then carried vertically to the point E. This keeps
that part of the elbow from A to N a regular pieced elbow, as in the former
case, and simply modifies the shapes of those pieces lying between A and
the line E F. Of course the throat line could be made
a continuous curve from E to M if desired, but at the „ /
expense of much more labor in obtaining the final ,
\
pattern. N
prfrfC(
^ -4— —J^'
*
The necessary drawings having been completed, 0
-

—
it will be advisable before attempting to develop any H Jf Pattern of Piece
Fig 94
shown m Pig. »s.
of the patterns to make separate new drawings, each of
which shall include tfie plan and elevation of one of the pieces, which shall be in
all respects duplicates of the outlines already obtained, and placed conveniently
near together, thus facilitating the
subsequent operations by avoiding
j'\\ the confusion of lines which would

/sectiom ,„/ \\ a _ jo'

result from performing them all
2

/ on p-a / \/\\ ,„j

"
upon the one elevation.

y" > 1
In Fig. 91 is shown a duplicate

1 !
of the piece E k b 1
B of Fig. 89,

\\
P '
• • ? f -: *•
T-rtr— -K-ftkv;
— \s”
-S>4\ r. - S.-

«-Fr-
„f
8
there indicated by the same letters,

rfoe~- - it— 1 1- •.$. tj--------. Si,v below which is its plan traced from

Jbm
P 6
tj I
;:ELEVATIo(4

T
i!
i!

*
i!

|
!;
•

1
i

t
;

I
i
•

Jj
l»l

U"’
i

OF
diagram
"diagram
of TRIANGLE!
triangle*
Fig. 89, in which
or true section on the line
E 1
H is

E B
a plan
of

a
'"li5
j j
"j/ the elevation and k 1 V is a hori-

j£,„
'* zontal projection of the line k b as
It’
*
traced from the line bearing the

Pig. 95. Elevation, Plan and Section of Third Piece. 7i PA a 1

,
same letters in Fig. 89. Eachof
in Left Side of Pig. 89 Showing Triangulation , . . , ,
these curves constituting the plan
of the piece may now be divided into the same number of equal spaces of conven-
ient size, and numbered correspondingly, as shown by the small figures. Points
of like number must be connected by solid lines, and the four-sided figures thus

produced must be subdivided diagonally by dotted lines, as shown. The trian-

gulation thus produced may be seen to better advantage upon the elevation, the
points upon the upper and lower bases being obtained in that view by projection
from the corresponding points of the plan, all as shown by the vertical dotted lines.

The true lengths of the several solid and dotted lines thus obtained in both
plan and elevation are to be obtained by the method usual in all similar operations
 -

Special Sheet Metal Layouts 341

that is, by considering them as the hypotenuses of triangles the altitudes of which
are obtained from the elevation and the bases of

which are these lines as they appear on the plan.

This operation is shown in the diagram of
C'"
triangles at the right, in which the hights of the pr—
points in the vertical lines V W and X Y are ®
" a

obtained by projection from the elevation, while the Fig. 96. Half Pattern of Piece
Shown m Fig. a.
horizontal distances between corresponding points
are obtained by measurement from the plan ;
the hypotenuses being drawn give
the true distances across the pattern, which is given in Fig. 92.
The lengths of the spaces upon the lower line of the pattern are obtained from
E* H, the plan of the lower base of this piece. To obtain the lengths of the spaces
upon the upper line of the pattern, however, a true section on k b must be obtained x

as shown above, since it is evident that distances measured upon the oblique line
are greater than the horizontal distances as given upon the plan. This section is

obtained by the usual operation of raking from the line of the upper base as given
in the plan, viz. : Draw lines from each of the points in k b
x
at right angles to the

same, intersecting the line 6' Z 1

of the section which is drawn parallel to k b 1 .

The distances of the several points in the developed curve from the line 6' Z 1
are
the same as those of corresponding numbers in the plan from the line 6' Z.

In Fig. 93 is shown the duplicate drawing of the second piece of the left portion
of the elbow with its plan, diagram of triangles and the true section of its upper
base. In drawing its plan, k 1
b
s
,
the line of its lower base may be traced and
transferred from Fig. 91, with its points as there used, instead of being obtained
from the original plan. The true section obtained in Fig. 91 becomes the true
profile of the lower base of this piece, therefore the stretchout of the lower side of

its pattern, shown in Fig. 94, may be taken from the true section in Fig. 91. The
1
points in k 6* from which this section was derived are thus located at once in the
plan in Fig. 93 by the transferring above alluded to and form the basis of the trian-
gulation. The subsequent work of developing the pattern of this piece is exactly
similar to that employed in obtaining the first piece.
In Figs. 95 and 96 are shown the necessary drawings and pattern of the third
piece. The true section obtained in Fig. 93 becomes the true lower base of this
piece, while the true upper base is a semicircle the diameter of which is A P of Fig 89.
While the true projection of this semicircle in the plan, as shown by P T J 1 1
of
Fig. 89, is according to geometrical rules a perfect semi-ellipse, it is better to obtain

the same in Fig. 95 by the operation of raking, so dividing the same that the
34 * Special Sheet Metal Layouts

points and spaces used may also be used in connection with those of the lower base
1
h a for the purpose of triangulation. It will be noticed that one more space has
been taken in the upper base of this piece than in the lower on account of its

greater length, and that the triangles have been so arranged that the apexes of two
come together at the point 1". By this treatment the triangles so produced are
more nearly equilateral, and can therefore be more accurately constructed in the
operation of laying out the pattern than if they were very scalene.
 SECTION III

(Pages 343-436)

LAYOUTS FOR VARIOUS

SHEET METAL SHAPES
 —

Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 343

Practical Sheet Metal Work and

Demonstrated Patterns

SCHEDULE FOR HAND MADE TINWARE

It would seem, perhaps, that the use of hand made tinware was practically
obsolete, since it has become so largely replaced to-day by machine made stamped
goods. And yet the fact that there is, and probably always will be, more or less
demand for this class of goods, especially in jobbing shops and the more remote
country shops, shows the importance of knowing something of the sizes and
dimensions of these articles.

The advantage of the schedules in vogue before the advent of machine made
goods lies in the fact that they were gotten up with a special view of working

material
1- to the best advantage with the least possible waste. Another considera-
tion that
2-
would seem to make the publication of these old but reliable schedules
both desirable and important is the fact that “old Father Time’’ is fast thinning
out the ranks of the “all around mechanic,” and the field will soon be left to our
young men growing up in the trade. If they understand the old and well tried
methods of getting out the work, they will become better and more thorough
mechanics, and hence more serviceable to their employers.

Schedule of Dimensions of 1-Pint, 3 -Pint and 2- Quart Tin Basins .

Dimensions in inches.
Depth on Diameter. >

Size Depth Flare Top Bottom

pint 2 H 2% 4 H
3-pint 21^ 2 % 8 6%
quart 3 $jj 3% 8 % 6K

One-Pint Basin. —The body made of two pieces, out of 10 X 14 tin.

Three-Pint Basin . The body made in three pieces, cut out of 10X14 tin.

Two pieces cut out of the width of the sheet 10 inches, and one piece one-half
the long way of the sheet, or 7 inches.
Two- Quart Basin. —The body made in two pieces, out of a 10X14 sheet of
tin and cut lengthways of the sheet.
 —

344 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

Schedule of Dimensions of 6 -Quart and 10-Quart Milk Pans.

Dimensions in inches.
Depth on —
^ Diameter.
Size Depth Flare Top Bottom
6-quart 8g 3% 11 % 8 %
10-quart 3% 14^ 11

Six-Quart Pans . —
The sides, or body of pan, are of four pieces of equal
size,three pieces out of a 10X14 sheet of tin, cut crossways, or 10 inches
width of sheet.
Ten-Quart Pans . —
The sides, or body, are in four pieces, two pieces cross-
ways of the sheet and two pieces lengthways of the sheet.

Schedule of Dimensions of Small and Large Dish Pans

Dimensions in inches.
Depth on Diameter.
Size Depth Flare Top Bottom
Small 6k 6M 14 10
Large
1- 7% 8 18 13
2-
Small Dish Pans . —
The sides, or body, are made in five pieces of equal size
out of 10 X 14 tin. Two pieces out of a sheet.
Large Dish Pans . —
The body is made in four pieces of equal size, one piece
out of a 10 X 14 sheet, cut lengthways of the sheet.

Schedule of Dimensions of 1- Quart and 2 -Quart Dippers.

Dimensions in inches.
Handles.
—Size of Patterns .

Size of Depth on Diameter Top Bottom Top Bottom

Dipper . Depth Flare. Tap Bottom. Diameter. Diameter. Length Width. Width.
quart. 8% 4 6 4H 1 % 9 3% 2\i
quart. 4% 5 7\i 5 M Vi \% 5 5 3%
One-Quart Dippers . —
The body is made in two pieces of equal size, out of 10 X 14
tin, cut crossways of the sheet.
Two-Quart Dippers . —
The body is made in two pieces of equal size, out of 12 X 12 tin.

PATTERNS FOR A DRINKING CUP

There are many simple articles that can be made by the
apprentice in the tin shop, with the ordinary tools. One of these
is a plain drinking cup, such as is shown in Fig. 1. These are
usually made from IC bright tin with a wire or hem edge at A.
The bottom has a single edge and is soldered on the inside when hand
made. Fig. 2 shows the three patterns for the cup. The pattern A, for the body,
is cut on the squaring shears, of the required hight and in length equal to the
circumference of the bottom, B. If the seam in the body is soldered, then only a
single edge is necessary, as shown at 6. If the seam is grooved, edges are allowed,
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 345
as shown at a and b. Should a wire or hem edge be allowed along the top of the
cup, it should be notched at the corners, as shown. B shows the bottom with a
single edge at c, while C D is the pattern for
the handle, which is obtained by making C I)

equal to the length, and d d and e e equal to

the top and bottom widths. The hem edges
f and/ are added. The body, A, is edged and
wired, then rolled, the edge turned on the
bottom B and then soldered to the body.
The handle, C D, is then edged, formed to
Fig. 2. The Patterns for the Cup the required shape and soldered to the cup.

PATTERNS FOR REFRIGERATOR PAN

These pans can be made up in different sizes from No. 26 or 28 galvanized
iron. A finished pan is shown in Fig. 3. The only difficulty in their construction

is to obtain the pattern for the handles. In Fig. 4 a sectional view shows how the
pan is constructed. B shows the bottom, with a single edge at C C slipped over
the body and soldered on the inside. A A shows the wired edge, with the handles
soldered or riveted at D The pattern for the body is simply a
and D. straight
strip of metal, to which allowance has been made for wiring. In length it is equal
to the circumference of the bottom, allowing for seaming.

To obtain a true pattern for the handle, without which a lot of time is lost in
trimming, proceed as is shown in Fig. 5. ABC shows a part elevation of the

pan, a part plan of which is shown by D E, struck from the center F. Establish,
at pleasure, the point 4" in elevation, from which, at its proper angle and of the
desired length, draw the line 4" b. Extend 4" b as 4" 4. From 4 draw the per-
pendicular 4 a. With the desired radius, as 4 a, using a as center, describe the
semicircle shown, which divide into equal spaces, shown from 1 to 4 to 1. Take a
tracing of the profile 4 a and place it in plan on the center line F G, as shown by
4 a. From points on profile and parallel to G F draw lines intersecting the body
of the pan from 1' to 4'. From these points erect vertical lines into the elevation,
which intersect by lines drawn from numbered points in the profile A a,
similar

parallel to 4 4", resulting in the intersections 1", 2", 3” and 4". Through these
trace the miter line shown. Draw a line from b to 1", which completes the side
 .

346 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

view of the handle. From 1", at right angles to 4" b, draw 1" c, on which line the
profile 1 4 1 a is a section.

Fig. 8. Perspective View of

Refrigerator Pan

Fig. 4. Sectional View

For the pattern draw J H at right angles to 4 4", upon which place the stretch-

out of the profile 4 a. From these small figures, at right angles to H J, draw
lines, which intersect by lines drawn at right angles to 4 4" from similar points of

intersections on b 1” 4" Trace a line through the points thus obtained, as L M

N O, which is the desired pattern. Allow edges for riveting or soldering.

PATTERN FOR AN APPLE CORER

A useful little article that can be made from scrap tin, with all seams and joints

soldered, is an apple The full size dimensions and method of obtaining the
corer.

pattern for the corer are shown in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7, in which A B C D is the side
view of the corer, soldered to the handle E at the top, with an opening on the
line C D, which forms the blade which cuts into the apple, while the opening T
3' allows the core to be taken out. The section through the corer is shown by F
in plan. H I J K L shows the front view, K representing the circular blade, M the
opening and N the joint. The round disks G and G at the ends of the handle are
slightly convex, and assume that shape when using the hollow punch in punching
the disks.
To obtain the pattern for the corer proceed as follows : Divide the half plan
F into an equal number of spaces, as shown by the small figures 1 to 5. Parallel
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 347

to B C and from these small figures draw lines intersecting the blade line D C,
the core opening at 1’, 2', 3', 2" and 1", and the handle E, as shown. Now at

right angles to B C draw any line, as O P, upon which place twice the number of

spaces contained in the half plan F, as shown by the small figures 1 to 5 to 1 on

O P. Through these intersections and at right angles to 0P draw lines indefin-

itely, as shown, which drawn from points of intersections on

intersect with lines

I) C, 1' 2' 3' 2" 1", and on A B having similar numbers, as shown in the pattern.
A line traced through points of intersection thus obtained, as shown by R S T U V

W X Y Z, will be the pattern for the corer. The pattern for the handle is not
shown, as that simply consists of a tube as long as from H to I in front, with a

diameter equal to E in side view, having the convex disks soldered on same to
close the ends.

PATTERN FOR SCALE SCOOP

A finished view of a scale scoop is shown in Fig. 8, where the top edge is

wired and the joint either seamed or soldered. While the pattern can be obtained
by the cone or radial line method, a simpler rule is shown in Fig. 9, by which the
pattern is developed by means of the parallel line method.
 348 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

First draw the elevation of the scoop, as shown by A B C D. In practice

one-half elevation is all that is required. From the
point B, at right angles to D C, draw the line B
E, on which line a true section must be obtained, as
follows Extend the line D C
: as D F. Parallel to

Pig. 8. Perspective View

D F, and from B draw the line B G. At any
point, as H, at right angles to B G, draw the line
H I, which represents the depth of the scoop. At pleasure establish the width of
the scoop at the top, as shown by K and L. Draw a line from K to I, which bisect
and obtain the point T. From T, at right angles to K I, draw a line intersect-

ing the center line H I at J.

With J as center and J K as

radius describe the arc K I L,
which represents the true section
on the line B E in the elevation.
Divide the section into equal
parts, as shown by the small figures
1 to 4 to 1, through which, paral-
lel to G B, draw lines into the

elevation, intersecting the lines B

C and B D at points 1 to 4, as
shown. Now, at right angles to D
C draw the stretchout line M N,
upon which place the stretchout of
the true section, as shown by points
1 to 4 to 1 on M N ;
through
which, at right angles to M N,
draw lines, which intersect with lines drawn at right angles to D C from similar
numbered intersections B C and CD. A line traced through the points thus
on
obtained, as shown by M O N P, will be the half pattern of the scale scoop.
Allowance must be made for wiring and seaming.

PATTERNS FOR HAND SCOOP

A finished or perspective view of a grocer’ s hand scoop, which is a piece of
tinware usually made by hand in the tin shop, is shown herewith in Fig. 10.
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 349
When carefully designed it presents a neat appearance, especially when made of

bright tin or polished brass. The scoop contains three shown by A, B and
patterns,
C. The body, A, is seamed at a; the flat bottom in the back of the scoop is seamed
to the body at b, and a small button is seamed to the

handle B at c. The handle could, if so desired, be

made tapering with very little additional labor in the
developing of the pattern.
The method of laying out the patterns is shown
Sco°p A B C D represents the side view
in Fig. 11 ,
in which
of the scoop, care being taken to draw a graceful curve, A D. In its proper position
draw the section or diameter the scoop is to have, as shown by E F G H, which
divide into equal spaces, as shown by the small figures 1 to 7 on either side.

Through these small figures, parallel to D C, draw lines intersecting the curve A
D, as shown. For the pattern for the scoop, in line with B C draw the line C J,

upon which place the stretchout of the section E F G H, as shown by the small
figures 1' to 7' to 1' on C J. Through these small figures, at right angles to C J,

,» ,» ,#
-'
r ri : ~i

Fig. 12. Pattern for

Handle

Fig. 18. Pattern for

Conical Boss

draw lines, as shown, which intersect with lines drawn from similar numbered
points on A D at right angles to D C. Trace a line through these points, as
 35 ° Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

shown. Then will 1' A D A

1 1 1
1' be the net pattern for the scoop. The pattern
for the back of the scoop B C is shown by the section E F 6 H, to which laps
must be allowed for seaming.

For the pattern for the handle, B in Fig. 10, proceed as is shown in Fig. 11.
First locate the point X on the line B C, where the center of the handle will strike,
and, at its proper angle, draw a line through X, as shown by e h. With any point,
as i, as center, on the line c h, draw the profile of the handle, as shown by l x 2 X 3 X
2X . From l
x
and 3 X ,
parallel to the center line h c, draw the lines l x 1° and 3 X 3°,
intersecting the line B C at 1° and 3°. Establish the length of the handle, as j k,

which line draw at right angles to h c. Now divide the profile i into an equal
x X X X
number shown by the small figures l 2
of spaces, as 3 2 .
(In practice more
spaces must be used. ) Through these small figures, parallel to the lines of the

handle, draw lines intersecting the line B C at 1°, 2° and 3°.

v v
For the pattern, draw any horizontal line, as l l in diagram Y, Fig. 12,
upon which place the stretchout of the profile i of the handle, as shown by similar
v T T v
numbers on l 1 . From these points, at right angles to 1 l ,
draw lines indefi-
nitely, as Measuring from the line j k in the side view, Fig. 11, take the
shown.
various lengths to 1°, 2° and 3°, and place them on lines having similar numbers
v v 1° 2°
in diagram Y, measuring from the line l l ,
thus obtaining the intersections
3° 2° 1°. A line traced through the points thus obtained, as shown by Y, will be
the net pattern for the handle.
For the pattern for the conical boss C in Fig. 10 proceed as shown is in Fig.
11. First locate the top of the boss l m in the side view, which is drawn at right
angles to the center line h c. Then locate the point eon B C at pleasure, and
extend the line e m until it meets the center line at/. From/ draw a line through
l intersecting the line B C at A", and meeting the line drawn from e at right angles
to the center line he at a. Then will a e ml represent a frustum of a right cone
intersected by the line e a". Using
e a and h n, the intersection between the line
c, and n a or n e as radius, describe the arc e c a, which divide into equal
as center
spaces, as shown by the small letters a b c d e, from which points, at right angles
to a e, draw lines intersecting the base line a e, as shown. From the intersections
on a e draw lines to the apex / intersecting the line B C, as shown by the small
dots, from which, at right angles to h c, draw lines intersecting the side of the cone
me at a, b', c, d and e.

For the pattern take / e as radius and /' in diagram Z, Fig. 13, as center, and
H
describe the arc a" a upon which, starting from a", lay off the stretchout of twice
the number of spaces contained in the semicircle a c e in the side view, Fig. 11, as
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 351

shown by similar letters on the arc a" a" in diagram Z, Fig. 1 3. From these points
draw lines to the apex /', which intersect with arcs struck from /' as center and radii

equal to/ a, b', c, d' and e, thus obtaining intersections having similar letters in
diagram Z. With/ m in the side view, Fig. 11, as radius, and/' in Z, Fig. 13, as
"
center, describe the arc mm intersecting the radial lines a" f at m on either side.

Then will m a e" a m be the net pattern for the conical boss.
An article, known as a “Thumb Scoop,” of small size used generally to handle
such stuff as spices, and which has just an ordinary tin drinking cup handle, can
be laid out by the above principles.

PATTERNS FOR CLOTHES SPRINKLER

In Fig. 14 is shown a finished view of a clothes sprinkler, used to dampen
clothes before ironing. This sprinkler can be made from IX tin about 4 in. in

diameter and about 5 in. high. It is filled with water by opening the screw
A top A ;
which is purchased, made from zinc.

The method of construction and of obtaining the vari-

ous patterns is shown in Fig. 15, in which A shows the
body of the screw top, edged and soldered to the body of
the can at C, or if desired, it may be double seamed and
soldered; while B shows the sprinkler top which can be
unscrewed from the body A. The bottom is edged and
Fig. 14. Finished Article
soldered to the body at D. The pattern for the body is
•simply a rectangular piece the length of
which is equal to the circumference of
the bottom and of a width equal to the
hight C D.
The pattern for the handle E is

obtained by extending its sides until they

intersect at H, which becomes the center
point from which to strike the pattern,
using as radii H F and H T and describ-
ing the pattern J K L M, the girth of the
circle G being placed along the arc J K,
allowing a lap at e for soldering.
35 * Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

While the intersection between the handle E and body M presents a problem
of a cone intersecting a cylinder, it has been assumed that the handle or cone E
is intersected by the plane F, which answers for all practical purposes, when the
diameter of the handle is The boss F, the section
small and that of the body large.
of which shown at
is N, is developed by taking a reproduction of F and placing it as
shown at 0. The distance P is now placed perpendicular to 0 equal to the girth of
the curve / in N, and then O traced to the opposite side, as indicated by R. Edges
are allowed for soldering purposes as shown by a b c and d. A button is edged or
soldered to the handle at T.

PATTERN FOR STRAINER

For a strainer to fit in the bottom of a tank, in Fig. 1G is shown the article,

in which A B is the part bottom of the tank and 5' 5 the 1 plan view of the
strainer. A B in front elevation shows the horizontal plane
1 1
of A B in plan,

Fig. 16 . Plan and Elevation of Strainer

while 5 T 5T in elevation shows the horizontal plane of 5' 5 in plan. V in eleva-

tion shows the rise of the strainer at 1' in plan. In the side elevation A* Ba is the
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 353

plane on A B in plan and s 1" the plane on 5' 5 in plan, s' 1° is equal to s 1
T

in front elevation. The strainer must be “raised ” to have the shape as shown by
5 T l v 5 T in front and 1° 1" in side. In obtaining the pattern for that part of the
strainer shown by A B 5 5 in front elevation, all that is required is to cut a
T V 1 1

strip of metal with a hight equal to A 1

5 T and a length equal to 5’ 1 5 in plan.
In obtaining the pattern for the top or raised portion, assume that 1° 1" in

side elevation is straight, and then when the pattern is developed add the differ-
ence between the straight line 1°

1” and the curved line 1° 8 1”,

as shown between 1° and X in

Fig. 18. For the pattern pro- TRUE PROFILE THROUGH 5"- 1* IN FIG.1

ceed as follows : As both halves

Fig. 17. Method of Finding True Profile
of the strainer are symmetrical,
divide the curve of the strainer shown from 1 to 5 in plan in Fig. 16, as shown
by 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. From these points parallel to the center line draw lines
intersecting the curve of the tank at 1', 2', 3' and 4'. From 5, at right angles to
T
1 T draw the line 5 r intersecting the previously drawn lines at 1 ,
2T ,
3
T
and
T
4 From the various points 1 to 5 parallel to r 5 draw
. lines cutting the line s'

I'- in side elevation at 1”, 2", 3”, 4" and 5", from which points parallel to the
line drawn from 1" to 1° draw lines indefinitely until they intersect lines drawn
n
from the intersections 1' 2', 3' and 4' in plan, resulting in the intersections l ,

2°, 3°, 4° and 5" in side elevation. A line traced through these points shows the
line of joint between the strainer and side of tank.

From 5 at right angles to 1° 1", draw the line 5" l x intersecting lines at 2 X
", ,

3 X
and 4 X
. Take the distance of l
x 5" with the various intersections on same and
place it in a vertical position, as
shown by numbers in Fig.
similar

17, through which draw horizon-

tal lines indefinitely, as shown.
Measuring from the line 1' 1 in

plan in Fig. 16, take the various

distances to 2 T
,
3T ,
4T and 5 and
place them on lines having simi-
lar numbers in Fig. 17, measur-
Fig. is. Pattern for the strainer ing on either side of the linel 1 5".

A line traced through points thus obtained, as shown from 5 to l

x
to 5, will be
x
the true profile through 5" l in side elevation in Fig. 16.
 354 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

In Fig. 18 draw any horizontal line, as 5 5, upon which place the stretchout
s
of 5 I 5 in Fig. 17, as shown by similar figures in Fig. 18, through which points
x
draw vertical lines as shown. Measuring from the line 5" l inside elevation in
Fig. 16, take the various distances to points 1" to 5" and to points 1° to 4° and
place them in Fig. 18 on either side of the line 5 5, as shown by similar figures.
Trace a line through points thus obtained, then will 5 1" 5 1° 5 be the pattern,
if the strainer was straight on the top, as shown by the line 1° 1" in side eleva-

tion in Fig. 16.

As the cut shown from 5 to to 5 in Fig. 18 is the correct cut to fit on 5'

1 5 in plan in Fig. 16, take the girth of the curve in side elevation shown by the
small figures 1" to 6 to 7 to 8 to 9 to 1 and place it from 1" to X in Fig. 18,

and draw the curved line 5 to X Then 5 X 5

to 5. J" 5 is the desired pattern,
which must be raised to the shape shown by 5' 1 f> in plan in Fig. 16 and the
curve 1° 1" in the side elevation.

PATTERNS FOR A SCALE SCOOP AND STAND

In the lower left-hand corner of the diagram, Fig. 19, is an elevation drawn to
scale giving dimensions of a scale scoop 13 in. wide and its stand. The problem is

to assume that the scoop must be made in two parts with a seam on the line C D.
It then becomes self-evident that the half portion of the scoop is a part of a body
of, say, a cylindrical surface, and a section of it may be taken on the line AB per-
pendicular to the elements of the cylindrical surface. The top lines and the line
C D are assumed as the edge lines of planes cutting this surface. To term the sur-
face cylindrical is not to limit it to a cylinder as commonly understood, with circu-
lar base, but as a surface generated by a straight line moving always parallel to

itself.

The half portion of the scoop is reproduced full size, as delineated in the lower
half of the diagram, with the line A B in a vertical position to facilitate develop-

ment. As the process is A B can-

governed by certain dimensions, the section on
not be granted as a part of a cylinder with a circular base or cross section, but an
arbitrary section is drawn to the left of the scoop and adhering to the width given,
the depth now being governed by the line A B, as shown. This is one-half of the
section, the full section not being necessary.
This section is divided into convenient spaces, and lines drawn to the line C
D and to the top line of scoop ;
in other words, the edges of the cutting planes
already mentioned. Continuing the line AB as a stretchout line, the girth of the
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 355

section is placed thereon ;

the usual lines drawn through the points on this line
and intersected by lines from the elevation, all as indicated. A line traced through
the points of intersection is the desired one-half pattern.

It was presumed that the stand should be a cylinder, as the customary platform

of a scale is round. The cylinder is, therefore, made of a size large enough to insure
stability to the scoop when loaded, and at the same time not too big to slip over,

instead of resting on the scales platform. A reproduction is made of the half ele-
vation of the scoop and the section in its relative position. The elevation is placed
with the top line horizontal, which allows using the T-square to develop miter line
 ;

Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

and pattern, but to economize space and for appearance it is turned in the engrav-
ing, as shown at the top of diagram.
The intersection of the stand with the scoop, or the miter line of thd cylinder,
is developed by drawing a quarter circle of the stand under the section of the scoop

the center line of this quarter circle being coincident with that of the center line of
the section. This quarter section is divided into equal parts and lines projected to
the section and from there to the elevation, to be, in turn, intersected by lines
drawn from a quarter circle placed in proper position under the elevation, as shown,
or as called for by the small scale drawing.
As these points of intersection are the miter line, so to speak, a stretchout of
one-half the stand is drawn, as shown by 7 to 0 to 7, and the customary measuring
lines intersected by lines 'from the miter line, resulting in one-half the pattern of

the stand.

PATTERN FOR A SAND SPRINKLER

A sand sprinkler, such as is used by painters to imitate stone by sprinkling
sand on painted work, and which can be made by the tinner from tin plate or

zinc, is shown herewith in Fig. 20. In this illustration A represents the body,
B the perforated sprinkler, C C a zinc can screw, which may be bought from
dealers in tinners’ trimmings, and D a conical boss, which makes rigid the handle
E, onto which the button F is soldered. In Fig. 21 is given the method of con-
struction and the location of the joints, the cut being lettered to correspond
with Fig. 20.
The method of laying out the patterns is shown in Fig. 22. First draw the
side elevation of the article, in which A B C D shows the body, E the zinc
screw, F G H I the handle and J L M K the boss. For the pattern for the
body use E and describe the half section through the body, as 1 3 5,
as center
which divide into equal parts, as shown by the small figures 1 2 3 4 5. Through
these points, parallel to A B, draw lines intersecting the face line A D. In line
with B C draw the line C P, upon which place twice the number of spaces con-
tained in 13 5, as shown from 5 to 1 to 5 on C P. At right angles to C P
and through the small figures draw lines, which intersect by lines drawn at right
angles to A B from similar intersections on A D. Trace a line through the
points thus obtained ;
then will S R 5 5 be the pattern for the body.
For the pattern for the shown in elevation by
face, A D, draw lines at right
angles to and from the various intersections on A D, as shown. Parallel to A
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 357

D draw N O. Measuring in every instance from the line B C, take the various
distances to points 2, 3 and 4 on the curve 13 5 and place them on correspond-
ing lines, measuring in each instance from the line N O on both sides, thus
obtaining the points 1', 2', 3', 4' and 5'. Through these intersections trace an
ellipse, as shown, in which punch the required holes.

SIDE ELEVATION

Fig. 21. Showing the p

Location of the Joints Fig. 22. Side Elevation and Patterns

The pattern for the handle F G H I will be as long as F G, and as wide as

the circumference of the section 6 7 8 9. The pattern for the button G H is

shown by 6 7 8 9. For the pattern *for the conical boss, extend the lines L J
and M K until they intersect the center line at a. Then, with radii equal to aJ
and a L, and with a in ( X ) as center, describe the arcs J
1
J s and L L2 From
1
.

L1
draw a line to the center a, intersecting the inner arc at J 1
. Starting from J 1 ,

lay off the stretchout of 6 7 8 9 in side elevation, as shown by J 1 7' 8' 9' J 2 on
the arc J 1 J 2 in (X). Draw a line from a through J 2 intersecting the outer arc
at L*. Then will L L2
1
J 2 J 1 be the pattern for the conical boss. The parts are

thus all obtained, and all that now remains to be done is to put them together and
solder the joints.
By making the handle tapering a better assurance is made of a firm hold for
the hand of the operator. This handle would be simply the frustum of a cone and
laid out accordingly, the wide end being at G H of Fig. 22, and the same width as

now shown is to be maintained at K J, so that the boss as here given would do

for this kind of a handle.
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

PATTERNS FOR FLOUR SIFTER

In Fig. 23 shown a finished view of a flour sifter, usually made from IC
is

bright tin plate. The handle A, which is fastened to the body, is further strength-
ened by the conical boss B. C shows the wire handle which operates the beaters
when the flour is to be sifted through the 'wire cloth sack on the inside of the body.
Knowing the size- of the sifter, first draw the elevation of the body of the sifter, as
shown by A B C D in Fig. 21. Directly below it, in its proper position, draw
the plan, as shown by E F G H. Midway between Band
0 in the elevation draw the handle I .1shown in plan by
,

K L. Now draw M N in elevation, which represents the

wire handle, made from %-inch thick wire, which passes
through the button on the end of the handle and through
the two sides of the body, as shown. The wire handle is
shown in plan by ( ) E, and is fastened in position by the

Fig. 23. Perspective View washers at ci and Ik A. knob fastened to the end of
small
of Flour Sifter
(.he wire handle is shown at/, while P shows the button
double seamed to the tin handle at c, and R S the conical boss between the handle
and the body.

As both halves body are symmetrical, divide the half plan E F G into
of the
an equal number of spaces, as shown by the small figures 1 to 7, from which erect
vertical lines intersecting the top and bottom of the body in elevation, as shown.
 Layouts for Vari ous Sheet Metal Shapes 359
In line with C D draw the line D
upon which place twice the number of spaces
T,
contained in ihe half plan, as shown by similar figures on P T. At right angles
to I) T and from these small figures draw lines, which intersect with lines drawn
from similar numbers on A B at right angles to A L>. Trace a line through the
points thus obtained. Then will U V I) T be the pattern for the body of the
sifter. It will be noticed that the pattern is obtained below and above the wire
lines on top and bottom of the body respectively,
and for that reason allowance must be made to the

net pattern shown. The small dots X, W, Y rep-

resent small holes to be punched into the pattern
to admit the wire handle N M and are obtained

by projecting a line from M, intersecting the center

and ends of the pattern as shown.
While the pattern for the handle K L in plan

or 1 ,J in elevation presents a problem of two

cylinders of unequal diameters intersecting each Fig. 25. Enlarged View of Boss
other at a right angle, assume that 7 G in plan is

a flat surface and make the pattern in length equal to K 7 and in width equal to

the circumference of the circle r, to which laps must be allowed for soldering. This
pattern will answer for all practical purposes where the body is of so large, and the
hand of so small, a diameter.
The pattern for the button P is shown at Z, d representing the hole punched
to admit the wire handle, and e the edge to the double seam on the handle K L
at c. For the pattern for the conical boss, R S, joining the round body of the
sifter, proceed as is shown in Fig. 25, which is an enlarged view to clearly show
each step taken. First draw the center line A A and1
,
from A as center drawr a

portion of the body, as shown by B C. Then draw a portion of the handle E F

G H and establish at pleasure the pitch at the boss I J and I
1
J 1
. Extend these
lines, intersecting the center line A A 1
at L. Draw a line from I to I
1

,
inter-

secting the center line at a. Using a as center and a I as radius, describe the half-

section of the boss on the line I I

1
,
as shown by 1 3 1. Divide this half-section
into equal spaces, as shown by the small figures 1, 2, 3, 2, 1, from which points, at

right angles to 1 1, draw lines intersecting the base lines 1 1, as shown. From these
points draw lines to the apex L, intersecting the body of the sifter B C at 1, 2', 3',

2', 1. From
these intersections, at right angles to the center line A draw lines A 1
,

intersecting the side of the boss at 1 2" 3". Now, with radius equal to L I, and
L in Fig. 26 as center, describe the arc 1 1'", upon which place the stretchout of
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

twice the number of spaces contained in the half section 1 3 in Fig. 25, as shown; 1

by similar number on 1 1" in Fig. 26. From these points draw radial lines to the
center L, as shown. With radii equal to L 2" and L 3" in Fig. 25, and with L in
Fig. 26 as center, draw arcs intersecting radial lines having similar numbers, as

Fig. 26. Pattern for Conical Boss Fig. 27. End and Sectional Views

shown by the intersections 2°, 3“, 2°, 2°, 3°, 2°. In a similar manner, with radius
equal to L J 1
in Fig. 25 and L in Fig. 26 as center, draw the are J J
1
,
intersecting
the radial lines drawn from 1 and V". Trace a line through the points thus
obtained; then will I T I
1
J 1
J be the pattern for the conical boss.
In Fig. 27 is shown the construction of the beater and wire cloth sack. A B
C D represents the sectional view of the body with a bead turned out at D and E.
The bead E should be placed at a distance from the bottom equal to the half diam-
eter of the body. A circle of fine wire cloth is now cut equal in diameter to the
stretchout of the half circle b F a, and then formed into the shape of a half sphere

with an edge turned out slightly at the top, as shown at a and b, and tacked with
solder around the bead E. Two strips of tin are now edged or beaded, as shown
at M or L respectively ( which is full size ) and equal in length to the circumference

of the circle d e (which is slightly smaller than the half sphere F, to allow it to
turn easily), and rolled up and soldered. Then the two rings are joined together
at right angles to each other, as shown in the end view of beater at h f and i j. A
hole is punched through the shown at s, to admit the wire handle. The
center, as
ring beaters are now placed in the body, as shown by d e, and the handle c passed
through the tin handle, body and rings. The rings are now soldered firmly to the
tinned wire and the washers soldered to the handle on the outside, the beater then
being ready for use. If the sifter is of large size, three or four rings can be used
for the beater.
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 361

WATERING POTS, PROPORTIONS AND PATTERNS

In Fig. 28 a watering pot is shown composed of various parts. A shows the
body of the watering pot, B the bottom, C the rear handle, D the crescent shape
water guard, E the spout, F the sprinkler, G the bail or handle on top, a is the
boss in rear handle, d is the brace, one on each side of the spout E used on the
large sizes, from 6 to 12 quarts, for strengthening the connection of the spout E
with the body of the watering pot.
Before a watering pot of any special size can be made, its hight and diameter
must be known, and three and one-seventh times the diameter gives the circumfer-
ence or stretchout of the body pattern, and to this must be added edges for the

seams and the wire. There must be some regard paid to the proportioning the

various parts —the spout, the handles, sprinkler, etc. The sprinklers run from 4
inches in diameter down to 2 inches.
It is important to know how to notch the pieces properly, the top of the
pattern for the take up of the wire, and the bottom notched so as to have only a
single lap of metal when grooved and seamed together. Every experienced tin-

smith understands the importance of this matter of properly notching patterns for
sedms and wiring. If a 3-16-inch wire is to be used, as shown in Fig. 34, then the
pattern should be notched as shown in Fig. 35. The grooved seam should extend
up to the center of wire, as shown at m in Fig. 34 and in the pattern at p in Fig.
35. The distance p q in Fig. 35 musl be of sufficient width to cover wire, as
shown in Fig. 34. In making allowance for the seam at each end of the pattern
add one and one-half times width of edge or lock turned for the seam. If J^-inch
edge is turned for the seam, then add 3-16 inch to each end of pattern, as shown
by n o in Fig. 35. In notching the bottom of the pattern, where the 3^-inch
edge is away 3-16 inch on an angle of about 45 degrees.
used, cut After the
pattern is properly notched then punch out the hole in the pattern for the spout.
After the pattern is edged, wired, formed, grooved together, and the bottom
double seamed on, a suitable shaped top should be made, as shown by D in Fig.
28 and by the plan in Fig. 30, which is shown in the form of a crescent. Fig.
,

31 is the developed pattern of the crescent shaped water guard, as shown by D' in
the plan, Fig. 30 and as ,
shown by D in the elevation, Fig. 28 . Draw a horizon-
tal line through the center of the plan in Fig. 30 extending ,
it to 1 ,
shown in
as
Fig. 31 With h 8 as a radius, as shown in the upper part of Fig.
. 32 and with s'
,

as a center and with s 1 as a radius, equal to h s in Fig. 32 scribe an arc as ,

shown in Fig. 31 Then space off on the outer circle of the plan of the crescent,
.
 36a Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

as shown in Fig. 30, the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, then transfer the same space to
the arc thus scribed in Fig. 31. This gives the distance 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 0 on
enlarged circle in Fig. 31, the same as from 1 to 0 in Fig. 30. Make 1 / in Fig.
31 equal to h Jc in Fig. 32, the width of the crescent, in the center. Draw line

Fig. 31 Fig. 35 Fig. 29 Fig. 39 Fig. 88

Details, .Proportion and Patterns of Watering Pots

from 6 to / at the center K on this line 6 f, and at right angles with it draw line
to g, and with g f as a radius scribe the arc at /, intersecting the outer circle at 6

on both sides and completing the pattern.

 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 363

In Fig. 32 a method is shown of proportioning the crescent top to the various

sizes of watering pots, so that the general proportion will be the same. The lower
part of Fig. 32 shows a plan of the various sizes of watering pots. The relative
position of c in the outer circle in Fig. 32 is the same as 6 in Fig. 30, as shown
by dotted line 6 c. From c in the outer circle draw line to center e, cutting the
other circles at points 1, 2, 3, 4. Above this plan in Fig. 32 draw the line h g
at right angles with the center e i, and of sufficient length to intersect with per-
pendicular lines from the outer diameter of the plan. From points cl, 2, 3, 4
thus established in the plan draw perpendicular lines intersecting line h k, and
from the center e draw the horizontal line cutting through the circles at points 1,

2, 3, 4, 5, and from these points draw perpendicular lines intersecting the line
h J. These points thus established on this line h g give the relative proportion

in length in elevation of the crescent top for the various sizes of watering pots.
To proportion the hight of the various sizes of these tops they must all have the
same pitch, as shown by dotted lines, as the outer solid line.
Fig. 33 shows a method of proportioning the top bail or handle of the water-
ing pot. The idea is to have the half-circle of the handle come even with the top
edge of the crescent top, and h' g' forms the base line equal in width to the largest
diameter. The hight is represented by k' l' . The lines h' k' and k' J' are what
may be termed the grading lines, to proportion the length of the straight sides of
the bails or handles for the various sizes of the watering pots-.

Fig. 39 shows a method of proportioning the width of the handles, which

naturally should vary according to the size of handle required. If the bail or
handle for a 12-quart watering pot is made 1 } inches wide, smaller sizes must be
proportionally less in width. The smallest, as shown, would be about % inch
wide. Add edges for wiring. In Fig. 29 the size and dimensions are given of
watering pots of the following sizes : 1 quart, 3 quarts, 6 quarts, 9 quarts and 12
quarts, giving their various hights and diameters. The circumference is secured
by multiplying the diameter by 3 1-7, and is practically near enough for an article

of this kind. The circumference of a 1-quart pot is 12% inches, so that the net
size of pattern required, outside of seam, would be 4 5-8 X 12% inches. So in
like manner with the other sizes. A 3-quart pattern, net size, would be
7%X17% inches; a 6-quart, 9X22 inches; a 9-quart, 10 3-8X25% inches, and a
12-quart pattern, without seam, would be 11%X27% inches.
In Fig. 36 the points 1, 2, 3, 4 show the developed pattern of the spout E.
This is secured by extending the tapering sides of the spout E until they inter-
sect at w. Extend the upper line of the spout E with dotted lines to y the sa-ma
364 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

in length as the lower line of the spout E. and space off

Scribe the half circle x,
this half circle into a given number of points. Space off these same number of
points with their duplicates on curved line y z between the points 5 and 6.
This gives the circumference at the largest end of the spout E. Draw lines from
all these points to w. From w draw lines down through the spout E intersecting
the points established in the half circle x. With w as a center and the radius at
the various points where these lines thus drawn intersect with the line of the body
of the watering pot A, scribe the various arcs, as shown by dotted lines, and inter-
sect them with the corresponding lines in pattern drawn to the center w. By
connecting these points it gives the miter pattern 1,4.
Fig. 37 is the developed pattern of the tapering part of the sprinkler F. Fig.

38 is the developed pattern of the socket on the end of the sprinkler that slips
down over the end of the spout E to hold the sprinkler in position.

PATTERNS FOR SPRINKLING CAN

shown a perspective view of a sprinkling can, the construction
In Fig. 40 is

and patterns for which are shown in Figs. 41 to 43, inclusive. In Fig. 41 A shows
the spout joining the body G at a and b. At c a zinc sprinkler head is soldered.
The bottom B is seamed to the body as shown at e and d. The body of the can
has an ogee swedge at m and m and a wire edge at/
and i. The can lip has a wire edge at h and an edge
to solder at/. The cross brace at J supports the spout,
and is soldered at t and u. The handle is soldered
at 0 and n, and r is the grasp. The handle shown by
B in Fig. 40 is omitted in Fig. 41.
The difficult patterns to be developed in this
sprinkler are the spout, the opening in can to receive
the spout and the lip. To avoid a confusion of lines
Fig. 40. General View of Can
these three patterns have been developed separately.
The patterns for the spout and the opening in the can are shown in Fig. 42, though
somewhat out of proportion to show clearly the principles involved. It should be
understood that it makes no difference what the size of the can or spout may be, or
at what angle it is placed, the rule holds good. Let A represent a part elevation
of the can and B its plan.

Draw the outline of the spout as desired, as shown by C D E F and extend

C D and F E until they meet in the apex at G. At will, extend the sides 0 D and
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 365
F E downward, making the distance G 5 and G 1 equal, and draw the diameter 1

5, upon which place the semiplan 13 5. Divide this into equal spaces as shown,
from which points, perpendicular to 1 5, draw lines intersecting the diameter 1 5 at
2', 3' and 4', and from these points draw radial lines to G.

Through the center a of the plan B draw the line a G1 which intersect by a ,

vertical line dropped from G in elevation. Then G 1 which gives the apex of the ,

spout in plan. From the various intersections, 1, 2', 3', 4' and 5, on the base of
the cone in elevation, drop vertical lines cutting the center line in plan, as shoftn
by similar numbers. Now take the various projections from the line 1 5 in eleva-
tion to points 2 3 and 4 in the semiplan, and place them on similar lines drawn
into the plan, measuring from the center line a G 1
,
and obtain points 2 3 and 4.

Fig. 42. Pattern for Spoot Fig. 41. Section of Can

From these points draw lines to the apex G\ cutting the circle or plan of the can at
1°, 5°, 2°, 4°, 3°. From these points lines are erected into the elevation, cutting
similar radial lines as indicated at 1
T
2T 3 T 4T and 5T
, ,
. A line traced through these
points gives the miter line between the spout and can.
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

From the various intersections 1

T
to 5
T
,
at right angles to the center line G 3,

draw lines cutting the side of the cone EF from 1 to 5

V
. With G as center and G
5 as radius draw the arc H
upon which place twice the girth of the semiplan
I,

from 1 to 5 to 1, and draw radial lines to the apex G. Then with radii equal to
G E, G 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
T
draw arcs intersecting similar radial lines as shown. Trace a
line through points thus obtained, and J K L E will be the pattern for the spout.
Dotted lines show laps.

\ / PATTERN
FOR HANDLE

Fig. 48. Patterns for Can Lip, Handles and Brace

The opening to be cut into the can to receive the spout is obtained by taking
the stretchout of 1°, 5°, 2°, 4°, 3° in plan, and placing this on the line M N on either
side of the center line X. Vertical lines are nov erected and intersected by hori-
zontal lines drawn from similar numbers in the miter line CF in elevation. The
shaded portion shows the shape of opening.
Four patterns are shown in Fig. 43, the one for the can lip being obtained as
follows: Let A represent the elevation of the can and B the plan. Draw the
center line C 6. Draw the angle of the lip desired, as shown by 6 5' 1 in elevation,
and extend 5'
1, cutting the plan at 1. Divide the distance in plan from 1 to 5 as
 :

Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 3 67

shown, from which erect vertical lines cutting the can from 1 to 5 in elevation.
From these points, parallel to the angle 5 5', draw lines indefinitely, cutting the
vertical line 5' 1 at 4' 3' 2'. Draw the perpendicular line a b, then measuring from
the line C 5 in plan, take the various projections to points 1, 2, 3 and 4, and place
them on similar numbered lines in the true profile on either side of the line a b,

resulting when a line is traced through points thus obtained in the true profile 15 1.

Take the girth of this true profile and place it on DE drawn at right angles
to 6 5', through which draw the usual measuring lines parallel to 5 5' and intersect

them by lines drawn perpendicular to 5' 5 from similar numbered points on 5' 1

and 1 5. The pattern for the lip is shown by the solid line, while the dotted lines

show edges.
The pattern shown by C in Fig. 40 is shown by F in Fig. 43.
for the brace

Hem edges are allowed, the arc F being made to fit circle of spout. The side
handle is shown at M N. The girth is taken and placed on G H I J and K L ;

are added with hem edges as shown O in M N shows the side of the grasp, with
;

its section shown at X. Divide X into equal parts as shown, and draw lines
through these points parallel to 0, cutting the outline of the handle as shown.
The girth of X is now placed on Y Z, the usual measuring lines drawn and inter-

sected by lines drawn at right angles to 0 from similar intersections on M N. The

desired pattern shown by Y U Z V.
is This same rule is applied if a grasp was
desired on the top handle shown by B in Fig. 40.

INK FOR MARKING TINWARE, ATTACHING LABELS

A good ink for marking tinware is made by reducing asphalt or black varnish
with turpentine to the desired consistency. It should be kept in a corked bottle,
and, when wanted for use, the bottle should be shaken thoroughly. On withdraw-
ing the cork enough of the marking fluid will adhere to it so that when the pen is

applied to the cork it will fill with the fluid. This ink can be used for marking
&ny bright article, as well as tinware, and it can be removed by means of a cloth
dipped in coal oil or turpentine. Another ink is made by reducing shellac varnish
with alcohol and adding a sufficient quantity of the finest lamp black. This forms
a jet black lusterless ink, which is insoluble in water, but can be removed by a
drop of alcohol.
There are occasions when it is desirable to attach labels to tin, and as ordinary
paste or mucilage is not adapted to the purpose, the following methods are given
 368 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

1. If the paper is well sized and will resume its original color when the paste
is dry, use a solution of balsam of fir, 1 part, in oil of turpentine, 2 or 3 parts.
2. Soften 1 part of good glue in water, then pour off the excess, and boil it

with 8 parts of strong vinegar (about 8 per cent.). Thicken the liquid, while
boiling, with enough of fine wheat flour or dextrin.

3. Make starch paste and add to it while warm a little Venice turpentine, so
that the latter will become evenly distributed through it.

Add to starch paste, or any other similar aqueous paste (except that made
4.

from gum Arabic), some solution of shellac in borax. The quantity may be easily
determined by trial.

5. Paint the spot where the label is to be put with a solution of tannin and let

it dry. Affix the label, previously gummed and wetted.

6. Paint the spot over lightly with a camel’s hair brush dipped into chloride
of antimony.
7. Make a dilute solution of white gelatin, or, better, of isinglass, about 1 in
20. This is said to adhere without the addition of anything else.
To mucilage of acacia, starch, dextrin or tragacanth paste, add a little
8.

ammonia.
9. Or add a little tartaric acid. A trifle of glycerin may be added besides.
10. Mucilage of gum Arabic may be made much more adhesive by heating

100 parts of it with 2 parts of sulphate of aluminum, previously dissolved in hot

water, to bailing, and then allowing to settle. A little tartaric acid and some glyc-
erin added to the clear liquid after it is decanted will improve it.

11. Make a mixture of mucilage of tragacanth, 10 parts, and flour, 1 part.

PATTERN FOR COPPER STOVE RESERVOIR

For the most correct and quickest way to make a copper stove reservoir out of
14 X 48-inch sheet copper, with two seams in the body, the finished reservoir to
be 12 inches deep, 17X10 inches at the top and 16X9 inches at the bottom,
proceed as follows:
Assuming the body is to be in two pieces, with seams at two corners, it will
require using stock size of 14-inch wide copper, a length of 28 inches for each half
pattern, and the correct rule for laying out the pattern direct upon a sheet of copper
without using any drawings but the measurements above given, is in Fig. 44. Let
AB C D represent a sheet 14X28 inches in size; draw the line E F parallel to A
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

B, making the distance A E equalto the width of the top flange, and place E from
the edge A D as much as required for edges for seaming. Make E F equal to 17
inches and bisect the line as at G. From G, at right angles to E F draw G H,
equal to 12 inches, and from H, parallel to E F, draw I J, making H I and H J
each equal to 8 inches, making I J 16 inches; draw lines from E to I and F to
J. Then will E F J I be the pattern for the long side. As the flare is equal all

around, with F as center and any radius, describe the arc K L, intersecting the
line F J at M. With M as center and M K as radius intersect the arc K L at

'L. Draw a line from F through the intersection L, as F R, which make equal to

10 inches. In similar manner the angle P O can be made equal to P N ;

or, from
J draw the line J S parallel to F R, making J S equal to 9 inches, and draw
line from R to S. Then will E F R S J I represent a one-half pattern for the
reservoir, flanges to be allowed for seaming. It will be noticed that the distance
from G to H was made 12 inches, or the depth of the article, because in this case

the flare, as shown from B to C in Fig. 45, is but 1-32 inch more in length than
the straight hight. If, however, the flare was greater, the distance from B to C
would be the length from G to H in Fig. 44. In Fig. 45 is shown the section

through the article with flanges at A and B and double seams at the bottom at C
and D. If desired, the corners can be slightly rounded. It is suggested that

28-inch wide copper be employed ;

as that is stock size, no waste will result.

PATTERN FOR ICE CREAM MOLD

An article
which can be made from IX tin or No. 24 galvanized iron, is an
ice cream mold (brick form). In Fig. 46 is shown a perspective view of the mold
with cover. The comers can either be riveted, as shown by C and D, or double
seamed. The seams should be soldered on the inside in such a manner that the
37 ° Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

inside surface will be as perfectly smooth as if the mold were stamped in one
,

piece. While some molds are made perfectly square that is, no bevel is given to —
% —
the sides this pattern is cut on a bevel to allow the cream to
slip out easily.
In laying out the pattern it is not necessary to draw the
entire form, but only one corner. Providing that all the

Fig. 46. Perspective View

sides have the same bevel, this one corner pattern is all that
of Finished Ice Cream Mold will be required to obtain the pattern in one piece. In Fig. 47
let 1, 2, 3, 4 be a section taken through A B in Fig. 46; 1, 2, 3 in Fig. 47
being the body of the mold, with wire at 3, while 4 indicates the cover. For the
pattern for the corner draw any line, as C D, at right angles to a 1, upon which
place the stretchout of 1, 2 and 3 in the section, as shown by 1, 2 and 3 on C

Fig. 47. Method of Obtain- Fig. 48. Pattern for Mold in One Piece
ing Pattern for One Corner

D, also allowing for wire, as shown. At right angles to C D and through the
small figures draw lines, as shown, which intersect with lines drawn at right angles
to a 1 from intersections 1 ,
2 and 3 in the section. Trace a line through points
thus obtained. Then will E F G H be the corner pattern.
Assuming that the bottom of the mold is to be of a given size, as shown by A
B C D in Fig. 48, around which the sides are to be constructed, take the pattern
GF E in Fig. 47, and, laying the line G F successively against the corners and
lines A B, B C, C D and D A in Fig. 48, turning the pattern right and left as

required, mark off the miters E, E, E, etc., as shown. Then will the pattern
shown in Fig. 48 be the full pattern for the mold in one piece. Allowance must
be made for seaming or riveting, as shown. The pattern for the cover 4 in Fig.
47 is so simple that a description is omitted.
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 37 1
PATTERN FOR TUMBLER DRAINER
The finished view of a tumbler drainer is shown in Fig. 49. This article can be
made from zinc, galvanized iron, bright tin, copper and brass. When made from
polished sheet brass or copper it has an attractive appearance on a counter. Those
made of the first three materials are usually japanned in colors. It will be noticed
a heavy beaded edge is placed at a a, while at bbb buttons are soldered to prevent
the bottom of the pan from scratching the counter. If

desired, ornamental brass legs can be used on the copper

and brass drainers.
Fig. 50 shows the cross section through the pan,
Fig. 49. Perspective View of with a wired edge at a a, and b, b’ and b represent small
Tumbler Drainer
angles bent to the shape shown and soldered to the ends
and sides. On the top of these the drainer c rests. In the drainer c small perfora-
tions are made with a %-inch hollow punch. After punching these holes on a
block of lead the burr should not be flattened, but should remain as shown in c,

which forms a drip. Around the drainer c bend down 34 inch all around to stiffen
the edges. The concave buttons / and / are punchings obtained from a 1-inch
hollow punch. These punchings are concave, and in that shape should be soldered
to the bottom of the pan.

Fig. S3. Pattern for Drainer Fig. 51. Pattern for Pan

Fig. 51 shows how the patterns for the drainer and pan are developed. AB
C D is a reproduction of affa in minus the wire or beaded edge.
Fig. 50, Draw
the desired bottom of the pan below the section, as shown by B 1 C1 E 1 F 1 . Take
 37 * Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

the distance of AB or C D in the section and place it at right angles to the sides
of the bottom, as shown by A 1
,
J 1
,
D H
1
,
1
. Through these points draw the lines

a a on each side, parallel to the sides. At right angles to B C in section, and

from the points and D, drop lines intersecting the line J and H 1 at a a a a.
A 1

Take the distance from X to a and place this projection at the ends on the lines
A 1 and D1 as shown. Connect lines, as shown, which will be the desired pattern,
,

to which allowance must be made for seaming and wiring.

The pattern for the drainer, represented by b b in section, is cut, as shown in
Fig. 62, as much larger than the bottom of the pan as the projection e b in section
indicates. In other words, if the bottom of the pan measures 10 X 14 inches, and
the projection e b equals % inch, then will the pattern for drainer b' b' b' b' measure
11X15 inches, to which edges are allowed. Perforations are made in the space
shown.

PATTERN FOR PAN WITH WATER TIGHT CORNERS

A perspective view of apan in which the corners are made water tight is
shown in Fig. 63. This is accomplished by means of folding the comers together
and turning them to the sides, or ends, as shown by a and b. Perhaps it would
‘
be more readily understood to say that this procedure is commonly called, ‘Making
drip pans.”
The usual practice in the shop is to lay off the pattern directly on the metal,
using the steel square and dividers. These pans can be made
from tin, black or plainshed iron, galvanized iron, copper or
brass. When made from tin or black iron they are used for
baking; from planished iron for roasting, from galvanized
iron for drip or water pans, and from polished copper or
brass for confectioners’ displays.
In Fig. 64 shown the method employed in obtaining the pattern for a pan
is

the flare of which is equal on all sides. Draw A B C D, the elevation of the
pan. Directly below it draw E F G H, the bottom. Take the distance C to B
and place it at right angles to the ends and sides of the bottom, as shown by B1
B* B8 and B4 through which draw lines parallel to the ends and sides, as shown.
,

Extend E F, H G, F G and E H, intersecting the lines just drawn at b b’, c

c, d d' and e e. Take the projection of the flare a B in elevation and set it off
on the four sides of the pan, as shown by b o', c o', d o', e a\ c' a, V a', e a'
and d' o'. From the points o' draw lines to the corners E, F, G and H, which
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 373
would complete the pattern for the pan if the corners were soldered together
raw edge.
To find out the amount of material necessary for foldihg the corners proceed
as follows : If the flare is equal on all E F G. To do this
sides bisect the angle
use F as center, and with any radius draw the arc / h, intersecting E F and F
G at / and h. Then, using / and h as centers, and with radius greater than half
f h, draw arcs intersecting each other at i. Draw a line through i and F, as
shown by i j. Then, using a' as center, with radius less than would meet i j,
describe the arc b m, intersecting a' F at n o. Then, with n as center and n
b as radius, describe an arc intersecting the arc b m at o. Draw a line from a
through o, intersecting the line i j at l. Draw a line from l to a. Then will a
F ala be the desired comer, which should be traced on each corner.

Fig. 64. Pattern for Pan with Equal Flares on Fig. 55. Pattern for Pan with Different Flares on
All Sides Sides from Ends

If a pan is desired, the ends of which have a different flare from those of the
sides, as is shown in Fig. 55, in which A B C D shows the side elevation and
E F G H the end elevation. In its proper position, draw the bottom of the pan
I J K L. Take the distances C to D and B to A in side elevation, and G to
F and H to E in end elevation, and place these distances at right angles to the
ends and sides of the pan, as shown respectively by A D F and E 1 through
1 1 1
, , ,

which points draw lines parallel to the ends and sides, as shown. Intersect these
lines by lines drawn from A to D in side elevation, and E and F in end elevation,
thus obtaining the intersections b, b, b, b, and a, a, a, a. Draw lines from the points
a and b to the corners I, J, K and L, as shown, which would complete the pattern
for the pan if the comers were soldered together raw edge.
374 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

In making these pans of unequal flare the folded corners are sometimes turned
toward the ends of the pan, while they are sometimes folded toward
the sides of the pan. Assuming that the corner is to be turned
toward the end of the pan, as shown at P in end view, bisect the
angle b J a in pattern, obtaining the line of bisection J f.

With a of the end miter as center, and with radius less than would
touch J /, describe the arc j k, intersecting a J at i. With i as center and i j as
radius intersect j k at l. Draw a line from a through l, intersecting the line / J at n.
From n draw a line to b. Then will b J a l be the pattern for the folded corner
when it is turned toward the ends.
When the corner is to be turned toward the sides, of the pan, as shown by N
in side elevation, bisect the angle b I a by the line I r, and using b of the side

miter as center, describe the arc s t. Then, using u as center and us as radius,
intersect the arcs s, t, Draw a line from b through v, intersecting r
at v. 1 at

w, and draw a line from w to a. Then will a l b w be the pattern for the
folded corner when it is turned toward the sides. Note the difference between the
shape of the two corners.
When making roasting, baking and drip pans the wire hinged handle is

usually employed, as shown in Fig. 56, which shows the wire handle a fitting into

the loop of the metal b at c. Holes are punched at e and e for riveting to the ends
of the pan, as shown at b in Fig. 53.

In the confection pans made of brass or copper, stationary handles, as shown

at H in Fig. 57, are used. The method of obtaining the pattern is shown in the
same figure. Let ABC represent a portion of the pan, and E the side view of the
handle. Draw the shape the handle is to have on the line T 3', as shown by D,
which divide into equal shown by the small figures 1 to 3
spaces, as on either side,
from which draw vertical lines intersecting the bottom of
the handle E at T 2' and 3', from which points, parallel
to T 1", draw lines indefinitely, as shown by 1°, 2°, 3°,

intersecting the side of the pan A B at 1", 2", 3'. A

true section must now be obtained on the line E 3', as
follows: Draw 1* D 1
at right angles to 1' 1°. Measuring
from 1 D, take the distances to points 2 and 3 and place
them on similar numbered lines, measuring from the
Fig. 67. Pattern for Soldered
line 1* D 1
,
thus obtaining the points 1*, 2 X 3 X on both
,

Handle sides, through which trace a curved line, which will be

the true section on E 3' in side. For the pattern extend the line 3' E, as E E1 ,
 ,

Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 375

upon which place the stretchout of the profile D 1
,
as shown by similar figures on
EE 1
. At right angles to E E 1
and through the small figures draw lines, which
intersect with lines drawn from similar numbered intersections on AB and 3' 1' at
right angles to 1' 1". Trace a curved line through the points thus obtained. Then
will 3 F 3 G be the pattern for the handle. These handles are generally soldered
to the pan on the inside of the handle H. Any solder showing is scraped off.

CAKE CUTTERS
Bright pieces of scrap tin can be utilized to make lady finger, patty, biscuit,
doughnut, cookey, cake, animal, tart and muffin cutters. These are easily made,
prove attractive, and sell X’eadily if an assortment of forms is kept on hand. In
Fig. 58 is shown a variety of simple forms. To make the full sized drawings of
these figures the method shown in Fig. 59 may be used. Divide the length of the
smaller outline into an equal number of spaces, as shown by the small figures 1 to 8,
and the hight into any number of equal parts, as shown from a to g. Through the
small figures 1 to 8 and letter a to g draw lines at right angles to each other, inter-
secting each other, as shown, and crossing the outline of the figure.
Assuming that the outline of the horse is to be made twice the size of the small
diagram, set off a distance equal to twice the amount of 1 shown by T to 8
to 8, as
and twice the hight a g, as shown by a g.

As 1 to 8 is divided into eight parts, and a g

into seven, then divide T to 8' into eight
and a g into seven, respectively.
parts
Through points T to 8' and a to g draw lines
r 7' 3' 4' 5' fl' T 8'
1 J 3 4 S 6 7 8

©Fig. 66.
0
Simple Forma of Cake Cutters Fig. 69. Method of Enlarging Figures

at right angles to each other, as shown. Following the smaller diagram as a guide,
the large one is traced through corresponding squares. In this manner any figure
37 6 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

can be enlarged to any size. If the outline was required six times as large as the
grp g.11 diagram , then would the length and hight a g be made six times as
1 to 8

large divide the spaces thus obtained into the same number of divisions as in the
;

original diagram. In Fig. 60 is shown an outline of a bird and barking dog.

These or any other figures can be enlarged, using the above method. A mechanical
instrument known as a pantograph can be bought from a dealer in drawing
instruments. The cost of these is not large and usually full instructions are

furnished.
The cutters are constructed as shown in Fig. 61, in which A represents a flat

piece of tin of the required size, onto which strips of tin % inch wide,
which have
been formed to the outline of the figure desired, are tacked with solder at a and a.

Fig. 60.
kI.
Bird and Dog Fig. 61. Construction of the Cutter

Then a handle, shown at C, about % inch wide, with a hem edge bent toward the
inside, is soldered to the flat disk A at 6 and b. A 3^ -inch hole should be

punched through the center shown by the arrow point, also as is shown
of the disk,

in all the diagrams by X in

Figs. 58, 59 and 60, which allows the surplus dough to

pass out at the top when cutting the various figures. D in Fig. 61 shows a per-
spective view of a doughnut cutter, showing how the handle and strips are put
together, being the finished article of D in Fig. 58.

DETAILS OF A PEANUT HEATER

One of the simplest forms of a peanut heater, fulfilling the requirements of
ordinary conditions, shown in the accompanying illustrations, Fig. 62, showing a
is

side and Fig. 63, an end view. First make the rectangular box A B D C, Fig.
62; from A to B, 18 inches; from G to D, 16 inches, and the straight depths
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 377

inches. From A to B, Fig. 63, is 10 inches, and C to D, 8 inches. Double

seam the corners and bottom and solder well. Rivet in position 3 inches from the
bottom a partition to form a water chamber, as shown, leaving holes for the tube

E for steam whistle, 3-8 inch in diameter, and F for a water filler, 1 inch in
diameter, having a screw cap at the top with a small hole in it, which will indicate
when water is low by emitting steam. Put in a small pet cock at G, which will
be high water mark, and a faucet at H to empty reservoir. Make the breast with
a rim 1 inch high, into which will fit the cover J, which
should fit and may be hinged if desired.
easily Now
make the rectangular box to hold the fire pan, wire it
around the top, and swing a door at each end. Rivet three
braces of 1-inch band iron across, as shown, upon which
will rest the upper section. Punch J^-inch holes along the
Fig. 64. Fire Pan
top of each side, to let out the gas from the burning char-
coal. The fire pan, which is shown in Fig. 64, is made semi-cylindrical in form, 5
inches wide and 14 inches in length, perforated with 3-8-inch holes, to permit the
combustion of the charcoal, which, may be regulated by a draft slide placed in one of
the doors. This pan must be supported by legs made from 1-inch band iron, so that
the air has free circulation all around it ;
also rivet a small lug at each end, to admit a
handle made after the manner of a stove by which the fire pan may be
lifter,

removed without burning the hands. The whistle is made from two disks 1 %
inches in diameter, raised and soldered together, and having a small hole in the
under side, upon the edge of which the steam is blown.
378 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

CANDLE MOLDS
That the tinsmith, or sheet metal worker as he is now called, may receive an
order for an article that is practically obsolete is evidenced by the receipt of a
description from a tinsmith of candle molds, made by him pursuant to an order.
Hence, the presenting here of this description may be of use to others.
Fortunately this tinsmith had the opportunity to borrow an old mold made
in the days of candles and was thereby saved the need of experimenting. The new
candle mold shown with the wicks in place and the drawing bar ready to pull
is

the candles out of the mold after the tallow has hardened. Resting across the
new one is the old candle mold that is now covered with rust and not fit for
service, though it furnished the dimensions from which the new mold was made,

as portrayed in the illustration, Fig. 65. The top, which serves as a funnel, accom-
modates molds for three candles and is 1 % in. wide, 3}^ in. long and 1 in. deep.
The molds are tapering, % in. in diameter at the top and % in. in diameter at the
bottom and 9 % in. long. They are finished at the bottom with a short cone open
at the apex, so that the wicks can be passed through and knotted.
The cylinders for the molds were formed on the candle mold stake that is in
every tinshop but seldom used for its original purpose. The cones were formed on
the beakhorn stake and all the parts were soldered together. Where a large num-
ber of candles were made in former times, 6 and 12 molds were assembled instead

Mold
__ 1
L c Handle

=r_j
foooj
^7
( j0p
s
I

y
—
&Point

rtss
)

Fig. 65. The Old and New Candle Molds Fig. 66. Patterns for Candle Molds

of 3 as in the picture, and then instead of being soldered together at the bottom
they were passed through holes in a tin brace similar to that at the top. This held
them farther apart and quickened the cooling. Usually the mold is immersed in
water when the candles are poured, so that if the tallow is hot it cannot possibly
melt the solder. A suitable handle is an essential part and is soldered to the mold,
as seen in the picture. The patterns for all the different parts are shown about
one-quarter of the full size in Fig. 66.
 Layouts for Various SKeet Metal Shapes 379
PATTERN FOR SCALE SCOOP WITH FUNNEL END
A scale scoop with a funnel on one end is shown by Fig. 67, which gives the
side view, section and radii To make the pattern for this a correct
of such a scoop.

side view of the scoop should be made, as follows Draw any horizontal line, as :

L M. At right angles to L M draw the line B D, and make the distance 4 to D

X the same as 4 to B, then
locate the points A and C,
and draw lines A to B, B to

C, C D and D to
to A. Place
the tube G H I J, as shown,
and at pleasure draw the

Fig. 07. Side View, Section and Radii

FKE.
curve Then will J D
E K F G be the side view
of the scoop. With a radius equal to 4 B or 4 D and N on the line L M as center,
describe the circle R P O M, which will represent a section through the line BD
in side view. Divide the half circle OPR into equal spaces, as shown by the
small figures 1 to 7, and from which, parallel to L M, draw lines intersecting the
line B D from 1 to 7, as shown. From points 1 to 5 on D B draw lines to the
apex C, while from points 5 to 7 draw lines to the apex A. Where the radial lines
2, 3 and 4 intersect the curve K E, draw at right angles to L M, lines intersecting

the bottom of the scoop D C at 1', 2', 3' and 4'. In similar manner, where the
radial lines 5, 6 and 7 intersect the curve K F draw lines at right angles to L M,
intersecting the scoop line J D at points D, 6' and 7'.

For the pattern for the one-half of the scoop K E D, the part without the funnel,
take C D as radius and C in Fig. 68 as center and describe the arc 5 5. Draw the
radial line C The scoop on the line K D in Fig. 67 has only a part of the
1.

circle for its profile, as shown from 5 to 5' in section, Fig. 67. Take the stretch-
out from 1 to 5 in the section, and place it on either side of the point 1 in Fig. 68, as
shown from 1 to 6. From these small figures draw radial lines to the center C, as
shown. With radii equal to C 4', C 3', C 2' and C 1' in Fig. 67, and with C in Fig.
68 as center, intersect radial lines having similar numbers, as shown by 4' 4', 3'

3 2' 2' and 1', respectively, as shown. Trace a curved line through intersec-
,

tions thus obtained, as shown, from 6 to 1' to 5, which completes the pattern. If a
scale scoop were desired of a shape similar to X in Fig. 67, a duplicate of the
patternshown in Fig. 68 would be required and joined on the line K D in Fig. 67.
The usual method of joining is to turn edges on each part as one would do in
seaming elbows but instead ; of leaving the seaming standing, it is doubled over.
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

For the opposite half of the scoop G F K D J,

A D as radius and with A take
in Fig. 69 as center describe the arc 7 7. Draw any radial line, as A and set off 1,

on either side of point the stretchout of the semicircle R P 0 in Fig. 67, as shown
1

by the small figures 7 to 1 to 7 in Fig. 69.

From points 5, 6 and 7 draw radial lines to
the center A. Now with radii equal to A 7'
and A 6' in Fig. 67 and A in Fig. 69 as
center, intersect radial lines having similar
numbers, as shown by 7' 7' and 6' 6’. Trace
a line through points thus obtained, as
shown from 7' to 6 and 5 to 7’. With radius
equal to A J in Fig. 67 and with A in
Fig. 69 as center, describe the arc J J. Then
will J 7' 5 1 5 7' J be the desired pattern.
Allow edges to all patterns for wiring and
Fig. 68. Pattern for
seaming. The tube shown by HG J I in Half Scoop K E D in
Fig. 69.
Scoop
Pattern for Half
DKFG J in Fig.
Fig. 67 67
Fig. 67 should have a wired edge at H I, as
shown.

PATTERNS FOR COLANDER

A perspective view of a colander, which
made from bright IC or IXis usually
charcoal tin, is shown in Fig. 70. The handles shown at A and A are tinned
malleable iron handles, and are riveted to the body of the colander. They can, if
desired, be made from tin plate and soldered on. A wired edge is placed at the
top and at the bottom, as shown at a and b, respectively.
The patterns for the colander are obtained as shown in Fig. 71, in which first
draw the center line A B, upon which place the hight of
the colander, as shown by A K. Draw the desired
dimensions on either side of the center line, as shown by
C D, E F, and G H. Extend the lines D E and 0 F,
Fig. 7o. Perspective view intersecting the center line A B at I. With K as center
of Ooiaader
draw the semicircle 0 3 6, which divide into equal
spaces, asshown by the small figures 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Using I as center,
with radii equal to I E and I D, draw the arcs N 0 and L M, respectively.
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 381
From any point, as L, draw the radial line L I, intersecting the arc N O at
N. On the arc N O, starting from the point N, set off the stretchout of the semi-
circle 6 3 0,as shown by similar figures on N 0 From the center I draw a line
through O intersecting the arc L M at M. Then FRONT ELEVATION
will L M O N be the half pattern for the body
of the colander, to which laps must be allowed
for seaming and wiring.
For the pattern for the base or foot of the

colander extend the lines H E or G F in ele-

vation until they intersect the center line at J.

With radii equal to J F and J G and with B

on the center line A B as center, describe the
arcs E 1 F 1 and H 1 G1 respectively. FromG1 ,

draw the radial line to B intersecting the inner

arc at F 1
. From the point F 1
lay off on the arc
F E
1 1
the stretchout of the semicircle 6 3 0, as
shown by similar figures on F E 1 1
. From the
penter B draw a line through E 1
,
exending it

until it intersects the arc H G 1 1

at H 1
. Then
will H G F E
1 1 1 1
be the pattern for the foot of FOR BASE
Pig. 71. Front Elevation and Patterns
the colander. Laps must be allowed for edging

and wiring. P in the front elevation indicates a small swedge, or bead, turned
into the colander, below which perforations are made, which are also shown in the
pattern. The bottom of the colander, which should also be perforated, is shown
by the circle K. This bottom is oftentimes raised, so as to present a surface suffi-

ciently stiff for all purposes, and the removal of buckles.

TIN BASINS

The sizes and dimensions of basins presented on page 343 have long been the
standard. This schedule in former years had a special value, because of the fact that
such articles of tinware, as well as nearly all others, were made in larger quantities,
such as gross lots, and the sizes of patterns were so proportioned as to cut stock to
the best advantage with the least possible waste. In the illustrations herewith, it
 38a Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

has been aimed to show how this is accomplished with the least possible expense
under the old regime of hand made tinware, as well as giving the required size of

the various patterns.

Fig. 72 represents 1-pint, 3-pint and 2-quart tin basins, respectively. The
pattern for the pint basin is made shown by A in Fig. 72. In
in two pieces, as
this pattern all edges must be allowed —
3-16 inch on each end for lock seams,
3^ -inch edge on bottom, and 34 inch at top for wire. Having allowed these edges,
all the full size patterns required are in
possession. It is found that you can get
four pieces out of a 10 X 14-inch sheet,

as shown in Fig. 73. These basins are

Fi*. 72. 1-Pint, 8-Pint and 2-Quart Basins

made out of either IC or IXX tin, according to the quality of goods desired.
When made of IC, the lightest tin, three sheets are cut out at a time, being locked
together, as shown by j, k l and m, in Fig. 73.
,
The three sheets are first notched,
as shown by x, x, x, x, on both sides of the sheet in Fig. 73. After thus notching
the sheets first turn the lug up, then down on the back as at K. This completes
the process, with the exception of flattening down the locks with a mallet, being
sure that the point does not stand up, which naturally would tear the hands of the

operator. This method holds the sheets firmly together.

When three sheets are cut out together only the top sheet is to be marked.
When IXX tin is used for these basins it would be impracticable, if not impossi-
ble, to cutmore than two sheets at a time. But the process of holding the sheets
together by means of locked edges is the same as when IC tin is used. In either
case, whether IC or IXX tin is used, the stock or bench shears should be used

for cutting out. These are held firmly in position on the bench by means of a
 —3

Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 3®

L

hole or socket cut into the bench, near its outer edge, to receive the back end of
the shears, and at the proper angle, so that the front or blade part of the shears
will be the proper hight for working.
In cutting out the work cut the circle part first, as this enables the three pieces
to be held together by the lugs at each end until the straight sides of the pattern
are cut away and properly notched, as shown in Fig. 75. In commencing to cut
out the work begin at the bottom of the sheet and cut away the circle a, as shown

jn Fig. 73; then the circle b, and then all the other circles shown on the sheet up
to h and inclusive. Leave the three pieces in each of the four sections intact until

the ends with lugs are cut off and properly notched, as shown in Fig. 75. Refer-
ring to Fig. 75, the notching of the end of the patterns is sufficient in width for the
take-up of the seams, 3-16 inch, as shown by S J. Make J K 5-16 inch. Then
cutaway S J K L and the correct notching is obtained of the top of the pattern for
the wire. At away the point M N O on a slant of 45 degrees,
the bottom cut
making the distance N O the same as S J, or 3-16 inch in width. The size or
width of lock is two-thirds the width of the cut-away S J and N O 3-16 inch —
and hence must be % inch, as shown by the dotted line at P.
The same process is carried out in cutting out the patterns for the 3-pint and
2-quart basins as for the 1-pint basin. Referring to the 3-pint basin in Fig. 72, it

is found that the best size for the patterns to cut stock most economically is as
shown, with two pieces of the B size pattern and one of the C size. Four pieces
of the B pattern cut out of a 10 X 14-inch sheet of tin, as shown in Fig. 73. Three
pieces of the C pattern cut out of a 7 X 10-inch sheet of tin, as shown in Fig. 74,

or six pieces out of a 10 X 14-inch size. Sometimes when cutting out this latter
pattern, instead of notching for lugs at each side of the sheet, as in the other
patterns, the 10 X 14-inch sheet of tin is doubled together in the center of the 14-
inch side of the sheet, thus making the side notching of the Rheets unnecessary, as
3&4 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

the folded edge on the one side holds the parts together until the work is cut out,
leaving the folded end of the sheet as the last to be cut.
As will be observed in referring to Fig. 72, which shows the profile of a 2-
quart basin, it requires two pieces of pattern D. These cut out of a 10 x 14-inch
sheet of tin, but two pieces out of the long or 14-inch way of the sheet, as shown
in Fig. 74.
The bottom for a 1-pint basin is cut 4% inches in diameter; the bottom for a
3-pint basin is cut 7 inches in diameter, and the bottom for a 2-quart basin is cut

6 % inches in diameter.

PATTERNS FOR FLARING ARTICLES

The following patterns are for some of the many articles that are laid out by
the conical method among which is a flaring washbowl, such as is shown in Fig.
;

76, usually made from two pieces, with a wired edge at the top and a straight rim
stand at the bottom. It is made from IC or IX bright tin plate, with locked

seams. The method of obtaining the pattern is shown in Fig. 77, in which E J H
I is the half-pattern. The pattern for the bottom is a circle struck with a radius
half* ? half

Tig. 76. Finished View of

Bowl

Fig. 78. The Ring

equal to D 1, while the pattern for the lower rim is as high as shown, with a hem
edge allowed equal in length to four times the quarter plan D 1 4.

To the left of the center line is shown the method The body
of construction.
has a wire edge at a, while the bottom c has a single edge, b, to which the body is
soldered. The rim d has a hem edge at e, soldered raw edge to the bottom c. The
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 3 85

wire ring shown in Fig. 76 is madeshown in Fig. 78, in which a represents the
as
wire ring, while in b' the wire ring is shown with the clip attached, which is
soldered to the body, allowing the ring to turn.
In the accompanying shown the method of obtaining the
illustration, Fig. 79, is

pattern for a round dish pan, which can be made in two or more pieces of IC or IX

Fig. 79. Round Dish Pan Fig. 80. Pattern for Funnel and Spout

tin with grooved seams, the pattern of

which, C D J I, is the one-half pat-
tern for the dish pan. The bottom to
the pan is double seamed. The first
operation is shown by a, the second and
final operation by b. D'EL C 1 shows
a half elevation of the finished pan.
Using the small header, a bead is placed
as at F. Tinned iron handles are
riveted in position, as atG, and a wired
edge is made at the top.
Pattern Fig. 82. Obtaining the Half Another article is a funnel with
spout, the drawing being made to avoid unnecessary lines and to simplify the work
as much as possible, as shown by Fig. 80, in which both the funnel and spout are
 386 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

developed similarly. The spout should have creases in it to allow the air to escape
from a vessel that is being filled. These creases are best made, after the spout is

formed into shape, by slipping over a suitable tool with grooves cut in it and dress-
ing the metal of the tubes into these grooves with the peen of the hammer.
A simple piece of tinware which can be rolled up and soldered in spare time
is a fruit jar filler, a finished view of which is shown in Fig. 81. These fillers
are usually made from IC bright tin with locked seams and wired edge. The
methods of construction and for obtaining the pattern are shown in Fig. 82;
and the handle pattern is demonstrated in Fig. 82.
A
An article which can be made up for stock in dif-
ferent sizes is a dairy pail, shown in Fig. 84. It

should be made of bright IC or IX tin, the body made

in two pieces, and the bottom double seamed to the
body. The ears are of malleable iron riveted to the
body. The pails can be made with wooden handle
on iron bail or with iron bail only. An ogee swedge
may be turned near the upper part of
the body, as shown in Fig. 85, which ^^|||j
makes a neat appearance and strength- wf j
Pw
ens the pail, and in which H I J K is H Ifl
the half pattern for the pail, to which
allowance must be seaming „ _
made for
— ’

Fig. 84. Finished

and wiring, and with the bottom laid view of Pail Fig. 85. Section and Patterns

out with a radius equal to D E, strike the pattern for the bottom, shown by O P, to
which edges have been allowed for double seaming at a and b. To the left of the
line AB is shown the construction. L represents the wired edge, M the ogee
swedge and N the doubled seams between the bottom and body.
A sap bucket with a hole at A for hanging it upon a support is shown in Fig.
86." The upper edge is wired at B and the bottom soldered or seamed at C. In
Fig. 87 is shown how to develop the patterns. Laps are allowed on the sides for
seaming and at the top for wiring. D in elevation shows the section of the wire,
and C the edge of the bottom to be soldered to the body. With radius equal to a
B, describe the disk F, to which an edge is allowed, as shown. A hole is punched
in the pattern at 1, which is similar to A in Fig. 86. These buckets are usually
made of IX tin.

When a flour sifter is to be constructed similar to the one shown in Fig. 88, the
wire cloth c is usually brass or tinned wire, and J^-inch thick rods (tinned) are
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 3^7
usually placed under the wire cloth to stiffen it, as indicated by the heavy lines a
and b. The edge d is wired, and e is a groove in which the wire cloth is fastened
by soldering. Of course, a better method of fastening the wire cloth to the body
of the sifter, is to turn a small edge on the body, using the burr machine for this

purpose, also turning an edge on the

cloth. It is possible to turn this edge on
the cloth, because it possesses sufficient
stiffness ;
the cloth is now slipped on the
body, the edges squeezed tight in the set-

ting down machine, and this edge is

double seamed by placing the sifter on

the mandrel and throwing down the
edge with a mallet. If the seam has a
rounded appearance it is squared by
inverting the sifter, and holding the edge
of the seam on a square head stake, the
seam is dressed with a mallet.

Fig. 80. View of Sap Bucket

The pattern is obtained in the same way as the patterns for all flaring ware, as
shown in Fig. 89. C C* 1° T is the half pattern for the body of the sifter. An
1

edge is allowed at a b for wiring E in elevation, also an edge along e d in the

pattern for the groove or swedge F in elevation. The letters c and / are side seams.
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

PATTERNS FOR MILK STRAINER

The various forms of milk strainers are usually attached direct to the pails
known as milk buckets or strainer pails. In Fig. 90 is shown a simple form of milk
strainer placed directly over the can, and forming a cover which keeps out dust or
insects until the can is filled and the cover replaced. In this cut A represents the
upper portion of the milk can, broken at B to show a sectional view of the strainer
C. It will be noticed that the edges are wired at c c and d d.

The upper flaring piece, c c joins the lower flaring piece d d,

forming a cover, which sets over the can, as shown. The inner
cone, or strainer, a b, is soldered to the lower flaring piece, and

has four circular holes cut into it in proportion to its size, about
the same as shown in pattern M in Fig. 92. Over these holes,

as shown by a and b in Fig. 90, fine wire cloth is soldered. The

holes are cut above the apex of the cone, so that the sediment or
Fig. 90. Milk strainer dust, etc., has a chance to settle, and does not interfere with the
in Position . . . ,
straining of the milk.
In Fig. 91, first draw the half elevation opposite the center line A B, as
shown byCDEFGHIJK. Extend the sides D E and H E until they

A
i

! HALF

intersect the center line AB at a and With F as center and F E as radios,

b.

describe the quarter plan on that line, as F E 4, which divide into equal parts, as
 :

Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 3^9

shown by the small figures 1, 2, 3 and 4. In similar manner, with J as center and
J I as radius, describe the quarter plan J I 9, which also divide into equal spaces,
as shown from 5 to 9. For the pattern for the inner cone, or strainer, M, use K I
as radius, and, with K in Fig. 92 as center, describe the arc 5 5, on which lay off
the stretchout of twice the number of spaces contained in the quarter plan 5 9
in Fig. 91, as shown from 5 to 9 to 5 in Fig. 92. Draw lines from 5 to K. Having
done this much, K 5 9 5 K will then be the half pattern for the part designated M
in Fig. 91.
At pleasure, draw two circles in the pattern M in Fig. 92, which cut out, and
over the same solder circular pieces of tinned brass wire cloth. With radii equal
to b E b in Fig. 91 and h in Fig. 92 as center, draw the arcs E E 1
and HH 1
,

respectively. From b draw any line, as b H, intersecting the inner arc at 1. Take
the stretchout of the quarter circle 1 4 in Fig. 91 and place twice this amount on
the arc E E 1
in Fig. 92, as shown from 1 to 4 to 1'. From b draw a line through
1', intersecting the outer arc at H Then will H H E E be the half pattern for
1
.
1 1

N in Fig. 91. In a similar manner obtain the half pattern for O in Fig. 92, using
the radii a E, a D in Fig. 91, and place twice the stretchout of the quarter plan 1 4
on the arc E E 2
in Fig. 92. Then will I) D E E
2 2
be the half pattern for 0
in Fig. 91.

PATTERNS FOR A DUST PAN

For a square cornered dust pan, the method for cutting the patterns is not

difficult, and is as follows

In Fig. 93 A B C represent the side
let of the pan, and D E F G the view
of the bottom on the line A 0 in side view. It is now necessary to obtain the
miter line of the corners in the plan. With F in the plan as a center, describe
the arc H I, so as to intersect the sides of the pan G F at H and F E at I.
Then, with H and I as centers, and with any convenient radius, describe the arcs

K and J respectively, intersecting each other at L. Also through L and F

draw a line, extending it outward toward M. Intersect this by a line projected
from the point B in side view. From M draw a line to G, thus completing the
side of the pan in plan, as shown by G F M. In similar manner draw the
opposite side DEN.
In the side view draw O P, the center line of the handle, so as to intersect
the bottom of the pan and also the back at Y. At right angles to 0 P, draw the
 39 ° Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

line R S of the proper dimensions, and from R and S draw lines to the center
0, intersecting the back and bottom of pan at Z and T and the bottom at C,
respectively. To obtain a view of the
handle in plan, which, however, is not
necessary in the development of the
pattern, proceed as follows : Through the
center of the pan draw the line U V,
then from the points O, T, R and S in

Fig. 98. Plan and Side View of Dust Pan Fig. 94. Pattern for Pan

side view, drop lines intersecting the center line in plan at O T R 1

,
1
,
1
and S 1
. Now
take the distance from P to R in side view, and place it in plan, as shown on
either side of the center line by e and /, and from these points draw lines to the

center point O 1
. The solid lines shown give the plan view of the handle.

For the pattern for the pan take a tracing of D E F G and place it as shown
by D E F G in Fig. 94. Now take the distance from C to B in side view in
Fig. 93, and place it as shown, at right angles to E F in Fig. 94 by C B. Through
B, parallel to E F, draw the line H I. At right angles to E F, and from points
E and F draw the lines E x and F x. Also take the distance from X to M in
plan in Fig. 93, and place itshown from x to H and £ to I in Fig. 94, and
as

draw lines from H to E and I to F. Now, with E as center and E H as radius,

describe the arc a b. With a H now as radius and b as center, intersect the arc
a b at H Draw lines from E to
1
. H 1
to D. Trace similar miter on the opposite
side, as shown by F I 1 G. Then will D H E H 1
I F I
1
G be the pattern for
the pan.
Referring to the side view in Fig. 93, it will be noticed that the handle passes

through the back of the pan and is soldered to the bottom at T C. For the open-
ing to be cut into the back of the pan proceed as follows : Bisect the line E F
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 39 1

in Fig. 94 by N o, then take the distance from C to Z in side view in Fig.

93, and place it as shown on the line N o in Fig. 94, from c to d. Bisect c d and
obtain the point e, through which, at
right angles to c d, draw 1 2 indefin-
itely, as shown. And, at right angles to
0 P in side view in Fig. 93, and through
the intersection Y, draw a line intersect-
ing the sides of the handle at 1 and 2.

Now take the distance from Y to 1 or 2

and place it in Fig. 94 from e to 1 and e

to 2. Through 1 d 2 c draw the ellipse,

through which the handle will pass.
In Fig. 95 is shown the method of
obtaining the pattern for the handle, which
has been drawn on a slightly enlarged
scale to better show the principle. Let A
5' 5 1 x be a reproduction enlarged, of
0 C S R T in side view in Fig. 93.
Place the semicircle 1 3 5 at the end of the handle in Fig. 95, which divide into
equal spaces, as shown by the small figures 1 to 5. From these points, at right
angles to 1 5, drop lines intersecting the base line 1 5, as shown. From these
intersections draw lines to the apex A, intersecting the line X 5', as shown.
From these intersections, at right angles to the center line 3 A, draw lines inter-
secting the side of the handle 5 A at 1’ to 5', as shown. Now with A as a
center and radii equal to A 5, A 5', A 4', A 3', A 2' and A 1', draw arcs, as

shown. Draw any radial line, as C A. From C on the arc C B step off twice
the number of spaces shown in the semicircle Y, as shown by the small figures 5
to 1 to 5 on C B. From these points draw lines to the center A, intersecting
arcs having similar numbers, as shown. Trace a line through these intersections,
as shown by D F E. Then will C B E F D be the pattern for the handle.
P on the handle slightly raised, on which a wire
in Fig. 93 shows a button
ring can be fastened to hang up. The wire ring can be fastened as shown in
diagram A Fig. 93, in which a is the raised button, b the wire ring, around
1
,

which a strip inch wide, shown by c, is fastened. A slit

% inch wide is cut %
into the button with a small chisel, the strip passed through and turned over, as at
c, which completes the pan. The corners are double seamed, or riveted and the
edge wired or hem-edged.
39 a Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

PATTERNS FOR A SPONGE BATH

In Fig. 96 shown a perspective view of a sponge bath, with seat, sponge
is

holder and foot braces A and B. Baths of this kind are usually made from gal-
vanized iron or heavy tin plate, or from zinc, which will not rust or tarnish.
In Fig. 97 is shown a half elevation, also a half sectional view, as well as the
various patterns. Whatever size bath is required, draw the details and patterns by
first drawing the center line, A B, upon which place

the hights of the different flares, as shown by C D E.

On either side of the center line A B, from the points
C D E, place the semidiameters of the bath, as shown
The Sponge Bath
Fig. 96.
by H J, G K and F L. Then E F H C shows the
half elevation, while E L J C shows the half sectional view, with wire edge at L,
and edges at K and J for soldering purposes. L M shows the flare of the splash
shield, which goes only a part way around the bath, as indicated in plan by b M c.
1

By N O L is shown the section of the foot brace, which can be made from the
band iron which holds the galvanized iron sheets. One-half the plan of the bath
is shown below the sectional view, the semicircles being struck from the center P,

which represent the projections of the various flares, as shown by the dotted lines.
By abed in plan shown the seat, represented in the sectional view by « L K.
is

By h i j h in plan is shown the sponge holder, while similar figures on the oppo-
site side, or S H, show the soap holder, both being represented by m l L.
The pattern for the bottom of the bath is simply a circle with a radius equal to
C H in elevation, allowing edges for soldering. For the pattern for the lower flare

G H, extend this line until it meets the center line AB at R. With R as center,
and R H and R G as radii, draw the arcs H 1
H* and S l
G1
. Draw any radial line, as
S R, intersecting the inner arc at H
1 1
. Now with D in the half elevation as center,
and D G as radius, draw the quarter circle G S, which space into equal parts, as

shown from 1 to 6, and transfer these spaces to the outer arc S 1

G 1
as shown, and
draw the radial line from G 1
to R, cutting the inner arc at H*. S 1
H 1
H* G 1
is the
one-quarter pattern for the lower flare, the dotted lines being edges for seaming.
The pattern for the upper flare is obtained in a similar manner. F G is
extended until it intersects the center line at T. Then, using T as center and T G
and TF as radii, the arcs S° G° and F 1
F* are struck. On the inner arc, 8° G°, the
girth of the quarter circle G S is placed. Radial lines are now drawn from T through
S° and G°, extending them until they intersect the outer arc at F 1
and F*, respec-
tively, which completes the one-quarter pattern for the upper flare, the dotted lines
representing the edges.
 * — I

For the pattern for the splasher shield extend M L in the sectional view until
the center line AB is intersected at U. Then, with radius equal to U L, and U° as
HALF SECTIONAL
VIEW
HALF ELEVATION
5

— r-f
i i

f
ONE »/
QUARTER
jj
PATTERN 4 //
FOR '

/
UPPER 3 U
FLARE I

1/4 ONE //
I
/
QUARTER //

— /3 PATTERN//
I FOR /
fa LOWER I

\K 1
f

I flare I

ir__Lr

AX PATTERN FOR.
a‘L— |
H

V
PATTERN "for
SEAT WITH HEADS
ATTACHED

V
SPLASHER SHIELD

r
(

\ m°
W
'V
/• /
PATTERN FOR
SPONGE & SOAP HOLDER

Fig. 97. Elevation, Plan, Section and Patterns

center, describe the arc L 1

L*. As the shield is only to continue as far as from b to
c in plan, obtain the girth of one-half of b and place it as shown, c, or from 1 to 5,

1 to 5 to 1 on the arc L L*. Take the hight of the plane L M, in the sec-
1
from
tional view, and place it on the line U° 5 extended, as shown from 5 to M°.
With M° and L* as centers, and with radius more than half this distance, describe
arcs, intersecting each other at r and t. Draw a line through r and t until it cuts
the line IT 5 at V. Using V as center and V M°, or V L1 as radius, describe the ,

arc L* M° L
1
,
giving the pattern for the splaiher shield, dotted lines being edges.
 394 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

Take a tracing of the seat abed in plan and place it as shown by a b' c d.’

On c d and b' o' and the heads K 1

and K 2
,
which are reproductions of L e K
in the sectional view. In practice a wooden board is placed inside the seat, and a
square bend made along b' a and c d, then, if desired, the front of the seat,
shown by e K in the sectional view, is soldered in position, with a width equal to e
K, and length equal to the girth of o' d' in the pattern for seat. Edges are
allowed for soldering, as shown. and sponge holder
For the pattern for the soap
take a tracing of m l L, in the sectional view, and place it as shown by m V L°.
Reverse this as shown by m° 1° L x making m° 1° parallel to m' l\ and the distance
,

between equal to h i in plan. This leaves the top of the holder open when formed
up, as shown at a in Fig. 96. To allow the drip to run off, a curve is cut in Fig.
x
97, as shown at W. Edges along L L° are for wiring and soldering.

CONSTRUCTION OF A HOUSEMAID’S PAIL

The rule given in connection with the sponge bath in the preceding article
can also be applied in developing the patterns for the housemaid’s pail shown in
perspective in Fig. 98. It will be noticed that the flaring pail A sets inside the

flaring vessel B to prevent any overflow ;

C is an open tube to receive the brush,
and D is a holder for the soap. These pails can be made from black iron, seamed
and riveted and then galvanized after they
are made. Fig. 99 shows the construction
between the pail and dish, while A shows
the horizontal section of the brush and soap
holder, which are riveted to the pail. In
turning the edges for the bottom on both
the guard and the pail, it is necessary to first

Fig. 98. View of Housemaid’s Pail Fig. 99. Construction of the Pail

place the guard on the pail and turn both edges at one time. By using a stake that
will fit tight in the guard, edges can be double seamed if desired.
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 395

PATTERNS FOR TIN CHURN

In Fig. 100 is given a perspective view of a churn, in which A is the body,
B the inverted cone cover, C the handle of the churners and D the churners,
while a and b are cross pieces with perforations to better churn the contents in the
up and down motion of the churner. This churn is best made from heavy tin plate,
for the consensus of opinion is that zinc, or any galvanizing, affects such fluids as milk.
For the patterns for the various pieces proceed as is shown in Fig. 101, which
is applicable to any size of churn. First draw the center line A B, upon which lay
off shown by n m. Then lay off the
the hight of the churn, as
top and bottom diameters, F E and D C, respectively, and extend
the sides D F and C E until they meet and intersect the center
line at b. Now draw the bottom G, which make slightly con-
cave, seaming it to the body at a and a and raising the bottom
g G on the wood block with the raising hammer. Also draw the
cover H I J K in the form of an inverted cone, soldering a
small tube in the center, as L M, to allow the handle S to work
easily when churning. A double edge is allowed at P and R,
to which the rim N O is seamed, fitting tightly into the top
of the body, which is stiffened by the wire edge F E.
By making the cover in the shape of an inverted cone,
any fluid which escapes while churning flows back again
into the churn through the tube L M. Extend the sides of
Flg P tlVe
the cover, I J and H K, until they meet and intersect the center
View of Qrura
line at c. Now, with m and n as centers, and radii equal

respectively tom C and n I, draw the semicircles C 5 D and 1 4' H, both of which
divide into equal spaces, as shown respectively, by points 1 to 9 and T to 7'. Then,
with b as center and radii equal to b C and b E, describe the arcs C 9 and E U, and
starting at any point, as 1, step off on the arc C 9 the stretchout of the semicircle
D 5 C, as shown by similar figures on C 9. From 1 and 9 draw radial lines to the
apex b t
which intersect by an arc struck from b as center and b E as radius, thus
locating the points T and U. Then will T U 9 1 be the half pattern for the body
of the churn, to which laps are allowed for seaming and wiring, as shown.
For the pattern and with radii equal to c J
for the cover use c in X as center,
and c I in the sectional view, describe arcs in X, as shown by K l J1 and T 1".
Take the stretchout of the semicircle H 4' I, and starting at any point, as T on
the outer arc in X, step off twice this amount, as shown from T to 7' to T'.
 :

39 6 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

From points 1' and 1" draw radial lines to c ,

intersecting the inner arc at K 1
and
J1 Then will K 1 J1 1" 1' be the
. pattern for the cover, with laps allowed for
double seaming.
W V in diagram Y shows
a perspective of one of the
churners, with double edges
bent at d and e to stiffen the
same. Holes are punched into
the top, as shown, while X is

the center hole, to which the

metal tube C, in Fig. 100, is
fastened. A wood bottom should
be fitted under the bottom G in
Fig. 101, also a heavy band iron
hoop placed at the lower edge
and top, also intermediate ones,
as shown by Fig. 100, to secure
stiffness, and especially the bot-

tom one, prevent wearing of the

body when moving the churn
about. These hoops are made of

ordinary band iron which is thor-

oughly tinned; and are secured Fig. 101. Sectional Views and Patterns
to the body by riveting.

PATTERNS FOR FLARING MEASURE WITH LIP

In Fig. 102 is shown a finished view of a lipped measure which requires four
patterns —namely, the measure, lip, handle and grasp. These measures are usually
made from bright IX tin, on the inside, usually the lip is wired
or copper tinned
at the top edge, also the top of the measure and the lip edged and simply soldered
to body. The bottom is always double seamed on the body. Wire on both sides
of the handle stiffen it and soldered to the body.
and is riveted
As they must hold a given quantity and must be tested before they are sold,
herewith is presented a table giving the hight, bottom and top diameters for
different measures from 1 gill to 1 gallon
 — ... —

Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 397

Bottom Diameter, Top Diameter , Hight,

Size in Inches in Inches in Inches
1 gill. . 2.06 1.37 3.10
%. pint . 2.60 1.73 3.89
1 pint . 8.27 2.18 4.90
1 quart 4.12 2.75 6.18
Vi gallon 5.18 3.45 7.78
1 gallon 6.55 4.35 9.80

Fractional Equivalents of Above

( Correct to ^ in.)
Bottom Diameter Top Diameter Hight
in Inches. in Imhes. in Inches.
2.06— 2 ,V 1.37 1% 3.10 3/r —
2.60—214 1.73- 1% 8.89— 3H
3.27— 3& 2.18—2 A 4.90— 4M
4.12 % 4 2.75—2% 6.18— 6 A
5.18— 5 A 8.45 — 3J4 7.78— 7M
6.55—6A 4.35 — 4J4 9.80—911

Assuming that a measure is to be made holding a given quantity, and knowing

the size, first draw the A B in Fig. 103, upon which place the hight,
vertical line
as shown by a b. At right angles to A B, draw the top and bottom diameters, C
D and F E, respectively, as shown. Extend the lines E D and F C respectively,
until they meet the center line A B at A. At pleasure, draw the angle or flare of
the front of the lip, as shown by d C, extending the line d C until it intersects the
center line A B at c. From c draw a line through D and make D e equal to the
hight of the back of the flare, which is established at pleasure, and draw a line from
e to d. With a and b as centers, describe the half sections C 4' D and F B E
respectively, as shown, both which divide into an equal
of

number of spaces, as shown by points 1 to 7 and 1' to 7'.

At pleasure, draw the handle D
e/J, and the grasp H.
For the pattern for the measure use A as center, and
with radii equal to A D and A E, draw the arcs E E 1 and
D D 1
. At any point, as F draw
1
,
a radial line to A, inter-
secting the arc D D 1
at C 1
. Starting from F 1
,
lay off on
the arc E E 1
the stretchout of the half circle F B E, as

jp? shown by similar figures on F 1 E 1

. From the point 7, draw
Fig. 108. Perspective View a line to the apex A, intersecting the arc
1
at 1
Then D D D .

o. FmsAod Measure
w jp qi j)i pi he the half net pattern for the measure.
For the pattern for the handle take a stretchout of D e/J and place it on the
vertical line D l
J 1
,
at right angle to which, through points D and J draw the top 1 1
,
39® Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

and bottom width of the handle at pleasure, as shown by to to and n n, respectively.

Draw lines from to to n on both sides ;

then will mnnm be the net pattern for the
handle. The method for obtaining the pattern for the grasp H
shown in dia-
is

gram U, in which N shows the side view of the grasp enlarged from H, and Pthe

Fig. 108 . Elevation, Sections and Patterns

true section on the line L M, drawn through the center and at right angles to x y.
Care should be taken to have distance 1 1 in section P no wider than the width
of the handle at/ in the side view. Divide the section P into an equal number of
spaces, as shown by the points 1 to 4 on each side, from which, parallel to
% y, draw
 ;

Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 399

lines intersecting the curve of the grasp N, as shown. On the line L M lay off
the stretchout of the section P, as shown by similar numbers on L M. Through
these points, at right angles to L M draw lines, which intersect with lines drawn
parallel to L M from similar intersections in the curve N. Trace a line, as shown
by 1 r 1 s, which will be the net pattern for the grasp, edges not being necessary
for soldering.
Although the lip d C D e in side view is a frustum of a right cone and can be
developed by the cone method, a shorter rule which can be applied, and which
answers the purpose just as well, is shown in Fig. 104. With radius equal to c D
in Fig. 103, and c in Fig. 104 as center, describe the arc C 1
D'. From c drop a
vertical line c d, intersecting the arc just drawn at 1. Starting from the point 1, set

off on number of spaces contained in the half section C 4' D in the side
either, the

view in Fig. 103, as shown by similar numbers on the arc C D in Fig. 104. 1 1

From c draw lines through the points 7 and 7, making 7 e on both sides equal to
1) e of the back of the lip in the side view in Fig. 103. Now take the distance of
the front flare of the lip C d and place it, as shown, from 1 to d in Fig. 104.
Draw a line from e to d, which bisect and obtain the point J. From /, at right

angles to e d, draw the line j i, intersecting the center line c d at i. Then, using i

as center and i d or i c as radius, describe the arc e d e, intersecting the radial lines
c e and c e at e and e. Then will e d e D 1
1 C 1
be the net pattern for the lip ;
edges
to be allowed for wiring and soldering to the body.

PATTERNS FOR A HIP BATHTUB WITH UPPER

EDGE OF TUBING

A finished view of a hip bathtub is shown in Fig. 105. The material used in
its construction is zinc or galvanized iron. Tubs made of black iron are usually
enameled or japanned, with more or less stenciled or colored ornamentation ;
and
those made of zinc are polished. In the illustration, a a is a flaring foot piece
with a heavy wire edge, and b b b represents a heavy zinc bead placed along the
top edge. Instructions are given farther making and applying this tubing
on for
it is suggested however, that ordinary lead pipe would be equally advantageous for
this purpose.
 :

400 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

In Fig. 106 isshown how to obtain the pattern To do this first draw the
center line J L, upon which place the hight of the bathtub, as shown from J to 5'.
Through J and 5' draw horizontal lines, making J D, J I and
5' C, 5' B equal respectively, to the half diameters of the top
and bottom. In similar manner draw the side elevation of the
foot G B C H. Draw a line from I through B, and from D
through C, extending them until they intersect each other in
the center line at L. In similar manner extend G B and H C
Fig. 105. Perspective
View of Hip Bathtub until they meet at N. At pleasure draw the desired curve D E
A, thus completing the side elevation. So much having been done, the next step
is as follows
Using 5' as center, with 5’ B draw the
as radius, half bottom, or plan, B M
C, which divide into equal parts, as shown from 1 to 9. From these points, at
right angles to B C, draw lines intersecting B C at 1, 2', 3', etc. From the
apex L draw lines through the intersections on B C until they intersect the upper

line of the tub AE D, from which points, at right angles to J L, draw lines
intersecting DC at points 1 to 9, as shown.
Using L
as center and with L C as radius, describe the arc H 9, upon
which place the stretchout of the semicircle B C, as shown from 1 M to 9 on H
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 401

P. From L, through these small figures, draw radial lines, which intersect by
arcs struck from L as center, with similarly numbered intersections on D C as
radii. Through the points thus obtained, shown by H T S 9, which
trace a line
will be the half pattern for the body, to which edges must be allowed at the bottom
for seaming to the body, as at V, and at the top for joining to the bead, as at ( A )

and (B) in Fig. 108. Also allow edge at T H in Fig. 106. BMC represents
the half bottom, to which double edges must be allowed, as at V, for double
seaming.
With radii equal to N B and N G, and with N 1
in Fig. 107 as center, draw
the arcs G G 1 1
and B B 1 1
. Take the stretchout of B M C in Fig. 106 and place it on
the inner arc in Fig. 107, as shown. From N draw 1
lines through B B 1 1
,
inter-
secting the outer arc at G G1 1
,
which completes the half pattern for the foot.
Laps must be provided on the inner and outer arcs to allow respectively, for the
flange W in Fig. 106 and the wire X.
The tubing for the upper edge of the tub is usually made from zinc. Know-
ing the diameter of the tubing, it is rolled up in straight lengths, lapped and
soldered. One end is closed up, then the tubing is filled with hot white sand or
melted rosin, after which it is formed to the required shape while warm. When
the correct shape is obtained it may be fastened to the body, as shown in Fig. 108
in (A), by cutting a slot into the bead a, inserting the upper edge of the tub b,

and then soldering at c on both sides. Another method is by flanging the tub b
in ( B ), so that it lays snugly over the bead a ;
then soldering, etc. ,
and scraping
and sandpapering the upper edge at c. When the work is done it should present
a smooth, clean surface. Under the bottom B C in Fig. 106, a wood bottom
should be placed to stiffen it.

PATTERNS FOR COFFEE POT

It often happens that a customer desires some special piece of tinware made
that is not kept in stock, such as a coffee pot of IXX tin. A perspective view of
such an article is shown in Fig. 109. In developing the patterns, proceed as shown
in Fig. 110. First draw any vertical line, as A B, upon which place the hight of
the coffee pot, as B C. At right angles to B C, draw the top diameter D E and the
bottom G F, placing one-half diameter of each on either side of the center line, as
shown. Draw the lines D G and F E, extending F E until it intersects the center
line A B at A. Then will A be the center point from which to strike the pattern.
With B as center and B F as radius, draw the half plan of the bottom F 6 G, which
402. Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

divide into equal spaces, as shown by the small figures 1 to 10. With A as center,
and radii equal to A E and A F, draw the arcs J H and K I, as shown. From
J draw a line toward the apex A, intersecting the arc K I at K. Starting from
the point J, lay off on J H the stretchout of twice the
amount of the half plan G 6 F, as shown by the small
figures 1 to 10 to 1 on the arc J H. From H draw a
line to the apex A, intersecting the arc K I at I. Then
will I H J K be the pattern for the body of the pot.
In its proper position draw the outline of the spout, as
shown by L MN O, intersecting the body of the coffee pot
DG M and N, while L O represents the opening of the
at

spout at the top. Extend the lines N O and M L until

they intersect each other at P. Using P as center and P N as radius, describe the
arc N T, which intersect by the line L M extended at 1'. Draw a line from N to 1',

which bisect and obtain the point a. Then, with a as center and a N as radius,
2'
describe the semicircle shown, which divide into equal spaces, as shown by 1',

and 3'. In practice, more spaces should be employed. At right angles to N 1’

and from 2', draw a line intersecting N 1' at a. From a draw a line to the apex
P, intersecting D G of the pot at b, and O L of the top of the spout at e. Now,
at right angles to the center line P a, and from the intersections at the bottom
of the spout Mb N, and at the top at L e O (which represent, respectively, points
of intersections obtained from 1', 2', 3' in the semicircle ), draw lines intersecting

O N of the spout at 1, 2, 3, at the top and bottom of the spout, respectively.

Using P as center and radius equal to P
At any point, N, describe the arc N S.

as R, draw the line R P. Starting at the point R, set off twice the amount of spaces
contained in the semicircle 1' 2’ 3', as shown by 3 1 3 on R S. From the points
3, 2, 1, 2, 3 on R S, draw lines to the apex P. With P as center and radii equal
to P 3, P 2, P 1, PI, P 2, P 3', on O N of the spout, draw arcs intersecting
radial lines of similar numbers, as shown. Trace a line through points thus
obtained ;
then will t u S R be the pattern for the spout.
It will be noticed that the fact has not been taken into consideration that the
spout intersects a round surface, but it is assumed that it intersects a plane surface,
as D G. The difference in the pattern is so slight that it will not be noticeable in
practice. Had the pattern been developed according to the true geometrical rule,
it would present a problem of two cones of unequal diameters intersecting each
other, and require a little time, while the short rule employed answers the purpose
just as well where the spout is of so small a diameter.
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 4°3
For the pattern for the opening to be cut into the body to receive the spout,
proceed as follows : From the point 10, or the center in the pattern for body, draw
a line toward the apex A, intersecting the arc K I at 10'. From the intersections
M b N between the spout and body, draw lines at right angles to C B, intersect-
ing the opposite side of the body E F at M 1
b' N 1
. Then, using A as center and

with radii equal to A M A 1

,
b' and A N 1
,
draw arcs intersecting the center line

10 10' of the pattern at M 2

,
b" and N 2
. Through b", at right angles to 10 10',

draw the line <? c* . Through the intersection b between the spout and the body,
and at right angles to the center line P a, draw the line c c", intersecting the

sides of the spout O N and L 1' at c and c", respectively. Take the distance of

either b c or b c", and place it as shown, in the pattern for body from b" to c* on
either side. A line traced through the points M 2
,
c
x
,
N 2
,
c*, will be the required
opening.
404 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

After the body is up and seamed, a bead, shown at r and s in elevation,

rolled
can be put in to make a neat finish, and incidently stiffen the body. The bottom G F

is seamed in the usual manner, while the cover & is a pitched cover, with hinge
attached, and can be made by hand by raising with a hammer and the hollowed
out block of wood. The little knob can be purchased in most any hardware store.
It is to be understood that the customary rim is to be seamed to the cover.

A plain flat handle is shown by d T, which is laid out by drawing any verti-
cal line, as U V, upon which lay off the stretchout of d f T of the handle. At
right angles to U V draw W
X and Y Z, the width respectively, of the top and
bottom of the handle, and draw the lines Y and X Z. Then will W X YZ W
be the pattern for the handle, to which a hem edge, as shown at W 1
,
should be
allowed.
The grasp is shown by d f in elevation, and in an enlarged view by eT j,

representing the true section through h i. Care should be taken that the width of

j is not more than //' in the pattern for the handle. Divide the profile j into
an equal number shown by the small figures 1" to 4". From these
of spaces, as

points and at right angles to h i, draw lines, intersecting the curve d" i f", as
shown. Extend the line h i as h m, upon which place the stretchout of j, as
shown by points 1 to 4 to 1 on i m. At right angles to i m and through the small
figures, draw lines, which intersect with lines drawn from points having similar

numbers in d" i f", at right angles to d" f " . Trace a line through points thus
obtained then will
;
n 1 0 1 be the pattern for the grasp. The letter d in elevation
shows a small button which is soldered to the handle and prevents the thumb from
slipping when in use.

PATTERN FOR RAISED BASIN

An article which is often required to be made up in copper, sheet iron or tin

plate, is a raised basin, such as that shown in the finished view in Fig. 111. The
wire hinge ring shown in the illustration is fastened to the basin by means of metal

dip, as explained in previous articles. In getting out the pattern for the cove
there is a certain rule, which, if followed, will bring the mold, when raised, to its

proper desired dimensions at top and bottom, as shown in detail in Fig. 113.
First draw the center line A B, upon which place the hight of the basin, as O D.
From C and D draw horizontal lines, C E and D F, respectively, representing
the half top and bottom diameters. With radius equal to a F, draw the cove F
E, which completes the half elevation. Divide the cove F E into equal parts, as
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 4°5
shown by the small figures 1 to 7. Draw a line from F to E, which bisect and
obtain b, from which point draw a line at right angles to F E, which will intersect
4 in the curve F E. From 4 draw a horizontal line, as 4 c, intersecting the center
line A B at c.

The rule above referred to, to obtain true blanks for raised molds, was derived
by experimenting extensively with various methods, rules and the like as adapted
to circular cornice work. From these numerous tests it was found that the rule
here presented is thoroughly practical and accurate. For additional information
on raising work see Volume 6. Divide the distance from b to 4 into as many parts
as the radius 4 c has inches. Any distance over % inch counts one, while of
any distance less than inch no account is taken. Thus, if the distance c 4 were

6% inches, 7 would be taken ;

while if the distance were Q>% inches only 6 would
be used. In this case, assume that the
radius c 4 equals 4 inches. Then divide
b 4 into four equal parts, as shown, and
always through the first space e nearest
the cove, draw a line parallel to F E,
intersecting the center line A B at 11,

as G H. Now take the stretchout from

Fig. 111. Perspective View

of Raised Basin

Fig. 112. Raising Hammer Fig. 118. Elevation and Pattern

4 to 1 and 4 to 7 and place it on the line G H, as shown respectively from e

to T and e to T. Then take the distance of the lower flange 1 F and the upper
flange 7 E with the wire edge, and place it on the stretchout line G H, as shown
respectively by 1' F and 7' G. Then will
1
G F1 be the amount of metal required
to form up by hand the mold E 4 1 F in the half-elevation. From the point e
 .

Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

erect a vertical line, intersecting the top line C E at 8 ;

then, using C as center

and C 8 as radius, describe the quarter plan 8 15, which is the quarter section on a
horizontal line drawn from e in elevation. Divide the quarter plan into equal
parts, as shown from 8 to 15.

For the pattern proceed as follows : Using H as center and radii equal to H
F H 1', H e,
1
,
H 7' and H G, draw the arcs F F 1 3
,
1' 1"', e e", T T" and G G 2
.

At any point on the outer arc, as G 1

,
draw a radial line to H, intersecting all the
2
arcs drawn at 7", e, 1” and F . Starting from e, lay off on the arc e e" twice the
stretchout of the one-quarter plan, as shown from 8 to 15 to 8 on the arc e e"

From the center H draw a line through e", intersecting the arcs previously drawn
at F 3
,
1"', e",
7"'
and G 2
. Then will G G 1 2
F* F 2
be the half pattern for the mold
and flanges.

Before raising, the two halves are riveted together. They are then raised on
the raising block, with a raising hammer of the required size, as shown in Fig. 112.

When the mold is completed, it will be found that the top and bottom diameters
are the desired size, resulting from the use of the rule above described. On the
opposite side of the center line is shown the half section, showing the joints. Thus
the top of the basin has a flange and wire edge at /, while the lower part has a
flange, k, joining inside of the flange j of the bottom i. The radius for the bottom
is shown by D F.

PATTERNS FOR A CHILD’S BATHTUB

In an accompanying illustration, Fig. 114, is shown a perspective view of a

child’s bathtub, made in two The

pieces, with seams at A and B on both sides.

top edge is wired, as shown at A in Fig. 115, and edged or double seamed, as shown
at D. Draw the elevation of the tub, as shown by A B C D, and in its proper
position below this draw the plan, as shown by E F, the semicircular ends being

r
-g_' A struck from the centers a and a. From a erect the ver-

tical line a H, which intersect at H by the line B C, ex-

tended. Then H is the center with which to describe
the pattern.
Using H as center, and radii equal to H C and H
Fig. 114. Perspective View of Tub
B, draw the arcs b b and 1 9, as shown. From 1, on
the outer arc, draw a radial line to the center H, intersecting the inner arc at 6.

Now divide the semicircle 1 9 in plan into equal parts, as shown, and place this
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 407

stretchout on the outer arc in the pattern, as shown from 1 to 9. From 9 draw a
radial line to the center H, cutting the inner arc at b'. At right angles to 9 b draw ',

9 10 and b‘ t, equal to 9 10 in plan.

Then 1 10 t b is the pattern for 1 10 10
1' in plan, with seams at 1 and 10. These
seams are made by turning the ordinary
lock edge, of the required size, and groov-
ing, either with a hand tool or the many
machines on the market.
Laps should be allowed to the pattern

for seaming and wiring. The handle at

C in Fig. 1 14 is made from rods of suitable

size, with a tin clip clinched around it and

is riveted, as shown. The inner plan in
Fig. 115 is the pattern for the bottom of
the tub, and to this edges must be added
for seaming.
Fig. 115. Patterns for the Tub

PATTERN FOR SINK DRAINER

It is often the case that the trap under the kitchen sink is choked or blocked,
owing to a collection of refuse matter. To avoid this a sink drainer is used. A
perspective view of an article of this kind is

shown in Fig. 116. This drainer is intended

for use in the kitchen sink, being fastened
through the wire loops A, B and C. The
refuse matter is poured into the drainer, from
which it is easily removed. It can be made of

tin or black or galvanized iron, but where a good

Fig. 116 Finished View of
Sink Drainer job is wanted it had best be made of 16-ounce

copper.
To obtain the pattern for any sized drainer proceed as follows : First draw the
A B C in Fig. 117, which gives the size
plan of the drainer, of the top opening.
A B O is a right angle, the arc A 0 being struck from the center B. Directly
above the plan draw the side elevation, as shown by D E F, making D E the
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

desired hight and E F equal to A B. Draw a line from F to D, which will give

the flare of the drainer and radius with which to strike the pattern. Divide the
arc A C in the plan into an equal number of parts, as shown from 1 to 6.

Then, using D F in the elevation as radius, and D in Fig. 118 as the center,

E describe the arc 1 6. From any point in the arc, as 1,

draw the line 1 D. Then, starting from the point 1, lay off
on the arc 1 6 the stretchout of the arc 1 6 in the plan,
Fig. 117, as shown by similar figures on 1 6 in Fig. 118.

Draw a line from 6 to D. Then will 1 6 D represent

D * *

Fig. 117. Plan and Elevation Fig. 118. The Pattern Shape

the front of the drainer shown in Fig. 116. Small perforations should be punched
as shown in Fig. 118. With D E in Fig. 117 as radius, and D in Fig. 118 as
center, describe the arcs E and E, which intersect with arcs struck from 1 and 6
as centers, and F E or A B in Fig. 117 as radius. Draw lines, as in Fig. 118,
from 1 to E to D and D to E to 6. Then will 1 6 E D E 1 be the full
pattern. Laps must be allowed for seaming at the corner B in the plan in Fig.
117, and edges for wiring at the top, allowing wire loops to project at the corners,
A, B and C in Fig. 116.

PATTERN FOR OVAL PUDDING PAN

In making oval pudding pans of IX or IC tin, care must be taken to obtain a
true pattern, so that when the pattern is formed up to the required shape it will be
true to its profile and have a level line on top and bottom. However, before a
pattern can be obtained, it must first be known how to construct the elliptical figure,
so that a set of centers can be obtained with which to strike the arcs desired.

In Fig. 1 19 is shown the method of drawing an approximate ellipse to given

dimensions. LetA B represent the length of the pudding pan, and C D its width.
Take the distance of C D and place it from B on B A, as shown by the dot E.
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

Divide the distance E to A into three equal parts, as shown by 1 and 2. Take two
of these parts as radius, or E 2, and with O as center, describe arcs intersecting the
line X and X Then with X X as radius, and
B A at 1
.
1

us n g X and X as centers, describe arcs intersecting each

i
1

/ \ / \ / \ other at C and D. Draw lines from C to X and C to X',

A
r V/p o \\/. \ extending them toward F and G, respectively. In
V /\ /\ ) similar manner, from X and X', extend-
D draw lines to
V/ \ / X/ ing them toward I and H, respectively. With X and
/ \_ X as centers and X A or X B as radii, describe arcs
1 1

Pig. 119 . Method of Drawing an intersecting the lines I D, F C, and G C, H D at J, K

Approximate Ellipse
and L, M, respectively. In similar manner, with D
and C as centers and DC and C D as radii, describe arcs which must meet the
previous arcs at J M and L K, respectively, forming an approximate ellipse.

In Fig. 120, let ABCD represent the side elevation of the pan, with a vertical
hight equal to R C. In precisely the same manner as * R B
described in Fig. 119 draw the plan, as shown, in correct SIDE 7
j\ !

ELEVATIQN
relation to the elevation, letting EFG H be the plan of \ %L_ [
/
C j

the top of the pan, and J K L I the plan of the bottom, • m j

struck from the centers O, M, P and N. i f !

To obtain the radii with which to strike the pattern

\-
^

proceed as follows: Draw any horizontal line, R E in f plan Vp

J
1

Fig. 121, equal to N E in plan in Fig. 120. Take the ver- \5jC \
tical hight RC in elevation and place it, as shown by R hSs! ^/
C in Fig. 121, on a line drawn at right angles to E R. N

Parallel to R E and from the point C, draw the line C J, Fig. 120. Plan and Elevation
of Pudding Pan
equal to NJ in plan in Fig. 120. Draw a line from E to

J in Fig. 121, extending it until it meets the line R O at O. Then will O J and
O E be the radii with which to strike the pattern for that part of the pan shown
in plan in Fig. 120 by EFK J and GH I L.

Take the distance from P to F in plan, and place it, as shown from R to F in
Fig. 121 on the line R E. In similar manner take the distance from P to K in
plan in Fig. 120 and place it in Fig. 121 on the line C J, as shown from C to K.
Draw a line from F to K, extending it until it meets the center line R O at P.
Then will P K and P F be the radii with which to strike the pattern for that part
of the plan shown in plan in Fig. 120 by K F G L and I H E J.

Next divide the curve from E H in plan into equal spaces, as shown by the small
figures 1 to 6; also divide the curve H to G in equal spaces, as shown from 6 to 11.
410 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

For the pattern proceed as follows: In Fig. 122 draw any vertical line, as E O,
and with radii equal to O J and OE in Fig. 121, and using O in Fig. 122 as center,

describe the arcs J K and E F, as shown. Set the dividers equal to the spaces in
H G in plan in Fig. 120, and starting from E in Fig. 122, step off the required
number of spaces, as shown from 1 1 to 6.
From 6 draw a line to O, intersecting the curve J K at With P F in Fig.
K.
121 as radius and F in Fig 122 as
center, describe an arc intersecting
the line FO at P. P Then, using
as center and with radii equal to P
K and P F, describe the arcs K L
and F G, respectively, as shown.
On the arc F G, starting from F or
point 6, lay off the stretchout of H
E in plan in Fig. 120, as shown by
points 6 to 1 on the curve F G in
Fig. 122. From 1 draw a line to

P, intersecting the arc K L at L.

Then will EFGLKJ be the half
pattern. If the pan is to be made
Fig. 121. — Obtaining Fig. 122. —One-half Pattern in one piece, duplicate this half pat-
Diagram of Triangles Shape
tern opposite the line E J.

Should the pan be desired in four sections, two pieces of the patterns, E FK J
and FKLG, would be required. Allowance should be made for seaming and
wiring. The bottom of the pan is shown by J K LI in plan in Fig. 120, which is

double seamed to the body, similiar to X in the elevation.

PATTERNS FOR A BATHTUB

The following is an exemplification of the methods of obtaining the patterns of

a sheet metal bathtub, in which Fig. 123 shows the finished view of the tub, which
should be wired at B and double seamed to the bottom at C. In Fig. 124, D E
7 H C 12 is the plan of the bottom, and A F 8 G B the plan of the top, shown
respectively by J K and I E in elevation. It will be noticed that the foot of the
bath in plan has equal flare, as shown by A B C D, while the head has unequal
flare, as shown by E FG H. The arcs are struck from the centers a, b and c,
respectively.
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 411

From a draw the vertical line a d, which intersect at d by I J extended.

Divide the quadrant C 12 into equal spaces, as shown by 9, 10, 11 and 12.

From these points drop vertical lines, not here shown, intersecting J K in eleva-
tion at 9' to 12'. From d, through these points, draw lines cutting I L, as
e shown. From these points draw horizontal lines,

intersecting J I extended at 9" to 12". Using d as

center, with d J as radius, draw the arc L M, upon

which place the stretchout of 9 12, as shown. Through
these points draw radial lines, which intersect by arcs,

struck from d as center, with radii equal to d 9”, d 10", d 11”, and d 12". Then
will L M N O be the pattern for the foot of the bath.

The head of the tub is developed by triangulation. To do this, divide the half
plans 7 H and 8 G both into equal parts, as shown from 1 to 7 and 2 to 8,
 412 , Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

and draw dotted lines, as shown. From 2 to 8 drop vertical lines in the eleva-
tion, cutting I L and J K extended.
Take the various lengths in plan, as 1 2, 2 3, 3 4, etc., and place them on
the vertical line 1" 8" in diagram B, as shown by similar numbers. At right
angles to 1" 8", draw the lines 2" 2 T ,
4" 4 T
,
6" 6 T and 8" 8T equal in hight to 2',
,

4', 6' and 8' in elevation, measuring from the line J F. Connect the various
points in diagram B, which represent the true lengths on similar numbered lines
in plan.

As the top of the tub is not on a horizontal plane, a true section must be
obtained on 2' 8' Take the various distances 2’ to
in elevation. 8', and place them
on the vertical line in Fig. 125, through which draw horizontal lines. Measuring
from the center line in plan in Fig. 124, take the various distances to points 2, 4
and 6, and place them on similar lines in Fig. 125 on either side of 2' 8'. Then 2
8' 2 the developed section on 2' 8'
is in elevation.
Fig. 126 shows the pattern for the head. The distances on 1 T are obtained
from 1 7 in plan in Fig. 124. The distances along 2 2' in Fig. 126 are obtained
from Fig. 125. The lengths of the lines in Fig. 126 are obtained from the
triangles in diagram B in Fig. 124.
The pattern for the side C B G H in plan is also obtained by triangulation.
C H shows its To obtain the true length of H
true length. B and B G, proceed
as follows: Take the distance 1 B and place it as shown by 1° B° in diagram A.
Erect B° B*, equal to 9' B 1 in elevation, and draw a line from B 2 to 1° in A.
In similar manner, take the distance from B to 2 in plan and place it in diagram
A, as shown from B x
to 2 X
. Draw B B x T
,
equal to e B 1
in elevation, and draw
v X
a line from B to 2 .

To develop the pattern, take the distance from 9 to 1 in plan and place it as
shown from 9 to 1 in Fig. 127. With 9 as center, and 9 O in the pattern in
Fig. 124 as radius, describe the arc O in Fig. 127, which intersect by an arc struck
from 1 as center and 1° B* in diagram A in Fig. 124 as radius. Then, with BT
2 X as radius and 0 as center, in Fig. 127, describe an arc, which intersect by an
arc struck from 1 as center and 1 2 in Fig. 126 as radius. Connect the points in
Fig. 127, which is the pattern for the sides of the tub. Edges must be allowed for
wiring and seaming.

PATTERNS FOR MILK BUCKET

To lay out a pattern for the milk bucket shown in Fig. 128, first draw the side
elevation of the bucket, ABCDEFG, as at Fig. 129 ; also the plan view on
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 4*3

F E, as shown by K L M N, struck from the center I, through which erect the

center line J C. Draw in its proper position to A G the true section on that line,
O P R S. In line with the side elevation, draw the rear elevation of the bucket,
T U V W X, the arc T U V being struck
from the center a, and the distances Y W, Y
X and 1" V and 1" T being equal, respective-
ly, to H E and C D in the side elevation.
The opening Z A & G represents the vertical
1 1

section on A G in side elevation. Through

the rear elevation draw the center line Y U,
and divide the half curve U T into equal spaces,

"‘“.Se?'' " shown by V, 2\ 1

and 4', through which
as 3'

draw lines intersecting the center line U Y at

3", 2" and 1", and the curved line B C in side elevation (on which T U V in
rear is a vertical section ) at 1”, 2 ", 3 ” and 4 ”.
It now becomes necessary to obtain a developed section on the curved line B

C, for which proceed as follows: Extend the line Y U in rear elevation, as

shown by U A upon which place the stretchout of the curved line B C, as
1
,

shown by 1"" to 4"" on A 1 U, through which draw horizontal lines, as shown,

which intersect by lines drawn from similar numbered intersections in T U at
right angles to T V. Trace a line through points thus obtained ;
then will 4"" 1°

1"" be the half developed section, which can be traced opposite the center line to
complete the full section.

As a bucket of this kind is usually made in two pieces, with a seam at the
sides, as shown in Fig. 128, first develop the rear of the bucket, as shown in Fig.
129. Extend the line D E in side elevation until it intersects the center line at
J ;
then, using J as center and radii equal to J E and J D, draw the arcs E E*
and D D 2
. At any point, as D 1
,
on the arc D D 2
,
draw a line to the apex J,
intersecting the inner arc at E 1
. Divide the half plan K L M into equal parts,
as shown from 1 to 7. Set the dividers equal to one of these spaces, and, starting
from E 1
,
step off six parts, as shown from 1 to 7. Through 7 draw a line to J,
extending it until it intersects the outer arc at D*. Then will D1 D2 E* E 1 be the
pattern for C D E H in side elevation.
The pattern for the part shown by A B C H F G will be developed by tri-

angulation. To avoid a confusion of lines, the diagram shown in Fig. 130 is a

2"'
reproduction of part of Fig. 129. Transfer the points and 3"' on Fig. 129 to
Fig. 130, as 6' and 7'. Take tracings of the half sections HED 0 and SOP,
 4*4 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

also the quarter plan N

M, and place them on similar lines in Fig. 130, on
I

which they represent sections, as shown respectively by H 9' 8' C, G 3 A and F

H 9. Divide the section F 9 into three equal parts, and as B C contains three
spaces, divide the section G 3 A into six parts. Number these intersections, as
shown. At right angles to G A and H F, and from the various intersections on
G 3 A and 9 F, draw lines intersecting their base lines, as shown. Connect

opposite points, as B to 5' to 6' to 4' to 7', etc., as shown. Then will these
lines represent the bases of sections which will be constructed, the altitudes of
which are equal to the various hights in the sections. For example, take the dis-

tances of C E and E and place them,

7' as shown, on the- horizontal line C B in
Fig. 131 by C E and E 7', from which points, at right angles to the horizontal
line, erect the lines C 8 and E 3 equal to C 8' and E 3 in Fig. 130, and erect
7' 7 in Fig. 131 equal in hight to 2"" 2° in the developed section in Fig. 129.
Then draw lines from 8 to 3 to 7 in Fig. 131, which represent the true lengths
on similar numbered lines in Fig. 130. Proceed in this manner for the balance, as
shown in Fig. 131, which represent the true lengths of the dotted lines shown in
AB C E in Fig. 130. The true lengths of the dotted lines in E H F G are
determined by the same method, the diagram of sections being shown in Fig. 132.
In this the lines are drawn inside of one another to save space.
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 4*5

For the pattern proceed as is shown in Fig. 133. Draw G F equal in length
to G F in Fig. 130. Using G 1 as radius and G in Fig. 133 as center, describe
the arc 1, which intersect by an arc struck from F as center and F 1 in Fig. 132
as radius. Using as radius F 11 in Fig. 130, and F in Fig. 133 as center,
describe the arc 11, which intersect by an arc struck from 1 as center and 1 11
in Fig. 132 as radius. Proceed in this manner, using alternately as radii, first the
divisions in G 3 E in Fig. 130, then the length of the slant lines in Fig. 132, the

divisions in F 8 in Fig. 130, and again the proper slant line in Fig. 132, until the
line 3 9 in Fig. 133 is obtained. Using 9 as center and 9' 8' in Fig. 130 as
radius, describe the arc 8 in Fig. 133, which intersect by an arc struck from 3 as
center and 3 8 in Fig. 131 as radius. Then, starting from the point 8 in Fig. 133,
proceed in similar manner as before, using alternately as radii first the division in
the developed section starting at T in Fig. 129, then the length of the slant lines
in Fig. 131, the divisions in E 3 A in Fig. 130, then again the length of the
proper line in Fig. 131, until the line B A in Fig. 133 has been obtained, which
is equal to B A in Fig. 130. Then will AB89FGAin Fig. 133 be the
half pattern. Trace this half opposite the line G F, as shown, forming the pattern
for the front of the bucket. Edges should be allowed for wiring and seaming.
The pattern for the bottom is shown by K L M N in plan in Fig. 129, to
which edges must be allowed for double seaming to the body at B in Fig. 128.
Cut out a lift, such as is shown at C in Fig. 128, to be soldered to the bucket
where shown. Fig. 134 shows the construction of the strainer at A in Fig. 128.
Although made in various ways, this is perhaps the simplest. A in Fig. 134
represents the mouth of the bucket, on which the collar a, 1 inch wide, is
soldered. Roll up another collar about 2 inches wide, with a hem edge at d and
a swedge turned outward, as at c. Make this collar of such size that it will make
a tight joint over the collar a at b, but so it also can be taken off for cleaning.

Cut a disk of wire cloth of the required diameter, as e e, which fit into the swedge
c and solder. Putting on the handle completes the bucket.

PATTERNS FOR A TWO-PIECED COAL HOD

A finished view of a two-pieced coal hod, with seams at the sides, is shown in
Fig. 135. To make this article proceed as follows: First draw, as in Fig. 136,

the center line 9 A, and with any point, as L, for center, describe the circle 1 o
d 4, representing the bottom of the hod. Through L, at right angles to 9 A,
 414 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

also the quarter plan N

M, and place them on similar lines in Fig. 130,
I

which they represent sections, as shown respectively by H 9' 8' C, G 3 A ai

H 9. Divide the section F 9 into three equal parts, and as B C contains t
spaces, divide the section G 3 A into six parts. Number these intersections
shown. At right angles to G A and H F, and from the various intersections

G 3 A and 9 F, draw lines intersecting their base lines, as shown. Con

opposite points, as B to 5' to 6' to 4 ' to 7', etc., as shown. Then will 1

lines represent the bases of sections which will be constructed, the altitud
which are equal to the various hights in the sections. For example, take th<
tances of C E and E 7' and place them, as shown, on the- horizontal line C
Fig. 131 by C E and E 7', from which points, at right angles to the horiz
line, erect the lines C 8 and E 3 equal to C 8' and E 3 in Fig. 130, and
T 7 in Fig. 131 equal in hight to 2"" 2° in the developed section in Fig.
Then draw from 8 to 3 to 7 in Fig. 131, which represent the true lei
lines
on similar numbered lines in Fig. 130. Proceed in this manner for the balam
shown in Fig. 131, which represent the true lengths of the dotted lines shov
ABC E in Fig. 130. The true lengths of the dotted lines in E F ( H
determined by the same method, the diagram of sections being shown in Fig.
In this the lines are drawn inside of one another to save space.
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 4*5

For the pattern proceed as is shown in Fig. 133. Draw G F equal in length
to G F in Fig. 130. Using G 1 as radius and G in Fig. 133 as center, describe
the arc 1, which intersect by an arc struck from F as center and F 1 in Fig. 132
as radius. Using as radius F 11 in Fig. 130, and F in Fig. 133 as center,
describe the arc 11, which intersect by an arc struck from 1 as center and 1 11

in Fig. 132 as radius. Proceed in this manner, using alternately as radii, first the
divisions in G 3 E in Fig. 130, then the length of the slant lines in Fig. 132, the
divisions in F 8 in Fig. 130, and again the proper slant line in Fig. 132, until the
line 3 9 in Fig. 133 is obtained. Using 9 as center and 9’ 8' in Fig. 130 as
radius, describe the arc 8 in Fig. 133, which intersect by an arc struck from 3 as
center and 3 8 in F ig. 131 as radius. Then, starting from the point 8 in Fig. 133,
proceed in similar manner as before, using alternately as radii first the division in
the developed section starting at 1° in Fig. 129, then the length of the slant lines
in Fig. 131, the divisions in E 3 A in Fig. 130, then again the length of the
proper line in Fig. 131, until the line B A in Fig. 133 has been obtained, which
is equal to B A in Fig. 130. Then will AB89FGAin Fig. 133 be the
half pattern. Trace this half opposite the line G F, as shown, forming the pattern
for the front of the bucket. Edges should be allowed for wiring and seaming.
The pattern for the bottom is shown by K L M N in plan in Fig. 129, to
which edges must be allowed for double seaming to the body at B in Fig. 128.
Cut out a lift, such as is shown at C in Fig. 128, to be soldered to the bucket
where shown. Fig. 134 shows the construction of the strainer at A in Fig. 128.
Although made in various ways, this is perhaps the simplest. A in Fig. 134
represents the mouth of the bucket, on which the collar a, 1 inch wide, is
soldered. Roll up another collar about 2 inches wide, with a hem edge at d and
a swedge turned outward, as at c. Make this collar of such size that it will make
a tight joint over the collar a at b, but so it also can be taken off for cleaning.

Cut a disk of wire cloth of the required diameter, as e e, which fit into the swedge

c and solder. Putting on the handle completes the bucket.

PATTERNS FOR A TWO-PIECED COAL HOD

A finished view of a two-pieced coal hod, with seams at the sides, is shown in

Fig. 135. To make this article proceed as follows: First draw, as in Fig. 136,

the center line 9 A, and with any point, as L, for center, describe the circle 1 a
d 4, representing the bottom of the hod. Through L, at right angles to 9 A,
41 6 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

draw the line B 12. Establish the projection of the back flare of the hod in p
as shown by d 12, and with L as center and L 12 as radius, describe the s<

circle, intersecting the center line at 5 and 9. T1

at pleasure, draw the plan view of the front and sid<
the coal hod, as shown by 5 8 8 y 9. Directly below
plan draw the elevation of the hod, as shown by £
12' d 1', projecting all points from the plan, as showi
the dotted lines. The curve 8' 5' in the elevation at
top of the hod can be drawn at pleasure. Draw the el<
tion for the foot, or base, as shown by T j i d', wl
completes the plan and elevation of the coal hod, this of course, being essei
for the developing of the patterns.

The patterns will be developed so that the seams will be at the sides, as sh<
in plan and elevation. For the pattern for the back of the hod, which will
developed by the radial line, proceed as follows: Extend the line 12' d' in el<
tion until it intersects the center line 9 A at A. Then, using A as center
radii equal to A d' and A 12', describe the arcs 12' 5 and d' d'". From
point, as 9' on the arc 12' 5, draw the radial line to A, intersecting the arc d'
at d". Divide the semicircle 9 12 5 in plan into an equal number of parts
shown by the small figures, and, starting from 9' on the arc 12' 5, step off

stretchout of 9 12 5 in plan, as shown by similar figures on the arc 9' 5. Fi

'"
5 draw a radial line to A, intersecting the inner arc at d . Then will 9' 5 d'
be the pattern for the back of the hod.
For the pattern for the foot, or base, extend the lines i d' and j 1 ' until t
intersect at l. Using l as center, with radii equal to l d' and l i, and t in IS

center, describe the arcs i' i" and 4" a. From any point, as i", draw the ra
line to l', intersecting the inner arc at a'. Divide one-half of the small circle

plan into an equal number shown by a

/ to 4, and, starting f]
of spaces, as to
a' in N, step off on a' 4" the stretchout of one-half of the small circle in plan

shown by similar letters in N. From l' draw a line through 4", intersecting

outer arc at i'. Then will i' i" a' 4" be the half pattern for the foot.
T
The pattern for the front and sides, 5 8 8 9 in plan, will be developed
triangulation. As both sides of the hod are symmetrical, the pattern for one t

only will be struck, from which the opposite side can be traced. In plan di\
the space 8 to 5 into an equal number of parts, as shown by the figures 5, 6
and 8. In the same manner divide the quarter circle 1 to 4 into the same m
ber of equal parts, as shown by the small figures 1, 2, 3 and 4. Draw solid li
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 4*7

from 1 to 8, 2 to 7, 3 to 6 and 4 to 5, and dotted lines from 1 to 7, 2 to 6

and 3 to 5. From the intersections 1, 2, 3 and 4 project vertical lines, not
shown, to similar part in elevation, locating the points 1', 2', 3' and 4'. In a
similar manner, from points and 8 drop vertical lines, as shown, inter-
5, 6, 7
secting the curved line at the top of the hod in elevation at 5', 6', T and 8'. If

desired, the points can be connected in elevation by means of solid and dotted lines,
as shown, although this is not necessary.
Then will the solid and dotted lines in the plan represent the bases of triangles

which will be constructed, vertical hights of which are equal to points having

numbers in elevation.
similar For the triangles on solid lines proceed as is shown
in H. Extend the line cf 1' shown by d C. From O erect the
in elevation, as
perpendicular line C D. Then, from the points 5', 6', 7' and 8' in elevation,
draw horizontal lines intersecting the vertical line D C at 5, 6, 7 and 8. Take
 41® Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

the various distances in plan, 8 to 1, 7 to 2, 6 to 3 and 5 to 4, and place them

in H on the line C d', measuring in each instance, as shown, from C to 1°, 2°,

3° and 4°, and draw lines from 1° to

8,
2° to 7, 3° to 6 and 4° to 5, which will

represent the true lengths on similar numbered lines in plan.

In a similar manner obtain the triangles on the dotted lines in plan. From
any point, as E in J, erect the vertical line E F, intersecting the horizontal lines
previously drawn from 5' to 7' at 5, 6 and Take the various distances of the
7.

dotted lines in plan, 7 to 1, G to 2 and 5 to 3, and place them in J, as shown,

from E to 1*, E to 2 X
and E to 3
X
. Draw dotted lines from 7 to l x 6 to 2 X and 5,

X
to 3 ,
which represent the true lengths on similar numbered lines in plan.

It is now necessary to obtain a developed section on the curve 5' 8' in eleva-
tion, so that the true lengths on this curb can be obtained. On the center line B
12 in plan, lay off the stretchout of the
curve 5’ to 8', as shown by similar
figures 5" to 8" on B 12. At right
angles to B 12 and through these
points draw lines, as shown, which
intersect by horizontal lines drawn
from similar numbered points on 5 8 in
t
"
plan, resulting in the intersections 5
to 8"'. Through these points trace a

line, as shown. In this case the

opposite side has been traced, which is

not necessary in practice. Then will

5X 5'" 8'" 8 X
be the developed section or the cover to close the opening on 5' 8' in
elevation, if it may be stated in that way.

Having all the necessary measurements with which to develop the pattern,
draw any horizontal line, as 8 8' in Fig. 137, equal to 8 8 T in plan in Fig. 136.
With radii equal to 8 1° in H and 8 and 8', Fig. 137, as centers, describe arcs
intersecting each other at 1. With 8"' 7"' in P, Fig. 136, as radius and 8 in Fig.
137 as center, describe the arc 7, which intersect by an arc struck from 1 as center
and l x 7 in J, Fig. 136, as radius. Then with 1 2 in plan as radius and 1 in
Fig. 137 as center, describe the arc 2, which intersect by an arc struck from 7 as
center and 7 2° in H, Fig. 136, as radius. Proceed in this manner, using alter-
nately, first the divisions on 8'" 5"' in P, and then the lengths of the slant lines in
J, the divisions on 1 4 in plan and then the lengths of the slant lines in H, until

the line 4 5 in Fig. 137 is obtained, which should be equal in length to 6 ef" in
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 419

the pattern for the back shown in Fig. 136. Draw a line through the points thus
obtained in Fig. 137, as shown by 1 4 5 8. Trace this opposite the line 1 8', as
shown by 1 4' 5' 8'. Then will 4 1 4' 5' 8' 8 5 be the pattern for the front and
sides of the coal hod.
To all patterns laps must be allowed for wiring and seaming.

PATTERNS FOR OBLONG WASH BOILER WITH

ROUNDED CORNERS
In Fig. 138 is shown a perspective view of an oblong wash boiler with rounded
corners. How to develop the cover for this one piece with a seam along A will
be shown. First draw the plan of the boiler, as shown by E G F H in Fig. 139,
the rounded corners being struck from the
centers a a a a. As the four quarters of
the cover are alike, it will only be neces-
sary to obtain the pattern for one quarter
and there join the various parts together,
as shown in the pattern Y.
Fig. 138. Perspective View of Article
Bisect ^ side Q in plan and obtain
the point 1 ;
also bisect the end F in plan and obtain the point 6. Now divide
the quarter circle 2 5 in plan into any desired number of parts, as shown by 3
and 4. From the numbers 1 to 6 draw lines to the center J. Take the various
distances J 1, J 2, J 3, J 4, J 5 and J 6, and place them on the line D C in

elevation

elevation, measuring from the point A, and obtain the points 1 2 3 4 5 6, from
which draw lines to the apex B. These lines represent the true lengths with
which to describe the pattern.
420 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

Draw any vertical line in Y, as B° 1', equal to B 1 in elevation. With

radius equal to B 2, and B° in Y as center, draw the arc 2', which intersect by

an arc struck from T as center and 1 2 in plan as radius. With radii equal to B
3, 4 5 6 in elevation, and B° in Y as center, draw the arcs as shown.
Set the dividers equal to the various spaces between 2 and 6 in plan, and
starting from 2' in the pattern Y, step to arc 3', 4', 5' and 6' and draw a line
from 6' to B° and trace a line from 2' to 6'. B°, 1', 6', B°, is then the quarter
pattern, shown in plan by G J F. Join the four quarter patterns in Y, as shown
by 1', 6", B°, 6", B°, V" and B°, 1", 6', which completes the full pattern. Laps
and edges should be allowed for seaming to the rim, as shown in B in Fig. 138
by a and b.

PATTERN FOR WASH BOILER COVERS

A wash boiler with a flat bottom, such as is shown in Fig. 140, is an article

often made of IX tin with copper bottom, and sometimes entirely of 16 or 18-
ounce cold rolled copper. Knowing the size of the boiler, a plan of the same is

drawn, as shown in Fig. 141, in which A C is the length and B D the width,
the semicircular ends being struck from the centers a and b. Edges allowed to this
plan, for double seaming, will give the pattern for the
bottom. The pattern for the body is usually made of
such hight as to avoid any waste in the metal, after the
edges and wire have been allowed for, the length being
obtained by taking a stretchout around the plan.
The part to which special attention must here be given
Fig. 140. Perspective View of is the pitched cover, which is developed on the principles
Finished Boiler
of developing a scalene cone. As both halves of the cover
are symmetrical, only one-half of the pattern will be developed. Through the
center a in plan, at right angles to a b, draw the diameter 1 1, as shown.
Directly above the plan draw an elevation of the cover, giving the required rise
J F, as shown, and draw the lines F E and F G. Divide the semicircle 1 A 1
in plan into an equal number of parts, as shown by the small figures 1 to 3 to 1,
and from these points draw lines to the apex F 1
.

F E in elevation represents the true length on the line F 1

A in plan, and
before the pattern can be obtained, a diagram of triangles must be constructed, giving
the true lengths on each of the other radial lines in plan, which are obtained as
 ,

Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 421

follows: With F 1 as center and with radii equal to F 1

1, F 1
2 and F 1
I), draw arcs

intersecting the center line A 6 in plan at 2' T and D 1

respectively. From these
points, at right angles to A b, draw lines inter-
secting the base line E G in elevation at 3”,
2", 1" and D 2
,
from which points draw lines
3

Fig. 141. Plan, Sid© View of Cover and Diagram Fig. 142. Half Pattern of Cover
of Triangles

to the apex F. Then will these lines represent the true distances on similarly

numbered lines in plan.

With radii equal to F 3", F 2", F 1" and F D 2
,
and wdth F in Fig. 142 as

center, describe the arcs 3, 2 2, 1 1 and D D. From the center F draw the

Fig. 143. Cover with Constant Flare All Around

vertical line F 3, intersecting the arc 3 at 3. Now set the dividers equal to the

distances 3 to 2, 2 to 1 and 1 to D in plan in Fig. 141, and, starting from the

point 3 in Fig. 142, step from one arc to another having similar numbers, thus
obtaining, respectively, the points 3, 2, 1, D on both sides. Trace a line through
the points thus obtained, as shown by F D 3 D F, which will be the half pattern
for the cover, to which laps must be allowed The handles shown on
for seaming.

the boiler and cover in Fig. 140 are made with hem edges a and b in diagram X
in Fig. 142. They are then riveted to the boiler and cover and soaked with solder.
422 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

In Fig. 143 is shown how to develop the pattern for a cover in two pieces,
when the flare is equal all around, or, in other words, when a ridge forms in the
center, as shown in plan and elevation by a & and a b', respectively. First
draw the plan of the cover, as shown by A B, the semicircular ends being struck
from a and b, as centers.
Above the plan draw the elevation a b' B A
1
making the hight e b' as
1
,

desired. As the cover is to be made in two parts, a seam will take place at C C° in

Fig. 144. Obtaining Radius from Steel Square Fig. 145. One-Half Pattern

plan, as shown. Having properly drawn the plan and elevation and divided one
of the semicircular ends into equal parts, shown from 1 to 7, the half pattern is
obtained as shown in diagram (D), in which draw any horizontal line, C 1, equal
to C 1 in plan. At right angles to C 1 in (D), from C and 1, draw C b' and
1 b equal in length to the flare b' B 1
in elevation. Now reproduce 1C b’ b
opposite b b'. Using b as center, draw the arc 1 upon which place the girth
7,

of the semicircle in plan. Draw a radial line from 7 to b, which completes the
half pattern.
In the following is shown a short rule for obtaining the pattern for round
pitched covers of any diameter or hight. Supposing a pitched cover is desired, 24
inches in diameter and 6 inches high, and the pattern is to be laid off directly onto
the metal without the use of any drawing. Then proceed as is shown in Fig. 144,
which gives a diagram of a steel square with the various dimensions on same.
Place one point of the compass on 6 on one arm of the square, which represents
the hight, and the other point on 12, representing the half diameter; then will
this distance, A B, be the radius with which to strike the pattern. Now with
any point, as A in Fig. 145, as center, describe the arc B B 1
. Multiply the
diameter 24 by 3 1-7, which will equal 75 3-7 inches, the circumference of the

24-inch circle. Divide by 2 for the half pattern, which leaves 37 5-7 inches.
Set the dividers 1 inch distant, and step off 37 1-inch spaces on the arc B B 1
,

starting from B. Divide the inch division on the rule into seven equal spaces and
add five of these spaces on the arc B B 1
. Draw a line from A to B and A to
B 1
,
which will complete the one-half pattern for the cover.
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

GROCER’S OVAL FUNNEL

In Fig. 146 is shown a perspective view of an oval funnel, with a handle at a.
Its construction is indicated in Fig. 147, in which a a, c c is oval in shape, hav-
ing a wired edge at a a. And d d, b b is a round collar wired at b b. The
funnel proper is a transition piece from oval to round, with edges at c c and d d.

The patterns for the top and bottom collars are straight strips of the required
width and equal to the circumferences of the oval and round sections, respectively.
a The pattern for the funnel is developed by triangulation, as
shown in Fig. 148, in which A B C D is the plan of the
I oval top and E the plan of the round collar. As the four
\ / quarters are symmetrical, it is only necessary in practice to
/ draw one quarter plan, as, for example, B.
Divide both the inner and outer curve into equal parts,
as shown from 1 to 7 and 2 to 8, which connect, as shown.
Fig. 146. General View
These lines then represent the base lines of triangles, the

altitudes of which will equal the hight of the funnel. This hight is shown by 2
2', the elevation of the funnel not being required. Take the girth of 1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 and place on any horizontal line, as shown from 1 to 8 in the diagram of
it

triangles. As the points 2. 4, 6 and 8 in the plan represent the highest points,
DIAGRAM OF TRIANGLES
t * i x
\\ / \
1
/! \\ /
,\
W/
.

1 / \
|
!
W i

12 3 4 6 6 7 9

p rv.
/*
n *
//
No
75
s*
*

^ V '

!
/ /
11

* / /
//
//

//;
S*
///

'
!/ / // HALF
PATTERN

Tig. 147 Fig. 148

Section and Method of Obtaining the Pattern

then from 2, 4, 6, and 8 erect vertical lines equal to the hight of the funnel, as

shown by 2 2', 4 4', 6 6', and 8 8', and connect slant lines, as shown. The
latter represent the true lengths of similar numbered lines in the plan. Thus, 3 4'
shows the true length of 3 4 in plan, etc.

The quarter pattern is obtained as follows: Take the distance of 1 2' and
place it on any line, as 1 2 in the pattern. With 1 as center, describe the arc 3,
 :

4*4 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

with radius equal to 1 3 in plan. Now, with radius equal to 1'

3, and 2 in the
pattern as center, describe the arc 3, intersecting the one previously drawn at 3.

With radius equal to 2 4 in plan, and 2 in the pattern as center, describe an

arc, which intersect by an arc struck from 3 as center, and 3 4' in the triangles as

radius. Proceed in this manner, using alternately as radii, first the spaces in the

circle E, then the true length in the triangles, the spaces in the oval B and the
proper slant lines in the diagram, of triangles, until the line 7 8 in the pattern is

obtained.
A line traced through points thus obtained, as shown by 2 8 7 1, is the one-
quarter pattern. If the funnel is to be made in two parts, transfer 2 8 7 1

opposite the line 8 7, as shown by 8 2° 1° 7. Then 1 1°, 2° 2 will be the half-

pattern, to which edges are allowed for soldering and seaming.

REVOLVING BENCH FOR TINNERS’ MACHINES

A handy arrangement for the turning and similar machines used by the tin-
smith is a revolving bench, so that the different machines can be used in series as
they are required, as shown by Fig. 149.
By revolving the bench, the machine
needed next can be brought convenient
to the workman and is made as follows
One of the wheels and part of the
axle from an old wagon were purchased
for a small sum and the axle was cut off,

so that one end was securely fastened

in the floor. It brought the top of the
wheel at the right hight from the floor
for a bench for the machines. Two
holes were drilled through the axle
below the hub of the wheel and at
right angles to each other. These holes
were for the bolts used for securing the
top end of the braces shown in the
picture,which were securely fastened
Pig. 149. Revolving Bench for Tinners’ Machines , , , , ,
by the bolts and nuts. These braces
were made of %-in. pipe, the ends being flattened after being heated in the tinners’
furnace, and the ends were also bent to the right angle to fit against the axle and on
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 4*5

the floor. Two holes were drilled in the bottom ends for fastening to the floor by
means of wood screws. The braces held the axle in a vertical position and firmly.
The wheel was then placed on the axle, and it was a simple matter for the
sheet metal worker to make a covering of sheet metal to lay on the spokes to pre-
vent articles from dropping through and to afford a support for the work. The nut
on the end of the axle is screwed down on the top of the hub tight enough to pre-
vent the wheel from moving unless some energy is expended. By this means the
machines attached to the rim of the wheel are held with sufficient steadiness for all

ordinary work and yet the wheel can be turned to bring the different machines in
position as they are required for work. It would be a good idea to make tin
covers to slip over the machines to exclude dust when machines are not in use.

SQUARING TIN
The usual method of squaring tin by means of the squaring shears is to set the
gauge for the width of the sheet, then by laying one edge of the sheet over the
gauge, cut one edge. The sheet is then turned over and the cut edge brought
against the gauge, when the remaining edge is cut. This operation is continued
until the desired number of sheets have had their sides trimmed.
The front gauge is then moved back, say 19% inches from the blade. A sheet
is then brought against the side gauge and one end allowed to project over the front
gauge, when the end is cut. The sheet is then turned over and the cut edge
brought against the front gauge, when the remaining end is cut. This double oper-
ation consumes unnecessary time, as each sheet must be handled twice, and in case
it is commence work with some of the tin at once, it is necessary to either
desired to
wait until the tin has all been cut one way before it can be finished, or the gauge
must be changed so a limited number of sheets can be finished.
‘

In some shops the ‘square sheet’ is used for a pattern for setting the gauge, but
’

it sometimes happens that in trying to see if the shears are properly set a narrow
strip is cut off the pattern, thus reducing its size. When setting the shears by
means of the square, there is danger of injuring the cutting edges of the shear blades.
All of these difficulties can be overcome by means of simple arrangements, one
of which is shown G H represent the shear bed, E the cutting
in Fig. 150. Let
knife and A B one of the arms. A piece of heavy sheet iron of sufficient
length is placed as indicated by C D. From D to E is to be the width the sheet
is to be cut. An iron gauge, C F is riveted to the iron, so the distance F E will
 426 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

be the length of the sheet, say 19%

Below the end elevation the sheet
inches.
iron is represented by J K, and the gauge by M. Two or more pieces of bent iron
are riveted under the sheet iron, as shown at L, so as to be brought against the
shear bed and thus insure the proper position of the attachment. In the plan, only

FLAN*

Fig. 150. Sheet Iron Gauge Fig. 151. Band Iron Gauge

part of the shear bed is shown, and is represented by G' H' H” G”. The sheet
iron is represented by C' D' D" C and the iron gauge by F' F". This gauge can
",

be made from a bar of iron having one side and edge planed true. The device can
be secured to the arm A' by a bolt at N, by slipping the edge C' C" under the
regular gauge and screwing by any convenient means. The reader will
tight, or

understand that as only part of the shear bed is shown in plan, the other arm, similar
to A' is not represented.
When tin is to be squared the gauge is placed in position and secured. A
sheet of tin is laid with one side between the shear blades and the other over D
and the edge The sheet is then turned over bringing the cut edge against D,
cut.

when the side is cut. One side of the sheet is brought against the side gauge
(shown in plan) and the end cut. The sheet is then turned over, bringing the cut
end against F, when the remaining edge is cut. Thus the sheet is squared without
laying down. If special sizes of tin are needed in quantities, as the gores for square

pipe, other gauges can be made as required.

Another form of gauge, operated as above described, which can be made from
two pieces of one inch band iron —such as usually comes about galvanized iron —is

shown in Fig. 151. The regular sliding gauge F is used. Two pieces of band iron
about 8 inches long are to be prepared, as shown by 0 P. The notch Q is cut
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 4*7

out 80 the iron will pass by the bolt that holds the sliding gauge in position. The
ends of the band iron, as at P, are to be filed square. The pieces are to be slipped
under the gauge, as shown by C D in elevation or 8 T in plan. The distance
between ends D to shear blade E is to be equal to the width the sheet is to be cut.
The sliding gauge is to be so set that the distance F E of elevation or F' F" to
H' H" of plan will be equal to the length the sheet is to be cut. After the strips
and sliding gauge are found to be exactly in the proper position the nuts are to be
screwed up tight, and, by means of a twist drill, small holes are to be drilled through
the sliding gauge, band iron and arm of shears at each of the arms. Through each
hole a slightly tapering pin is passed, as indicated at R in elevation. The hole is

also shown at U in plan. After the holes are drilled, if it should be found that the
band iron strips are not of the exact length required, they can be lengthened by
hammering on a stake, or shortened by filing. It will be found convenient to
mark the strips R and L, to designate which goes to the right or left hand arm of
the shears. The iron pins can be attached to the shears by means of string or
chain. To set the shears for squaring tin it is only necessary to place the strips in
position on the arms, and under the sliding gauge, put the two pins through the
holes in gauge, strips and arms, and screw up the two bolts. By this arrangement
the tin should always be of a size, which is a great convenience. Before drilling
the holes it may be well to cut the sides of a sheet, then reverse its position on the
shears, to determine if the sliding gauge is exactly in position.

A HOME MADE WIRE CUTTER AND REEL

This cutter, illustrated by Fig. 152, has numerous advantages, the most
important feature being fast cutting, the jaws always being open and in such a
position as to enable the operator to use both hands for controlling the wire, so he
can cut as fast as the foot can work the treadle. A lively boy can cut from 75 to
100 gross of two-quart bucket bails in a day. The machine will cut any size of

wire up to No. 6 with ease. If heavier wire is to be cut, larger shears should be
used for the machine. It will be seen from an inspection of the engraving, that the
cutter is a very cheap one to construct, for the reason that in most any tin shop
that has been in business a number of years can be found a pair of old stock shears
that can be used for the purpose. Any country blacksmith can do the iron work.
To construct the wire cutter: Fasten a piece of 2 X 12 plank, as shown at A,
to the end of an ordinary work bench, and secure firmly to the end of bench
428 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

and floor. Take an old pair of stock shears and cut the blades off, leaving
them about 2 inches long. Care must be taken, if they are heated before cut-
ting, that the temper is not injured. The
safest way is to cut through the iron while
cold, then place in the vice and strike on
the steel side with a heavy hammer, thus
breaking off The rough edges
the ends.
can be ground on an emery wheel. Next
cut the handles off, leaving the one to
be attached to the lever 6 inches longer
than the other. Put a %-inch steel pin
in the longer handle, letting it project 1 34
inches, as shown at E. The shears B
are to be fastened to the plank A by two
34 -inch bolts, through holes in handle
at C and D. Take a piece of 34 x 1J4 -
inch iron 26 inches long and bend off 6
Fig. 152. General View of the Cutter inches at right angles, as shown. Then
cut a slot at F in end 9-16X134 inches
to receive the steel pin E. Flatten out the other end, as shown at I, for a foot

piece. Drill a hole at G for a%-ineh bolt, which

secures treadle to plank A. The guard H is made
from a piece of 34 * 1-inch iron, bent as shown, and
secured to the plank A by means of screws or bolts
at M and N. J is a spring made of No. 8 spring wire,
and when finished should be 9 inches long and 134
inches in diameter. It is secured to plank by a screw

at O, the other end being turned over so as to pass

through the opening in treadle at P. The wire holder
K can be made of 134 x 1/4 angle iron, and bent to
the required curve while hot, or it can be made of
cast iron. The length of holder K will depend upon
length of wire to be cut. The gauge L, which slides
on the holder K, is provided with a set screw for
securing it in any desired position.
Fig. 188. General View of the Reel
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 4*9

Pattern for Center Funnel Oval to Round

In Fig. 155 is shown the method of obtaining the patterns for the oval funnel
T
and round spout and 1' 1" 9 9 shows the elevation of the funnel and 9 9 T 10T 10
the elevation of the spout. The shape of the funnel at the top is shown by the
plan of the top, while the half section
on 9 9 V is shown by 9 6 9 T and is

struck from the center 6'. Through

the center of the elevation and plan
draw the center line A B and length-
wise through the plan the centei
line C D. Divide one half of the
semi-circle into equal spaces as shown
by the small figures 6, 7, 8 and 9.
Extend the side of the spout 9 10
until it meets the center line A B
at E. Then using E as center and
radii equal to E 10 and E 9, draw the
v a T a
arcs 10 10 and 9 9 respectively.
On the outer arc establish any
point as 9", from which draw a line

to the center E intersecting the inner

arc at 10''. Take four times the girth
of the quarter circle 9 to 6 in the
elevation and place it on the outer
T a
arc 9 9 ,
starting from the points 9",

9''
thus obtaining points from to 6
R a
to 9 to 6 to 9 . From 9 draw a
line to the center E, cutting the inner
arc at 10a and 9" 9a 10a 10" then

shows the pattern for the spout with-

out any laps.
As the funnel is oval at the top
and round at its base, the pattern will
be developed by triangulation as fol-

lows : Divide the one quarter oval plan into equal spaces as shown from 1 to 5,
from which points and at right angles to C D draw lines intersecting the line C D,
43 ° Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

as well as the top line 1' 1" in elevation asshown by the small figures 1' to 5’.
As there are four spaces in the quarter oval, and but three spaces in the quarter
circle, connect 5' and 4' to 6' and the rest of the points by lines as shown. These
lines then represent the bases of sections which will be constructed, the altitudes of
which are equal to the various perpendicular heights in the quarter oval and quarter
circle. For example: to find the true length of the line 3' 7' in elevation, take
this distance and place it on the vertical line F G as shown from 3' to T. From
these two points and at right angles to F G draw the line 3' 3 and 7' 7 equal
respectively to the distances measured from the line C D in the quarter oval to
the point 3, and from the line 9 9
r
in the semi-circle to the point 7. A line
drawn from 3 to 7 in the diagram of true lengths will give the true length of the

line 3' 7' in the elevation.

Assuming that the funnel is to be made up in two parts with a seam at 1 and
1° in the plan, start the half pattern by taking the distance 5 G in the true lengths
and placing it as shown by 5 6 in the pattern X. Now using 5 4 in the half plan
as radius and 5 in X as center describe the arc 4, which intersect by an arc struck
from 6 as center and the true length 6 4 as radius. Then with 6 7 in the semi-
circle in elevation as radius and 6 in X as center describe the arc 7, which intersect
by an arc struck from 4 as center and 4 7 in the true lengths as radius. Proceed
in this manner, using alternately first the divisions in the oval plan, then the
proper true length, —the divisions in the semi-circle in the elevation, then again the
proper true length, until the line 1 9 in the pattern has been obtained, from 1' 9
in the elevation. Trace this quarter pattern 1 5 6 9 opposite the line 5 6 as
shown by 1° 9°. Then 1 1° 9° 9 will be the half pattern for the funnel to which
edges must be allowed for seaming and wiring.

Pattern for Funnel, Perpendicular at One End

In Fig. 156 shown how the patterns are developed for a funnel, the top of
is

which is oval and the spout round, and when one end of the funnel is perpendicular.
First draw the side elevation of the funnel as shown, making the pitch as desired.
Draw the oval section of the top of the funnel as shown above the elevation, repre-
senting the true section on the line T 11' in the side elevation. On the joint line
12 16, between the funnel and spout draw the semi-section E. In this case the

spout is a parallel piece of tubing as shown. The first step is to divide the half
section of the funnel into equal spaces as shown by the small figures 1 to 11.
Note that where the curves are struck with a short radius, as at the ends of the oval
between 1 and 3 and 9 and 11, the spaces are smaller than between 3 and 9.
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 43 1

Through the center of the oval draw the lines A B and C D. At right angles to
A B and through the small figures 1 to 1 1 draw lines meeting the line A B, as
well as the top line of the funnel in elevation as shown from T to IT. In a similar
manner divide the semi-circle E into equal spaces, in this case four, as shown by

the small figures 12 to 16 from which points perpendiculars are drawn, meeting
the line 12 16, at 13' 14' and 15'. As the semi-oval contains a greater number
of spaces than the semi-circle, then connect the various numbered points by lines
43 2 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

in a manner as shown in the side elevation. These lines then represent the base
lines of sections which will be constructed, with altitudes or heights equal to the
various distances measured from the line A B to points 2 to 10 in the half
oval and from the line 12 16 to points 13 to 15 in the half circle E, all as
shown in the diagram of true lengths. For example, to find the true length of
14' 6' in the side elevation, take this distance and set it off on the line F G as shown
from 14' to 6'. From these two points and at right angles to F G, draw the lines
14' 14 and 6' 6 equal in length to the distance measured from the line A B to the

point 6 in the half oval and the distance of 14' 14 in the semi-circle E. The
length of the line drawn from 6 to 14 in the diagram of the true lengths, will give
the true length of the line 14' 6' in the side elevation. In this manner all of the
true lengths shown, are obtained.
When the half pattern is being laid out the direction of the lines in elevation
must be followed so that the lines will run in a similar manner in the pattern.

First take the length of 1' 16 in elevation which shows its true length, and place
it as shown by 1 16 in the pattern and with radii equal to 16 2 and 16 3 in the
true lengths and 16 in the pattern as center, draw the arcs 2 and 3. Set the
dividers equal to the distance 1 2 and 2 3 in the half oval and starting from 1 in
the pattern, intersect arc 2, then arc 3. Then using as radii the distances 3 15
and 3 14 in the true lengths and 3 in the pattern as center, describe the arcs
15 and 14, which intersect by the divisions obtained from 16 15 and 15 14 in
the semi-circle E. Proceed in this manner in completing the pattern, using
alternately first the radii in the true lengths, then the divisions in the semi-oval,
again the proper radii in the true lengths, then the divisions in the semi-circle, E,
until the line 11 12 in the pattern has been obtained, which equals 11' 12 in the
side elevation. Trace a line through points thus obtained in the pattern, and
1 11 12 16 will be the half pattern for the oval funnel with a seam at 1 and 11 in

the oval section. Seaming and wiring edges must be allowed to the pattern.

Patterns for a Rectangular Funnel

Fig. 157 shows how the rectangular funnel is laid out. When this funnel is

made in large sizes, the four sides are usually seamed together separately, but when
the funnel is small, the pattern may be laid out in one with just one corner seamed.
Both patterns will be laid out as we proceed. First draw the side elevation of the
funnel as shown by A B C D and above this draw the plan view E F G H, which
shows the plan view on the line A D. The plan view on B C in elevation is
shown by J K L M. Thus the top of the funnel is rectangular while the bottom
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 433

is square.To the square bottom JKLM

the tapering spout is soldered as shown
in elevation by Y.

The pattern for the spout Y has not been shown here, as this same pattern
was developed in Fig. 155. As D C in the side elevation shows the true length of
the ends of the funnel at right angles to F E or G H, it will be necessary to
find the true length of the sides, because no elevation of the end is shown.
Therefore, take the distance of the
projection of the side J a in plan and
place it from the vertical line erected

from B in elevation as from J 1 to a.

A line drawn from a to B will give the

true length of the sides at right angles

to F G or E H in plan. From the
center i in plan draw the horizontal
line C° D° and the perpendicular line
B° J°. Take the girth from C to D
in elevation, and place it as shown
by C° D", through which and at

right angles to C° D° draw lines

as shown, which intersect by lines

drawn parallel to C° D° from the

corners E F K and L in plan. Con-
nect the various intersections by lines
and then NOPR will be the pattern
for the ends. In a similar manner
obtain the patterns for the sides.

Take the distance of B a' in elevation

and place it on the vertical line as
B° J°. Through these points B° and J°
draw the usual measuring lines, which
intersect from the proper corners in
plan as shown and S T U V will then Fig. 157. Elevation, Plan and Pattern for a
Rectangular to Square Funnel
show the pattern for the sides.
If the patterns have been accurately developed, the length of the miter T U
in the side must equal the length of the miter N O in the end. If the funnel is

small it may be made without waste of material, the side and end patterns being
joined in one as shown in diagram W.
 434 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

K L M shows a reproduction of similar letters in plan. The circular

In X, J
opening X is cut out, to which the spout Y in elevation is flanged and soldered.
Before the bottom X is soldered to the funnel the corners are slightly creased from
J to K to /, L to h and M to i bye,

setting over the hatchet stake with

the mallet. Edges should be allowed
on all patterns for wiring and seaming.
The three types of funnels just

Fig. 158. Finished View of the Three Types of Funnels described in Figs. 155, 156 and 157
Previously Described in Figs. 155, lf>tt and 157
are shown in perspective in Fig. 158
by A, B and C respectively. Wire rings are attached at a b and c or sometimes
the handle d is attached to the shaped funnel B.

Pattern for Combination Measure and Funnel

In Fig. 150 is shown a finished view of a combination measure and funnel.

The method of developing these patterns excepting the handle will be explained in
the detail drawing shown in Fig. 160, in which the center line A B is first drawn,
and on which the height of the measure C D is set off. On either side of C D set
off the semi-diameters of the top and bottom as shown by C 8, C 8* and D E, D E°
respectively. On the top line of the measure draw the side elevation of the funnel,
making it of the shape desired, as shown by 1 5 8 9 % i

13 1. Below the bottom of the measure draw the plan

view on the line E E° as shown, the circle being struck
from the center A, through which draw the horizontal
linea f and divide the semi-circle into equal spaces as
shown from a to /. Using C on the upper line of the
measure 8 8 r as center, and C 8 as radius, draw the arc,
which intersect at 5' by a line drawn at right angles to C 8
from the established point 5 of the funnel. This gives
the true distance from 5 to 5', which is laid off from 6
to 5° at right angles to 5 and from 5° a quarter elliptical shape 5° 1 is drawn
1,

at pleasure.
Bisect the joint line 9 13 between the funnel and the spout and obtain 11,
which use as a center and describe the semi-circle 9 which on account of
11° 13,

its small size, is divided into but four spaces, as shown by the small figures 10° 11°
and 12°. Through these small figures, at right angles to 9 13, draw lines inter-
secting the joint line 9 13 at 10, 11, 12. In a similar manner divide the sections
 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes 435

U and T into equal spaces as shown from 1 to 5° and 5' to 8 respectively From
these points, at right angles to 1 5 and 5 8 draw lines intersecting the funnel line

1 5 and 5 8 at 2, 3 and 4, and 6, and 7 respectively. Connect the various points

between 1 and 8 to the points between 9 and 13 as shown.
Then will these lines in the funnel elevation, represent the bases of sections

which will be constructed in diagram S, the altitudes of which will equal the
various heights shown in the profiles T and U, also the semi-circle.
To find the true length of, say, 11 4 in elevation, simply place this distance
as shown on H J from 4 to IT. From 4 and IT erect the lines 4 4° and IT IT
43 6 Layouts for Various Sheet Metal Shapes

equal respectively to the heights 4 4° in the profile U and 11 11° in the semi-

circle. A line drawn from the points 4° to 11° in the true lengths S will be the
true length of the line 4 11 in elevation. In this manner all of the true lengths
are obtained in diagram S.
The pattern shown in diagram R as follows
for the funnel is laid out as Take :

the length of 1 13 in elevation and place it as shown by 1 13 in R. Now with

1 2° in the profile U as radius, and 1 in R as center, describe the arc 2, which
intersect by an arc struck from 13 as center and 13 2° in S as radius. Then using
13 12° in the semi-circle as radius and 13 in R as center, describe the arc 12, which
intersect by another arc struck from 2 as center and 2° 12° in S as radius. Proceed
in this manner, using alternately, first the divisions in the profile U, then the

proper true length; the divisions in the semi-circle in elevation, then again the
proper length in S, until the line 11 5 in the pattern R has been obtained.
Starting from the point 11 in R, use the divisions in the semi-circle in elevation as
radius, then the true lengths in S; the divisions in the profile T, then again the
proper length in diagram S, until the line 8 9 in R has been obtained, which is

equal to 8 9 in the elevation. Trace a line through points thus obtained, then
will 1 5 8 9 13 be the half pattern for the funnel. Trace this half opposite the
V T r
line 1 13 as shown by 5 ,
8 ,
9 which completes the full pattern.

The full pattern for the spout is shown by 13' 13" %" i" and is struck from the
center l, which is obtained by extending 13 i and 9 i' until they intersect at l.

Twice the girth of the semi-circle 9 13 is placed along the outer curve 13' 13”

as shown.
The pattern for the measure is obtained by extending the sides of the measure
until they intersect at B, which use as a center and with B 8 and B E as radii
describe the arcs shown. Starting from a on the outer arc, set off twice the divi-
sion in the plan, as shown from a to /' to a". From a and a" draw lines to the
apex B, cutting the inner arc at h and K. Then will h K a" a be the full pattern
for the measure.

On all patterns edges must be allowed for seaming and wiring.

 SECTION IV
(Pages 437-542)

CONDUCTORS, LEADERS AND

LEADER HEAD LAYOUTS
 :

Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 437

Practical Sheet Metal Work and

Demonstrated Patterns

PATTERN FOR GUSSET SHEET

For a gusset sheet marked S in Fig. 1, first draw the end elevation A, showing
a section of the pipe, and in its proper position the elevation of the pipe BCD E,
whose section is shown at F. Divide this section F into equal spaces, as shown by
the small figures 1 to 7. From these points, parallel to B C, draw lines intersecting
the circle A from B to E. In its proper
END ELEVATION position in relation to the end elevation
draw the side elevation of the pipe A 1
,

and establish the top of the pipe H G, as

shown, above which place a duplicate of
the section F, as shown at F 1 which also ,

divide into similar number of spaces,

changing the position of numbers, as
shown. At right angles to H G, from
the various intersections 1 to 4 in F draw
1
,

lines, which intersect by lines drawn from

similar numbered intersections in A at

right angles to E D, resulting in the inter-

sections 1', 2', 3', 4' in A 1
,
through which
trace the miter line shown. Establish the
distance G 7', and draw a straight line
M from
^iffT TRUE SE ction 4' towhich represents the miter
7',
i
6\ J line between the gusset sheet and the
Fig. 1. Pattern for Gusaet Sheet ,,
small pipe.
To obtain the miter line between the gusset sheet and pipe proceed as follows
From the various points of intersections 4 to 7 in F draw horizontal lines intersecting
1

4' 7' at 4', 5', 6' and 7'. Draw 7' 7° of the required length, intersecting the top of
 438 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

the large pipe, or a line drawn from 7 in A at right angles to E D. From the
various points 4', 5' and 6, parallel to
7' 7°, draw lines indefinitely, as shown, which
intersect by lines drawn from similar numbered intersections in A at right angles to
E D, resulting in the intersections 4', 5°, 6°, 7°, through which trace the irregular
curve shown. The next step is to obtain a true section on 4' L, which is drawn
at right angles to 7' 7°. At right angles to the lines drawn from 4' to 7' draw I J.
Now measuring in each instance from the center line 1, 7 in F 1
,
take the various
distances from a. to 4, 6 to 5 and c to 6 and place them on either side of I J on
similar numbered lines, as shown from a to 4, b' to 5, c to 6, 7 being the highest
point. Trace a line through points thus obtained ;
then will the shaded part be
the desired section.
For the pattern for the gusset sheet, draw any line, as L M, at right angles to
T 7°, upon which place the stretchout of the true section, being careful to measure
each space separately, as they are Through these points draw lines at
all unequal.
right angles to L M, which intersect by lines drawn parallel to L M from similarly
numbered points of intersections on the joint lines 7' 4' and 4' 7°. Trace a line as
shown by 4 N4 0, which is the desired pattern, to be formed after the true section.
If it is desired to make the section on 4' L in S a true semiellipse, the shaded
section on 4, 7, 4 must first be drawn, making 4, 4, the minor axis, equal to the
diameter of the pipe marked F', and a 7, the semi major axis, equal to 4' L. If

planes perpendicular to the vertical plane are then passed through S and both
cylinders, parallel to 7° 7', points through which to draw the miter lines on both
pipes will be obtained. The miter lines will both be curved lines, and the pattern
may be developed as above described. While method is a much more difficult
this

problem in projection, it results in making a more graceful miter line on 4' 7' and
theoretically a stronger job.

PATTERN FOR A SOIL PIPE CONNECTION

This is a connecting piece to soil pipe of a square paneled leader as shown in
Fig. 2, in which ABCD is the front of the paneled leader, the section of same
being shown by E, and F I H B the cast iron pipe. K shows the offset required
to join the square leader with the round hub. J is the section of the iron pipe.
LMN0 shows the side view of the square pipe, offset and iron pipe, P indicating
the distance that the iron pipe sets off from the wall, and R the required hight
of the offset.
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 439
When getting out the shop pattern it is not neces-
sary to draw the front or side view of the offset. All
that is necessary is a plan view, as is shown in Fig. 3.
Then, knowing the hight of the offset, the triangles
will be constructed as will be described in connection
with Fig. 4.

Thus in Fig. 3, let 1, 2, 3, 4, 4' 3' 2' X be the

plan view of the square paneled leader, and 8'
5, 8, 11,

the plan view of the hub of the cast iron pipe, P

representing the distance that the iron pipe projects
beyond the back of the square leader. As the iron
pipe is central below the square leader, it is only
necessary to divide one-half of the round plan as
follows : Divide the quarter circles 5 8 and 8 11 into

Fig. 2
equal spaces, as shown by the small figures 5 to 11.
From the corner of the square pipe 1 draw lines to 11,

10, 9 and 8, and from the corner 2 draw lines to 8, 7, 6

and 5. In similar manner from the corners 3 and 4 draw
lines to the point 5 in the round pipe. The corner lines
can be duplicated on the other half, if so desired. These
lines form the bases of the triangles shown in Fig. 4.
Erect any line, as 1 1', equal to the hight that the offset is

to have, as at R in Fig. 2. At right angles to 1 1' and from

1 and 1' draw lines indefinitely, as shown. Now take the Fig. 8. Plan and Bases
of Triangles
various distances in Fig. 3 of 1 11, 1 10, 1 9 and 1 8
and place them on the horizontal line in Fig. 4
as shown by similar numbers, measuring in each
instance from the point 1. Then from points 11,
10, 9 and 8 draw lines from the apex 1'. To avoid
a confusion of lines erect another vertical line,

as 2 2'. Then take the various distances in Fig. 3

of 2 8, 2 7,2 6 and 2 5, and place them on the hor-
izontal line in Fig. 4 as shown by joints 8, 7, 6 and

5, measuring from the point 2. Then draw lines to

the apex 2'. From Take the lengths of the
the point 5 erect the vertical line 5 5'.

two lines in Fig. 2, 5 3 and 5 4, and measuring from the point 5' in Fig .4 by the
same method obtain the points 3 and 4, from which draw lines to the apex 5.
 44° Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

Then will these lines or hypotenuses represent the actual distances on the finished
article on lines having similar numbers in Fig. 3. For the pattern proceed as is

shown in Fig. 5. Draw any horizontal line, as 1 1', equal to 1 1' in Fig. 3. Now
with T 11 in Fig. 4 as radius and 1 and 1* in Fig. 5 as centers describe arcs inter-
secting each other in 11. Now with radii 1'
10, 1' 9 and 1' 8 in Fig. 4 and 1 in
Fig. 5 as center describe arcs, as shown by 10, 9 and 8. Now set the dividers equal
to the spaces into which the half circle in Fig. 3 is divided, and starting from the
point 11 in Fig. 5 step from one arc to another, thus obtaining points 10, 9 and 8.

From 8 draw a line to 1. Now with 1 2 in Fig. 3 as radius and 1 in Fig. 5 as

center describe the arc 2, which intersect by an arc struck from 8 as center and 8
2' in Fig. 4 as radius. Now with 2'
7, 6 and 5 in Fig. 4 as radii and 2 in Fig. 5 as
center describe the arcs 7,
v 1

6 and 5. Then set the

dividers equal to the spa-

ces in the half circle in
Fig. 3, and starting from
the point 8 in Fig. 5 step
from one arc to another,
thus obtaining the points
7, 6 and 5. From 5 draw
a line to 2. Now with 2 3
in Fig. 3 as radius and 2
in Fig. 5 as center describe the arc 3, which intersect by an arc struck from 5 as
center with 5 3 in Fig. 4 as radius. Draw a line from 5 to 3 in Fig. 5. Now with
3 4 in Fig. 3 as radius and 3 in Fig. 5 as center describe the arc 4, which intersect
by an arc struck from 5 as center with 5 4 in Fig. 4 as radius. Draw a line from 5
to 4 in Fig. 5. Now with 4 4' in Fig. 3 as radius and 4 in Fig. 5 as center, describe
the arc 4', by an arc struck from 5 as center and 5 4 as radius.
Avhich intersect
Draw a line from 4 to 4' and from 4' to 5. Now take a tracing of 1,2, 3, 4, 4'
5, 8, 11 and place it opposite the line T 11, as shown by
1' 2' 3' 4' 5' 8' 11. Then
will 4' 1' 1 4' 5 11 5' be the complete pattern. Allow lap, as shown.
A more practical and better appearing connecting piece would be one designed
as Fig. 6. The side elevation shows that it is made of three pieces allowing for

greater ease when connecting to soil pipe, especially so if soil pipe is quite a dis-
tance from wall.
As there are no rules to follow when establishing miter lines A B and 0 D,
Fig. 6, they were made parallel to permit the application of the same principles of
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 44 1
cutting as in the foregoing Fig. 3 and 4. It is evident though that sections are
changed when viewed at right angle to miter lines, hence it is necessary to obtain
true sections, and place them in correct position relative to Fig. 3. As it is within
the range of possibility that a double offset may be required as Fig. 8, the method of

obtaining and placing in position the section of Fig. 8 will be described, believing
that from this and Fig. 3, the reader will understand the process for section of

Fig. 7.
44 2 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

On line T U, Fig. 9, place the spaces 1, 2, 3 of C D, Fig. 6; erect verticals

from these points, and from line T U on vertical from 1 place the space 4 5 of Fig.
6, repeat on 2 and 3, thereby realizing true section on C D, Fig. 6. From X S,

Fig. 9, draw a parallel line the distance away of K B of Fig. 6. From T U draw line
M' N', Fig. 9, taking distance of MN of H, Fig. 8. The line OP is drawn parallel
to M' N' the distance of radius of profile Z of Fig. 6. On this line O P mark the
space 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 of A B, Fig. 6, erect verticals and on each side of OP
on numbers place the spaces of,
like for instance. 11 17 of Z, Fig. 6. Through
these points draw the ellipse which is true section of A B, Fig. 6.

For the pattern of offset Fig. 7 the exact procedure of Fig. 3 and 4 is followed,
but for Fig. 8 as will be seen by Fig. 9 the plan cannot be divided into two similar
halves, so a system of triangles is necessary for entire plan- -still following through
the principle of Fig. 4. If leader is not paneled, but square, the same method as
foregoing is followed.

PATTERN FOR A REINFORCING BOSS

In conductor work it is often required that
elbows, branches, etc., be strengthened and this
problem is a boss to stiffen the joint of a branch
of two pipes of equal diameter. In a foregoing
problem we had the same but under the title of
a gusset sheet and giving a different method of
obtaining the miter line and for pipes of different
sizes. This method can be applied to pipes in-
tersecting at any angle, or, of course, to reinforce
the throat of elbows.
Draw the elevation of branch as shown and
profile Z, Fig. 10. Bisect angle and atABC
right angle to the line G F and at pleasure in respect to the size of the boss draw
line D E and lines, E F D F. Divide one-quarter of Z as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and drop lines
to E F and parallel to D E continue them indefinitely. Draw line H I and from
this on like numbered lines place spaces 1 2 2', etc. Obtaining one-half section
of boss on line G F. On G F place stretchout of this section and draw usual
line
lines through these points. From lines D F and E F project lines to stretchout
which will give one-half of the pattern.
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 443

SHORT RULES FOR DEVELOPING ELBOW PATTERNS

In the following article short rules will be illustrated and described for develop-
ing the practical forms arising in the sheet metal shop when laying out patterns
for leader elbows, roof connections, etc. While these patterns are usually devel-
oped on paper on the drafting table, the method will be described as to how to
develop the patterns direct onto the sheet metal without the aid of any drafting
instruments other than the ordinary mechanical tools used in the shop. The
method of finding the rise of the miter line by means of the protractor for any size

elbow, no matter what the throat, diameter or number of pieces may be, will be
explained, so that the laying out of any size elbow becomes a simple matter, avoid-
ing all unnecessary drawing except what is done directly on the sheet metal.
In applying this method of development the principle to be followed is that
shown in Fig. 11. Let AB
D represent the elevation of a cylinder whose
C half
profile or section is shown by D a C. This semiprofile D a C is divided into any
number of equal parts, as shown, from which point lines are erected until they cut
 444 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

the oblique line A B. From A, Y and B horizontal lines are drawn until they
meet the vertical line FG (which is drawn at pleasure) at F, H and G respectively.
Using H as a center with radius equal to either H F or H G the semicircle F b G
is described. From the various intersections between A and Y and between Y
and B draw horizontal lines intersecting the semicircle F b G, as shown. By
measurement it will be found that the spaces in the semicircle, F b G are equal.
This being true it proves that when the rise of the miter line in any elbow is

known (as AO in this case) it is only necessary to place this rise in its proper
position, as shown by 7, 1 in Fig. 14 to describe the semicircle, using E as a center,
and to divide the semicircle into equal spaces and to find the miter cut shown,
which will be described in detail as we proceed. It is immaterial what rise the
miter line may have, the same principal is used, as shown in connection with the
oblique line AJ in Fig. 11. Extend the lines drawn from the semiprofile DaC,
Fig. 11, until they intersect the miter line A J. From A, X and J horizontal lines

are drawn cutting the vertical line M L at M, N and L. With N as center, draw
the semicircle M c L, and intersect it by horizontal lines drawn from the points on
the oblique line A J. By measurement it will be found that the semicircle McL
contains equal spaces, which would be used in obtaining the pattern for an elbow
whose rise of the miter line would be equal to A P.
As mentioned above the patterns are to be laid out direct onto the sheet metal,
and to save loss of time in using a steel square a sheet metal T-square should be
constructed, as shown in Fig. 12, in which the head A is bent with hem edges at d
and e, and the blade B with hem edges at i and j. The blade is riveted to the head
at C with four rivets, soldering along' a b at the bottom, so that the sheet metal will
not slide between the head and blade when in use. A hole is punched at c, so
that the T-square can be hung up when not in use.
The first pattern to be developed, using the principle shown in Fig. 11 is that
of a two-pieced elbow having an angle of 90 degrees, as shown in Fig. 13. In this

connection it may be proper to say that in all two-pieced elbows whose angles are
90 degrees the rise of the miter line 1 7 is always equal to the diameter of the pipe
at right angles to the arm of the elbow.
In Fig. 14 let A B T 1" represent a sheet of metal having the required girth
and hight to which edges have been allowed shown by a b and for seaming, as
c d, and which has been cut perfectly square on the squaring shears, and from

which a two-pieced elbow is to be cut without any waste, the elbow to have an
angle of 90 degrees when completed. Knowing the length of the arm on the
throat side, as F D in Fig. 13, place this distance as shown from D to F in Fig. 14.
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 445
Take the rise of the miter line 1 7 in Fig. 13 and place it in Fig. 14 from F to 7.
Bisect F 7 and obtain E, which use as a center and describe the semicircle shown.

A B e C F

Fig. 15. Finding the Rise of the Miter Line

Fig. 16. 90-Degree Elliptical Fig. 17. 90-Degree Elliptical Fig. 18. Pattern for Elliptical Elbow
Elbow Elbow
METHOD OF DEVELOPING PATTERNS OF ELBOW DIRECTLY ON SHEET METAL

Divide this into any convenient number of equal spaces, as shown from 1 to 7.

On the line D C, which has already been cut to the required girth, place twice the
number of spaces contained in the semicircle E, as shown from 1' to 7' 1".

Now using a metal T-square like that in Fig. 12 in the position shown by X
and Y in Fig. 14 draw lines which intersect each other, as shown. A line traced
through these intersections, as shown by C H G F D and F G H B A, will be the
patterns for the two arms. By measurement J G equals F D ;
therefore in obtain-
ing the length of the sheet D C is made equal to the girth of the profile that the
 :

44 6 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

pipe is to have, allowing edges for seaming or riveting. And the hight A D is
obtained by adding together the length of the arm on the throat side, as F D in
Fig. 13, the diameter of the pipe 1 7 and again the distance of F D; or, in other
words, the hight of the metal sheet is equal to D F+E + 7Ain Fig. 14. Thus
it will be seen no drawings are required, the work being done direct on the metal,
with less time than is required to explain it.

In Fig. 16 is shown a two-pieced elbow of 90 degrees, whose section or profile

is shown by the ellipse A, for which patterns are required. Cut a piece of metal
with the edges perfectly square with each other, whose length, B C in Fig 18, is

equal to the girth of the ellipse, A in Fig. 16, and whose hight, 1 B in Fig. 18, is

equal to twice the length of the arm on the throat side, a 6 in Fig. 16, plus the
diameter, c d in the ellipse A.
On 1 B in Fig. 18 set off 1 1', equal to the throat side of the arm; T 7' equal
to tne diameter of the pipe at right angle to the line of the arm, and 7' B equal to
1' 1. Place one-half of the section A, Fig. 16, at A in Fig. 18. With the dividers
space A into any number of equal parts, as shown from 1 to 7', and on 1 1° place
twice the number of spaces shown in A. Using the T-square intersect similar lines,
as shown. Then 1, T, a, 1", 1°, and 1", a, T, B, b, C are the patterns for the two

arms from one piece, allowing laps for joining.

shown a two-pieced 90-degree elbow, whose profile is an ellipse,

In Fig. 17 is

but placed in the position shown by B, the reverse of A in Fig. 16. In obtaining
the patterns for Fig. 17 the same principles are used as shown in Fig. 18.
When patterns are required for elbows containing more than two pieces the
rise of the miter line can be obtained without the aid of an elevation of the elbow
by using a protractor, as shown in Fig. 15. The rule to be observed is as follows

In all elbows, no matter whether the finished angle is 90 degrees or less, the end
pieces count one, while each of the middle pieces count two. Thus in diagram U
is shown a three-pieced elbow which has two end pieces and one middle piece,
which makes a total of 1+24-1=4. The number 4 is then the numeral with
which to divide the number of degrees which the finished elbow will have. As U
has a finished angle of 90 degrees, then 90^-4=22^, or the number of degrees
which the first miter line will involve. In diagram V is shown a four-pieced elbow.
Following the above rule we have two end pieces, which equal two and two middle
pieces which equal 4; 2+4=6. Then six is the divisor. As the finished elbow
is have 90 degrees, then 90+6=15, or the degree of the first angle in V.
to W
shows a two-pieced elbow which is to have an angle of 70 degrees when complete.
As each end piece counts one, we have 70+2=35, or the miter line.
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 447

Assuming that a throe-pieced elbow is required whose throat is 30 inches and

diameter of pipe 12 inches, then make the distance from the center A of the pro-
tractor to the point B equal to 30 inches and BC equal to 12 inches and draw a
line from A through the 2234 -degree until it meets the vertical lines extended from
B and C at J and K respectively. From J, at right angles to J B, draw the line
J L, meeting C K at L. L K is then the rise of the miter line.
Knowing the rise of the miter line the pattern for a three-pieced elbow is laid

out by the short rule, as follows: Let A B in Fig. 19 represent the girth of the
pipe, whose diameter is equal to BC in Fig. 15. Let A 1 or B 1° in Fig. 19 repre-
sent the length of the end piece on the throat side, as shown by B J in Fig. 15.
Now take the rise of the miter line LK and place it as shown from 1 to 5 in Fig. 19,
and with H as center describe the semi-

} circle 1, 3, 5, which divide into one-half

| the number of spaces contained in the

•j
girth A B, as shown. Using the metal
|
T-square erect vertical lines from the di-
!
I
visions on AB of the metal sheet, which
1
intersect by horizontal lines drawn from
Fig. 19. Pattern for Three-Piece 90-Degree Elbow similar intersections in the semicircle H.
A line traced through points thus obtained, as shown by 1 E 1°, will be the desir-
ed cut. A B 1° E 1 will be the pattern for the end pieces.
Take the distance from B to 1° and place it, as shown, from E to F, and
through F parallel to A B draw C D. Then C D 1° E 1 is the half pattern for the
middle piece. Trace C A B D opposite the line C D, when the three patterns will
be obtained from one piece of metal.
If the pattern was required for an elbow, as shown in diagram W in Fig. 15,

whose miter line was equal to 35 degrees, it would only be necessary to draw a line

from A through the 35 degrees on the protractor, extending it until it met the lines

erected from E, representing the throat, and from F, representing the diameter of
the pipe. M G would represent the rise of the miter line and would be used in
the same manner as K L was used in H in Fig. 19. No matter what angle the
elbow will have when completed, or what size throat or diameter it will contain or

its number of pieces, all that is required is to find the rise of the miter line, as for

example K L in Fig. 15, and then use it as explained in H in Fig. 19.

 44 8 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

PATTERN FOR A SPOUT OR A SHOE

Fig. 20 represents a hanging gutter with spout attached. These spouts can be
made of tin, galvanized iron or copper. In putting up angle spouts, as shown A 1
,

Fig. 20, it is customary to cut a scallop, as shown, so as to make a neat finish. As

this is often done by hand, and
hardly ever gives accurate results,

Fig. 21 has been prepared showing

how to obtain the pattern, for when
we onee have the pattern it can be
saved for future use or a dozen
spouts made and kept in stock to
be used when required. To obtain
the pattern of the scallop cut, no
matter what size the pipe is, pro-
ceed as follows: Let A, Fig, 21,
Fig. 20. Hanging Gutter with Spout Attached represent the plan of pipe and B
the elevation. Care should be tak-
en to draw the scallop in its correct position in elevation, as shown. Divide the
plan A, Fig. 21, into an equal number of parts, as shown by the small figures
1, 2, 3, 4, etc., from which drop perpendicular lines until they cut the scallop
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 449

line, asshown in elevation. At right angles to the perpendicular lines or lines of

the pipe draw the stretchout of the plan A, Fig. 21, as shown by C D, the small
figures on the stretchout corresponding in number to those on the plan. At right
angles to the stretchout line C I) draw lines indefinitely from the small figures, as

shown, which intersect with lines of corresponding numbers drawn at right angles
to the lines of the pipe from the intersections on the scallop line, as shown. Re-
ferring to the elevation, Fig. 21, it will be seen that we have two points —namely,
E and F— which we carry upward, as shown by the dotted lines, until they cut the
plan, as shown by XXX X. We now transfer the extra points XXXX of plan
to the stretchout, as shown.
At right angles to the stretchout line C D draw lines from X X X X, which
intersect with lines drawn at right angles to the lines of the pipe from the points
E and F, Fig. 21. A line traced through these intersections will be the required
pattern for the scalloped mouth of spout, as shown in Fig. 20. A lap is allowed for
riveting, as shown.

PATTERN FOR RAIN WATER CUT OFF

In Fig. 23 first draw the front elevation, shown by A I) J M, with the miter
line l G. The pipe ABL M extends into the cut off, as indicated by B ij L.
This is done to allow the pipe to meet the scoop or cut off c d e. The pattern for

the inlet is a piece of metal whose bight is equal to A i and length equal to the
circumference of the profile N, to which laps are allowed for seaming.
Directly below one of the outlets, as I J, draw the
profile 0PR S, which divide as shown. From these
points erect lines intersecting H K. From these inter-
sections, parallel toG H, draw lines intersecting the
miter or joint line G l L. From the point parallel l,

to L K, draw a line intersecting H K at f, from which

drop a line cutting the profile at V and l”, these points
being required when developing the pattern.
Fig. 22 For the pattern for the middle section draw, at right
angles to L K, the line T U, upon which place the stretchout of 0 P R S. At right
angles to T U draw the usual measuring lines, which intersect with the lines drawn
at right angles to L K, from the various intersections on H K and G l L. A line
 45° Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

traced through the points thus obtained, as shown by V W X Y Z, will be the

pattern for HG l L K in elevation.
For the pattern for H I J K take the distance K J and place it in the pattern
on the lines X W and Z V, extended, as shown, by WJ 1
and YJ 2
. Draw a line
from J J 1 2
. Then will WJ 1
J 2
V be the desired pattern.
The next step is to obtain the pattern for the scoop, or cut off, c d e, by means
of which the water is thrown into the right or left outlet. Parallel to GH draw
d e, making the distance between d and G about % inch, to give a little play.
From e, % inch from C B, draw the horizontal line e c. Bisect e d, obtaining h,

from which, at right angles to e d, draw h c, intersecting the joint from line G l at/
and e cat c. From c drop the line c d, intersecting e d at d. The inlet pipe should

PROFILE

Fig. 23. Elevations and Patterns Fig. 24. Pattern of Cut Off

be allowed to extend inside the cut off, so as to have a distance of “a,” or 1 inch.
The distance b should also be about 1 inch. As/ represents the center of the pivot,
then from this point draw a line at right angles to L K, intersecting the miter cut
in the pattern X Y Z at f' and/", which gives the location of the holes to be punched
for the pivots.

For the pattern for the scoop take a tracing of c d e with the center/ and place
it as shown by similar letters in Fig. 24. Through the center of the pivot /draw

/ j, parallel to which draw a b. From e, / and c drop lines intersecting a b at 4, r and o.

From the pivot /in elevation in Fig. 23 draw a line parallel to L K, intersecting
H K, from which drop a line intersecting at/'" and/'". Now take the OPRS
distance from the center line O P, as o to /", and place it in Fig 24, from r to 2, on
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 45 1

either side, on the vertical line dropped from/. Draw a line from 4 to 2. Bisect 4 2,
and from the point of bisection erect a perpendicular line, intersecting a b at o.
Then, with o as center and o 2 as radius, draw the arc 1,4, 1 intersecting the line ,

drawn from c at 1 and 1. Space the arc into spaces, as shown, from 1 to 4 to 1,
from which erect lines intersecting e c d, as shown. Now take a stretchout of 1,4, 1

and place it on c j, as shown by similar figures, and through which draw the usual
measuring lines, which intersect by lines drawn from similar intersections e c d
parallel to c j. Trace a line through the points thus obtained. Then will 1 m V n
be the desired pattern. As the point/ comes in line with 2 and 2 in the section,
then, where the center line c j passe- through the lines 2 and 2 in the pattern,
locate/' and /", the centers through which the pivots will pass.
The construction of the rain water cut off The two elbows B C
is as follows:
and B C, in Fig. 22, are first made and are then seamed together at e. The scoop
D is then placed in position, passing the handle E through the pivot hole a on both
sides. The handle PI is made from 3-16 inch galvanized wire. Now, knowing
the distance that the main pipe A is to extend on the inside, put a bead around the
pipe, as shown at c c, and press it into the junction of the two elbows, and solder
around the entire bead.

TRUE ANGLE IN CONDUCTOR PIPE

Fig. 25 illustrates a leader turning the square corner of a building; both

branches making angle of 45 degrees with the vertical. Pattern will be an elbow
of the angle of Fig. 29 developed in the usual manner.
Draw the two elevations of the pipe as shown in
Figs. 26 and 27, the line ABC representing the center line
of the pipe in both cases. Next lay off, as in Fig. 28,

the distance B' C' equal to C D of Fig. 26 ;

at the point B'

lay off at right angles to B' C' the line B' A' equal to AE
of Fig. 27. Then the line A' C' will represent the horizontal
projection of the imaginary line AC. At the point A'
erect the perpendicular A' 0 equal to D A or C E. Then
0 C' will be the true length of the imaginary line A C.
equal to A B
^ gg
Construct the triangle A" B" C" with A" B"
45 a Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

TRUE ANGLE IN CONDUCTOR PIPE

of Fig. 27, B" C" equal to B C, Fig. 26, and A" C" equal to O C' Fig. 28. The
angle A" B" C", Fig. 29, will be the required angle.

PATTERNS FOR OCTAGON CONDUCTOR

For obtaining the patterns for an octagon conductor elbow and tee joint for
connecting an octagon conductor with a circular trough. In Fig. 30, let A B C D
E F represent the elevation of elbow, and GH I J the profile of same. The angle
BCD can be made as desired, the pattern being obtained in a similar manner.
Draw the profile in line with the elevation, and from the various points indicated
by the small figures, carry lines parallel with C D cutting the miter line C F. On
C D extended, as K L, lay off a stretchout of profile, and from the point thus
obtained draw the usual measuring lines. Place the blade of the T-square parallel
with the stretchout line K L, and, bringing it successively against the points in
C F, cut corresponding measuring lines. Then straight lines connecting the points
thus obtained, as shown by KL0N M, will give the desired pattern.
In the elevation, Fig. 31, let A ZB represent the circular trough struck from
the center X, and let C DEF represent the octagon conductor, as shown in the
profile by GH I J. From the points in the profile, carry lines through the eleva-
tion of conductor cutting A Z B, as shown. As the sides of conductor similar to
2 3 or 4 5 intersect the conductor obliquely, the radius used for striking the shape
of trough could not be used for describing these parts of the pattern. Therefore
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 453
divide 2 3 or 4 5 into any convenient number of equal parts, as shown by a b and
c d, and from the points thus obtained carry lines cutting A Z B, as shown. Extend
E I), as shown by K L, upon which lav off a stretchout of the profile, and from the
 454 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

points thus obtained in same erect the usual perpendicular measuring lines. Place
the T-square parallel to the stretchout line and, bringing it successively against the
points in A Z B, cut corresponding measuring lines. Thus M 2', 5' 6' and 9' 0 of
pattern are parallel with the stretchout line, while 2' 3' and 4' 5' are derived from
the points in AZB of elevation ;
6' 7' and 8' 9' of pattern can be obtained in the

same manner as were 2' 3’ and 4' 5', or the shape 2' 3' can be used for marking 6' 7'

and 8' 9’. The part of 3' 4' of pattern can be obtained by setting the compasses to

the radius X A, used in describing A Z B of elevation, and with points 3' and 4' as
centers strike arcs in the direction of X'. With the same radius and with X' as
center strike the arc 3' 4'
;
7' 8' of pattern can also be obtained in a similar manner,
from X 1
as center.

A HOOK COVERING TO CONCEAL HANGERS

In Fig. 32 is shown a perspective view of a square pipe, or leader, fastened

against a wall by means of a hook. If the hook was left in this position it would
make a bad appearance; to overcome which a galvanized sheet metal covering is

Fig. 82. Square Pipe Fastened Fig. 88. Method of Covering

Against a Wall with Hook the Hook with Metal
Shown in Fig. 88

and copper
placed over the hook, using galvanized iron for a galvanized iron leader
covering for a copper leader. The appearance is shown at A in Fig. 33. The
covering A in Fig. 33 is slipped over the hook shown at A in Fig. 32 and soldered
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 455

along the top of the covering and against the leader, as shown at B and C, Fig. 33,
thus making a clean and neat appearance.
In Fig. 34 is shown the method of obtaining the geometrical figure or leaf for
the sheet metal covering as indicated at To obtain the leaf proceed as
I), Fig. 33.
follows Draw any perpendicular line, as A B, Fig. 34, upon either side of which
:

place the half distance of the width the covering A, Fig. 33, is to have, as shown
by the line E F, drawn at right angles to A B in Fig. 34. Now upon this line
construct an equilateral triangle, or a triangle having three sides equal. With F,
Fig. 34, as centerand F E as radius strike an arc, as shown, from E to A then ;

with E as center and E F as radius strike another arc, intersecting the first one at
A. Now draw the line; from A to E and from A to F then will A E F represent ;

the triangle desired. Tt will be noticed that the line A B, Fig. 34, bisects the line
at EF at J. Now with F as the center point for the compass and with F J as
radius strike an arc, cutting the line A F at K ;
then with A as center and with the
same radius strike another arc, cutting the line AE at L. Then again with E as
center and using the same radius strike an arc from the point L, meeting the point
J on the line E F. Now at right angles to E F, or parallel to A B, drop lines as
shown from E to D and F to C. The distance N to C, or M to D, can be made to
the width desired, as indicated at A, front view, Fig. 35. Then will C N H M D
represent the leaf desired. It should be understood that the width of the covering
shown from E to F in Fig. 34 gives the basis for obtaining the center point from
which to strike the arcs, and therefore makes the leaf in proportion to the width
of the covering.
In Fig. 35 are shown the front, plan and sectional views of a hook covering,
including the patterns. Let Z in the plan represent the size of the leader used,

lying against the wall, as shown, around which is placed the plan view of the cov-
ering. The width of the front view of covering shown from B to C should bemade
from 1 to 1^4 inches, according to the size of the pipe used; while the width shown
from 1 to 2 or 3 to 4 in plan, or what is the same, the width from 1 to 2 or 3 to 4
in the section, should be made a little wider than the width of the hooks so that
the covering will slip over easily.
After having the front and plan views drawn in their proper position to each
other, as shown by the dotted lines, draw a section of the covering in the plan, as

shown at T, from which to obtain the stretchout. S, S', S', S represent the four
miter lines in plan. To obtain the patterns for the coverings proceed as follows:
At right angles to the line S' S' in plan draw the stretchout C D, as shown, upon
which place the stretchout of the section T in plan, as shown by the small figures
 456 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

1, 2, 3 and 4, corresponding in number to those on the section. Now at right

angles to the stretchout CD draw lines indefinitely through the small figures, as

shown, which intersect with lines of cor-

responding numbers drawn from the miter

lines S' and S', parallel to C D. A line
traced through these intersections will be
the required pattern for the front of the
covering shown at A, Fig. 33. For the
pattern of the side of the covering, shown
at E, Fig. 33, proceed as follows: Parallel
with the line S' S', Fig. 35, draw the
stretchout E F, upon which place the
stretchout of thfe section T of the plan
view, as shown by the small figures 1, 2,

3 and 4 on the stretchout line E F. At

Fig. 85. Front, Plan and Sectional Views of Hook right angles to the stretchout draw lines
Covering; also the Patterns
indefinitely through the small numbers,
as shown, which intersect with lines drawn at right angles to the line S' S, from the
miter lines S' and S. A line drawn through these intersections will be the required
pattern for the two sides of the covering, as shown at E in Fig. 33. The pattern
for the front and sides of the covering can be made in one piece if desired. In Fig.
36 let A represent a duplicate of the pattern of the front, as shown by M N 0 J,
Fig. 35, and B B, in Fig. 36, represent duplicates of the pattern of the side shown
by X E Y F, Fig. 35. It will be noticed that X of the pattern for the side in Fig.

35 joins X' and X' on either side of the pattern for the front in Fig. 36, the joining
being shown at X X
2 2
,
Fig. 36. Then will B A B, Fig. 36, be the desired pattern
for the front and two sides of the covering. Laps are
allowed as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 36.
For the pattern of the strip which bounds the leaf
pN H, front view, Fig. 35, proceed as follows : At right
V] B Tx* A X*F B |y'
'/*7 angles to CD of the pattern, Fig. 35, draw the lines 3
Fig. 86. Pattern in One Piece and 4 indefinitely to the right, as shown by 3 K and 4
L. It should be understood that the width 3 4 of the pattern on the line C D,
Fig. 35, is the same as the width 3 4 of the section, and is the width of the strip
which bounds the figure H
in front view, as shown by S S in plan view. From 2

the bend G in plan view, which corresponds to the angle 1 and 14 of the leaf in H
front view, drop a perpendicular line cutting the lines I K and J L, as shown at 1'
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 457

of the pattern. Now space the leaf H, front view, Fig. 35, into an equal number
of parts, as shown by the small figures from 0 to 14 ;
transfer the space with the
dividers from 0 to 4, front view, on the lines I K and J. L, from 1' to 2'. Now
transfer the space from 4 to 10, front view, to the pattern, as shown from 2' to 3';
then again transfer the spaces from 10 to 14, front view, to the pattern, as shown
from 3' to 4'. Now place a duplicate of the miter 1' J I, Fig. 35, as shown at
4', and K, which completes the pattern. Then will I J L K be the pattern for
L
the strip bounding the leaf H, front view, Fig. 35. The miter I J will be cut away
from the pattern of the front, as shown. The leaf H', shown in Fig. 36, is a dup-
licate of the leaf H, front v-ew, Fig. 35. A lap is allowed at H', Fig. 36, which is

bent at right angles and soldered to Y' Y', Fig. 36.

If a bar folder is at hand the pattern shown in Fig. 36 could be bent upon the
two lines C C and C C, after which the cross bends could be bent by hand, as
shown by X* X*, Fig. 36, and soldered to their required angles. If a folder is not

at hand the pattern BAB, including the leaf H', Fig. 36, and the strip for the leaf

shown by I J L K, in Fig. 35, could be bent upon the hatchet stake.

PATTERN FOR A SHOE TO CONNECT A GUTTER

WITH A CONDUCTOR PIPE
‘
The problem is a ‘shoe collar’ ’
to connect a 24-inch gutter with a 36-inch
conductor pipe, the upper opening of the same to be 24 inches in diameter, while
the opening in the base is to be elliptical

and 30X60 inches. The “shoe,” as we

term it for convenience, is a very irregu-
larly shaped piece, inasmuch as its top, as

shown by the plan, Fig. 37, is not center-

ed on either axis of the elliptical base.
Neither is the axis of the base concentric
with that of the conductor pipe ;
besides
which both the gutter and the pipe are
carried at a slight inclination or rake. The
pattern for such a piece must, of course, be
developed by triangulation.
The great difficulty at the outset will
be to determine or establish the lines of
 45® Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

intersection between the shoe and the pipes above and below. These lines of
intersection will, of course, represent the openings in the two pipes and will become
the upper and lower bases of the shoe. In the matter of determining these lines
the draftsman is thrown largely upon his own judgment and general knowledge
of intersections, inasmuch as the plan of miter lines shown in Fig. 37 is not very
explicit. must be taken into consideration that the shape or horizontal section
It

of the shoe when finished will depend entirely upon the location of these miter
lines. It is no doubt the intention to have the shoe cylindrical, or nearly so, at

the top —that is, on a straight line from A to D — and elliptical at the bottom from
B to C ;
but if we are to interpret the 24-inch circle of the plan to mean literally a
section through points A, E and D, then the result will be quite different. Suppose,
for instance, that a round pipe of the same diameter as the top of the shoe (24
inches) be substituted for the shoe. If it were placed in a vertical position, as
though C D were one side of it, it would intersect the gutter as shown by the line
AED, the point E being on the axis of both the pipe and the cylindrical part of
the gutter; but if it were inclined to the angle shown by A B, then the position
of the point E would fall considerably to the right of its present position, which
will be discovered by drawing a line parallel to and 12 inches away from A B and
extending it to meet the axis of the gutter. In order that the upper section of the
shoe shall remain circular, the position of the point E must therefore be somewhere
between its present position in Fig. 37 and where it would be according to the
latter supposition.

As a further help in determining the proper position of the miter lines, it will

be well to consider for a moment what the result would be if they were to be
accepted as drawn both at the top and the bottom of the shoe, and the pattern
developed therefrom. A line drawn from E to F represents the position of what
may be termed an axial plane, or the plane of greatest width measured from front
to back, which plane, as will be seen by reference to Fig. 37, passes much nearer
to A than to D, thus compressing or flattening, as it were, that part of the sectional
outline toward A and elongating that part toward D and producing a marked dis-
tortion of the circle.
The same state of affairs exists at the bottom of the shoe, though in a less

degree, because of the increased length of the base as compared with its width ;
but
the axial plane, if the point F is to remain fixed, will still pass nearer to C than to B.
Toend therefore, a carefully made elevation and sectional view should be
this
drawn, as shown in Fig. 38, in which corresponding parts are lettered the same as
37. The view at the right represents a section on the line S T of the
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts -459

Fig. 89. Triangulation of Hear

Side of Shoe

Fig. 88. Method of Obtaining Lines Diagram Showing Lengths Fig. 40.
of Intersection Between the Shoe of Solid Lines of Elevations True Lengths of
and the Pipes Above and Below, Lines in Elevations
and Triangulation of the Shoe
460 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

elevation. The points D 1

and C l
are obtained by horizontal projections from D
and C of the elevation, the point C 1
being set the required distance (6 inches) to
the right of a plumb line dropped from D 1

,
as in Fig. 37. Now set off from F on
1

the horizontal diameter of the conductor pipe the width of the shoe at the base
(30 inches) as obtained from Fig. 37 and as shown by F 1
G of Fig. 38, and at G
erect a line, cutting the circumference at H 1
. Draw F E l 1
,
representing the face
line of the shoe, and H 1
E showing the
z
,
back line. It will be noted that the points
E 1
and E a
,
being 24 inches apart, as required, will intersect the gutter M slightly

below a level line drawn through the center c because of the tapering sides of the
gutter. Next bisect a line from A to D, as shown at J, and one from B to C,
obtaining K, and through these points draw a line, extending it above to intersect
a horizontal line from E as shown at E, and below to intersect a line from F as
1

,
1
,

shown at F. The line E F will then represent the position of the axial plane
above referred to. Lines drawn from A to E and from E to D will then represent
the planes of intersection between the gutter and the shoe and form the upper base
of the shoe in such a manner as to produce a section at A D, which is a very close

approximation to a perfect circle.

Since the plan of the shoe at its base is not concentric with the conductor pipe,
as previously shown, no lines similar to those at the top can be drawn, because the

intersections do not occur upon a plane surface, as will be seen. Such a working
plan must therefore be constructed as will produce the desired elliptical section at

B C, which may be done in the following manner: First draw any horizontal line,

as L N, at a convenient distance below the elevation and from points B, F and C

drop lines, cutting the same as shown at Q, X and N. Now from H 1
of the

sectional view project a line horizontally into the elevation, cutting the line E F
at H, and from H drop a line, cutting LN at Y. Upon lines drawn from X and
Y, at right angles to L N, set off half the desired width of the base of the shoe, as
—
shown in Fig. 37 that is, one-half of 30 inches locating the points F8 and H 8 — .

Then Y Q and Y N will each be one-half the major axis of two ellipses, of which
Y H8 is half the minor axis, and X Q and X N will each be half the major axis of
two other ellipses, of which XF8
The plan will thus consist
is half the minor axis.
of four quarter ellipses so placed together that the axial plane, represented by F E
of the elevation, will be coincident with X F of the plan at F of the elevation and
8

with Y H8 of the plan at H of the elevation, and when the point K is reached will
be exactly midway between the two ends, thus forming at that point a symmetrical
and nearly perfect ellipse at B C.
The most available method of drawing the quarter ellipses necessary to complete
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 461

the plan is that frequently employed of first drawing two circles whose diameters
are respectively equal to the major and minor axis of the desired ellipse, and then
dividing both circles into the same number of equal spaces and making intersections
from corresponding points in each. In the present case four quarter circles will be
therefore required whose radii will be respectively equal to the four half major axis,
one pair which may be drawn from Y of the plan, with Y Q and
of Y N as radii,
as shown by Q h and N h, while the other pair may be drawn from
1
X as center, as
shown by Q f and N /. A half circle whose diameter is equal to the required
1

minor axis of the plan may be described from any convenient point on L N as
center, its diameter being drawn parallel to X or Y H 3 as shown by F2 H*. F ,

Each of the six quarter circles may now be divided into the same number of equal
parts, numbered correspondingly, as shown by the small figures, remembering that

the semicircle H 2 L F2 being made to answer for a full circle, each point therein
must carry two numbers, each quarter circle composing it being used in developing
two quarters of the plan, all of which will be clear from an inspection of the plan.
Horizontal lines drawn from points 1 to 6 of L H 2 are intersected with vertical lines
dropped from corresponding points of the quarter circle N h, and those from 6 to 11
of L H 2
are intersected with lines dropped from the quarter circle Qh 1
,
while lines
from the points in LF 2
are intersected in the same manner with lines from the
N / and Q f Lines traced through the points
quarter circles 1
. of intersection, as
shown by Q H N F will complete the outline of the plan.
8 8
,

So far as the usefulness of this plan is concerned, it is immaterial whether the

line of its major axis LN be drawn horizontally or parallel to B C, the slant of the
pipe, since its only purpose is to produce an opening in the top of the pipe to serve

as the lower base of the shoe. If the pipe were very oblique it would then be better
to draw L N parallel to B C. In that case the projections now made vertically

would then be made at right angles to the lines of the pipe. Since the principal
points of the plan have been obtained by vertical projections from the elevation,
so the line of the opening in the elevation will have to be completed by vertical

projections from the plan, intersected with lines projected from points on the section
of the pipe which shall correspond with those of the plan. It should be noted,
first, that the section at the right in Fig. 38 is a vertical section on the line S T of

the elevation and is therefore not at right angles to the lines of either the gutter or
the conductor pipe, but the difference in this case between the sections S D and C
T and right sections of those pipes is so slight that it need not be considered. In
the subsequent operations, however, of making horizontal projections from the
several points in the two profiles M and P to the elevation, lines must first be carried
 462 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

in every case horizontally to the line S T, thence parallel to the respective rakes of
the two pipes to their required intersections, all as shown.
To proceed now with the development of the opening FB C, points correspond-
ing to those of the plan must be located upon the profile between F and
l
II'.

This can be most conveniently accomplished by describing upon F G 1

as a diameter
a duplicate of the semicircle 8
F L H 2
,
as shown by F L G, and dividing
1 1
it into the
same number of equal spaces. Lines may now be projected from the several points
in F L G
1 1
to the arc F C
1 1
H', and from the points thus obtained on F 1
H 1
they
are carried horizontally to intersect with vertical lines of corresponding numbers
from the points of the plan. A line traced through the points of intersection, as
shown by F B H C, will then show the exact elevation of the desired opening.

It may be remarked that the method of developing this opening could not be
well or clearly explained without first having drawn the ellipses Q N of the plan
from which it is logically derived, but since each elliptical arc is itself obtained by
the equal division of quarter circles, whose diameters are respectively equal to the
major and minor diameters of the required ellipses, the points of intersection just
obtained in the elevation may be obtained at once from the divisions of the several
quarter circles without completing the plan at all, thus shortening the operation
considerably. To obtain it by this method, then, first obtain the points Q, X, Y
and N of the plan, and from X and Y as centers draw the four quarter circles as

before explained, upon the assumption that they are the arcs necessary to produce
the required ellipses of the plan ;
then draw the semicircle F L
1 1
G, omitting its

duplicate F L
8
H 1
,
and, having divided each of the quarter circles of both the plan
and the section into spaces as before, proceed with the intersections in the elevation,
working from the points in the four quarter circles of the plan instead of, as in the
former case, from the points in the elliptical curve.

In order to obtain a set of points in the upper base of the shoe for the purposes
of triangulation, divide the semicircle E D E
1 1 8
into the same number of equal

spaces as F L
1 1
G, as shown, and from the points thus obtained project lines hori-
zontally into the elevationby the method above mentioned, between the lines E
D and A E, and number them to correspond with those just obtained in the lower
base after which lines of similar number in the upper and the lower bases may be
;

connected by solid lines, while points in the lower base may also be connected
with those of the next higher number in upper base by dotted lines, all as shown.
In order to avoid a confusion of lines the triangulation of the rear half of the shoe
is shown in Fig. 39, in which the same figures bearing primes are used as in the
forward half. As a number of the lines near D C are almost coincident, the arrange-
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

ment of the triangles of that portion is shown more clearly in the sectional view,
which includes an end elevation of the shoe.
Since now the line EF is the only portion in the surface of the shoe which
lies in a vertical plane (as shown by E F 1 1
of the section), all other lines are more
or less oblique ;
certain diagrams must therefore be constructed upon which the true
lengths of the several solid and dotted lines just drawn can be measured. Such a
diagram for measuring the solid lines
shown immediately below the section and
is

is most easily obtained by projections therefrom in the following manner From :

F of the section draw a vertical line, F R, cutting the horizontal line R V drawn
1 1

at any convenient distance below the vertical section. Upon R F set off from R 1

the lengths of the several solid lines in the front elevation of the shoe, as shown by
the small figures 1 uo 11, and to avoid confusion of these lines set off upon any
other vertical line, as V W, the length of the several solid lines of the rear eleva-
tion, Fig. 39, as shown by V 2' to V 10’, inclusive. From each of the points in R
F and V
1
W draw horizontal lines coming below the vertical section and intersect
each with a line dropped vertically from points of corresponding number in the
profile M ;
and from points in the half circle F L G drop
1 1
lines cutting R V, num-
bering each to correspond, all as shown. Now connect points in RY with those
of corresponding number in the upper intersections by solid lines, as shown. Their
lengths will then represent the true lengths of the corresponding lines of the two
elevations, Figs. 38 and 39.

A similar diagram giving the true lengths of the dotted lines of the two eleva-
tions is shown in Fig. 40, which may be constructed in the same manner as that

just described. Set off on the perpendicular at R the lengths of the several dotted
1

lines in the front elevation and on the one at V the lengths of those of the rear
1

elevation, giving to the points thus obtained the figures corresponding to those at
the upper ends of the lines in the elevations. The intersections on the horizontal
lines in the upper part of the diagram may be obtained in the same manner as those
of the first diagram, provided it is drawn, as it should be, either directly above or
below the vertical section, while the divisions of R V
1 1
are exactly the same as
those of R V. Dotted lines are drawn, as in the elevations, to connect points at
the bottom with those of the next higher number at the top.
Before the operations of developing the pattern can be begun it will be neces-
sary to first determine the true distances between points of consecutive number in
both of the bases. Those of the upper base can, if desirable, be obtained by the
development of the sections on the lines A E and E D before referred to ;
but since
the shapes of the openings in the pipes will be required to complete the work, the
464 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

preferable method will be to first develop the patterns for the openings in both the
pipes. That of the gutter is most conveniently obtained above the elevation. The
stretchout of the profile M is set off on any line, as
8
s* s ,
drawn at right angles to A
D, embodying the points as previously obtained between E 1
and E*, as shown by
2
the smal l figures in s
8
s . The measuring lines from these points are then inter-

sected by lines from points of corresponding numbers in the miter lines A E and
E D, projected at right angles to A D, as indicated. A line traced through the
1
points of intersection, as shown by a, e, d, e ,
will give the shape of the opening,
and the spaces between these points must necessarily be equal respectively to those
in the upper edge of the pattern. The development of the opening in the top of
the conductor pipe below is obtained in exactly the same manner, all as shown in
Fig. 41, the points in the stretchout line g
t being obtained from the points between
F and
1
H 1
of the profile P of Fig. 38. The
spaces between the points in the line of the
opening f b h c will then be the correct dis-

tances to employ in the development of the

lower line of the pattern.

The development of the pattern is shown
in Fig. 42, in which the line D C corres-

ponds with DC of the elevation or D 1

C* of
the vertical section in Fig. 38, that part of
the pattern for the forward side of the shoe
being shown at the left, while that of the
rear side is shown at the right of D C.
Upon D C first set off the distance 1 1 equal
to 1 1 of the diagram in Fig. 38. Now
Opening in Top of Conductor Pipe from point 1 11681* th0 bottom of th© lill6 88

center, with a radius equal to the length of line 1 2 of the diagram, Fig. 40, de-
scribe a short arc at the left of 1 at the top of the lines which intersect with a short

arc struck from the latter point 1, with a radius equal to the distance 1 2 of the
line d e of the pattern of opening in Fig. 38, thus establishing the point 2 in the
upper line of the pattern. From this point as center, with a radius equal to 2 2
of the diagram in Fig. 38, strike a small arc at the left of 1 at the bottom of the
pattern, which intersect with any other arc struck from the last mentioned 1 as

center, with a radius equal to 1 2 of the pattern of the lower opening in Fig. 41 ,

thus establishing point 2 in the lower line of the pattern. Continue this operation,
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 4^5

using consecutively the lengths of the several dotted lines in the diagram, Fig. 40,
as radii in measuring from the last obtained points in the bottom edge of the pat-
tern, in connection with the distances in the lower half of the pattern of the opening
in the gutter, Fig. 38, using them in numerical order in developing the upper out-

line of the pattern of the forward half of shoe, while the lengths of the several

solid lines in the diagram in Fig. 38 are used in combination with distances between
the points in the lower half of the outline of the opening in Fig. 41 to develop the
lower outline of the pattern. The distances given in the right sides of the two
diagrams are similarly used in connection with those of the upper halves of the two
openings, all of which are indicated by figures bearing primes, in developing that
portion of the pattern to the right of D C. Lines traced through the various inter-
sections of arcs thus obtained, as shown by AEE A 1 1
and B 1
H F B, will give the
required pattern of the shoe.

PATTERN FOR OBLIQUE ELBOW IN SQUARE PIPE

Fig. 43 is sketch of leader elbow to make turn at a corner of a building,
shows the pipe on one side of the building and B on
the other, both being connected by the elbow C.
While the correct crook or bend can be obtained it
would not help us any to know, because the pipes
on either wall must be of different profiles, so as to

allow the two rear sides of the pipe to lay flat against
the walls of the building. If the correct bend was
obtained and the same profile used in both pieces of
the elbow, one side would lay flat against one side
 466 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

of the building, while on the other side the corner of the pipe would only touch
the wall. The principles hereinafter shown will apply to square, rectangular,
oval, round, octagonal or any other shaped pipe, whatever may be the plan or
corner of the building. In Fig. 44 let H I represent one side of the elbow

N*

ed 1, 2, 3 and 4. Directly under the elevation draw a plan view of the pipe, as
shown by J K, the section of the pipe being indicated at B and numbered 1, 2, 3
and 4. Draw the miter line L M. Now from the intersections on the miter, which
in this case are only two points, L and M, carry lines upward at right angles to
J M, intersecting lines of similar numbers carried parallel to the lines of the pipe
in front elevation H I, as shown by 1', 2', 3' and 4', these representing the line of
joint in front elevation.

Now draw any vertical line, as S T* which will represent the line of the wall in
side elevation. In line with S T draw the plan, as shown by N O, the profile of
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 467
the pipe being indicated, by C ;
draw the miter line P R. Now at right angles to
0R in plan and from intersections on the miter line carry lines upward, intersect-
ing those of similar numbers drawn at right angles from 1', 2', 3’ and 4', as shown
by 1", 2", 3" and 4".

From these latter intersections draw the lines of the pipe in side elevation at
their proper angle, as shown by V U, in which a change of profile occurs, to allow
the joining at the corner at their respective angles.
In this connection it may be proper to remark that the normal or given profile
has been placed in the front elevation at A, while the profile in the side elevation
will be modified to mit. If desired the given profile could be placed in the side

and the one in front modified, as seems most convenient. To obtain the change
of profile in the side elevation, place the given profile D, numbered 1 to 4, at right
angles to the line of the pipe. From the small figures drop lines at right angles to
the line of the pipe, intersecting lines of similar numbers drawn from the inter-
sections 1" to 4". Draw lines from points of intersections thus obtained, then will
E be the profile or shape of pipe for the side elevation.
For the pattern for the arm of the elbow in the front view proceed as follows:
At right angles to H I draw the line A B 1 1
,
Upon which place the stretchout of the
profileA, as shown by the small figures 1 to 1. At right angles to A B 1 and 1

through the small figures draw lines, intersecting those of similar numbers drawn
at right angles to H I from the line of joint 1', 2', 3' and 4'. Trace a line through
the points thus obtained, and C\ D E1
,
1
and F 1
will be pattern for the front arm of
the elbow.
For the pattern for the side arm, draw at right angles to YU the line H 1
J1 ,

upon which place the stretchout of the profile E, as shown by the small figures.
 468 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

At right angles to H 1
J and through the small figures draw lines intersecting
1

those of similar numbers drawn at right angles to VU of the pipe from the inter-

sections 1" to 4".

Trace a line through the intersections thus obtained, and K L M

1 1 1
and N 1
will

be the pattern for the arm of the elbow in the side view, which must be bent after the

profile E. For the pattern of miter at B, Fig. 43, place VU and profile A as shown
in Fig. 45. Project lines from A to meet like numbered lines from V U, getting
miter lines 1
B
,
2 B
,
3 B
,
4 B
. For pattern of this draw line A B
8 8
at right angles, 2
B
,

3B ,
on which place stretchout of A from these points draw lines at right angle to ;

A 8
B 3 and intersect with lines drawn from miter lines as indicated. Repeat for
,

modified arm, using stretchout of E, as shown by line A B

8
,
8
.

Pattern of miter at A, Fig. 43, is obtained by placing H, as shown in Fig. 46,

and proceeding as directed for other patterns.

In case the corners of the building were not at right angles, but had an angle
as indicated in the two plans by dotted lines, then instead of drawing lines upward
from the miter lines L M and P R lines would be carried upward from the miter
lines L X and P Y. When the corner of the building is square a plan is not
required, it only being necessary to place the profiles as at F and G in the front
and side views and carry up lines from these points. The plan views would only
be placed in position in this case to show the application of the principles involved.
No matter what angle the corner has the points of projection are carried up from
the miter line in plan as shown.

PATTERN FOR COMPOUND TWISTED ELBOW

To obtain the patterns for a compound twisted elbow, as shown in Fig. 47, it

is important in this case that the elbow have the same dimensions throughout its

entire form and that the side curves run perfectly parallel to each other, so that
when viewed from either side the curves will be graceful and parallel with each
other. Referring to Fig. 47, which is a sketch of the required article, let ABCD
in plan represent the top of the elbow and A B C D
1 1 1 1
the bottom, the elbow mak-
ing a quarter turn in plan, which reverses the sections of the pipe. D* C* C® B*
shows the elevation, giving a general view of the twist.
As it is desirable that the side curves of the elbow must run perfectly parallel
to each other, it will be impossible to first draw the elevation, as the development
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 4^9

of the sides must first be obtained and the elevation projected from it. Therefore,
in Fig. 48, let ABCD be the plan of the top of the elbow and A B C
1 1 1
I)
1
the
arcs A D B
1
plan of the bottom. Let J represent the center, from which the and
C 1
are struck, showing the quarter turn which the elbow is to make in plan.

Before constructing the elevation it will be necessary to lay out the patterns
for the inner and outer curve, as follows: Divide the outer curve AD 1
into equal

spaces, as shown by the small figures 1 to 4. In similar manner divide the inner
curve BC 1
into similar parts, as shown by the figures 1' to 4'. Draw, as in Fig.

49, any horizontal upon which place the stretchout of the outer curve in
line, as E F,
plan in Fig. 48, D A 1 2 3 4 D A as shown by D A 1 2 3 4 D A on the line
1 1 1 1
,

E F of Fig. 49, at right angles to which and from the small figures erect vertical
lines, as shown. Assuming that the bight of the elbow is to be as much as indi-
cated by E G, draw the line G H parallel to E F, as shown. As D A and D1 A,
on the line E F represent the narrow sides of the section of the elbow, extend the
points D and A until they intersect the line GH at D* and A®. From D* draw at
 "

Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

pleasure a graceful free hand curve to D', as shown by D8 2" D 1

,
intersecting the
vertical lines previously drawn, as shown by A 8
,
1", 2", 3" and 4". Now set the

dividers equal to D A 8 8
or D A 1 1
and draw a curve parallel to D 8 2" D 1
,
as shown
byA 8 3'"
A 1
,
intersecting the vertical lines at 1"', 2"', 3”', 4"' and D 8
;
then will
D A 8 8
S'" A D 1 1
2" D 8
be the pattern for the outside curve of elbow, the lines of
which run parallel to each other on the line D A in 1
plan of Fig. 48. As the
curves between the points A 8
1", D A D
8 1
,
1
4” and A D 2 2
of Fig. 49 become rather
wide establish an extra point between each, as shown by a"', e ", b and c ", respec-
tively. From these points drop vertical lines onto the line E F, as follows: From
c" drop a line, obtaining the point c on E F. Now take the distance from D to c
and place it from D to c in plan in Fig. 48, and from c draw a line parallel to D C,
as shown by c c. In the same manner, from a" in Fig. 49 drop a line, intersect-

ing the lower curve at a" and the line E F at a. Take the distance from A to a
and place it as shown from A to a in plan, Fig. 48. In the same manner in Fig.

49, from point b", draw a vertical line, extending it upward until it intersects the
upper curve at b" and the line EF at b. From the point e" drop a line, inter-
secting EF at e. Now take the distance from A 1
to e and place it in plan, Fig.

48, as shown, from A 1

to e. From e draw a line parallel to, A B
1 1
as shown by e e.

Finally, take the distance from 4 to b of Fig. 49 and place it in plan in Fig. 48, as
shown, from 4 to b.

In Fig. 48 draw any horizontal line, as E

and take the distance from E to
F,
G in Fig. 49 and place it from E to G in Fig. 48. From G draw a line parallel to
E F, as shown by G H. At right angles to E F and from all the points on the
outer curve D A 1
in plan erect vertical lines, as shown. Measuring in each
instance from the line E F of Fig. 49, take the various hights to the point 2
c", D ,

A 2
a", 1", 2", 3",
,
4" and b" on the lower curve and place them in Fig. 48, measur-
ing in every instance from the line E F on lines drawn from similar numbered
points in plan, thus locating in elevation the points D 8
,
c", A 8
,
a", 1", 2", 3”, 4", b" and

D 1
. A line traced through the points thus obtained will represent the miter line
in elevation for the bottom line of the outside curve.
To obtain in elevation the top line of the outer curve, take the various dis-
tances in Fig. 49 to points A 8
,
a'", 1'", 2"', 3", 4"', D 8
,
e" and A 1
,
measuring in
each instance from the line E F, and place them in elevation in Fig. 48, measuring
in every instance from the line EF onto lines having similar numbers drawn from
the outer curve in plan, thus establishing the points or intersections A 8
,
a", T",
2"', 3"', 4"', b"\ D 8
,
e", A 1
,
as shown by the dotted line. This would complete the
true elevation of the outer curve in plan to correspond to the plan and the devel-
opment of the outer curve in Fig. 49.
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 471

Before obtaining the elevation of the inner curve it will first be necessary to
obtain the pattern for the inner curve, for which proceed as follows: Take the
stretchout of the inner curve in plan, Fig. 48, as shown by the points C, c', B, 1',
2', 3', 4', C 1
,
e, B 1

,
and place them on the line G H of Fig. 49, as shown by the
points C, c, B, 1', 2', 3', 4', C\ e and B 1
. At right angles to GH and from these
points drop vertical lines, which intersect with others drawn parallel to G II from
similar numbered points on the lower curve I)
2
D 1
,
thus obtaining the intersections
c°, B°, 1°, 2°, 3°, 4°, C°. A line traced through these points, as shown, will be the
lower cut for the pattern for the inner curve.
As that portion of the elbow shown in plan in Fig. 48 by D A and C B is per-
fectly straight and has no twist from 1> to A 2
and from C to B° in elevation, the
curve shown in Fig 49 by C c B° will be a tracing of D 2
c" A 2
. Now set the

dividers equal to CB or C° Bx and draw a curve parallel to C 2° C°, as shown by B

X
3 B x
,
intersecting similar numbered vertical lines at l
x
,
2 X
, 3 X
,
4 X
,
C ex and B x
x
,
.

Then will C 2° C° B x
3 X
B be the pattern for the inside curve of the elbow.
x
As the curves between B and l and 4°
and C° are rather wide, introduce
extra points, as ax and b°, drawing vertical lines from these points until they inter-

sect the lower and upper curves at a and &

x
and the line G H at a' and b\
respectively.
Take the distances from B to a and from 4' to b' and place them in plan in Fig.
48 from B to a and from 4' to b, respectively, as shown. Now from all the points
contained in the inner curve in the plan erect vertical lines, as shown, into the
elevation until they intersect the top line of the elbow G H. *
Measuring in every
instance from the line GH of Fig. 49, take the various hights to points c°, B°, a,
 47 a Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

1°, and C° and place them in elevation, Fig. 48, measuring in each
2°, 3°, 4°, b°

instance from the line G H, on lines drawn from similar numbered points in plan,
thus locating the points C, c°, B°, a, 1°, 2°, 3°, 4°, b°, C°. A line traced through
the points thus obtained will represent the miter line for the bottom line of the in-
side curve.

In similar manner measuring from the line GH in Fig. 49, take the various
distances to points B a x
,
l
x
,
2 X
,
3 X
,
4 X
,
6 X
,
C x
,
e? and B x and place them in ele-
vation, Fig. 48, measuring from the line GH on vertical lines of similar numbers,
thus obtaining the intersections B, a x
,
l
x
,
2 X
,
3 X
,
4 X
,
b
x
,
C x
,
e
x
,
B x
. A line

traced through these points will represent the miter line for the top line of the in-
side curve of the elbow, and D* D A C
1 1
will represent the elevation of the elbow,
shown in plan by DA B 1 1
C, whose side developments are equal to those shown
in Fig. 49.
Referring to the patterns in Fig. 49, it will be noticed that the point A* in the
pattern for outside curve intersects with the vertical line B in the pattern for inside
curve, because the corners in the section in plan, Fig. 48, are lettered A and B.
This is mentioned so as not to confuse the reader. As the patterns for the top and
bottom will be developed by triangulation, for which diagrams of triangles must
be constructed, therefore draw the base lines in plan by connecting similar points,
as shown by a a, 1 T, 2 2,' 3 3', 4 4', b b’ and e e, for solid line triangles, and A
a, a 1', 1 2', 2 3', 3 4', 4 b\ b C D 1
,
1
e and e B 1
for dotted line triangles. Thus the
sections shown in elevation represent sections on similar numbered lines in plan.

For example, 1" 1° l

x 1'" is a section on 1 1' in plan, as is
4 " 4° 4 X 4"' a section
on 4 4' in plan, etc. It will be noticed that the bottom lines of the sections in
elevation all run in a horizontal plane, while the top are slightly raised on the upper
line of the inner curve B 4X Bx . This occurs because the line B 3X Bx in Fig. 49 is

drawn parallel to the curve C 2° C°. If it was desired that the top of the elbow in
elevation, Fig. 48, was to show horizontal planes the same as the bottom then in Fig.
49 horizontal lines would have to be carried from points a", T", 2"', 3"', 4'", etc., on
the curve A 8 3"'
A 1
and intersected with the vertical lines a', 1', 2', 3', 4', etc,, in
the same manner as the points C", A*, a", 1", 2," 3," etc., were intersected with the
vertical lines c, B, a, 1', 2', 3', etc., in the pattern for inside curve, and would
result in an unequal line, as shown partly by the dotted line uv w xB x in the
pattern for the inner curve. It is better to have a slight incline toward the top of
the elbow, which cannot be seen, than to have an unequal line such as the dotted
one u v w x B x would show when viewed from the arrow lines in plan, Fig. 48.
As the solid lines in elevation of bottom of elbow have horizontal planes, then
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 473

no diagram of triangles will be required on solid lines in plan, the lines there
shown in plan being the actual distances. However, diagrams on dotted lines in
plan must be obtained, as follows: From the various points in elevation on the
two miter lines representing the bottom of the elbow draw lines to the right of the
elevation, as shown by lines A B, a a, 1 1, 2 2, 3 3, 4 4, b b and F C, which rep-
resent the hights in elevation of similar points in plan for the bottom. Now take
the lengths of the dotted lines in plan and place them on lines having similar
numbers in the diagram of triangles, as follows : For example, take the distance
of A a in plan, place it on the line A B in J, as shown by A a. At right angles
to A a draw the line a intersecting the line a a at a';
a', draw a line from a to A,
which is the true distance on Aa in plan. In similar manner take the distance of

2 3' in plan and place it on 2 2 in J, as shown by 2 3, at right angles to which and

from the point 3 draw the line 3 3', intersecting the line 3 3 at 3'. Then a line

drawn from 3' to 2 will be the actual distance on 3' 2 in plan. Proceed in this
manner until all of the triangles have been obtained.
As the top of the elbow shown in elevation does not run on a horizontal plane,

diagrams of triangles on dotted and solid lines must be obtained. To avoid a con-
fusion of lines take a tracing of A 8
,
3"', A B 1
,
x
,
3 X
,
B, which represent the miter
lines for the top of the elbow in elevation, and place it with the various points of
intersectionson same, as shown by similar numbered points in elevation, Fig. 50.
From these points draw horizontal lines to the right, as shown by the lines having
similar numbers, as A B, a a'", l 1", 2 2"', 3 3"', 4 4"', b b'",
8 x x X X X x
Cx
D 8
,
e
x
e"
and A B
1 x
. As the lengths of all the solid lines in plan, Fig. 48, are equal, take
the length of A B and place it as shown by A B on the line A B a
in L of Fig.
 47*4 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

50. From the points A andB drop vertical lines, intersecting all the horizontal
lines to A B 1 1
on the line A Bx
1
. Now from the points of intersections on the
horizontal lines draw lines connecting lines having similar figures or letters, as a a,
1 1', 2 2', 3 3', 4 4', b b', D C 1 1
and e e ’, which represent the actual distances on
solid lines having similar letters or figures in plan 48.
For the triangles on dotted shown
lines in plan proceed in the same manner as
in J in elevation. For example, take the distance 3 in plan and place it on the 4'

line 3
X 3'",
as shown by 3 4, in N in Fig. 50. From 4, at right angles to 3 4, draw
the line 4 4', intersecting the line 4 X at 4'. Draw a line from 4' to 3, which repre-
sents the true length on the line 4' 3 in plan, Fig. 48. Proceed in similar manner
for the balance of the triangles on dotted lines shown in N of Fig 50.

\D

Fig. 51. Pattern for Bottom of Elbow

For the pattern for the bottom of the elbow draw any horizontal line, as DC
of Fig. 51, equal to D C in plan, Fig. 48. Now take the stretchout of D* c" A* on the
pattern for outside curve, which also equals C c B° in the pattern for inside curve, and
place it, as by D c A and C c B, respectively, at right angles to
shown in Fig. 51
D C. Now, with B as center and B° a of Fig. 49 as radius describe the arc a of Fig.
51. Then, with A as center and A o' in J of Fig. 48 as radius, intersect the arc a of
Fig. 51. With A as center and A* a" of Fig. 49 as radius describe the arc a of Fig. 51,
which intersect with an arc struck from the center A with a radius equal to a a in
plan in Fig 48. Proceed in this manner, using alternately as radii first the spaces on
the lower curve in the pattern for inside curve in Fig. 49, then the lengths of the hy-
potenuses in J of Fig. 48, the lengths of the spaces on the lower curve in the pattern
 :

Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 475

for outside curve in Fig. 49, then the lengths of the solid lines in plan, Fig. 48, until
the last line, D C 1 1
of Fig. 51, has been obtained. A line traced through these in-
tersections, as shown by D C 1 1
2' CD 2 D 1
,
will be the pattern for the bottom of the
elbow. For the pattern for the top of the elbow draw any horizontal line, as A B in
Fig. 52, equal to AB in plan, Fig. 48. Now, with B a x
in pattern for inside curve
as radius in Fig. 49 and B of Fig. 52 as center, describe the arc a. Then, with A
as center and Aa in diagram N of Fig. 50 as radius, intersect the arc a,' of Fig. 52.

Then, with A 8
a" in the pattern for outside curve in Fig. 49 as radius and A of Fig.

52 as center, describe the arc a. Now, using a' as center and a a in diagram L in
Fig. 50 as radius, intersect the arc a of Fig. 52, as shown. Proceed in this manner,
using alternately as radii first the spaces on the upper curve in the pattern for inside
curve of elbow in Fig. 49, then the lengths of the hypotenuses in diagram N of Fig.

50; third, the lergths of the spaces in the upper curve in the pattern for outside
curve of elbow in Fig. 49, then, finally, the lengths of the solid lines in diagram L
of Fig. 50, until the last line, A B
1 1
of Fig. 52, is obtained. A line traced through
these intersections, as shown by A B
1 1
3' BA 3 A 1
,
will be the pattern for the top
of the elbow.

PATTERN FOR A DOUBLE OFFSET IN SQUARE LEADER

To obtain the pattern for the offset, backset, compound curved article shown
in Fig. 53 that throws back and sideways at the same time with an easy, graceful
bend, so designed that it can be made with a joint in the middle allowing of greater
ease for double seaming, and so the patterns for one-half of offset can be used for

upper or lower sections, proceed as follows

In Fig. 53 is shown a sketch of problem. It will be noticed that the front of

the offset projects 5 inches from the face of the wall, and the side of the offset 8
inches from the wall line. The size of the leader is 3 X 4 inches, the entire hight
of the offset being 20 inches. Last, it may be stated that it is not possible to make
the joints as indicated in Fig. 53 when the lower section is used for the upper
one, or right and left. The joint would have to be horizontal, as shown by 19
18 and 6 7 of Fig. 54. In Fig. 54 are shown front and side views and the
method of obtaining the patterns. All the measurements shown in Fig. 53 have
been followed, as is indicated in Fig. 54. The essential thing is to obtain the line

of joint which divides the offset into two halves, so that the upper half can be used
for the lower half, each having the same curve or sweep, placed in a different
 ;

47 6 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

dimension. To obtain the proper curve and line of joint proceed as follows : Re-
ferring to Fig. 54, let BA in the side view represent the distance of 8 inches, and A
C the 3-inch width of pipe ;
bisect the distance B C, or 11 inches, as shown at K

from the point K, draw aline, as shown by K M. Now bisect the distance G H, or
20 inches, as shown at J. At right angles to G H, and through the point J, draw the
 ;

Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 477

line J M, intersecting the line KM at M. Now draw a curve, shown

at pleasure
from O to M. Parallel to the curve 0 M, from the point C, draw the curve C 18
likewise parallel to O M, from the V

point A, draw the curve A 19.

Then will A C 18 19 represent the

upper half of the side view of the
offset, which is reversed and trac-
ed to the lower part, as shown by
18 19 R S. For the upper half
of the front view of offset the same

methods are employed. ED

Let
represent the 5-inch and D F the
front width of the pipe, 4 inches.
Bisect F E, or 9 inches, as shown
at L, from which drop a line at
right angles to F E, intersecting
the line M N at N.
Now bisect the distance F D,
or 4 inches, as shown at P. Draw
a curve from P to N. Now parallel
to the curve P N, from the points
F and D, draw the curved lines
D 7 and F 6. Then will F D 7 6
represent the upper half of the
front of offset, which is traced be-
low on the line 6 7, as shown by
6 7 U T.
We have now the two upper
halves of the side and front of
offset, which can also be used for
the lower halves, or right and
left, placed in a given dimension.
For the patterns proceed as fol-

lows: Divide any one of the

curves in the front or side views
into equal spaces, as shown in
this case from F to 6 in front view. Fig. 54. Front and Side Views and Half patterns
 47S Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

Through the points obtained in the curve F 6, and parallel to F D, draw lines inter-
secting the curve in the front view L 7, and the curves in the side view C 18 and
19 A, as shown by the small figures. It should be understood that only one curve,
namely, F 6 in front view, has been divided into equal spaces ;
the other spaces on
the other curves will be unequal, and when obtaining the stretchout of these
curves every space must be transferred separately. This has been done to avoid
a confusion of which would occur if each curve was divided independ-
lines,

ently. For the pattern for the front draw any line, as V W, at right angles to F
D, upon which place the stretchout of the profile of the front, shown by C 18 in
side view, asshown by the small figures from 13 to 18 on the stretchout line V W.
At right angles to V W, and through points on same, draw the usual measuring
lines, which intersect with lines drawn at right angles to F D from points in F 6

and D 7 of the front view. Lines traced through points of intersection thus
obtained, as shown by X Z and Y Z will represent the pattern for the half front.
1
,

It will be noticed that the lines of projection have been omitted in the drawing,
except the two intersecting the line 18 in pattern. This method will be followed
on all the patterns so as to avoid a confusion of lines. For the pattern for the back
of the offset draw any line, as O P
1 1
,
at right angles to TU in front view, upon
which place the stretchout of the profile for the shown by A 19 in
back of offset,

side view, as shown by the same figures. At right angles to O P and through 1 1

points on same, draw the usual measuring lines, which intersect with lines drawn
at right angles to T U from points in F 6 and D 6 of the front view. Lines traced
through these points of intersection, shown by R T and S U will be the pattern
1 1 1 1
,

for the back of the offset.

For the pattern for the left side of the offset draw any line, as A B 1 1
,
at right
angles to A C in side view, upon which place the stretchout of the profile for left
side of offset, shown from F to 6 in front view, as shown by the small figures. At
right angles to A B and through points on same, draw measuring lines, which
1
1
,

intersect with lines drawn at right angles to A C from points in A 19 and C 18 of

the side view. Lines traced through these points of intersection, as shown by C 1
E1 and D1 F1 will be the pattern for the left side of the offset. For the pattern for
,

right side of offset draw any line, as H J 1 at right angles to R S in side view,
1
,

upon which place the stretchout of the profile for right side of offset, shown from
D to 7 in front view, as shown by the small figures. At right angles to 1 J 1 and H ,

through points on same, draw measuring lines, which intersect with lines drawn at
right angles to R S from points in A 19 and 0 18 of the side view. Lines traced
through points of intersection thus obtained, as shown by K 1 1
and L1 N1 will be M ,

the pattern for the right side of the offset. Allowance should be made for edges
for double seaming.
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts -479

COMPOUND TWISTED ELBOW WITH A PANELED FACE

To make an elbow similar to preceding problem, excepting that this has a

paneled front, it is suggested that front be made in one piece because of structural
strength allowing for greater resistance to bursting pressure of ice if frozen. There-
fore construct
the leader as if
SIDE
ELEVATION it were square
and had no
paneled front,
by the rule
given in last

problem which
when com-
pleted will look
Fig. 56. Obtaining Models
shown in
as
Fig. 56 at A. When putting this model together
use galvanized iron and tack it together on the out-
side raw edge and solder a flat bottom on one end, as
at a. Now, oil the inside well, and fill it with plaster

of paris, which the oil will keep from adhering to the

sides of the elbow. When the cast is hard, then care-
fully loosen the tacks on the corners of the metal el-

bow and we have a plaster cast. While the plaster is

still moist, cut in the panel as required, dry well,
give a good coat of shellac and have a cast made
at the iron foundry, which will cost but a few cents
55. Leader Pipe Elbow. Plan per pound. Then, using the galvanized iron pat-
and Front Elevation of Elbow
terns, cut new ones, allowing laps for seaming, after
which the face or front is laid upon the iron die and worked into the desired
shape, as shown by C in diagram B. When a number are to be made an opposite
die is formed of lead, when the pieces can be stamped out much quicker than when
done by hand. When copper is called for, use soft copper for the paneled front,

which works itself well into the shape.

 480 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

PATTERNS FOR A COMPOUND PANELED LEADER ELBOW

To develop the patterns for a paneled
leader elbow, as indicated in the plan and
elevation in Fig. 57, in which the section of

the leader is shown by A. The sketch shows

a vertical leader in elevation, joining an in-
clined leader at a given angle, the inclined
leader to have elbows or breaks to suit the
angles of the wall shown in plan.
The first step is to draw the plan and
elevation, in which the miter lines of the elbow
are correctly projected into the elevation.
This is accomplished as shown in Fig. 58, in
which ABCD represents the angles of the
wall in plan. The paneled leader is to be

placed as shown by J F H K, E representing the section of the leader. L MNO

PR shows the elevation of the leader, placed at an angle shown by L M N.
In its proper position, in line with the raking leader M N O P, place a dupli-
cate of the profile E, as shown by E 1
. In a similar manner, in line with the verti-

cal leader M L R P, draw a section of the leader, as shown in plan dotted, the

corners being "numbered from 1 to 8. Number the corners in profiles E and E 1

;

also from 1 to 8, and draw the panel lines in the elevation as shown, which will

produce a face miter in elevation shown from M to P and numbered 1 to 8.

To obtain the miter lines in elevation showing the joint or intersection of the
angles B F and C H in plan, proceed as follows From the various intersections :

1 to 8 in the profile E in plan draw lines parallel to the lines of the pipe, inter-

secting each other at the angles BF and C H from 1 to 8, as shown. From these
numbered lines in the inclined
intersections erect vertical lines, intersecting similar
leader in elevation, and resulting in the miter lines 1 to 8 in d and e.
The entire elbow now consists of four pieces, which have been numbered in
elevation I, II, III and IV.
The pieces I, II and IV have a profile similar to E or E 1
,
while the piece III
will require a change of profile to admit the mitering between pieces II and IV.
For the patterns and IV extend the line O N in elevation as
for the pieces II
S T, on which place the stretchout of E or E 1 as shown by the small figures 1 to
,

8 to 1. Through these at right angles to S T draw lines indefinitely as shown,

 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 481
which intersect by lines drawn at right angles to the leader N M from similar inter-
sections in the miter lines d and e ;
also from similar intersections in the miter line M
P. Trace a line through points thus obtained. Then will S TUV be the pattern
for piece IV and W X Y Z the pattern for piece II.
For want of space in Fig. 58, the pattern for piece I is shown developed in

Fig. 68. Flan, Elevation and Patterns for Pieces II and IV Fig. 69. Pattern for Piece I

Fig. 69, in which I is a reproduction of I in Fig. 58. On R L, extended as AB

in Fig. 59, place the girth of the profile E in Fig. 58, as shown by similarnumbers
in Fig. 59. Draw the usual measuring lines, which intersect by lines drawn
parallel toA B from similar points on the miter line in I. A line traced through
these points, as shown by A B C D, will be the pattern for piece I.
482 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

Before the pattern for piece III can be obtained a true elevation and modified
profile must be found, as follows Take a tracing of the plan shown in Fig. 58,
:

by C B F H and place it in a horizontal position shown by similar letters and

figures in Fig. 60. In similar manner take a tracing of the foreshortened elevation
of piece III, in Fig. 58, with

the miter lines d and e and

the various intersections on
same, and place it in Fig.
60 to one side and above
the plan, being careful that
the dotted line a 8 is placed
in a horizontal position as
shown by III.
At right angles to CB
in plan from the various
intersections 1 to 8 on each
side erect vertical lines,

which intersect by horizon-

drawn from similar
tal lines

numbered intersections in
the miter lines d and e in
the foreshortened elevation.
Through points thus ob-
tained in 111° trace a line
and connect similar points,
Fig. 60. True Elevation, Profile and Pattern for Piece HI
resulting in the true eleva-
tions. Extend the lines in the true elevation and at right angles to these place a
duplicate of the profile E as shown. At right angles to the lines in the true eleva-
tion draw lines from the various numbers in E, intersecting the similar numbered
extended lines, and resulting in the true profile there shown.
For the pattern for the piece III take the girth of this true profile, and place
it on the line J K drawn at right angles to the true elevation. Draw the usual
measuring lines, which intersect by lines drawn parallel to J K from the miter lines
at the top and bottom of the true elevation. A line traced through points thus
obtained, as shown by L M N O, will be the desired pattern.
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 4® 3

PATTERNS FOR A COMPOUND PANELED LEADER ELBOW,

MAINTAINING THROUGHOUT GIVEN PROFILE

For the foregoing problem it may be mentioned that piece III need not be
raked ;
should it be desired to maintain given shape and area of leader throughout
and it is immaterial if leader does not absolutely follow contour of wall. Then the
problem would be to ascertain true angle at H and F, Fig. 58, and cut an elbow
for this angle. It may also be said that having the true angle, a stay can be cut,

greatly facilitating the soldering together of the different pieces in the last problem.

To find the true angle redraw wall line A, B, C in plan and line of inclination

of leader in elevation D, E, like Fig. 61. Project lines from plan to elevation as
shown by D, F, E, draw horizontal line from E erect perpendicular lines from B ;

and A making them equal in length to G, F and H, D. Draw any line and from
a point A strike an arc of the length of D, F. From A on line place point C so
1 1 1

as to agree in space to K, C. From C draw 1

arc in length equal to J, C, establish-
ing point J 1
. Then will A 1
,
J 1
,
C 1
be true angle.
Place angle A 1
,
J ,
C
shown in Fig. 62, draw profile T, and drop the points
1 1
as
to miter line previously realized by bisecting the angle A 1 J 1 C\ and parallel to , ,

this having drawn D, C at right angle to J C\ draw a line M, N, on which place

1 1
, ,

stretchout, of profile T. Draw lines through these points which are intersected by
 4®4 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts
like numbered lines from miter line. This is the pattern for piece III of Fig. 58.
Piece IV will have the same cut as S, while piece II will have cut R.
Should the length of piece III be so large as to preclude this process of de-
veloping, pattern may be obtained in the same graphic manner by making angle
of wall in plan and elevation to convenient scale thereby finding length and miter
lines of piece III, then joints can be made on line J 1
,
C 1
at pleasure.

PATTERN FOR A COMPOUND PANELED LEADER ELBOW

Fig. 68. Plana and Elevations of Leader Pipe Elbow

For an elbow of a rectangular paneled leader which comes down over a

straight wash in an angle of the wall, and whether the leader be square or paneled,
or angle in plan be a right angle or otherwise, Fig. 63, the principles are similar
if

whether the leader is square or paneled or whether the angle in plan is a right
angle or any other angle. Referring to the sketch, Fig. 63, A B C shows the side
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 485
elevation of the paneled leader, and D E the plan of same, while F G H shows the
angle of the wall, it making no difference whether the angle was square or as
shown by F G J, the principles being alike in the development of the patterns.
L M N is the front view, shown in plan by 0 P. a and b show the section of the
panel miters in side, while the dotted lines c and d show the panel miters in front.

When developing the patterns, the front elevation and plan are not required, only
the side elevation, as shown in Fig. 64, in which A B C D is the side elevation of
the vertical wall and wash and EFG H I J the plan of same. K and K 1
show the
numbered from 1 to 8 in both views.
sections in plan of the vertical paneled leader,
Draw diagonals to points of similar numbers, which will represent the plan view of
the leader crossing the wash, as shown in elevation the line byCBLMNOPR,
of the sunk panel being shown by T U V W, the width of the raking pipe 8 being
equal to the sides of the vertical pipes, or can be made any desired width.
The first patterns to be developed are those of the paneled face miters shown
in front elevation in Fig. 63 by c and d and in section in side elevation in Fig. 64
by abode and fkijk. As the points a e f and k lie directly in the sink of the
panel, project these points into the plan, parallel to A B, thus locating the points
a a, e e, ff and k k in their proper position. In similar manner, from points bed
and h i j in side elevation drop lines parallel to A B, intersecting similiar lines in
plan, as shown by b b, c c, d d, h h, i i and j j, thus producing the miter lines in
plan, shown by the dotted lines.
For the pattern of the panel for the upper angle take the stretchout of ab c d e
in side elevation and place it on the line L 1
M 1
,
in plan at right angles to c e, as
shown by the small letters on L M Through these points and at right angles
1 1
.

to L M draw lines, as shown, which intersect with lines drawn from points
11

having similar letters at right angles to c c in plan. Trace a line through points
thus obtained ;
then will N 0 1 1
be the pattern for the miter for the upper angle.
In similar manner, at right angles to i i in plan draw the line P 1
R 1
,
upon
which place the stretchout oifhijkin side elevation, as shown by similar letters
on P R*. Through these small letters and at right angles to P R1 draw lines,
1 1

which intersect with lines drawn at right angles to i i from similar lettered points.
Trace a line through points thus obtained, as shown by S T1 which will be the
1
,

panel miter for the lower angle V0 in side elevation. Before obtaining the pat-
tern for the raking pipe BN0C in side elevation it will be necessary to construct
a diagonal elevation, also the true profile of the raking pipe, for which proceed as
follows: At right angles to A B in side elevation draw any Y Z.
line, as In simi-
lar manner, parallel to the diagonal line F I in plan draw the line Y Z 1 1
. At right
 <486 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

angles to F I in plan and from points 1 to 8 in both profiles, K and K 1

,
carry lines
upward indefinitely, as shown. Now, measuring in each instance from the line YZ
in side elevation, take the hights to where the various points drawn from the profile

K in plan intersect the miter line BN in elevation, and place them on lines hav-

ing similar numbers, drawn from the profile K to the diagonal elevation, always
measuring from the line Y 1
Z 1
,
thus resulting, when a line is traced through these
intersections, in the miter line A B
1 1
. In similar manner, measuring from the line
Y Z in side elevation, take the hights to where the various lines drawn from the
profile K 1
in plan intersect the miter line C O in elevation, and place them on lines

having similar numbers drawn from the profile K 1

to the diagonal elevation, in

every instance measuring from the line Y 1

Z and
1

,
resulting in the miter line I) 1 C l
.

Connect points having similar numbers in the miter lines A 1

B 1
and C 1
D 1
,
as shown,

which represents the diagonal elevation of the raking pipe. For the true section in

the raking pipe draw any line at right angles to the diagonal lines in'plan, as shown
by E F establishing E on the line 8 8. (This point could be established
1 1
,
1
on any
numbered line desired. ) In similar manner, at right angles to the line of the
diagonal elevation drawn any line, as H J establishing the point E 2 upon the 1 1
,

line 8 8, because the point E was established upon the line 8 8 in plan. Now,
l

measuring in each instance from the point E 1

in plan, take the various distances to

lines 7 7, 6 6, 5 5, 4 4, 3 3, 2 2 and 1 1, and place these distances, measuring in

each instance from the line H 1
J in diagonal elevation, upon lines having similar
l

numbers. A line traced through these points of intersections, as shown by K 2

,

will be the true section through the raking leader.

For the pattern for the raking pipe proceed as shown in Fig. 65, in which A
B C I), with the miter lines and numbers thereon, is a reproduction of similar
letters, miter lines and numbers shown in the diagonal elevation in Fig 64, except-
ing that the line AD in Fig. 65 is placed vertically. At right angles to AD draw
the line E F, upon which place the stretchout of the profile K* in diagonal elevation
in Fig. 64, as shown by the small figures 1 to 1 on the line E F in Fig. 65. At
right angles to E F and through the small figures draw lines, as shown, which in-
tersect with lines drawn from similar numbered points on the miter lines A B and
C D, at right angles to A D. A line traced through points thus obtained, as
shown by GH I J, will be the pattern for the raking pipe.
For the pattern for the vertical pipe, shown by M N B L in side elevation in
Fig. 64, take a tracing of same and place it as shown by M N B L in Fig. 66. At
right angles to M N draw the line C D, upon which place the stretchout of either
Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 487
^88 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

which intersect with lines drawn at right angles to M N from similar numbered
intersections on BN. A line traced through points thus obtained, as shown by E
F G H, will be the pattern for the upper vertical pipe of the elbow, while the

reverse cut, or that portion shown by I J K 0, will be the pattern for the lower
vertical pipe.

If it were not required to have miter lines, when viewed in front elevation,
horizontal the process of raking profile for diagonal piece would not be necessary,
as then given profile would prevail throughout. The method of cutting pattern is
described in the next article.
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 489

PANELED LEADER ELBOW HAVING DOUBLE OFFSET

The remark is frequently heard that some pattern articles are too compli-
cated to clearly exemplify the method under consideration ;
there are more lines
to confuse and more work to be done than is always necessary. It must be
remembered, however, that such articles are essentially didactic in their purport,

and to make the problems clear it is important that every step be shown which
requires more lines in the diagram, and an extended text, than would be used by
a draftsman, thoroughly drilled in laying out work, when cutting patterns for
actual work.
In this problem it will be explained how a pattern is laid out with the idea of
eliminating all possible lines. This is the method adopted by a draftsman that
has cutters under him so well trained in their work that they can cut the material
from just the data as here given.

This problem is for a paneled leader elbow with a double offset and it is speci-

fied that the given profile be maintained in all three of the parts thereby having
the same area throughout, Fig. 67. An elevation is drawn with the offset required

when viewed in elevation.

In its correct position and
as a plan the profile D is

drawn and E 7, to repre-

sent the offset in plan.
For a shop drawing
the profile D would be first

drawn in lead pencil then

on the inside of the lines a

colored line would be drawn,

likewise letters, etc., would
be colored. This makes the
important parts of the draw-
ing distinct and of course
conspicuous.
To obtain the patterns
we must have an oblique
view so lines 7 F and G JH,
are drawn indefinitely and
Fig. 67 at right angle to E 7, as
 ;

49° Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

shown. Locate at pleasure point J, on line 7 F. Take the hight K L, of the

elevation and from J, place this hight on line 7 F, as J M. Perpendicular to 7 F,
from J, draw a line to G, H, and at the intersection N, connect with M, as shown.
Bisect the angle 7 M N. This bisecting line is the miter line. Drop lines
parallel to 7 F, from the numbered points of the profile to the miter line. On
line 6 P, place the space B R, of the elevation which will be S T.
At right angle to the lines as 7 F, draw a line as S U, on which step the stretch-
out of profile D. From these points and perpendicular to S U, draw lines and
intersect with lines from like numbers on the miter line. This will be the miter
cut, for all three parts.

The drawing is taken from the board and to help the man who cuts the
material the draftsman makes various notes and perhaps freehand sketches.
It is obvious that W, is full pattern for part 1. And for part 2, he writes a
note on the drawing and tells cutter to move miter cut along the line of the arrows
on 7, the distance N M, of the oblique view.

For piece 3 he states that the pattern W, is to be reversed, same as we would

change an outside miter to an inside miter. Also instructs cutter to allow laps as
shown dotted at X, for piece 3, and reminds that laps for the miter cut as shown
are to be allowed on those pieces so as to have the joint with the flow of the water.

He calls attention to the manner

making the seams at A.
of

It is now the cutter’s duty to see that material is marked as to leave no doubt

in the mind of the brake hand how to bend the pieces. For it is very easy to bend
stuff of this nature inside out thereby having the offset the opposite to what
is required.
If panel heads are called for at C and B, then for the pattern we draw a dup-
licate of that part of the pattern where the letter W is and place it as Z. A section
is drawn, which with the exception that it is doubled, is similar to 1 2 3 of profile
D. The cutting of pattern should be self-evident from the drawing.
As elbow would be soldered together before putting on the heads and as it

requires considerable work to find the true angle of Y, the draftsman just calls

attention to the fact that the section shown is for B, and for C, the angle would
be reversed. This angle is generally bent equal to B and C, which is almost the
true angle.

ALLOWING LAPS ON PATTERNS

It is the usual practice for wiring to add to the hight of pattern three times
the thickness of the wire. For simple soldered seams, sufficient lap on one side
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts <49 1

outside the net pattern line is all that is required. For riveted joints one-half the
seam is allowed on both sides of pattern and rivet holes punched on net lines of
patterns.
For grooved seams one and one-half of what seam will take up is allowed on
both sides of patterns.
For notching cut just a little past the net line of pattern.

POINTS ON CONDUCTORS, ROOF CONNECTION, ETC.

Conductors, of course, are very important factors in roof drainage. There

are various kinds and constructions as well as methods of using and securing them
in position. The type of the conductor and the method of using in gutters are
governed largely by climatic conditions. A conductor that will work satisfactorily
in warm climates would not answer in cold climates, because of the presence of ice.
In cold climates conductors should be located inside the building wherever possible,
thus being generally in a temperature above freezing point, which keeps them free
of ice. Inside conductors must, of course, be made of more durable material than
is necessary to use in outside conductors, as a break or leak will cause much more
damage in the building than when placed on the outside.
Where there is any probability of water freezing in a conductor it should be
made corrugated, or of some other expansive construction, as, otherwise, the ex-
pansion of the ice will break the seam. “Goosenecks,” or the short pieces con-
necting the conductor with the gutter or roof box, should be made of pliable and
ductile material, such as lead or copper, in order that it may be easily bent to the
proper shape, and be expansive in case of being filled with ice. Lead and copper
also have better soldering qualities than any other material, and as the connection
of the gooseneck to the gutter, and, in case of inside conductors, to the conductor,

is made with solder, this is a very important consideration.

A good method of connecting an inside conductor with the gutter is shown in
Fig. 68. It will be seen that, the lead gooseneck, or outlet, a, is securely soldered
to a brass or tinned wrought iron ferrule, b, which, in turn, is leaded into the hub
of the cast or wrought iron conductor, it being advisable to use either cast or
wrought iron pipe in all inside conductors.
The conductor should, of course, be connected with the sewer and should be
trapped, as otherwise it would simply be a flue for the passage of foul gases from
 ;

49 2 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

the sewer, and as it is often the case that there are adjacent occupied buildings
with windows higher than some of the surrounding roofs, it is very important that
foul gas be prevented from entering the conductors. This gas is also corrosive
therefore, a trapped conductor will prove more durable than an untrapped one
on this account.
All conductors should be provided with strainers at the top, in order to pre-

Points on Conductors

vent the entrance of birds, leaves and debris that would obstruct the pipe. There
are various methods of constructing and using these strainers. The type shown in
Fig. 69 can be used in any conductors, but in roof boxes the type shown in Fig. 70
is preferable, as it will be less likely to become displaced. All strainers should be
easily removable, for the purpose of cleaning. Conductor heads should also be
covered with wire netting, not only to keep out debris that may be washed from
the roof, but also to prevent the building of nests in them by birds during dry
weather. All strainers should be made of copper or tinned iron wire.
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 493

When outside conductors are used to drain a roof they should be connected
by means of a chute through a parapet wall, as indicated in Fig. 71, with conductor
heads, which are nothing more than ornamental funnels, or boxes, for receiving
the water from the roof chute or gooseneck. The advantage in using conductor
heads is that if the conductor should become obstructed the water will not back up
and flood the roof, but will simply overflow from the conductor head, leaving the
roof chute or gooseneck clear. The design of conductor heads is a matter of fancy,
the only requisite being that they have sufficient capacity to take care of the water.
Where hanging gutters are used no conductor heads are necessary, although they
are often used for ornamentation only.
A very important consideration in all conductors is that they should be smooth
inside, and not have any »eams or projections that would be likely to catch small
leaves, etc., as it will easily be a starting point for the lodgment of sufficient debris
to completely close the pipe. Some forms of corrugated conductor elbows are
stamped with seams or wrinkles running around the throat, as indicated in Fig. 72.
Small particles or leaves can easily become lodged in these seams or wrinkles,
which increases the opportunity for lodgment of other debris. As obstructions
most easily occur in the bends or elbows than in any other part, it is important
that such elbows should not be used. Corrugated elbows which are made in two
sections, have longitudinal seams along the throat and back, as indicated in Fig. 73,
are to be had, and should be used in preference to those constructed like Fig. 72.
There is a practice in vogue in New England of using a conductor of larger
diameter than the gooseneck or outlet to which it is connected, the idea being to
allow for a coating of ice, which may form inside the conductor. There is no harm
in this practice if the gooseneck is always made of ample diameter to conduct the
large volume of water it may be called upon to carry off ;
but, unfortunately, many
of the architects and sheet metal men use a conductor just large enough to receive

the water and reduce the diameter of the gooseneck so as to preserve the customary
difference in size between the conductor and gooseneck, overlooking the fact that

the conductor cannot carry any more water than is delivered to it through
the gooseneck.
Various methods of securing conductors in position are employed, most of
which are too well known to need mention. However, when ornamental straps or
bands are used it is generally necessary to invisibly secure the conductor independ-
ent of such bands. A method of doing this is shown in Fig. 74, in which it will

be seen that an ordinary conductor hook, a, is driven into the wall, into which the
conductor is secured. The ornamental band is then planted on this hook and
 494 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

secured by nails, b b, driven through the band into the wall. These can be ordin-
ary wire nails with spun half balls soldered on the heads, filling the ball entirely
with solder.
It is often necessary to run conductors in a nearly horizontal position for some
distance, and in such cases the supports or conductor hooks should be used much
closer together than in vertical pipes. In vertical pipes the weight of the pipe and
its contents is distributed amongthe hooks that support the pipe throughout
all

its entire length, and the water adds very little to the strain. In fact, it adds no
weight, except what results from friction in falling through the pipe ;
whereas in
horizontal pipes the water not only remains much longer in the conductor, but
its entire weight must be carried. Hence the necessity of frequent and firm supports-

BEST WAY TO CONNECT CONDUCTOR TO ROOF GUTTER

When there is danger of the tube Seam bursting in freezing weather causing
leaks by the water following the frieze board back to plastered wall, run the outlet,
or godseneck, out over the roof and offset back to the wall along the outside face
of the cornice. If, however, this method is not feasible or acceptable, owing to

the construction of the gutter, or the appearance, the next best way is, first, to run
a large tube from the gutter through and to the lower edge of the cornice, or
wherever the conductor pierces the exterior face of the cornice, and then run the
conductor outlet through this tube. The difference in diameters of the tube and
outlet gooseneck need not be large enough to
leave an unsightly opening when the con-
ductor emerges from the cornice. A perfor-
ated end board can be soldered into the lower
end of the tube, the tube being cut off and
the end stop conforming to the profile of the

pi I
cornice,
to neatly
and a hole being cut in the end board
fit the conductor or gooseneck. Both
A B the tube and the gooseneck should flange out
and be well soldered to the gutter. This meth-
od provides for any leakage through the
™. c^otto, Conductor to ttoot G.tt« g°
08eneck by means of the outer tube, which,
of course, would conduct any such water to
the outside of the cornice and the building. Another comparatively safe method
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 495
is to construct that part of the conductor or outlet that passes
from the gutter
to the outside of the cornice of heavy sheet lead, which can be readily formed
or bent to any desired curve, and, being very soft or ductile, will allow for
considerable extension caused by ice without bursting. In any case it is best to
have the conductor terminate at the top in an open head, or box, for receiving the
water from the gutter outlet, so that the outlet may be more accessible and less
liable to be choked with ice from the conductor.

PUTTING UP CONDUCTOR PIPES

In putting up conductor pipes or leaders, where a foothold can be had on the

roof, the gutter A in Fig. 70 is first put in position, flanged over on the roof B and
connected with the wall flashing C. Assuming that a 5-inch pipe is required, cut
a 5-inch circle through the bottom of the gutter, as shown by D, and solder into it

a tube about 8 inches long and 4% inches diameter, as shown at E. Let us sup-
pose that the distance from the gutter to the
ground is 50 to 60 feet. Then take three
lengths of pipe, each length being 10 feet,

and solder them together well, making 30

feet in one length. Now lower the rope H
from the roof through the tube E to the
ground, and pass it through the pipe F F by

“Vl/*

Fig. 76. Method of Putting up the Pipe

fastening a weight to the end of the rope

Fig. 77.

;
then
n
Three Different Kinds of Hooks

tie a strip of wood, J, to the

rope, as shown.
The rope is now slowly drawn up, being careful to support the pipe in the
center as it is being raised, so as to keep it from breaking, until it has reached a
 .

49 6 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

vertical position; when it is drawn up tight against the bottom of the gutter.

Then, from a nearby window, ladder, or sitting scaffold, the leader hook A in Fig.
77 is used to fasten the pipe against the wall, when the rope can either be dropped
through the leader in Fig. 76 or the wooden strip J unfastened and the rope drawn
up. When the hinged hook B in Fig. 77 is employed the hooks must be driven
into the wall before the leader is put up.
Care must be taken that each hook is directly above the one under it to keep
the leader in a plumb line. This is accomplished as follows : Mark the center of
the back of the tube in the gutter, as shown by the arrow in Fig. 76. From this
point drop a plumb line through the tube and drive the hook B in Fig. 77 so that
the line will come in line with the arrow point in hook B, being careful that
all hooks project the same distance (a) from the wall line. This being done, the
leader is placed in position, the front half of the hook closed, and the two small
clasps fastened with wire and plyers at b.
The same instructions apply to the hook C, to which, however, the leader is
fastened by hooking a wire at a, passing it around the front of the leader and
fastening at b' In driving these hooks a ladder or sitting scaffold is usually

employed.

MAKING SQUARE LEADERS

(On Hand Brake)

Square leaders are made as per Figs. 78 and 79, seldom if ever riveted. Ex-
perience has taught that while Fig. 78 has the disadvantage of a seam at the corner
it can be bent with greater ease than Fig. 79. Also can be seamed on most any
bar of suitable length that has a straight edge, whereas Fig. 79 requires a bar with
a groove cut in it. making Fig. 78 is:
The method of

Cut sheets to required girth (and length of brake). Dot off for bends and
notch as shown in Fig. 80. To bend start at No. 6 of Fig. 78 with 4, 8, 2, 1 in
brake, Fig. 81, and so on as per Figs. 82 to 85. Leader is now placed on bench,
Fig. 86, and lock forced together beginning at one end and then squeezed,
as Fig. 87.
Lock is double seamed on a bar of iron as shown by Figs. 88 and 89, or better
still by Fig. 90, which shows the bar on two horses.
Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 497
498 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

MAKING CONDUCTOR PIPE BY MODERN MACHINERY

The development of conductor pipe and eaves trough machinery, although

gradual, has been progressive in the line of minimizing labor and increasing the

strength of the section of the pipe. Modern machines when operated by a well
trained force of men, usually six in number are capable of turning out from 16,000
to 20,000 ft. of ordinary size conductor pipe in a day. In the manufacture of eaves
trough, especially the slip joint pattern, a force of four men can, it is found, turn
out in the neighborhood of 25,000 ft. per day. The growing use of power machines
among smaller sheet metal shops emphasizes the fact that machines of this kind
may be advantageously installed in many shops to make conductor pipe and eaves
trough for territory contiguous to these establishments. The freight rate question
has an important bearing on the subject. It was not long ago that the Freight
Classification Committee made an arbitrary rule about the nesting of conductor
pipe, which required unnested pipe to pay a higher freight rate than formerly, and,
with the general trend in this direction, the freight rate question may become a
still more important one.
The machinery equipment is not as extensive as might be supposed. In the
first place, power squaring shears are now an adjunct of many establishments, and

large ones are frequently used. In the manufacture of conductor pipe and eaves
trough one 11 ft. long is essential, although if conductor pipe only is to be made
one capable of taking a 10-ft. sheet would be sufficient. The greater length re-
quired for the eaves trough is made necessary by the fold for the slip joint.
Operation of the squaring shears is of course familiar to sheet metal workers.

The power variety, is designed to cut heavy metal rapidly.

!
In
operation treadles at either end of the machine are simply pressed, the same as a
foot power machine, the clutch is thrown in and the cutting shear descends.
The second is an edging or folding machine. This machine edges the sheet.
This is one of several varieties performing this kind of work.
In this case the sheet is slipped into a slot, the width' of which is made
to vary for different locks, and the edge is turned. The sheet can be readily pulled
out and drawn back and set for the second operation, which is in the opposite
direction, as is well known in making conductor pipe or stove pipe.
The operations thus far give a rectangular sheet having on either end an edge
turned. The next operation is to make the sheet round. This was formerly done
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 499
on a three-roll forming machine. Modern machinery, however, makes use of
special mandrels. In operation the edge of the
turned sheet is inserted in the slot along the top of the mandrel, and the mandrel
frame locked, so that there is little play when the crank, shown in this instance at
the right, is turned and the sheet is formed on the roller into shape. This machine
is locked by means of foot treadles. After the sheet has been made round on this
machine it is pushed off, and can be quickly snapped together while lying on a flat
surface, usually on the front plate of the machine.
The conductor pipe has now arrived at the stage of having a round shape.
Several machines are on the market for the finishing operation. In one of them
the pipe is pushed onto a mandrel and the mandrel drawn between several sets of

rollers, one of wh’ch grooves the seam, another set making the pipe perfectly
round, while a third set doe- the corrugating. Of course several sets of mandrels
and rollers are required in this machine. Other forms of machines make use of a
mandrel swinging from one end, the operation being that the mandrel is first swung
out of the head allowing the pipe to be pushed on. Only the end is inserted on
the mandrel, when an endless chain draws it into position and the mandrel is then
swung back, the carriage passing over it, moving from right to left. This carriage
contains in the head a groover for grooving the seam, and following that is a set
of wheels and dies which make the corrugations. Machines of this character make
round pipe or corrugated pipe or square corrugated pipe, the only difficulty being
that square corrugated pipe of No. 26 iron and heavier are usually formed into shape.
In actual practice these machines can be operated more economically when set

in rotation, so that the operation is continuous —that is, the sheet being taken from
the squaring shears to the folding machine, passed onto the roll formers, and finally
to the seaming and corrugating machines.
In the manufacture of eaves trough special machines must be adopted, such as
slip joint machine, for cutting the edge and folding the locks. The operations are
somewhat similar except that the sheet is first squared and then the lock formed
on the end after it has been properly notched, when it is put in the forming
machine with a proper mandrel and turned into a half round shape. Afterward a
special machine is used for putting the bead on the entire length at one operation.
These machines sometimes have facilities for making four different size beads
in one mandrel.
An impression may have been gained from reading the foregoing that eaves
trough and conductor pipe machinery is never made for longer lengths than 10 ft.

Such is not the case, however, special machines for longer lengths having been
500 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

built to order. It was not so many years ago that pipe of 3 ft. was in general use,

and this seems to be the case in parts of New York City to-day. It may be that
the more general use of machinery with longer lengths of pipe will be made so as

to minimize rusting, and, moreover, the fewer joints there are in any section of

pipe the easier it is to erect it.

 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 5 01

PROTECTING CONDUCTOR PIPES FROM FREEZING

In order to prevent the possibility of conductor pipes freezing this scheme has
been employed. Inclose it, as shown in Fig. 92, in a corrugated galvanized iron
pipe so arranged as to provide a dead air space with stays to keep the water pipe
central. This corrugated piping is in turn covered with hair
felt one ( 1 ) inch thick and to protect felt from weather the
piping is covered with another of sheet metal; affording still

another covering to prevent freezing of drain pipe.

The manner of erecting is to connect lengths into one

manageable length, of both drain pipe, (if of sheet metal)
and corrugated pipe. The braces can be attached (soldered
or riveted) to either r
pipe
r Then these two are slid one into
Fig. 92. Method of Pro-
the other and erected. Felt wrapped around and secured with tecting a Conductor Pipe

sheet metal straps and outer casing is put on in short lengths. This outer casing
is in two parts —that is, it has two vertical seams which are of the standing seam
kind to permit ease of application.

Felt and outer casing will be cut to fit around the supporting hooks, and outer
casing is held in place by means of these hooks.
Should drain pipe be of cast iron or screw pipe, which of course is erected first,

then corrugated pipe must be made with two vertical seams same as outer casing.

BUILDING COLUMNS TO CARRY ROOF DRAINAGE

The building columns of a large machine shop are made to carry the drainage
from the roof they support. The arrangement is shown in the accompanying en-
graving. As indicated, the roof is of the saw-tooth pattern —that is, of such a form
that a section through it gives a conformation of lines not unlike the teeth of a saw.
In its usual form, as well known, it consists of a vertical rise, which is glazed and
faces usually toward the north, and of an inclined portion which pitches from the
top of one vertical rise portion to the bottom of the next vertical rise portion.
One of the main objects of such a roof is, of course, that a large area can be covered
by simple systems of roof trusses carried in turn by relatively light columns, with
an abundance of light, which by reason of the northern exposure of the glass por-
 5 oa Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

tions does not include direct illumination from the sun with the added heat trans-
mitted by radiation from that source. The building is one story in hight and
320 X 126 feet in plan. It is divided into hays
16 feet 9 inches wide from center to center of
the lines of columns, with the columns spaced
20 feet 10 inches on centers. The general
construction and sizes of these saw-teeth have
proved very satisfactory. The gutters between
are of ample size ;
the window sills are 16
inches above the highest point of gutter, to
allow for heavy falls of snow, and the sashes
are 7 feet high. The gutters empty into cop-

per sumps, and are connected to the interior

cast iron columns. These latter are coated on
the inside with asphaltum and serve as con-
ductors. Below the sash of the saw-teeth roofs

are provided small condensation gutters of cop-

per, which connect into every column. Every

other sash in the saw-teeth is arranged to swing
on center pivots. These are operated by
geared ventilating apparatus.
Fig. 08 . Building Column to Carry The building, it may be added, is con-
Roof Drainage
structed of non-combustible material through-
out, with brick walls, faced on the outside with a standard size paving brick, and
on the inside in factory portions with sand and lime bricks, enameled five coats

and presenting the appearance of enameled bricks. The floor and roof construction
throughout is of hollow tileand reinforced concrete. The roofs are covered with
standard magnesia roof covering, with which also the gutters are lined. The
building is heated with hot water. Pipe coils suspended from walls below the
windows and from base of saw-tooth directly under sash are used. The latter

arrangement materially assists in keeping the gutters between the roofs free from
ice and snow. The mains supplying the coils in machine shop are run just above
and supported on the I-beam grillage which supports the shafting and the roof
construction. No pitch of pipes being necessary in the form of heating adopted
this permits of a very neat arrangement of piping.
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 5° 3

THAWING FROZEN CONDUCTORS

Apparently there is no permanent remedy for this except to have drain pipes
sun inside of building, but this is not practical for the average type of building
construction ;
so it is usual to resort to liberal doses of hot water and rock salt.

Of course if plenty of steam is available, leaders could be thawed by forcing a

hose connected with the steam supply into leader. As it is self-evident that it is

necessary to start from the bottom of leader and should leader be connected to
soil pipe a hole must be cut in the leader ;
therefore it is suggested that if there is

a frequent occurrence of freezing, a permanent opening be made at the bottom and

in a long leader at accessible intervals to permit insertion of
the hose (or hot water and rock salt). This opening should
bo ir the nature of a gate or as an offshoot similar to Fig. 94.
There are several boilers on the market which are
especially made for thawing service pipes. The same appar-
atus that is used for thawing frozen service pipes is used for
thawing leaders where a block of tin pipe is not used, it

being only necessary to attach the hose carrying the steam

to a stout wire and to push it up the leader. The following
is a description of a homemade apparatus, Fig. 95, and the method of using it:

The machine consists of an ordinary 15-gallon expansion tank resting horizontally

on legs made from the band iron taken from bundles of sheet iron. In one
of the openings intended for the water gauge there is a short nipple and a
cross. On one side of this cross there is an ordinary steam gauge to register 35

pounds, and on the other side is an or-

dinary safety valve, set to blow off at

30 pounds, for safety. On the top of

the cross is a nipple and a gate valve
to let out the air when filling the boiler
with water. In the other water gauge
opening there is a )^-inch nipple and a
Yj,
X -inch reducing elbow, with a
short nipple and a swinging check valve,
then another nipple and a %-mch gate
valve. This is where the steam supply
is taken from. In one end
\ '
of the
__

boiler there is an elbow and a short Fig. ssf Thawing Frozen Pip^
 504 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

nipple and a ^-inch gate valve with a tin funnel on the top to fill the boiler with
water. The other openings are plugged.
Put in the boiler two pails of water —hot when you can get it. Place two
good gasoline furnaces under the boiler and let the steam run up to 25 pound*
pressure, when the apparatus is ready for work. If the water in the boiler gets
low, which can be told by the steam suddenly dropping off, exhaust the steam
in the boiler into a bucket of water and then empty the water into the boiler.
This will warm the water that is to enter the boiler and aid in getting steam
up again quickly.
When using it outside of a building use three furnaces and a sheet iron
jacket to keep off the wind. Charcoal fire pots could be used instead of gasoline
furnaces. This machine is cheap to rig up and successful in operation. One was
used for six winters and it is good yet. You cannot, however, do much work with
it under 20 pounds steam pressure.
Fig. 96 illustrates a smaller device which has been used with satisfactory
results. It consists of an ordinary gas fire pot with a galvanized iron can of larger
or smaller size, according to the necessity of the case.
The top of this can is provided with two outlets, both
made from small pieces of galvanized iron pipe securely
soldered into place. The one which stands vertically
from the top of the can has a small globe valve on it just
above a T arranged to receive a small safety valve. Above
the globe valve a small funnel is soldered.
From the side of the boiler another small pipe is con-
nected with another small valve, or petcock, arranged to
receive a rubber hose. When this boiler is heated and a
sufficient steam pressure is generated the hose is inserted
into the pump, and from its flexible character, with the
pressure behind, it readily finds its way to the ice, and
a very few minutes is all that is necessary in the majority
of instances to remove the ice, even though it be as much
as 60 feet distant from the little boiler. The fact that

every shop has its gasoline soldering furnace and can

easily make a little boiler and that the apparatus when
Fig. 96 Thawing Pumps
n6eded can be easily carried to the place where
.

its services
are needed render this method of thawing widely available. It might be stated
that electricity has been employed to melt the ice in pipes. A discussion of this
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 5°5

and likewise the necessary amount of steam required for the aforesaid methods, is
too technical for the scope of these series which are essentially related to the pract-
ical application of pattern cutting.

CAPACITY OF CONDUCTOR PIPES

The capacity of conductor pipes, or down spouts, as they are called in some
sections of the country, is of more than passing interest. The size of the conductor
pipe necessary depends on several conditions. The maximum amount of rain fall
in a given period is of primary importance. Fortunately, however, considerable
informationis at hand regarding that subject through reports of the Government

Weather Bureau, some of the statistics being especially complete.

It is generally assumed in computing the areas for sewers that the rainfall rarely
exceeds 2 in. we have well authenticated data there were two storms
per hour, but
in Connecticut and Rhode Island where the maximum hourly rate was 4.5 in.,
and one storm in Maryland where the rate was 4.6 in. In California, likewise, a
rate of 8.7 in. is recorded. While this is a considerable variation a due allowance
must be made for the fact that during short periods in violent thunder storms the
rate may even exceed this maximum, but as a general condition in Northern States
east of the Rocky Mountains a rate of 8 in. per hour will answer for practically all

purposes. Should the rate exceed this for a short time the constructions of the
gutter and the conductor will undoubtedly permit of discharging under a larger head
than that assumed in the following computation, and, indeed, experience in a num-
ber of large structures has shown that this allowance was ample.
Considering a rate of rainfall of 8 in. per hour the total fall on each 1000
sq. ft. of area would be 1000X8-^12=666.6 cu. ft. per hour, or 0.185 cu. ft. per

second. Having found the amount of rain to be taken care of it will be necessary
to determine the capacity of the conductor for carrying off the water.
It is ordinarily assumed that where there is a small head the velocity is equiv-
alent to the square root of the hight in feet multipliedby twice the acceleration of
gravity in feet and this result multiplied by some constant. Numerous determina-
tions have been made to find the value for this constant in tubes of all sorts and
conditions, and considering the tube under consideration is 6 in. long, with a head
of water 6 in. above it, which would be the case in some instances, the constant
would be 0.62. Completing the indicated operation, 0.62 1/ 2X32.2X1, a velocity
of 5.08 ft. per second is found, which, however, would be materially exceeded
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

should there be a higher head above the outlet. This velocity of the discharge in
feet per second is used in working up the accompanying table.
It will next be necessary to determine the area of such size pipes as are ordi-
narily used for conductors, as well as the discharge. The volume of discharge
being found by multiplying the area of the conductor in feet by its velocity in feet
per second, 5.08, which gives the discharge in cubic feet per second. The areas of
various size conductor pipes in general use in square inches and decimals of a square
foot, as well as the volume of water discharged by them, as computed by the fore-

going calculation, are shown in Table A.

To determine the pipes required for different areas it will be necessary to find
'
Diameter — Area ,

in inches Square inches Square feet Discharge

3 7.06 0.049 0.25

TABLE A 4 12.56 0.086 0.44
5 19.63 0.136 0.69
DISCHARGE OF SHORT TUBES ,
6 28.27 0.196 1 .

IN CUBIC FEET 7 38.48 0.265 1.35

PER SECOND 8 50.26 0.345 1.75
9 63.61 0.44 2.25
10 78.54 0.49 2.50

the carrying capacity of 1 sq. in. of pipe, which can be determined by dividing the
discharge in cubic feet by the area of the pipe in inches, which gives 0.035 cu. ft.

per second for every square inch of area. Then 0.185, the discharge in cubic feet
per second from 1000 sq. ft. of surface, divided by 0.035, gives 5.25 as the area of
pipe required for a roof of this size. This will require a conductor pipe 3 in. in

diameter, as indicated in table B. In this table are shown the size of conductor
pipe necessary to be provided for roofs of different areas, and also the maximum
area which pipes of different diameters may ordinarily be expected to discharge.
Conductor pipes smaller than 3 in. in diameter are not desirable, owing to their
liability of becoming clogged with leaves or debris.
In the foregoing calculations it is assumed that the roof areas are of such a
character and the incline so acute that the rain fall striking the surface is led to the
gutters and conductor pipe in a short space of time. Should, however, the roof be
of an unusual surface, say such as a slag roofing or especially flat, no doubt smaller
pipes could be used with safety, but the pipes given in the following calculation
are presumed to be on the safe side.
In the City of New York, building regulations recommend 1 sq. in. of conduc-
tor pipe area to 100 sq. ft. of roof surface, while it will be seen from the above
tables that the allowance here given is 188 sq. ft. of roof surface to 1 sq. in. of con-
 '

Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 5°7

ductor pipe area. However, there are many buildings in the City of New York
where this rule is greatly exceeded. On the Sloane Building, with a roof area of
18,000 to 20,000 sq. ft., and a slope of 1 in 25, the leaders give an allowance of
240 sq. ft. of surface to a square inch of opening. On several buildings in Boston
the proportion is only 50 to 70 sq. ft. of roof surface to 1 sq. in. of opening.
A rule of the American Bridge Company provides 1 sq. in. of conductor pip©
area to every 160 ft. of roof surface for roofs of less than 50 ft. span, and 204 ft. of
area for roofs from 50 to 100 ft. in span. On practically the largest building in

Square inches Diameter

Discharge in conductor round pipe
Roof area cubic ft. per second required Inches
11,958 2.25 63.611
1 9
10,000 1.848 52.5 J

9,449 1.75 50.261

9,000 1.6632 47.2 ‘
, 8
8,000 1.4784 42. J

7,234 1.35 38.48] 1

7,000 1.2136 36.7 7

6,000 1.1088 31.5 J
I

5,204 1.00 28.28]

5,000 0.9240 26.2 6
TABLE B 4,000 0.7392 21. J

3,690 0.69 19.631 K

• • • * O
SIZE OF CONDUCTOR PIPE < 3,000 0.5544 15.9 i
i

2,363 0.-44 12.561 A

FOR DIFFERENT 2,000 0.3698 10.5 1i
• * •

ROOF AREAS 1,227 0.25 7.061

1,000 0.185 5.25
900 0.1663 4.7
800 0.1478 4.2
700 0.1213 3.7
600 0.1108 3.2 3
500 0.092 2.6
400 0.074 2.1
300 0.055 1.6
200 0.037 1.0
100 0.018 0.5 J

New York City, whose roof area occupies approximately of an % acre, and is

paved with brick, there is 1 sq. in. of leader opening to every 150 sq. ft. of roof

surface.

The impossibility of finding an exact solution to problems of this character and

the different ideas of various architects and engineers, as shown by the foregoing
variation in size, ranging from 1 in. in 70 to 1 in. in 240, is aptly illustrated. An-
other idea of the same subject is found in a recent article in The Metal Worker
entitled “Capacity of House Drainage Piping," in which the following statement
 508 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

the rain and snow water from the roof has to drain through conduc-
‘
is made : ‘If

tor pipes into the bouse drain, the following sizes may be applied to determine the
number and size of pipes needed ;
also what size the drain should be increased to.

One square inch of area in a conductor pipe will drain 250 sq. ft. of exposed roof
surface. We will take the roof pf the building considered and assume that the
building has a frontage of 100 ft. by 120 ft. depth, which gives 12,000 sq. ft. of

roof surface. Applying the rule, 1 2, 000 250= 48 sq. in. required in the con-
’ ’
ductor.

RECEPTACLE FOR ACID

Glass is the proper material for a receptacle for acid. Use an ink or mucilage
bottle and keep it from being broken or easily upset by encasing it in sheet metal,
as indicated in the accompanying Fig.
97, filling the space between the glass

bottle and the metal casing with plaster

of paris. The bottom is then spidered

on. Lead is the best material. The
Fig. 97. Receptacles for Acid for the Tinsmith
sec0 nd sketch of the Fig. 97 shows how
to make a receptacle which, if upset, the acid cannot run out.

PROTECTION OF TIN ROOFS AGAINST LIGHTNING

This is a method adopted by a prominent contractor, who says : I would sug-

gest that if the best results are to be obtained by using a metal roof and conductors
as lightning conductors it would be a good idea to run a piece of copper, say %X
1 or 134 inch wide, up above the ridge of the roof, probably 2 feet, riveting same
to the roof and thoroughly soldering the connection so that it will be solid and
secure.
A similar piece of copper should then be riveted to the lower eave of the roof
and to the top of the leader, both of these points being soldered.
Near the bottom of the leader, but above the tile drain, another piece of copper

of the same size should be riveted to the leader and thoroughly soldered. This
copper should be at least 7 feet long, so that it can go down into the ground at least
5 feet and turn out a few inches from the building.
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 5°9

Providing for this a hole 4 or 5 feet square should be dug in the ground 6 feet
deep. This should then be filled for about 18 inches or 2 feet with scrap iron and
coke, into which the copper strap should be imbedded. The reason for doing this
is to furnish a material at the bottom of the copper strap which will disseminate
the lightning into the wet ground.
This is not an experiment, as the writer made just this kind of provision as
protection against the lightning on a powder magazine which was built for the Gov-
ernment a few years ago.
On magazine the leader and roof were of copper, and the copper strap,
this
which extended abc e the ridges of the roof, were run clear down over the roof
into the leader, connecting to the leader near the top,and a like strap was riveted
to the leader near he bottom and run down into the ground as suggested above.
All of the leaders were, connected in this way, and it is probable that this is
done on all the Government magazines which have metal roofs, and there is no
reason why it should not serve the purpose with any kind of a metal roof, provid-
ing the connections are well made, so that there is no chance for dirt, etc., to fill

the space between and thus reduce the conductivity of the connections.
To get the best results it will be necessary to run the straps down into the
ground far enough to reach into earth, which is always wet.

REGULATIONS FOR RAIN LEADERS AND GUTTERS

IN WASHINGTON

Regulations covering rain leaders and gutters have been amended by the
Commissioners of the District of Columbia, and as they stand to-day are in part
as follows : Short connections to rain leader pipes passing through attic spaces or

other parts of buildings, shall be considered a downspout and shall be constructed

of lead pipe, not less than D weight, extra heavy cast iron pipe or galvanized
wrought iron pipe with recessed fittings. No sheet metal leader shall be of less
internal diameter than the sewer terminal provided. No eave or cornice gutter
shall be of less average depth than the internal diameter of the rain leader serving
it, nor less in width than twice the internal diameter of the said rain leader. In
every case where the connection from the top of a rain leader is made through a
parapet, mansard, or other construction, such connection shall be indirect and
 ;

5 IQ Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

made to discharge over a receiver box of proper size and design, which shall

be attached to and form part of the rain leader pipe. Rain leader pipes, wherever
practicable shall be vertical. The running of diagonal leaders for distances greater

than 15 ft. is prohibited.

Every downspout (rain leader within a building) connection to a sewer shall

be trapped with a water sealing trap placed as near as possible to the foot thereof
except, that two or more adjacent small leaders may be connected together on one
trap, a small rain leader may be connected in above the trap of a large leader, ov
a small leader may be connected in above the trap of an area drain, or vice versa.
A cast iron hub connection shall be provided above grade for the reception of sheet
metal leader in every case, and the connecting joint shall be made by the plumber.
No downspout trap shall be of less internal diameter than 3 in., but the cast iron
extension to grade therefrom, for drainage areas less than 100 sq. ft. shall be 2 in.

internal diameter. Every rain leader placed within the walls of a building shall

be of extra heavy cast iron, or of galvanized wrought iron, and a water tight con-
nection shall be made at the roof by means of a brass ferrule and an 8-lb. lead or

16-oz. copper extension properly joined to a roof flange of the same material which
shall be flashed into the roof construction. Wrought iron leaders shall be connected
and joined with recessed fittings, and together with cast iron leaders shall be amen-
able to general requirements for soil and waste lines and shall be tested.

STRENGTH OF SEAMS—MERIT OF PLAIN OR CORRUGATED

LEADER
In the question of which is the strongest seam —locked or riveted ;
and which
is best—corrugated or plain leader ;
it is agreed that any leader whose shape is

such (corrugated) that when freezing occurs the additional metal contained in the
corrugations, etc., will allow the pipe to expand; is preferable to plain leader
which by reason of no additional material in its perimeter must resist the pressure
of expanding ice at once.
There seems to be a difference of opinion relative to whether locked or riveted
seams are stronger. Most shops that make their own leader generally employ
rivet seams for round pipe and the lock seam for square leaders. See making
leader.
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 5 11

GALVANIC ACTION, SEWER GAS, ROTTING OF TUBES

Speaking of why top of leaders and tubes should rot out first, it has been
stated by some that experience has taught them that for some unaccountable reason
the sewer gas affects the tube and top portion of the leader first. Others are of
the opinion that the tube being made smaller than the leader and tapering, water
is held by capillary attraction between the tube and leader causing the tube and

that part of leader to rot first. Apparently there is no remedy other than to use
the best material; if poss'ble copper.

In the matter of galvanic action created by joining copper to iron —there is no

danger of soil pipe being affected if a copper leader is connected, inasmuch as the
soil pipe is of very heavy material and leader is caulked in either with lead, roofing
cement or Portland cement preventing contact of copper with the iron. As to con-
necting a copper tube to galvanized iron leader it is imperative that tube be tinned
entirely so, inside and out.

A SOLDERING TROUGH

In Fig. 98 shown a wooden trough used for soldering leaders or pipes.

is

This trough is made of % X 6 inch stuff, 10 feet long, with standards fastened or
nailed to the bottom, as shown by
A,B and C. It is used as follows:
When the pipes are all grooved or

riveted together in 24, 30 or 36 inch

long joints, one end of each joint is

crimped, and the joints put together

in one length of 10 feet. The
joints are first tacked with solder on
both sides, then the trough is raised
Trough for Soldering Leaders or Pipes
Fig. 08.
a little higher on one end to allow

the solder to flow when soldering. In diagram D is shown the leader E in position.
 5 1 3- Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

FIRE POTS
No doubt many tinners have experienced trouble while working on new jobs
by having hot coals fall out of their fire pot when taking out a soldering copper.
This is very apt to occur in the
ordinary fire pot shown in Fig. 99,
where, as above mentioned, when
taking the coppers out at A hot coals
fall onto the wood sheathing, and
if no precaution is taken on a windy
day are apt to cause some expensive
damage. This can be avoided by
putting a safety pan under the
soldering copper support C in Fig.
Safety Pan
shown by A, with a ledge
100, as
bent around the three sides, as shown by B. Then if any hot coals should fall
out they will be caught in the pan A and much danger and trouble avoided.

RAIN WATER CUT OFF

In place of the handle on the ordinary cut off, put on a bar long enough to
allow a can to be hung on one end. When this can is empty, the weight on the
other end of the bar will throw the valve of the cut off, so that the water running
from the dusty roof would go to waste, while the small pipe connected with the

main conductor would catch water and eventually fill the can on the other end of
the bar, which would turn the cut off so as to throw
the water, which by this time would be running clean,
into the cistern. The pipe provided to fill the can
should be small enough and so arranged that sufficient
time will be given for the roof to be well washed and
the water to be running clean before the cut off is

automatically adjusted to divert the water into the

cistern. In order that the cut off may be thrown back
into position to send the first water from the roof to
waste after the rain has stopped, the can should be
provided with a small hole. This will allow the water
Fig. 101. Rain Water Cut Oft to run out and empty the can after the rain has stopped.
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 5I3

By this means the cut off will work automatically, though there will be some
waste, which in all probability will not be objectionable. The hole in the can
should not be too large, or it will take too long to fill the can to trip the cut off in
the first place.

TABLE SHOWING CAPACITY OF CISTERNS,

TANKS AND WELLS
DEPTH

Dia 5 6 7 6 9 10 11 i 2 13 14 15 16 18 20 Edge Flat*

3 8 10 12 13 15 17 18 20 22 23 25 27 30 34 . .. 38 66
3# 11 14 16 18 21 23 25 27 30 32 34 37 41 46 .. . . 45 80
4 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 54 60 . .. 52 94
4H 19 23 26 30 34 38 42 45 49 53 57 60 68 76 . .. 59 108
5 23 28 33 37 42 47 51 56 61 65 70 75 84 93 ., . . 66 123
28 34 89 45 51 56 62 68 73 79 85 90 102 113 . .. 73 137
6 34 40 47 54 60 67 74 81 87 94 101 107 121 134 . .. 80 151
6% 39 47 55 63 71 79 87 95 102 110 118 126 142 158 . .. 87 165
7 46 55 64 73 82 91 101 110 119 128 137 146 165 183 . .. 94 179

7# 52 63 73 84 94 105 115 126 136 147 157 168 189 210 ..101
. 193

8 60 72 84 95 107 119 131 143 155 167 179 191 215 239 ..108
. 207
syi 67 81 94 108 121 135 148 162 175 189 202 216 243 270 ..116
. 222
9 76 91 106 121 136 151 166 181 196 212 227 242 272 302 . . .123 236

9J4 84 101 118 135 151 168 185 202 219 236 252 269 303 337 ..130
. 250

10 93 112 131 149 168 187 205 224 242 261 280 298 336 373 ..137
. 264

11 113 135 158 181 203 226 248 271 293 316 339 361 406 451 ..151 . 292

12 134 161 188 215 242 269 295 322 349 376 403 430 483 537 . . .165 321

13 158 189 221 252 284 315 347 378 410 441 473 504 567 630 ..179
. 349

14 183 219 256 292 329 366 402 439 475 512 548 585 658 731 . . .193 377

IS 210 252 294 336 378 420 462 504 546 588 629 671 755 839 ..207
. 405

16 239 286 334 382 430 477 525 573 621 668 716 764 859 955 ..222
. 434

A round cistern 7 ft. in diameter and 8 ft. deep will hold 73 barrels of 31 %
gallons. To find the dimensions of a cistern or tank holding a certain quantity,
for instance, 200 barrels, look in the table for an approximate number, and the
diameter will be seen to the and the depth above it. Thus, to hold about 200
left,

barrels, it must be 8 % ft- in diameter and 15 ft. deep; or 934 ft- i n diameter and
12 ft. deep.
*The two right-hand columns show the number of brick required in a wall. Thus, a well 4 feet in
diameter will take for each foot in depth 52 brick laid on edge, or 94 brick laid flat.
,
5I4 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

PAINTING CONDUCTOR PIPE

(On Inside)

If it is required that leaders be painted inside and out it is suggested that

leader be made complete in convenient lengths —say ten feet —so that there will be

as little soldering as possible to do after painting. Then with a piece of wood made
for this purpose plug up one end of the length of leader, pour the paint in, plug
up the other end and run paint backward and forward so as to cover whole of in-

side. Take out plugs and stand leader in an upright position in a pan to drain off

surplus paint.

FINDING THE CENTER OF A CIRCLE

This instrument, which is illustrated herewith, can be made in any tin shop
from either galvanized iron or sheet brass ;
the latter would probably be preferable.
Two pieces of metal are cut out, as B C O and A C 0, the line 0 P in either case
being a perpendicular bisector of either A B or B C.
At the points A and C a hole is punched through, and at

B the two pieces are riveted so they can rotate about that
point. By putting the points A, B and C on the cir-

cumference of the circle the point O or the intersection

of the two straight edges will be the center of that circle.
The solution of this problem may be proved geometrically
from the geometrical principle that through three given
points in the same plane one and only one circle may be
drawn.

MARKING FLUID FOR GALVANIZED IRON OR ZINC

Take a small bottle and partly fill it with muriatic acid, into which put a
small quantity of copper filings —that is, the filings from the soldering copper,
which have been filed previous to tinning. Allow it to stand a few days until the
acid turns to a dark blue color, when it is ready for use. Take a piece of hard
wood and point it similarly to a pencil. By dipping this into the fluid the zinc or
galvanized iron can be marked with it as desired.
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 515

OFFSETTING CONDUCTOR HEAD PATTERN

To construct patterns for a conductor head with curved surfaces and offsetting

under cornice to face of wall, as shown, draw the side elevation and front elevation
as desired, using center points for curved surfaces, or draw free hand. Space
curved line A of the side elevation equally from point 4 to 10; also space 11 and
12 as shown. Draw parallel lines
through these points to line B and
OJJTLiT _
2
also to cross curved lines C and D in
TOP PUN
front elevation. Draw stretchout
line E F and then transfer the points
from curved line A to line E F, as 1
to 12. Draw lines from these points
at right angles to line E F indefi-

nitely, and in front elevation drop

lines from points on side line D to

cross proper lines in pattern; then

draw curved line G through these
points, completing half pattern for

front. Next transfer points from

back line B in side elevation to
stretchout line E F ;
draw lines from
these points at right angles to line E
F ;
then drop points from curved line
C in elevation to cross these lines in
Offsetting Conductor Head Pattern
half pattern; draw line H through
Fig. 108.

these points, completing half pattern for back. There are two extra bends in this
pattern, shown by small circles. Next draw stretchout line I for side pattern and
transfer the points from curved line C to line I as shown, drawing lines through
these points as previously explained ;
then drop points from lines A and B in side

elevation, crossing the lines of the same number in pattern; draw curved lines
through points, completing pattern.
 516 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

PATTERNS FOR LEADER HEAD

To lay out a leader head to given dimensions, as shown in the sketch, Fig.
104, in which A is the leader head, 9X11 inches at the top and 4% X 434 inches

at the bottom. B indicates the flange, extending upward on the back. C indi-
cates the opening cut into the bottom, to which the tube
D is connected, and E shows the leader partly broken,
showing how the tube D enters into the same in practice.

There are two methods by which this head can be

laid out. The first, or more complicated, method is to

first draw a plan view of the given dimensions; then

establish a given profile on either the front or side views,
and follow the principles given.
The second, and
simpler, method, such as is generally used in shop prac-
tice, is shown in Fig. 105, which is drawn to a scale of 2
inches to the foot.
First draw the side view of the head, as shown by A B C D, making A B
equal to the desired width, or 9 inches, BC to the required hight, and C D to the
desired width of 4J4 inches. Then draw the profile A 2 D. In line with the side
view draw the one-half front view, as shown by E F G H, making G H equal to
one-half the width of the front view, or 534 inches, and F E equal to one-half the
desired width of 4)4 inches, or 2J4 inches. Then draw the profile H 2' E. It will
be noticed that owing to the difference in the projections the two profiles in front

and side views are unequal.

To obtain the pattern for the front view proceed as follows: Divide the pro-
file A D in the side view, as shown by the small figures 1 to 6. From these points,

at right angles to B 0, draw lines intersecting the profile H E in the front view
from 1' to 6', as shown. Now extend by F M, upon
the center line G F as shown
which place the stretchout of the profile A JD in side view, as shown by the small
figures 1 to 6 on F M. At right angles to F M and from the small figures draw
lines, which intersect with lines drawn parallel to the center line from similar

numbered intersections in H E. Through the points thus obtained trace a line, as

shown by 1 6 O N, which represents the half pattern for the front of the head to
be formed after the profile A D in side view.
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 5*7

For the pattern for the side extend the line B C as shown by C P, upon
which place the stretchout of the profile

H E in the front view, being careful to

transfer each space separately upon the
lino C P, as shown by points 1' to 6'.

At right angles to C P and through the

small figures draw lines, which intersect
with lines drawn from similar number-
ed points in the profile A D parallel to

B C. Trace a line through intersections

thus obtained, as sh >wn by R S. Then
willR S 6' T be the pattern for the sides,
formed after the profile H E in front
view. J, in the side view, indicates the
rear flange, shown by B in Fig. 104,

and by GKLH in front view in Fig.

105. Tho pattern for the back is prick-

ed direct from the front elevation, one-

half of which is shown by KLHE F
G K. Trace the other half opposite
the line K F . Fig. 1 Or"). Front and Side Views and Patterns

CONSTRUCTING CONDUCTOR HEADS

During the winter months, if times are slack, conductor or leader heads can be
constructed with various size tubes fitting into round, square or rectangular pipes,
for use when new leaders, heads and tubes are erected. There is no limit to the

various designs which can be employed, using enrichments which are purchased
from dealers in stamped zinc ornaments. When the head is placed in a court or
yard not facing the outside the head is usually made plain, similar to that shown
in Fig. 106 where the upper edge is beaded and reinforced by the corners A A.
,

Care should be taken when soldering these heads that the joints and seams are
518 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

thoroughly soaked with solder, thereby obtaining a strong joint, for in the winter
months, when the head sometimes frozen, the expansion will cause the seams to
is

burst if not strongly made.

Another form of head is shown in Fig. 107, where an enrichment, A, is soldered
in position, as shown. Fig. 108 shows another style of head where an ornament

Fig. Ill Fig. 109 Fig. 110

REPRESENTATIVE STYLES OF CONDUCTOR HEADS

can be placed in the flat surface. Fig. 109 shows another molded head enriched
with diamond shaped panels B B. Fig. 110 is enriched with rosettes and orna-
ments A and B. Fig. Ill shows an ornamental head with sunk panels 0 0, with
mitered comers a, b, c and d. From E to F is shown a pressed capital, joining
the head at E and the tube D at F.
The method of developing the small panel B in Fig. 109 and the comer pieces
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 519

Fig. 112. Elevation, Plana and Patterns Fig. 115. Joining the Capital
of Various Shape Heads

DEVELOPMENT OF PATTERNS FOR CONDUCTOR HEADS

 2

5 ° Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

of the panel C in Fig. Ill and joining the capital E F in a water tight manner
will be explained. Heads are usually made square with round or other shaped
tubes to join the leaders. Then, again, they are made octagonal or placed in an
interior angle of a wall, in which case they are made octagonal in shape.
The rule to employ in developing these three styles of heads is explained in
connection with Fig. 112, in which the principles there shown can be applied to
the shapes shown in Figs. 106 to 111, inclusive, or any other shape head. The first
pattern to be developed is that for a square leader head, Fig. 112, whose elevation
is shown by C D E F and tube by F E H G. The three sides of the head are to

be molded, as shown by J KL I in plan, the back I J to lay against the wall I J.

Through the center of the head draw the line A B. Now with radius equal to
one-half of GH and with i on the center line A B as a center describe the plan of
the tube so that it will barely touch the wall line I J, as shown. Draw the plan
of the outer edge of the head, as shown by J KL I, making the distance from the
center point i to the line L K equal to the distance of i to the line J K. From
the corners K and L draw the miter lines toward the center point, meeting the circle
at j and e respectively.

From E in elevation drop a line to the miter line, as shown by hj, and complete
the rectangle hjef. From h and/ draw the lines to the center i, cutting the circle
at cu and b. The reason
drawing this small plan f ej h will become evident
for

when developing the patterns. Allow an edge to turn on the inside of the top of
the head, as shown in either Figs. 109, 110 and 111, and as shown by 3 2 1 in Fig.
112 .

Divide the profile D E into equal parts, as shown from 1 to 12. Take the
stretchout of D E and place it on the vertical line M N, as shown by similar figures,
through which draw horizontal Now, measuring from the center line A B
lines.

in elevation, take the various projections to points 1 to 12 and place them on similar
numbered lines measured on both sides of the line M N and resulting in the miter
cut O KT P R K 1
S, when a line is traced through points thus obtained.
With radius equal to i e or i j in plan and with either R or P in (A) as center
draw an arc, cutting the center line N
M, as shown at %. Then with radius equal
to i c in plan and i in ( A ) as center draw the arc a a”. From R and P draw lines
to the center %, intersecting the arc a a at a and a. Then will a R S O P a" be
the pattern for the front of the head.
To obtain the pattern for the side take the distance from K to J in plan and
place it, as shown, from K 1
to J in 1
(A), and through J parallel to1
N M draw the
vertical line, meeting the top and bottom of the pattern at T and U. From U draw
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 521

a line to the center i', cutting the arc at a'". Then S T U a" a R S will be the

pattern for the sides.

Take a tracing of the miter cut K> 0 and place it as shown by D. F° and C
E°in elevation. Also take a tracing of a b hf in plan and place it in elevation, as

shown by F E b° a, the arc b° a being struck from the center i", obtained as ex-
plained in connection with (A). Then E° C F a b° E D F° E° will be the pattern
for the back. Edges for soldering should be allowed along the back and front and
the tube soldered in position, as shown by (B), in which A A 8 8
shows the head and
B8 the tube flanged and soldered to the bottom of the head at r and s.

Assuming that an octagon head is desired whose plan is shown by V 1 X Y Z

& U and whose elevation is similar to D E F C, then the first step is to draw the
T
plan view as follows: Draw the wall line 1 J T through which extend the center
,

line as B T. On B T, using c as center, describe the plan of the tube, as shown,

nearly meeting the wall line, as in the square plan. Through c parallel to the wall

line draw U V. With c as center and c U as radius describe the semicircle U WV 1

.

Around this semicircle construct the semioctagon by drawing a vertical tangent line

at V 1
,
a tangent line at 45° at T and a
1
tangent horizontal line at W, forming inter-

sections at X, Y, Z and <fc. From X, Y, Z and & draw miter lines to the center c.

From E in elevation draw the vertical line, meeting the miter line drawn from X
at d. Then complete the plan e d cf and from e and d? draw lines to the center c,

meeting the circle at a and b. In practice but one-half of this plan is required.

Now from the various points 1 to 12 in elevation drop lines intersecting the

miter line X d in plan, as shown. Take the stretchout of D E and place it on U

V, as shown, and through the points draw vertical lines, which intersect with lines
drawn from similar numbers on the miter line X d. Measuring from the center
line 12 1 in (C), take the various distances to points in the miter cut just obtained

and transfer them shown from A 6 to 16'. Trace a line

to the opposite side, as
through points thus obtained, then will A 1 A® 16' 16 be the pattern for the sides
marked T 1
,
W
and T2 in plan. With 16 in the pattern as center and d c in plan as
radius describe the arc c'. With c as center and c b in plan as radius describe the
arc b b' From 16 and 16' in the pattern draw lines to the center c, cutting the arc
.

at b' and b" Then b" A® A x b' is the complete pattern.

.

Extend the wall line D Jr to A in the pattern and draw a line from 15 to c',
1

cutting the arc at b. Then b 15 A 1 Ax 16 b' is the pattern for the two sides shown
in plan by V 1
and U. The pattern for the back is similar to the pattern for the

back of the square head, excepting that abed? in plan must be traced to the line F
E in elevation.
 $ 22 , Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

If a leader head were required for an interior corner, shown by A* B* C®, the pat-
terns just described could be used. Thus the pattern A 1
b 6' Ax in (C) could be
used for the sides D* G® H® E® and F* I® J® C® in ( D ), while the pattern A 6
b" b'

Ax (C) could be used for the side E® H® I® F® in (D). The pattern for the back
in
D® B* and B® C* is obtained as follows Extend the line 0® B® until it intersects the
:

line C D in elevation at Cx then take a tracing of the miter cut C E° and place it,
;

as shown, from C« to Ex and draw a line from F to the center i", intersecting the
,

arc a b° at a x. Then Ex F° D E 6° «x F C* Ex will be the pattern for the flat back,

of which two will be required, one for D® B® and the other for B® C® in (D).
Fig. 113 shows how the diamond shaped panel B in Fig. 109 is developed.
Let A be the elevation of the panel and B its side or section. At right angles to
the lines in A draw the stretchout line C D, upon which place the stretchout of
the side B. EFG H will be the pattern for A. For the patterns for the heads a
and a drop a vertical line from 3' in the pattern, as 3' T, and transfer the outline of
3' G to the symmetrical position 3' G 1
,
obtaining the shaded part.
When the head shown in Fig. 1 1 1 is put together the panel C should be miter-
ed and soldered at the corners and then the panel ends a, b, c and d soldered in
position. This makes a tight job. The pattern for these panel ends would look
like A in Fig. 114, bending them as shown at B.
The method of constructing the head to the tube and capital E F in Fig. Ill
is shown in Fig. 115, where A A shows the head and B the tube, flanged and

soldered at C and C the capital D D is then slipped over the tube B and soldered
;

at E and E and at F and F from the outside. The tube is allowed to project below
F F and enters the leader at H H.

PATTERN FOR PLAIN LEADER HEAD

The front view of a molded leader head, which can be made in the tin shop
without the use of a cornice brake, is shown in Fig. 116, the small flange at the
bottom of pattern M N being bent on the hatchet stake or by means of flat plyers.
For the patterns proceed as follows: Let A B 0 D represent the front view of the
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 5a3

FRONT VIEW

I
£ 117 Pattern *or

H
;
j
|
j |
j
j

•
ji
1 ><C^\ head and G the In line with one
leader tube.

J
i
^

'~-f- u v side of the leader tube draw the line F E then ;

!
i ; 1 1
•
, p n for
BOTTOM
will A E D C represent the side view of the

m
head. Through the center of the head draw
the line H J. Now divide the profile of the
head A C into equal spaces, as shown by the
small figures 1, 2, etc. On the center line,
commencing at 1, lay off a stretchout of the
profile A shown by the small figures.
C, as
At right angles to it and through the small
figures draw lines, which intersect with those

H |
u R
of similar

line H
numbers drawn parallel to the center
J from divisions on the profile A C.
Trace a line through points thus obtained, as
shown by L M. Trace the miter cut opposite
Pattern for Plain Leader Head Fig. — 116 — the center line, as shown from O to N. Then
Elevation and Pattern
w jp L M N 0 be the pattern for front of head.
Extend the line EF in front view, as shown by P R in pattern ;
then will L MR
P be the pattern for the sides. For the pattern for the bottom in head, draw a
square figure, V, each side being equal to C D or
shown by S T N. Draw
U M
diagonal lines T U, S V until they intersect at X. Now with as center and the X
required radius draw the circle Y Z, which equals the diameter of the leader tube G.
In Fig. 117 AB C D is a reproduction of ABCD in Fig. 116. A flange, E
F in Fig. 117, is added, which is bent inward, as shown at E of Fig. 116. Allow-
ance made is for flanges on the pattern for the back in Fig. 117, as shown by EG
and F H.
 5^4 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

MAKING CONDUCTOR HEADS, SQUARE IN PLAN

The variety of designs which may be produced of leader or conductor pipe heads
is so large as to be practically without limit. Some of these designs are presented
in the illustrations following, as are also the methods of laying out the patterns.
In Figs. 118, 119 and 120 are represented the methods of obtaining the patterns
for a plain leader head, the first illustration representing the plan, elevation and
pattern for the front, the second showing the plan, elevation and patterns for the
sides,and the third figure the plan, elevation and pattern for the rear of the head.
The three plans and elevations are not necessary in obtaining the patterns, but are
given in order to make clear every step taken. All that would be necessary in
obtaining the patterns would be the
plan and elevation shown in Fig. 1 18,

and knowing how far the head projects

over the wall line, as indicated in plan
from D to C, or A to B, the front pat-
tern would be used to mark the cut for
the sides, and for the flat head in the
back, indicated in the plan from A to
D, the front elevation shown by KL
M N would simply be pricked through
onto the metal. Now, to make each
step clear, let A B C D, Fig. 118,
represent the plan of the head, cor-
responding to K L M N of the ele-
vation, and E the plan of the leader,
corresponding to O of the elevation.
As the profile of the head, shown by
N M of the elevation, contains no
curve and all lines are straight, only
the corners of bends are numbered, as
Fig. 118. Plan, Elevation Fig. 119. Plan, Ele- indicated by 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
and Pattern for Leader ration and Pattern
Head with Hound Pipe for Sides of Leader For the pattern of the front, cor-
Head with Round
Pipe responding to the front elevation, pro-
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 5^5

ceed as follows : At right angles to L M of the elevation draw the stretchout line
P R, upon which place the stretchout of the profile NM of the elevation, as shown
by 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., on the stretchout line P R. At right angles to P R, and through
the small figures, draw lines indefinitely, as shown, which intersect with lines of
corresponding numbers drawn from the small figures in the elevation at right an-
gles to L M. A line traced through these intersections, as shown by U V L' M',
will bo the pattern for the front.

To obtain the pattern for the lower bend 6 M, as shown in elevation, Fig. 118,
proceed as follows: Where the bottom of the head intersects the leader head, as
at M 6, draw upward from the bend 6 a dotted line, represented in the plan by I O

and cutting the miter line J C at I. From the intersection I and at right angles
to DC draw" a dotted line cutting the miter line F B at H. Now take a duplicate
of H I J F and transfer it to the pattern, as shown by L' M' T S, which completes
the pattern. The small dots shown on the pattern indicate the bends.
For the pattern of the sides of the head, proceed as follows: Let A B C D of
Fig. 119 represent the plan of the head, corresponding to the side elevation shown
by K L M N, and let E represent the plan of the pipe Or leader, corresponding to
0 of the side elevation. It will be noticed the plan and elevation of the side corre-
sponds to that of the front, with the exception that it is viewed from the side in
Fig. 119. At M of the side elevation, Fig. 119, draw the stretch-
right angles to L
out line P R, upon which place the stretchout of the profile K L of the side eleva-
tion (which also corresponds to M N of the front elevation Fig. 118), as shown by
the small figures on the stretchout line P R. At right angles to P R and through
the small figures draw lines indefinitely, as shown, which intersect with lines of
corresponding numbers drawn from the small figures in the profile of the side ele-
vation at right angles to L M. A line traced through these intersections, shown
by L' M' V U, will be the required pattern.
For the pattern of the bottom bend, 6 L, proceed as follows: From the point
or bend 6, in the side elevation, draw a dotted line upward at right angles to L M,
cutting the miter line CF in plan at X. From the intersection X and at right
angles to C B draw the dotted line X I, intersecting the wall line, as shown. Now
take a duplicate of FX I J in plan, and place it shown by L' M'
in the pattern as
T S, which completes the pattern for the sides. Laps have been allowed on pat-
tern asshown by the dotted lines, and the small dots indicate the bends.
In Fig. 120 is shown the plan, elevation and pattern for rear of head, which
corresponds to the plan and elevation shown in Fig. 118, except that the plan and
elevation in Fig. 120 are viewed from the rear. A B C D of Fig. 120 represent
 :

5 a6 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

the plan of the head, corresponding to KLMN of the elevation, and E in the
plan shows the pipe or leader, corresponding to O of the elevation. For the pat-
tern for the rear of head, simply prick through the rear elevation direct upon the
metal, by means of a scribe awl or prick punch and hammer, and the result will
appear as shown in pattern by U V M' L'. Now, from the corner L in the rear eleva-
tion draw a dotted line upward at right angles to L M, cutting the miter line H F
and the rear line D A in plan at H. Draw a line from H parallel to D A cutting
the miter line I J at I. Take a duplicate of H I J F in plan, and transfer it as
shown in pattern M' T S, which completes the pattern. The dots on the line
by L'
L' M' in pattern indicate the bends. This completes the entire set of patterns re-
quired for the leader head shown in front, side and rear elevation in Fig. 118, 119 and
120; and these patterns could be used whether the leader
was square, round or octagon. The only change required
on the pattern, providing the leaders were square or octa-
gon, would be that the curve shown in the three patterns by
S T would be a straight line for that given size of square
leader, or a portion of an octagon in shape for the given
size of an octagon leader.

It is usual to make different sizes of heads to correspond

to the different diameters of leaders used. The following
will give a good proportion of the sizes of the leader heads
used in connection with the leaders of different diameters
Side Front

Diameter of
3
Size of top opening
4}4 x 5/4
a
leaders, in ,
6 x 7
*
inches. ...
-j
of head, in inches
6/4 x 8
g „ 8 x 9

The patterns having been cut for the head, the next step
is to prepare the tube, which is to be soldered into the head.

Tube is usually made about 6 inches in length, and the di-

ameter a little smaller than the size of leader used, so that

„„„ ™ ™ , , the tube will easily slip into it. After rolling the tube, and
and soldering
riveting a flange not less than
it, inch %
should be stretched upon it, which in turn is soldered to the
leader head. In stretching any flange it is usual to run the pipe through the turn-
ing machine, thus giving the article a small groove, which guides the workman in
stretching, and does away with the sharp corner, which is not necessary in work of
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 5 27

this kind. In Fig. 121 is shown the appearance of a round tube after passing

through the turning machine.

It will be noticed that the groove A is dented inward, and in stretching is laid

against the corner of the square stake shown at C of Fig 122, thereby enabling the
workman to have an even flange, as before explained.
Fig. 122 shows the proper method of flanging a round tube. FG H J repre-
sent a wooden bench or bench plate L, M and N, the square stakes C, D and E,
; ;

the tubes V and W, the stretching hammers and X, the wooden mallet.
;
After ;

the tube C of Fig. 122 is run through the turning machine, Fig. 121, the groove in

the tube is placed upon the square stake, as shown in Fig. 122, in the first opera-
tion, and with ibo use of the stretching hammer V, and gradually turning and
striking the tub- alternately, the flange is drawn out or stretched as much as is indi-

Fig. 121. Appearance of a

Round Pipe After Pass-
ing through the Turning
Machine

cated by the arrow line A ;

bearing in mind that the force of the blow should be
the same at every stroke, or else the profile of the opening of the tube will not be
a true circle. Now take the tube C and place it as shown at I) in the second opera-

and gradually turning the tube alternately, using the same stretching
tion, striking

hammer as shown at W, until the flange is drawn out or stretched as indicated by

the arrow line B. Finally, take the tube D and place it as shown at E in the

last operation, and with the use of the wooden mallet X level the flange until it has
the appearance shown. Fig. 123 gives a perspective view of the same tube flanged
out by the foregoing method, which is the proper way of doing work of this kind,
the stretched flange being shown at A.
In Fig. 124 is indicated the improper method of flanging the tube by means
of notching with the shearsand bending, the improper flange being shown at A.
The turning machine, square stake, bench plate and stretching hammer, above
referred to, can be purchased from wholesale dealers in tinners’ supplies. The
bench plate is not necessary if the holes are properly cut into a solid bench,
 528 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

although the plate comes very handy, because it contains the different size openings
required for different tools.
In Fig. 125 is shown the method of forming upon the hatchet stake with the
use of a mallet the leader head represented in Fig. 118. Let C DFE represent
the bench, U, V, W, Y, Z the hatchet stakes and X the wooden mallet. Let AJ in
the first operation represent one of the sides of the leader head shown in Fig. 118,
the small figures on the line AJ being similar to those on the two patterns shown
in Figs. 118 and 119. A small strip of metal should be first formed so as to see
which way the molding forms best. In this case we will commence at the lower
bend 6. Now notice the first operation in Fig. 125. A J represents one of the
sides of the leader head and is laid against the hatchet stake U in the position
as shown, on the bend 6, and A 6 is bent over until it has the angle shown in the
front elevation in Fig. 118 by 4 6 M, which is indicated in the first operation in
Fig. 125 by 6 B. Now reverse the side and place the bend 5 upon the hatchet
stake in the second operation in the position shown. Press down upon A and
make the angle 4 5 B correspond to the angle 4 5 6 in the front elevation, Fig. 118,
always bearing in mind to use the mallet X to obtain a sharp corner. Now reverse
the side again, and place the bend 4 upon the hatchet stake in the third operation,
placing it shown and holding the bend 4 firmly against the hatchet
in the position
stake. Use the mallet X and make a small crease along the bend 4 by firmly
striking the mallet along the bend. Press down upon A, making the angle 5 4 B
correspond to the angle 5 4 3 in the front elevation, Fig. 118. Now reverse the
side again, placing the bend 2 upon the hatchet stake as shown in the fourth opera-
tion and using the mallet as before explained.

Make tho angle 3 2 1' correspond to the angle 3 2

1 in the front elevation, Fig. 118. Now place the
head upon the bend 3 (not reversing it)
side of the
on the hatchet stake in the fifth operation and
make the angle 4 3 2' correspond to the angle 4 3
Tube or Pipe Tube
2 in the front elevation, Fig. 118, which completes
the profile as shown by 1 , 2', 3, 4, 5 and 6 in the fifth operation. The pattern for

the rear has only one square bend upon the shown in
line 6, as Fig. 120. After
the entire head is formed it is soldered together water tight, and finally the tube

shown in Fig. 123, is also soldered in place. When finished it has the appearance
shown in Fig. 126, in which A shows the laps indicated on the pattern for sides in
Fig. 119.
In Fig. 127 is represented a front elevation showing for what purpose the
 Fig. 129. Fig. 180. Fig. 181. Fig. 182.
A Plain Molded Head Another Style of Head A More Ornamental A Still More Elaborate
Leader Head Design of Head
 53° Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

leader head is employed. B and C represent two molded gutters, connected to the
two elbows D and E, which in turn pass into the leader head as shown. If desired,

small scrolls could be cut from sheet metal, raised from %. to 34 inch, and tacked
with solder upon the face of the head, as indicated at in Fig. 127. F represents A
a sheet metal band placed over the leader hook. Fig. 128 is a sectional view
showing a valley connected to an elbow, passing through the wall of a building into
a leader head, which is another illustration of the purpose for which the head can
be employed.
There is no limit to the number of the designs which can be produced if the
tinner will exercise a little patience. In Figs. 129 and 130 are shown plain molded
leader heads, the patterns of which are obtained in the same manner as shown in
Figs. 118, 119 and 120.
In Fig. 131 is shown a more ornamental leader head, having raised panels on
front and sides indicated by F E F, egg and dart molding, as shown by H J, and
a small scallop cut out at the top, as shown by N 0. The scallop would be cut
out and simply tacked upon the top of the head. The egg and dart molding can
be purchased from dealers in pressed zinc ornaments. If egg and dart molding
was required, the head would be bent as shown from C to D and B to A, upon
which the egg molding J and H The panel E would
would be tacked with solder.

be pricked directly off the elevation, and the depth of the strip shown at F and F
added to it. In Fig. 132 is shown another form of leader head more elaborate in
construction. Stripping it of all enrichment D and A, we have only moldings
placed in proper proportions to give a pleasing effect to the eye, thereby showing
that if the tinner will give a little time to drawing different moldings, so that each
member is in proportion to the other, it will be worth the time invested in case
other cornice work comes to hand. The enrichments shown at A and D in the front
view in Fig. 132 are simply pricked from the face of the drawing by placing a piece of

sheet metal under the drawing and pricking through the triangular dentil A, and
adding to it the hight of the strip B. The small ball shown at E would be obtained
from pressed zinc ornament manufacturer, and tacked with solder on the dentil as
shown. The dentils would be tacked against the sides and front of the head in the
position as shown. For the projections on the top of the head, prick off the sec-

tion C and solder on the face edge a strip as wide as indicated at D. The pattern
would be obtained in the same manner as shown in Figs. 118, 119 and 120.
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 53 1

MAKING SQUARE MOLDED CONDUCTOR HEADS

In Figs. 133, 134 and 135 are shown the plans, elevations and patterns required
for a square molded leader head, the leader to be square in plan and to stand away
from the wall as indicated by A in the plan views. LetB C D E in Fig. 133 rep-
resent the plan of the leader head, corresponding to J K L M of the elevation, and
FGHI the plan of the square pipe, corres-
ponding to 0 of the elevation. The dotted
lines drawn from the elevation to the plan

show their relationship to each other. The

dotted line 13 X, drawn across the leader O of
the elevation, indicates the flange which will be

added to the pattern, the length of which is

shown from 12 to 13 in elevation. For the

pattern of the front proceed as follows:

Divide the curved portions of the profile J L

of the front elevation, Fig. 133, into an equal
number of parts, as shown by the small figures.

At right angles to L M of the front elevation

draw the line S T, upon which place the
stretchout of the profile J L, as shown by the
small figures on the line S T. At right angles
to S T and through the small figures draw
lines indefinitely as shown, which intersect
with lines of corresponding numbers dropped
Fig. 188.
tion
Plan, Eleva-
and Pattern for
Fig. 184.
tion
Plan, Eleva-
and Pattern
from the profiles J L and K M at right angles
Front of Leader with Lap for Side of to J K. Lines traced through these intersec-
Head Leader Head
tions, as shown by N P and O R, will be the
desired pattern for the front of head. In Fig. 1 34 is shown the plan, elevation and

pattern for the side of the leader head. C B D E represents the plan of the head, cor-
responding to J K L M of the elevation, and GFHI shows the plan of the square
leader, corresponding to O of the elevation. As before explained the leader stands

away from the wall, as is indicated by A in plan and side elevation, Fig. 134. It

will be noticed that the profiles are alike in the three elevations shown in Figs.

133, 134 and 135, and that part of the same profile is shown on the side ele-

vation, as indicated by 2', 3', 4' and 5' in Fig. 134, which fills out the projection
 53 a Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

from the wall. For the pattern of the side proceed as follows: Divide the curved
portions of the profile J L into an equal number
shown by the small of parts, as
figures. At right angles to J K of the side elevation draw the line S T, upon
which place the stretchout of the profiles J L in the side elevation, as shown by the
small figures on the line S F. At right angles to S T and through the small figures
draw lines indefinitely, as shown, which intersect with lines of corresponding num-
bers drawn at right angles to J K of the side elevation, from the small figures in the
profiles J L and M K. Lines traced through these points of in-
tersection, as shown by NP and O R, will be the required pat-
tern for the sides of the leader head, of which two would be
needed, one formed right and the other formed left. The lines
numbered 1', 2’, 3', shown outside of the pattern in
4 ', 5' and 6'

Fig. 134 correspond to the same numbers shown in the profile

of the side elevation facing the wall line. Laps are allowed on
the pattern of the side pieces, thus avoiding them on the front and
rear pieces. In Fig. 135 is shown the plan, elevation and pat-
tern for the rear of the leader head. DEB C indicates the
plan, corresponding to J L M K of the elevation, and H I FG
shows the plan view of leader, corresponding to 0 of the
elevation.
With the usual projection A, it will be noticed that J 2' 2®

K, of the rear elevation in Fig. 135 is simply a flat piece of the

same shape as shown in front elevation in Fig. 133 by J 9 9' K,

the side view of which shown by 1' 2' in the side elevation of
is

Fig. 134. The dotted lines drawn from the side elevation
Fig. 185. Plan, JSleva- to the rear elevation show the relationship of parts indicated by
Bon and Pattern for
Rear of Leader Head similar numbers. Number the bends shown in the rear eleva-
tion, 1', 2', 3', 4', 5' and 6', corresponding to the figures shown

from K to M of the side elevation, Fig. 134. For the pattern of the rear of head
proceed as follows : At K of the rear elevation, Fig. 135, draw the
right angles to J
line S T, upon which place the stretchout of the profile K M of the side elevation,
Fig. 134, asshown by the small figures on the line S T in Fig. 135. At right
angles to S T and through the small figures draw lines indefinitely, as shown, which
intersect with lines of corresponding numbers drawn from the numbered heads
at right angles to J K of the rear elevation. A line traced through these intersect-
ions, as shown by X P R Y, will be part of the rear pattern. For the remainder
proceed as follows: The remaining portion above is a duplicate of J 2' 2* K of the
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 533

rear elevation. shown the finished view of the leader head, as seen
In Fig. 136 is

from the rear. The bends marked T, 2' 3' and 4' 5', Fig. 136, indicate bends of
similar numbers shown in the rear elevation.
At A of Fig. 136 are shown some of the laps indicated on the pattern of the
side shown in Fig. 134. Fig. 137 represents an end view of the former and indi-
cates the method of forming the ogee moldings.
Select the proper size pipe or former and place it in its cross groove. Let J L

Fig. 186. General View of Leader Fig. 187. Method of Forming the Ogee
Head Indicated in Fig. 183 and Cove on the Former

in Fig. 133 represent the molded head to be formed. The bends 2, 3 and 4 in the
profile J L are bent upon the hatchet stake as explained previously, and then
placed upon the former H in Fig. Hold X
137 in the position shown by X A.*
firmly against the former and press down A, and it will look as shown by X B.
Now place X B upon the former H in its proper position as shown by X 1 A 1
1
.

Hold X firmly against the former and press down A and it will look as shown by
1 1

X B which completes the ogee. The square bends shown by 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12
1 1
,

in the profile J L, Fig. 133, are made upon the hatchet stake.

MAKING AN OCTAGON CONDUCTOR HEAD

In Fig. 138 are shown the elevation, plan and patterns of an octagonal leader
head. A B C D represents the front elevation, corresponding to EGH I J F of
the plan, C D O of the elevation corresponding to the plan of the Octagon leader
shown byLMNOPRSK. The dotted lines drawn from the plan to the eleva-
tion show their relation to each other. The two miter lines shown in elevation by

£ X are not necessary in the development of the pattern. After the plans of the
lqader and head have been properly drawn, as shown in Fig. 138, connect the
 534 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

corners of the leader to the corners of the head by miter lines, as indicated by
N J, I O, P H and G R. For the several patterns proceed as follows: Divide the
curved portion of the profile BD of the front elevation into an equal number of

parts, as indicated by the small figures.

From these, and at right angles to AB of the elevation, draw lines through
the plan view cutting the miter line N J, as shown. From the intersections
obtained on the miter line N J draw lines parallel to J I cutting the miter line I 0;
likewise from the intersections on the miter line 1 O draw lines parallel to I H
intersecting the miter line H P. As the front of the head D' in plan is the same
as E' and C', it will only be necessary to obtain the pattern for the front D', which
can be used for E' and C'.

As the side of the head A' in plan is the same as the opposite side B’, it will

only be necessary to obtain the pattern for A', which can be used for B', reversing
it in forming. For the pattern for the side of the head shown by A' in plan, draw
a line at right angles to F
shown by T' S', upon which place the stretchout of
J, as

the profile B D of the front elevation, as shown by the small figures on the line T' S'.
At right angles to T' S', and through the small figures, draw the usual measur-
ing lines indefinitely, as shown, which intersect with lines of corresponding
numbers drawn at right angles to F J from the intersections on the miter line J N.
Now trace a line through the intersections as shown from W' to X'. At right
angles to F J extend the line EF of the plan indefinitely on to the pattern, as shown
by the line U' Y'. Then will W' X' Y' U’ be the pattern required for the sides A'
and B' in plan.
For the pattern of the front proceed as follows: At right angles to H I of the
plan draw the stretchout line T U, as shown, upon which place the stretchout of
the profile BD of the elevation, as shown by the small figures. At right angles
to T U, and through the small figures, draw lines indefinitely, as shown, which
intersect with lines of corresponding numbers drawn at right angles to H I from
the intersections on the miter lines H P and 0 I. Lines traced through these in-
tersections, as shown by V X and W Y, will be the required pattern for the sides
E', D' and C' of the plan.
In practice it would only be necessary to obtain the pattern for the side A' in
plan, because the angles J I HG are alike, thus making the miter cuts on all of

the patterns the same. The following will illustrate how the front pattern is

obtained by using the side pattern. Let W' X' Y U' represent the pattern for the
side A', and let V W in the pattern of the front represent a straight line drawn on
a sheet of metal. Now take the pattern of the side, and place W' U' upon the line
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 535

V W on the metal and mark the miter cut V X. Now take the distance P O of the
plan in the dividers, and place it as shown by X Y in the pattern. Now reverse
the pattern of the side and place the edge IT W' upon the line VW on the sheet
of metal, making the corner X' in the pattern of the side meet the corner Y previ-
ously obtained with the dividers, and draw the miter cut W Y, which completes
the pattern. For the pattern for the flat piece forming the back, shown by E F,

Fi£. 141.
General View of Leader
Fir. 188. Head indicated in Fig. 140
Elevation, Plan and Patterns
for an Octagonal
Leader Head

Fig. 138, place a sheet of metal of the required size under the front elevation and
prick through with a scribe awl as much as is indicated by ABD C. If the leader
head was put together and the octagon pipe joined to it there would be found two
openings, indicated in the plan by the shaded lines X' L M and K S Y'. To avoid
this duplicate the triangle Y'SK and place it on the pattern for sides, as indicated

by the shaded lines Y' V' O', which completes the entire set of patterns required

for an octagonal leader head joining to an octagon leader. Fig. 139 shows a per-
 53 6 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

spective view of the finished leader head, as seen from the front and top.
A indicates the laps which are placed on the sides of the pattern and soldered
water tight to the flat back.
In Fig. 140 are shown the elevation, plan and several patterns required to con-
struct a leader head, forming a transition from a square leader to an octagon head.
Let I J LK represent the front elevation, corresponding to MOPRSN of the

plan, K LO of the elevation corresponding to the leader T UAV of the plan.

The miter lines shown in the front elevation by X X are not necessary in the
development of the patterns, but are only shown to give a front view of the article

when finished. The dotted lines drawn from the elevation to the plan show their
relationship to each other. After the plan of the leader and leader head have been
properly drawn construct the miter lines in plan, as indicated by A S, A R, V P
and V Now, divide the curved portion of the profile J L of the elevation into
O.
an equal number of parts, as shown by the small figures. From the small figures,
and at right angles to I J of the elevation, draw lines through the plan view, inter-
secting the miter line A S, as shown. From the intersections obtained on the
miter line A S draw lines parallel to S R, intersecting the miter line R A. Like-
wise from the intersections obtained on RA draw lines parallel to R P, intersec-
ting the miter line V P, as shown. For the pattern for the side of the head shown
by 2' in plan, and which will also be the pattern for the side 1', proceed as follows:
At right angles to N S of the plan draw the line E F, as shown, upon which place
the stretchout of the profile J L of the elevation, as indicated by the small figures
on the stretchout line E F. At right angles to E F, and through the small figures,

draw lines indefinitely, as shown, which intersect with lines of corresponding num-
bers drawn at right angles to N S from the intersections on the miter line A S.

Trace a line through these intersections, as shown by Y Z. Extend the line MN

of the plan upon the pattern, as shown by X. Then will WY Z X be the pat- W
tern for the sides shown in plan by 1' and 2'.
For the pattern of the front shown in plan by 3' proceed as follows At right :

angles to P R of the plan draw the line G H, upon which place the stretchout of
the profile J L of the elevation, as shown by the small figures, and draw the usual
measuring lines, which intersect with lines of corresponding numbers drawn from
the intersections on the miter lines Y P and R A, at right angles to P R. A line
traced through these intersections, as shown by W' and 71 X', will be the required
pattern for the front of head shown in plan view by 3'. As the angles N 8 A, A
R P and R P V are the same, it is self evident that the miter cut for each of the
angles will be alike, and in practice the pattern for the front could be obtained by
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 537

using the pattern for the side, in the same manner as has been explained in con-
nection with Fig. 138. Before obtaining the pattern forming the transition from
the square to the octagon it will be necessary to obtain a profile through AB in
plan, for which proceed as follows: At right angles to R S of the plan draw the
line A B, cutting the corner A of the leader, as shown. As the distance A B, or
the distance at right angles to R S, is less than the distance U N, or the distance at
right angles to S N, a profile will have to be obtained through the line AB from
which to obtain the stretchout in developing the pattern. As the hight of all

points in this piece is the same, draw lines parallel to I J of the elevation, through
the small figures i:« the profile J L, producing them indefinitely as shown. Trans-
fer the intersections obtained on the line A B in plan to any horizontal line
beneath the prof'ie, to be constructed as shown by A' From the points on A'
B'.

B' erect vertical lines intersecting lines of corresponding number previously drawn,
as shown from J' to L'.

For the pattern of the transition piece shown in plan by 5' proceed as follows:
At right angles to R S of the plan draw the line C D, as shown, upon which trans-
fer each separate space from the profile upon the line C D, as shown by the
J' L'
small figures 1', etc.
2', At right angles to C D, and through the small figures,
3',

draw lines indefinitely, as shown, which intersect with lines of corresponding num-
bers drawn from the miter lines A R and S A at right angles to R S. Lines traced
through these intersections, as shown by W' Y' and X' Y', will be the required pat-
tern for the two transition piecesshown in plan view by and 5'. Laps can be 4'

allowed on the pattern for front and sides, thus avoiding laps on the transition
pieces and on the flat back shown in plan by M N. For the pattern of the flat
back indicated by M N in plan view, simply prick through the elevation I J L K,
Fig. 140, direct upon the metal, which completes the entire patterns required.
Fig. 141 shows a perspective view of the leader head. The laps soldered against the
back of the head are indicated at A.
The flanging of the square and octagon tubes as required is done upon the
hatchet stake or by means of a flat pliers.

The same method is employed for forming the molding B D, shown in eleva-
tion in Fig. 138, as that described in connection with Fig. 137. The bends 2 and
3 are made upon upon the former S, Fig. 137, in the
the hatchet stake and placed
position shown by X A*. Hold X firmly against the former S and press down A*,
1 1

which will form the cove shown by X B*. The following sharp bends, shown in
1

the profile B D in Fig. 138 by 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10, are made upon the hatchet stake
by means of a mallet.
 8

53 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

After the heads have been accurately formed to their respective profiles the
laps are bent off with flat pliers, square or octagon, according to the plan of the
head. Cut a small octagon bevel from heavy sheet iron, to he used in tacking the
parts together. Tack with solder the various parts, beginning with the front and
ending with the back. Now look down over the members of the molding so as to
see if they are accurately placed with regard to one another and that the head is

not lopsided. Then solder water tight and put in the pipe last.

There is always a risk in using the bevel that it may be moved in some way
or other, thereby changing the angle, and if not seen in time often causing the
work which was done with the bevel any old
to be taken apart. To avoid this,

piece of metal can be placed under the angle required and pricked through upon
the metal and cut out with the shears; the angle will then be stationary and no
risk will be taken.

MAKING A CIRCULAR CONDUCTOR HEAD

In Fig. 142 is shown the plan and elevation required for obtaining the pat-

terns for a circular leader head. Let A B C D represent the front elevation.
Draw the center line E X', extending it At right
indefinitely, as shown by E K.
angles to E K draw the line X Y, intersecting the center line E K at M. With M
as center strike the circle J, representing the plan of the pipe. From the num-
bered bands in the profile B D in elevation drop lines parallel to E K, intersecting
the line X Y at points Y", Y', Y, 0 and M'. With M in the plan as center, and with
radii M M', M O, M Y, M Y' and M Y" describe arcs, as shown, intersecting the back
of head G H, which lies against the wall line U, V, thus completing the plan of the
head. It should be understood that the front elevation in Fig. 142 indicates the
section through X Y in plan, and would not be the pattern for the back of the
head shown by G H. The length of G H being less than a section on X Y, a special
pattern for the back must be obtained. For this pattern proceed as follows:
Space the profile B D in front elevation, Fig. 142, into any convenient number of
parts, as shown by the small figures 1, 2, d, 3, 4, 5, 0, V, 6, 7 and 8.

Now at right angles to E

K, Fig. 142, draw lines from the points
the center line
of intersections on the profile B D, as shown from these same points in the profile
;

B D, Fig. 142, drop lines parallel to the center line E K, until they intersect the
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 539

center line X Y in plan. Then with M in plan as center and with the various in-
tersections on the center line XY as radii describe arcs intersecting the line GH
in plan. It will be noticed that the intersections obtained on the line GH in plan

are numbered to correspond with those on the profile BD in elevation. Referring

to Fig. 143, draw any line, as G' H', upon which transfer the intersections obtained
on the line G shown by the small figures in Fig. 143.
II in plan in Fig. 142, as

At right angles to G' H', Fig. 143, and from the points indicated by the small
figures, draw lines upward, intersecting lines of similar numbers drawn from the

profile B D. A line traced through these intersections, as shown by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,

5, 4, 3, 2, will be the required pattern for the back of the head. Laps are allowed
for soldering, as shown by the dotted lines. Before obtaining the patterns for the
flaring strips draw a profile, as shown in Fig. 144, which shows the method of con-
structing the flanges. To develop the pattern for the flaring strip, shown from 2
to 3 in the profile B D, front elevation, Fig. 142, produce the line 2 3 until it in-
 54° Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

tersects the center line E X', as shown at E. Now, with A, Fig. 145, as center
and E 3 of the elevation as radius, describe the arc D B, Fig. 145. Now divide
the arc Y", shown in plan, Fig. 142, corresponding to the point 3 in elevation,
into an equal number of parts, as indicated by the small figures 0 to 20. Transfer
these 20 divisions to the arc D B, Fig. 145. Draw a line from D to the center A
and from A to B, as shown. Now, with E 2 of the elevation, Fig. 142, as radius,

and A of Fig. 145 as center, strike an arc indefinitely. From the point 20 in plan
draw a line to the center M, intersecting the arc Y, as shown at L. Then will the
distance from L to T 2' in plan indicate the distance of its intersection with the flat
back from the point L in the plan. Transfer the distance L 2' 1' to the pattern in
Fig. 145, as shown on either side from L' to T. Draw lines from D to 1' from T
to the center A, from A to T and from T to B.
Set off the widths of the flanges 2, 1 and A of Fig. 144 upon the lines AD
and AB extended upon either side of the pattern, Fig. 145, as shown. With A

E and A F in Fig. 145 as radii, describe the arcs, as shown. Then will H, T, B,
C, K, E, D, 1', F, P be the pattern for the flaring strip shown in elevation from 2

to 3. For the pattern of the flaring strip shown in front elevation by 5 6, the same

method is employed. Produce the line 5 6, Fig. 142, until it intersects the center
line at F. Now with A, Fig. 146, as center, and F 5 of the front elevation as
radius, describe the arc C B. Divide the arc Y', shown in the plan, Fig. 142, cor-
responding to the bend 5 in the front elevation, into an equal number of parts, as

shown from 0 to 16. Transfer these 16 divisions to the arc C B, Fig. 146, as shown.
Draw a line from C to the center A, and from A to B. Now with A, Fig. 146, as
center, and F 6 of the front elevation, Fig. 142, as radius, describe the arc 3" to 3".

From the point 16 in plan draw a line to the center M, as shown by the line
16 M, intersecting the circle 0 at L' of the plan. As the circle O is not intersected
by the flat back, the distance from L' to 3" must be added to the inner circle of the
 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts 54 1

pattern to make it complete. Divide this portion any number of of the circle into

parts, shown by 0", 1", 2" and 3", and transfer these spaces upon the arc 3" 3"
shown in pattern, Fig. 146, commencing on the line D A and A B at points 0"
0", as shown from 0" to 3" on either side. Draw a line from 3" to the center point
A and from A to 3 ". Allow the flanges, shown by B and C, Fig. 144, upon the
pattern by D E and F G, in the same manner as explained in connection with
Fig. 145. Then will D, C, 3", F, P, G, 3", B, E, K represent the pattern for the
flare, shown in the front elevation, Fig. 142, from 5 to 6.

The next step is to obtain the pattern for the fillet shown by 3 4 5 in the front
elevation, Fig. 142. Th 're are two ways of obtaining the pattern when the head
30 10 14 IT 16 15 14 IB 13 11 10 0 8 7 6 8 4 8 3 100

HA 1

iL
|
NojcH

Fig. 147.
1

Pattern for Fillet

PATTERN

Shown
uz
in Elevation, Fig. 142,
NOT 5H L
nL
by 3 4 5

1 I 3 4 8 6 7 8 9 10 H 13 18 14 18 16 17 18 18 30 0 w
* pATTFRW D
r r*
E
MT«n j i 1 1 +-iisw i Hr F

Fig. 148. Pattern for Fillet Represented in Elevation, Fig. 142, by 6 7 8

is made by hand. The first and long way is to trace off that part of the circle
shown in plan by 0, 1, 20, 16, 8, 0 upon a piece of metal, and cut out with the
shears and solder upon the outside circle a strip of metal as high as shown from
3 to 4 in front elevation. This method is not advisable, as there is too much waste
of metal in cutting the circle. The better and stronger way is shown in Fig. 147.
Upon any line, as A B, lay off the stretchout of the arc Y", Fig. 142, correspond-
ing to the bends 3 and 4 in elevation, as shown by the small figures from 20 to 0.
At right angles to A B, on either side, draw the lines B F and A E, upon which
lay off the width of the fillet and its under side, 3 4 5, Fig. 144, as shown by 20 C
E and O D F. Draw a line from C to D and from E to F, extending the line E F
in the direction of H and G. Referring to the plan, Fig. 142, the line 20 M inter-
sects the arc Y', asshown at S. Then will the distance S in plan represent the 5'

increased distance on the line 5 necessary to meet the flat back. Transfer the dis-
tance S 5' to each end of the line E F, Fig. 147, as shown at H and G. Draw the
lines H C and G D. Then will A B G H represent the pattern for the square
fillet shown in the front elevation, Fig. 142, by 3 4 5. This method gives no
waste whatever, as the pattern is straight, the lower portion being notched, as
 54 2 Conductors, Leaders & Leader Head Layouts

shown in the pattern. The dots shown on the line 0 D, Fig. 147, indicate the
bend 4 shown in elevation.
Fig. 148 shows the pattern for the square fillet G 7 8 of Fig. 142. The same
rule is followed as explained in connection with Fig. 147. This completes the
entire set of patterns required for the circular leader head shown in Fig. 142.
Referring to the section shown in Fig. 144, it will be seen that the top flare,

2 3, has two laps or flanges shown by 1 The pattern for the flare, 2 3 is
and A.
shown in Fig. 145. Roll this pattern upon the blowhorn stake until it has the
required curve indicated by the arc Y'", Fig. 142. Now turn the two laps or flanges
shown in the pattern, Fig. 145, in the turning machine to the required angle
shown by 1 and A, Fig. 144. If the turning machine does not bring the flanges to
their proper angles place them upon the bottom stake and with the use of the
mallet bring them to their proper angles. Tho pattern shown in Fig. 146 is formed
in the same manner as explained above. The laps on the pattern for rear of head,
shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 143, can he bent to the required
angle by means of the flat pliers or upon the hatchet stakes with
the use of a mallet.

Fig. 149. Method of

The pattern for the square fillet shown in Fig. 147 is bent
Placing a Profile In- upon the line C I). The bend can either he made in the folder,
side of the Notched Fil-
lets soas to Obtain a the cornice brake, or by means of the hatchet stake and mallet.
The notches, indicated by I, J, K, etc., shown in the pattern,
Fig. 147, are cut with the shears after the bend is made. A mistake often made
by workmen is to first roll this pattern to its required circle, then notch with the
shears and bend over with the flat pliers, thereby failing to obtain a sharp corner.
The better plan is to make the bend first, then notch the flanges required, letting
them overlap each other as the bending is done.
For forming the pattern shown in Fig. 148 the
same method is employed. In Fig. 149 is shown
the method of placing a template inside of the
notched fillets so as to obtain a true circle. As
will be noticed by referring to the figure, A
represents a template cut from an old piece of tin
or other metal corresponding in shape to the circle
required. B represents the notched fillets drawn
around the circle A. Draw the fillet B, Fig. 149,
tightly around the template A and solder the seam.
Fig. 150. The Leader Head Ready to
be Soldered Together
 SECTION V
(Pages 543-652)

GUTTERS AND ROOF OUTLET

LAYOUTS
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 543

Practical Sheet Metal Work and

Demonstrated Patterns

ROOF OUTLET FOR INSIDE DRAIN PIPE

Fig. 1 is a sectional view of the outlet to connect to the inside drain pipe. A
is the cast iron soil pipe, and this applies to screw pipe systems also, except that
ferrule B, which is a brass sleeve, would be threaded instead of, as in this case,

Fig. 1 . — Details of Outlet to Conductor Pipe

caulked in. A copper tube C, is heavily soldered to B. This tube is generally in

place before the outlet is set on roof so a hole is cut in box just big enough to admit

the tube.
The tube is trimmed within, gay § of an inch of the bottom of outlet, flanged,

at D, and carefully soldered, for, despite numerous attempts to devise other methods
this still prevails. It is obvious that this is the weak point and on highest grade
jobs cast copper outlets with the tube integral are required.
The outlet box consists of a square sheet of copper, E, and the sides, F, which
are bent as shown and soldered to the sheet E and reinforced with a core of band
 544 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

iron, G. The box is nailed to the ash concrete of the roof through the waterproofing
and made watertight with more felt and tar. Then flat tiles of roof are laid in
cement.
The strainer of the outlet is made of four sides formed, as shown at H, and the
basket part consists merely of strips of copper bent, as indicated at K, and shaped
to fit the desired contour. The diagram at L, which is a plan view, gives the idea
of the manner of assembling the strips having the hips of wire. The strainer is

usually just set in the outlet but if required can be hinged, by wiring, H, with sheet
metal hinges and soldering hinges to outlet.

CAST COPPER ROOF DRAINAGE HEAD

There always has been considerable trouble with the conventional inlet of

sheet metal to the rain-water conductor. The manner of connecting the tube to

Fig. 2. —Construction and Method of Installing Roof Drainage Head

the inlet certainly violates the teachings of experience in roofing, which tells us
that all seams shall be made so as to have the water flow over the seam. In the
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 545

majority of cases, after carefully seeing to it that all seams are as stipulated, we
insert the tube in the box or gutter with a flange turned out against the water
coming from the entire roof. When this flange tears from the outlet, for this is

within the range of possibility, the water soaks through this broken connection
into the building.
Architects now realize that what should be the strongest part of the roofing
is the weakest and specify that the tube shall be integral with the inlet box.
About
the only way to accomplish this is to have them cast in one piece. The accompany-
ing drawing Fig. 2 shows how a cast copper or brass inlet, or outlet as some call
them, is applied to roofing.
The box and tube arc shaped to have ample strength at the connecting point
and the sides are made to ac> as a guard for the flat tiles F or the gravel of the roofing.
A sheet metal flashing, B, is bent to fit over these sides and turned 6 in. out
on the roof. This flashing is heavily soldered to the outlet box at E. The box
is set in place and the flashing nailed to the ash concrete through the waterproofing
D and made watertight with more felt and tar, G, after which the tiles are laid.
The strainer C is also cast copper and secured to the outletbox by screws as
shown. Most any design will do for this strainer, only bearing in mind that the
apertures shall be small enough to intercept objects as small as a pebble.
Connecting this outlet to the drain pipe is properly within the province of
the plumber. But, while this tube A can be either caulked direct to the cast iron
conductor pipe or a thread cut in it for screw connection, it is suggested that a
flexible rather than this rigid connection be used, such as a lead elbow with wiped
joint to the tube A.
After the pattern is made these outlets would not be costly in comparison
with the unsatisfactory sheet metal ones, when considering the fact that on build-
ings where the best roofing is required they give complete assurance of no leaks
by bursting tube or connections.

WATER SPREADER FOR STEEP ROOF

It is often the case that the rain water from an upper roof is drained through
leaders on to a lower roof. When the latter is very steep and the upper roof has
a large surface the rain water in a storm or shower rushes through the leader and
out of the elbow, shown at C, Fig. 3, and in some cases the force of the rush not
being broken it is apt to flow or spray over the gutter D, shown in the side view.
 546 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

To avoid this and to break the rush of the water there is shown in Fig. 4 a view
of a water spreader with dimensions. The spreader is riveted On a sheet of tin,
copper or sheet iron, as required. If the roof is of tin or copper a lock is edged on

Fig. 3. — Water Spreader for Steep Roof. Front and Side Fig. 4. —General View of Water Spreader as it

View of Water Spreader would Appear on a Steep Roof

to the sheet A B C D and laid in with the courses, while if the roof is of slate or
wood shingles the spreader is fastened to heavy galvanized sheet iron and slated
in with the courses. EFH represents the spreader, being 6 inches high, 15 inches
long and having 20-inch spread, and is riveted at I J K
L on each side. In Fig. 3
is shown the method of placing the spreader in position, A being the spreader in
side view and B in front view. The water rushing through the leader C is cut by
the spreader, throwing the water in either direction at E and F, then flowing into
the gutter D.

ANOTHER WATER SPREADER

Another simple and inexpensive spreader,

as shown in Fig. 5, of copper or galvanized
iron may be made on any brake or bending
machine of a width and length to suit the con-
ditions. The effect is to spread the water out in
a thin sheet, and the shape of the spreader is

such as to be proof against injury by ice forming

on it. By its use all trouble from water pene-
trating the spaces between the slates or shingles
Fig 5. — A Water Spreader for Roofs is avoided.
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 547

ROOF WITH SINGLE LEADER

A few suggestions regarding a gutter for a roof like Fig. 6, are that the gutter

should be almost level for some distance from the starting point and then made to

Fig. 6.— Roof with Single Leader Pipe. Plan of Roof.

incline toward the outlet, this last half being enlarged if possible. The inside

miters, as 3 or 6, should be made rounding or “ octagon, ” as shown in Fig. 7, which

would help the flow of water to a considerable extent. In this figure ABCDEF
G represents the gutter in plan and J K in profile. By placing the gore piece as

indicated by F HE the trough would be wider at the bend. It is suggested that

A plan B

Fig. 7.— Proposed Form of Inside Miter Fig. 8.— Guard for Inside Miter

upright pieces of tin or guards be soldered to the bead of gutter at the inside miters
6 and 9. The pieces, as shown in Fig. 8 by L M
N, could extend each way from 18
inches to 2 feet and be 2 or 3 inches high at the center M, tapering each way to
 548 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

L and N. If desired the miters at 6 and 9 could be made as indicated in Fig. 7

and provided with guards similar to Fig. 8, being bent so as to conform to the
shape shown by GFED of plan.

AN ESSENTIAL FEATURE IN GUTTER CONSTRUCTION

In any gutter it is within the range of possi-
bility of the outlets becoming clogged from various
causes. Hence it is necessary to bear this in mind
when designing gutters, etc., and have them so
constructed that in the event of the outlet becom-
ing stopped up the water will flow over the face
of the gutter or cornice and not back up on the
roof and under the slates, shingles or cap flashing
and into the building. In short, the rule to be fol-

lowed is to have the point A, of Fig. 9, lower than

the point B.

INSIDE MITER OF A GUTTER—A GORE PIECE

It is obvious that a considerable flow of water occurs in the valley of a roof
and if this water is discharged into the internal angle of a gutter it is apt to splash
over the sides of the gutter, the more so if the roof is very steep.
And as the water flowing in the gutter makes the turn in an inside miter it

very often, owing to the sharpness of the turn, banks and runs over the gutter.
Therefore if we make the miter as we would a three piece elbow an easier turn
is provided and also a gutter wide enough at this point to take care of all the water
flowing from the valley.
The diagram Fig. 10, shows an eave trough with a right angle inside miter
and the gore piece A. The size of this gore piece is a matter of choice and the same
principle of obtaining patterns applies for any angle.
The method of developing the patterns is to place the profile of the gutter
as shown, and in its proper position the plan. Having decided on the size of the
gore the line BD is drawn with the 45° triangle and angles B and D bisected as
shown.
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 549

For other than a right angle miter the correct position of the line B D is found
by bisecting the angle and drawing B D perpendicular to the bisecting line.
As in many cases of pattern cutting the miter lines can be arbitrary, pro-
viding no rules of geometry are violated. In this instance the bisecting lines of
angles B and D were terminated on the bottom line of the profile as C and E thereby
realizing the plan of the gutter miter.
The profile is now divided into convenient spaces as 0 to 19 and these points
dropped to the miter lines as shown.

* On the line G H place the stretchout of the miter profile and project lines from
on the miter lines as is customary. Then will J be the pattern of the gutter.
like points

Extend the line K

L to M, and on this put a reproduction of the triangle piece
of the gore E C L as E C L\ and call
1 1
line E C number 6. Then from
1 1
this on line
L-M, place the rest of the stretchout of profile to 19,
and from miter lines draw
numbered lines which will give the pattern of the gore A.
lines to intersect like

When allowing the laps have them on the patterns so that the water will
flow over the joint and not against it.
 55 ° Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

FALSE BOTTOM FOR GUTTERS

All the gutters must obviously have a pitch or fall to the outlet and in the hang-
ing type, such as eave trough, this fall is perceptible from the ground. Often if

the fall is pronounced it is an eyesore to observers.

To overcome this the molded face styles are made level throughout and a
false bottom soldered in which has the necessary fall to the outlet. Considerable

Fig. II. — Details of a Gutter with a False Bottom

trouble is experienced with these bottoms owing to their breaking from the sides
of the gutter despite rivets and soaking in the solder.

Inasmuch as these gutters are intended to be ornamental, Fig. II illustrates

how this ornamentation can be enhanced by extending a few of the stretcher
courses of the brick work and hy alternating the bricks of the header course one in
one out, an appearance of dentil blocks is obtained.
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 55 1

The gutter proper can have the required pitch in the vertical members A B
and C D, and the fascia piece E made separate and with a drip as shown. This
fascia piece is soldered to the gutter and as gutters are usually made of heavy

material, this fascia piece can be one or two gauge lighter.

At the lowest point or outlet the bottom of the gutter will be down to the

horizontal line of the fascia piece which rests on the brick work. The outlet tube
is put in and soldered in the customary manner and would either connect with a
leader on the outside or the inside of the wall.
The braces F are of galvanized or tinned band iron | X 1-inch stock, bolted
to the front pari of the gutter and riveted to the roof flange of gutter as shown.
These rivets are soldered watertight on the under side. If, instead, it is speci-
fied that these braces be attached after the set ting of the gutter and nails driven
through to the roof sheathing, then the entire brace must be soldered to the roof
flange of the gutter to prevent leaks through the nail holes. These braces are
made all alike and spaced 2 feet apart.

The gutters are made in a length on the crown line from the outer edges of
the fire or battlement walls G. At the inner lines of the walls the roof flange of

the gutter is cut and flattened out and forms a flashing which goes up and under
the cap flashing that was built in with the wall. The wall flashing connects with
t his flashing of the gutter as shown by the illustration.

Should the wall flashing be very high at the outer edges of the walls, use some
roofer’s paint skin and secure it to wall with hooks to keep rain from blowing
in behind the flashing at G. A much better method would be to step the flashing
into the brick work.

BRACES FOR EAVE TROUGH

The illustration herewith, Fig. 12, is a sectional view showing how eave trough
can be fastened. A represents the roof boards, which should not be less than

1J inches in thickness, and grooved out as shown, so as to admit the bottom brace
B. This brace is made from 3-16 X lj-inch band iron, screwed to the roof boards
with screws B' B'. After all the bottom braces have been fastened, the gutter
C is laid in the bottom braces and securely pressed into them, after which the top
brace D is bolted to bottom brace B, as shown at E. In this manner the gutter
is held in position by the bolt E. The top brace is screwed to the roof boards,
as shown by F, which at the same time holds the flange of the gutter in position,
 55 * Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

shown by C'. This flange of the gutter C' should extend up high enough
under the slate to insure a tight job. H H indicates the first slate and shows
how the slate should overlap the screws so as to avoid a leak.
In bending the top and bottom
braces proceed as follows: Measure
off the length of the brace required,
which can be done by taking a strip

of tin and laying it around the out-

side of the gutter, as shown in Fig.
12. Cut off as many pieces of band
iron to the required length as there
are braces required. In forming the
bottom braces roll them through the
stove pipe former or roller until they

Fig. 12. — Fastening Eave Trough have the required circle, after which
place the brace in a vise and bend
off the flange to the required angle, as shown at B', Fig. 12. One-quarter inch
holes are now punched by hand or machine, where shown, so as to admit the
bolts and wood screws. The top braces are made in the same manner and J-inch
holes punched in them for bolts and wood screws. When this gutter is com-
pletely finished it will sustain quite a pressure. The snow sliding from the
roof obtains quite a hold in the gutter and the braces prevent the gutter from
breaking down.

COMPLETE INSTRUCTION ON A ROOF OR SNOW

GUARD GUTTER
In Fig. 13 is shown a section of a roof or snow guard gutter, also the method
of slating it. To give a better explanation of this diagram the method of starting
a slate roof will be explained. As this is a little out of the line of cornice work,
it is better if we understand it in case the slate roofer would desire to know how
many courses he should slate before the gutter is put on. Before starting a slate
roof the roofer should see that a cant strip is nailed about 1 or 2 inches above
the eave line of slate, as shown at This strip should be about I inch
F, Fig. 13.
in thickness and 1£ inches wide, the ordinary plaster laths being satisfactory.
If the slates used are 8 X 16 inches in size, the first course should be laid the
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 553

16-inch way, or, in other words, the length of the slate should be laid parallel to
the eave line of the roof. The second course and all others should be laid the
8-inch way. In laying the 8 X 16 inch slates it is usual to lay them 6 inches
to the weather, by which is

meant the second course will

overlap the first 10 inches and

the third course will overlap
the first 4 inches. l et E, in
Fig. 13 represent the leader,
which we desire to plat c in the

position as shown. Th* place

of the leader being decided upon
at once gives the position where
the lowest point of gutter will
be placed and the number of
courses of slates required. Re-
ferring to Fig. 13, it will be
seen that che slater must put
on four courses of slate, count-
ing the course under eaves (if

the leader was placed higher or

lower the number of courses of
Fig. 13. — Section of Snow Guard Gutter, Showing Method of Slating
slates would be more or less, re-

spectively). After the lower four courses of slates are in place the slater must
stop until the gutters are set. It is usual to give about 4 inches pitch to about 20
to 25 feet of gutter.
The style of gutter shown in Fig. 13 has an angle iron of \ X 1J X 11 inch in
size and lighter, bolted through the galvanized iron gutter and top brace. The
top braces are usually bolted about 30 inches from centers, and are made of 3-16
or J X band iron respectively, and are galvanized after being made.
11 inch or 1-inch
In putting up this form of gutter the angle iron is left out until the gutter has
been placed in its proper position on roof and tacked with a few roofing nails, as
shown by A and B, Fig. 16. After the gutter is set to the right pitch the angle
iron is pressed up and held in position with a
into the inside top edge of the gutter
few hand vises, as shown in Fig. 14, until the bolts are inserted, after which the hand
vises are removed. If a punching machine is not at hand, the holes in the angle iron
 554 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

and the top braces can be punched by hand by having a female die placed on a
solid block of iron or wood, so that when the punch is being driven from the top
there will be no springing.
The holes in the top braces to receive the wood screws can be countersunk
by means of a breast drill if a machine isThe breast drills, including
not at hand.
the punches and dies, can be purchased of any dealer in tinners’ and cornice makers’
tools. After the top braces are bolted to the angle iron at B, Fig. 13, a wood screw
or two is screwed through the top brace at J. The slate roof is then started again,

in the same manner as described for the eaves.

If the roof covering, as shown in Fig. 13, were to be of shingles the same rule
would be followed as for slate. If tin were used, then tin up the roof as far as

shown at D, Fig. 13, and set the gutter in its right position. As the gutter is to

set to a given pitch, the upper edge of the gutter J, Fig. 13, would be cut on a
straight line struck by means of a chalk line and chalk, and then a lock attached,
as shown at J K, Fig. 20. The tin is now locked on to the flange of gutter and the
roof tinned up.
If the roof were of corrugated iron, the sheets would be allowed to extend up
as far as D, Fig. 13. The gutter would now be set to the proper pitch, on the top
flange of which a lock would be made, as before described, it not being necessary
in this case to cut the flange straight This lock would prevent the snow from
driving up under the corrugations. In laying a corrugated iron roof as much lap
should be given as is shown in Fig. 15. In tile roofing the same method would be
employed as described for slating.
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 555

It, is very advisable, if the roof covering is of slate, tile or shingles, to lay a
sheet rubber cushion, not less than 3-16 inch in thickness, between the bottom
of the gutter and top of the slate, tile or shingle, as shown at O, Fig. 13, to prevent
breakage in case a large amount of snow would slide into the gutter. The rubber
should be as wide as the part of the galvanized iron flange of gutter that lies against
the slate.
Fig. 16 is a perspective view of roof or snow guard gutter, showing the slates
in posh'on above end below the gutter, also the angle iron and brace bolted in
position, and top brace screwed a the i

roof board, through the gut ter flange.

Let us assume that, the gutter is to
be connected to a round leader. In Fig.
17 is shown the method of obtaining a

watertight joint on roof, with the use of

sleeve, tube and leader, and in Fig. 18

the improper method of making a joint,

with the use of t he tube and the leader
only. It is of great importance that this

method of putting in the sleeve be under- Fig. 17.- -Proper Method of Water tight Joint with
Sleeve, Tube and Leader
stood, as by not using the sleeve a leak
is often the result. In Fig. 17, let A represent the sleeve, B the tube and C the
leader. It will be noticed that both the sleeve and tube go inside the leader, so
that in case the snow drives against the
angle E and thaws it must drip inside of

the leader; while, as shown in Fig. 18,

the snow driving against the angle E

M /A

Fig. 18.— Improper Method of Making a Joint Fig. 19.—Metal Shingle with Sleeve Attached

when thawing, soaks through the woodwork F and rots it at every storm, because

the tube B only connects to the leader C. In Fig. 19 is shown a perspective view of
a metal shingle having sleeve attached. These shingles are to be cut to the size
 55 « Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

of the slates used, in this case 8 X 16 inches, and laid in with the course, where
the roofs are covered with slate, tile or shingle. The sleeve shown at A, Fig. 19,
should be soldered to the shingle where required; that is, just according to how
the leader would be situated. In case the leader is so situated as to strike the
bottom, center or upper part of slate, the sleeve A would have to be placed ac-
cordingly.

At P, in Fig. 20, is shown a shingle with sleeve attached, slated in as required,

the leader having in this case cut the shingle in the center. The tube of the gutter
passing through the sleeve connects to the leader below at F. In fastening the

Fig. 20. — Front View of Roof or Snow Guard Gutter

leader F the ordinary hooks are used, which can be made by any blacksmith or
purchased of dealers in tinners’ supplies. There are different forms of leader
hooks and fastenings with ornamental coverings.
In Fig. 20 is shown part of a front view of a roof or snow guard gutter, finished
complete, the section of which is shown in Fig. 13. LAM and N represent the
braces bolted to the gutter and screwed to the roof ;
B is the bottom edge of
the slate or shingles; C D and E are rivets to reinforce the soldered joint, and
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 557

likewise A S and T wood screws screwed into the roof

the tinned or brass
boards through the flange of galvanized iron and soaked well with solder.
Having understood how the snow guard gutter is to be constructed, the
measurement and bevel of roof must now be obtained from the building. Brass
and wooden bevels can be purchased from hardware dealers, but a bevel con-
structed of band iron will answer just as well.

In Fig. 21 is shown what is required to construct a bevel of band iron. Let

A represent one of the two pieces of band iron, with a |-inch hole punched and
countersunk, as obown at D, to .^ceive the
rivet, and B ihc section. C represents a

l X 5-8 inch nvet. whi. a is used to rivet the

two pieces of band iron together. Care should
be taken that when the two arms are riveted
together the one is exactly like the other and
that the end E is perfectly square.
Fig 21 ~ Rivct a " d Band Iron for Bftvel
When the bevel is finished and is in use
-

it will look as shown at L, in Fig. 23. Fig. 22 is the front elevation of roof and
gutter, also showing the method of obtaining the working measurements.
Let the width of the building on which the gutter is required measure 42 feet

as shown, and as the leader P is to be in the center of the building, divide the width
by 2, and 21 feet on each side is the result, as shown. The pitch, or fall of the

gutter, will come directly over the leader, as shown by X, Fig. 22.

From the point X, Fig. 22, or the lowest point of the gutter, strike a chalk

Fig. 22. —Front Elevation of Roof and Gutter

55 » Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

line parallel to the eave shown by the dotted line A B. At right angles
line, as
to the line A B, on either side, measure up 4 inches, or the pitch of the gutter,
on a perpendicular line, as shown by R and S, Fig. 22. Now strike a chalk line,
S X and X R, which gives the bottom line of the gutter, shown on the section in

Fig. 23, at O. The line RX and X S would be struck on the top of the slates,
or whatever the covering of the roof may be, and upon this line the bottom line
of the gutter would be placed.
Having now obtained the length of each side of. the gutter, the next step is to
obtain the bevel of the roof. To do so, place the bevel as shown by U V Y in Fig. 23
the arm U V being placed against the roof and the other arm, Y Y, being raised
or lowered until level; which can be proved by screwing a small on thespirit level

arm, as shown at J. Now measure the distance between the arrow points K, and
the bevel can be closed and opened again when required to the distance before
obtained. This bevel forms the basis of measurements required to construct
the different braces shown in Fig. 23.
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 559

In setting up work of this kind it is well to make a rough diagram, similar

to Fig. 22, showing the braces required and their numbers, also the pitch the gutter
is to have, for the use of the mechanic who sets up the work. As the braces are
of different lengths (to obtain a straight line, as shown from D to D in Fig. 22),

each brace will be numbered in the shop to correspond to the numbers shown on
the braces in Fig. 22 by C, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
In Fig. 23 is shown the method of obtaining the different lengths and angles
of braces. Draw any horizontal line, as shown by S T, indefinitely, upon which
place one arm of no bevel Y V; now open the bevel to the length obtained be-
tween the arrow points K, as before explained, and draw a line parallel to, and
against the arm of the bevel U V, as shown at X' S'. Then X' S' will represent
the roof line and S T the horizontal or level line, corresponding to the bevel U Y Y.
Now draw a section of the gutter, as shown by A', Fig. 23, care being taken to
have the top of the fiahge of the gutter, as shown at N, high enough above the
top of the front of the gutter, so that in case the leader stops up, causing an over-
flow, the water will flow over the front of the gutter, and not behind the flange
N and into the building.
As the pitch of the gutter is 4 inches on a perpendicular line, as shown in Fig.

22, measure down 4 inches from D' to C, Fig. 23, and draw a duplicate of the section
of the gutter A', as shown by A Then D will represent the highest point of gutter
2
.

and C the lowest point, as shown. The sections of angle iron, with bolts through
the top braces, are shown at I and H. Draw the brace at the highest point of
gutter horizontal, as shown from D to A, with an angle attached to screw to the
roof board, as shown from A to B. Then draw the brace for the lowest point of

gutter horizontal from C to E, or as much as there is flange on the top of the gutter.
Connect the points from E to A 3
and add the thickness of the brace, as shown,
which in this case is 3-1(5 inch.

Then DAB, Fig. 23, will represent the top brace D, Fig. 22, and C E A3 B
the center or bottom brace C, shown in Fig. 22. As the pitch of the gutter is 4
inches and the projection of the roof on 4 inches as much as shown from D to D',
Fig. 23, and as there are eight braces required on the 21 feet of gutter, as shown
by C, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and D in Fig. 22, it is self evident that each brace will be of a
different length and angle.
To obtain the different lengths and angles proceed as follows: Draw a line
from C to D, Fig. 23, as shown, and divide this line into seven spaces, or as many
spaces as there are shown between the braces in Fig. 22. Now draw a line from
 560 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

E to F, which intersect with horizontal lines drawn from the small figures on the
line C D. From the intersections obtained on the line E F draw lines to the corner
A. Now add the thickness of the brace, as shown, and draw lines parallel to the
horizontal lines 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, intersecting the line E F, and from these inter-
sections draw lines to the corner A
3
Then the braces C, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and D in
.

Fig. 23 will represent the braces used on each side of the gutter of corresponding
figures shown in Fig. 22. A drawn from H to I, Fig. 23, will give the points
line

where the holes are to be punched for the bolts; the angle A B will be the same
length on all the braces.
After the braces are bent to the required angle and numbered, they are usually
galvanized to prevent rusting; the angle iron also is usually covered with two
coats of metallic paint before it is inserted in the gutter.
Fig. 24 is a section of a roof or snow guard gutter, the bends of which have
been made square, so as to avoid a confusion of lines in obtaining the patterns;
although the principles used are the same
no matter what form or shape is taken.
To obtain the plan and elevation proceed
as follows: Let N S, Fig. 24, represent the

line of the roof; C, the highest section of

gutter, and D the lowest section. Let AB
or H F represent the pitch of the gutter on
a perpendicular line and E F the projection
of same. Let R S U T, Fig. 25, represent
one-half of the plan of the roof, the width of
same being 21 feet. Now draw any line
parallel to the eave line of roof, or T U, as

shown by V W ;
take the distance of the
projection of the gutter, shown by E F in Fig. 24, and place same at right angles to
V W, as shown by V X, Fig. 25. Now draw a line from X to W, as shown. At
right angles to the line X W place in the proper position, as shown at A, a duplicate
of the profile or section of gutter shown at C or D, Fig. 24. Number the bends of
the profile A, Fig. 25, as shown by the small figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, H and 6. Now
parallel to the line XW draw lines through the numbered bends, cutting the lines
R T and S U, as shown. Parallel to the line X W
draw a line indefinitely, as
shown by X' W'. At right angles to the line B D in plan draw lines upward
from B and D indefinitely, as shown by B C and D E, cutting the line X' W' at
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 561

the points J and E. Now take the pitch of the gutter, as shown by A B or H F,
Fig. 24, and transfer this hight from the point J on the line B C, Fig. 25, as shown
by J F, and draw a line from F to E. Then F E will represent the line of the
gutter in the true elevation on the point 6 in the profile A in plan view. Now
place a duplicate of the profile or section C, Fig. 24, or profile A in plan view,
Fig. 25, as shown by A' in true elevation, the small figures 1', 2', 3', etc., of profile
A', corresponding to the small figures shown in plan view. Through the small
figures 1', 2', 3', etc., in profile A' in true elevationdraw lines parallel to the
line F E, which iuter^ect with lines of corresponding numbers drawn at right

Fig. 25. — Plan View, True Elevation and Pattern of Roof Gutter

angles to the line X W from the intersections made on the lines RT and S U, all

as shown. A line traced through these intersections, as shown by L and P,

will show the true elevation and miter lines of roof gutter.
To obtain the pattern, proceed as follows: At right angles to the line F E lay
off the stretchout of the profile A', Fig. 25, as shown by the small figures from Y
to Z. At right angles to Y Z, or parallel to F E, draw lines indefinitely through
 56a Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

the small figures in the stretchout, as shown, which intersect with lines drawn at
right angles to the line F E from the intersections on the miter lines L and P of
corresponding numbers. A line traced through the intersections thus made will

be the required pattern.

To obtain the pattern for the head of the gutter shown at R and S, Fig. 22,

proceed as follows: At right angles to the line B (’, Fig. 25, draw lines from the
intersections on the miter line L. It will be noticed that these lines are numbered
5', H', 3', 4', 2', V and 6', corresponding to the same numbered lines, drawn through
the profile A', in the true elevation. At right angles to where the gutter intersects
the line X B, plan view, Fig. 25, draw short lines, as shown by 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, H and
6, corresponding to the same numbered lines drawn through the profile A in plan
view. Now parallel to the lines drawn at right angles to B C draw a line, as shown
by A', B', upon which place the widths, as shown by 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, H and 6, corre-
sponding to the intersections on the line X B, plan view, as shown by 2, 4, 5, 1 ,
II

and 6. Then at right angles to A' B' draw lines upward from the small figures, as

shown, intersecting lines of corresponding numbers drawn from the miter line
L, at right angles to B C. A line traced through these intersections will be the
pattern for the head of the gutter required at R and S, Fig. 22.

To avoid any misunderstanding, it is well to remark that the sections shown

at C and D, Fig. 24, do not represent the true sections on the lines RT and S II,

plan view, Fig. 25, and are only drawn to form basis from which to obtain the
measurements of the pitch and projection of the gutter, and are sections of the
gutter at right angles to B D, plan view, and sections at right angles to F E, true
elevation. The pattern for the head of the gutter, as shown in Fig. 25, is the true

section of the gutter on the line R T and S U, in plan view.

In practice it would be impossible to lay out a drawing of 21 feet on the ordinary
drawing board, although the gutter could be laid out on the floor. To avoid this

and to make use of the drawing board, the entire measurements could be divided
into eight parts or less, according to the length of the drawing board in use.
The following explanation is given to illustrate what is meant by dividing
the measurements: By dividing the measurements into eight parts, instead of
laying off 21 feet, as shown from V to W, Fig. 25, take one-eighth of same, which
is 2 feet 1\ inches, and make V W equal to 2 feet 7£ inches; then, instead of
making V X, Fig. 25, the projection of gutter, as shown from E to F, Fig. 25,
make it one-eighth of E F. And having obtained the line X' W' in true elevation,
Fig. 25, instead of making J F equal in hight to A B or H F, Fig. 24, make it
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 563

one-eighth of the distance. By dividing the length, projection and pitch of the
gutter each into the same number of equal parts, the same angles are obtained
as in the full size drawing.
It is also proper to remark in this connection that, if but one gutter was being
put up, it would hardly pay to get out the patterns as above described, as the time
involved in obtaining the patterns would cost almost as much as the amount a small
gutter would bring. In such a case the gutter would be made a few inches longer
than the desired length and placed on the roof in its proper position, and tacked
with a few roofing nails. Then take a carpenter’s square and place the long arm
on the roof pa.’
-

;.
1
lei wdh the cave line, and, holding the short arm of the square

perpendicular, mark off .1 perpendicular line on the top and bottom ends of the
gutter where required, and trim with the hand shears or snips. Then the lower
cut will represent the miter line on which the second piece of gutter would be
joined, and the top cut may be used to obtain the pattern for the flat head, by
simply holding a piece of galvanized iron or other metal against same and marking

off the shape.

It is, however, a good plan to obtain accurate patterns, as described, which
are saved for future use; and when a gutter of this style is required, it can be given
the same shape and pitch. Thus the same pattern can be always used, it only
being necessary to obtain the amount of pitch required on every gutter of a different
length, so that a chalk line indicating the pitch can be struck on the roof on which
the bottom line of the gutter is placed.

Now, as above described, if a gutter of 21 feet has 4 inches pitch, then a gutter
of 10 feet 6 inches would have but 2 inches pitch, or in other words, the gutter

would have a fall of 4-21 inch to the foot. As 4-21 makes the figuring complicated,

\ inch fall to the foot could be given and the patterns cut accordingly. This
would make the pitch on 21 feet equal to 5 \ inches. In case a gutter was required

measuring 21 feet 5£ inches, it would be necessary to obtain the amount of pitch

required for the inches in length. To obtain this without tedious figuring,

construct on a piece of heavy white cardboard, for future reference, a triangle

whose base is 12 inches in length (divided into half and quarter inches) and the
altitude or perpendicular hight as much as the fall of the gutter is to the foot,

which in this case is £ inch. Connect the altitude and the base by a line called

the hypotenuse or slant line, which completes the triangle. From the divisions
on the base of the triangle draw lines at right angles, intersecting the hypotenuse,
or slant line. Then place one leg of the dividers on the 5£ inch division on the
5 64 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

base, and the other leg of the dividers at the point where the 5§ inch perpendicular
line intersects the hypotenuse; then the distance between the points of the di-
viders will be the amount of pitch required for the o\ inches of gutter. This rule
applies to any measurements whatever.

LAYING OUT THE PITCH OF GUTTERS

For example, take a hanging gutter or eave trough, 24 feet 6 inches long, the

water to run from left to right standing in front of the gutter and the wire bead
to be on the outside, the pitch to be 3£ inches on the length, or, in other words,
the pitch to be 3£ inches on A to B, Fig. 26. Two flat heads
will be required, which can be pricked from the section shown
by C AD for the high-point of the gutter and BADC for the
lowest point, allowing for the wire on C A, for the small head
and C B for the large head.
Fie. 26 — Laying Out Strike a chalk line on the floor as shown by
j A B, Fig.
> e>
the Pitch of Gutters , ,
27, assuming that 7 feet sheets are used, then for 24 feet 6
inches, there are required three sheets 7 feet long and one piece 3 feet 9 inches,
allowing 3 inches for laps as shown by dotted lines C D and E of Fig. 27. We

Fig. 27. —Method of Laying Out Gutter on the Floor to Obtain Pitch
now bead the three sheets and the one piece.Next get the stretchout of C D A,
Fig. 26, place upon and lay it off across the beaded sheets, marking at each end of
the sheet the double dots, as shown on the line F H, Fig. 27. Draw a line through
each sheet on the double dots. As the water is to run to the right, we start on
the right side with the piece M, placing the line drawn through the double
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 565

<iots upon the chalk line A B, Fig. 27. Then take the sheet L, and giving
1 inch lap, as shown at E, place the line drawn through the double dots upon
the line on the piece M to the right, and on the chalk line to the left, performing
the same operation with the sheets K and J. As the double dots shown at
F, Fig. 27, represent the high part of gutter, the next step is to measure 3^ inches
from the double dots H, Fig. 27, as shown at P. Then strike a chalk line from P
to F, as shown, and which will be the line on which to make the bend. If a straight
line is desired on roof, strike a line as shown by N O, Fig. 27, parallel to the line
P F. The portic 1 at S O to be cut away. In striking the pitch, as shown in Fig.
27, the bead six - .Id be laid downward.

MOLDED GUTTER ON BRICK WALL

Fig. 28 shows the method of fastening a sheet metal molding to a brick wall,
on which the gutter is

formed of wood and then

lined with sheet metal.
A is a section of the brick
wall, the upper portion,
L, being built up to but
half the thickness of the
wall, as shown, thus leav-
ing a space on which to |

build the gutter, as

shown at K. C repre-
sents the wooden wall
plate, fastened to the wall

by means of the bolt B,

which has an angle at
the bottom. The bolt is
placed upon the wall
when up as high as shown
by the dotted line X.
The wall is then built up
around the bolt, after
which a hole is made in Fig. 28. —Fastening a Sheet Metal Molding to Brick Wall
 566 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

the wall plate C and set over the bolt and fastened with a washer and nut, as
shown. D represents the rafter on which the roof is planked, and to this the
flange of the gutter lining is nailed. As all this has no bearing on the cornice
work, it is only briefly explained so the reader may better understand the
sectional views of this kind of work. In making the details for the molding
and brace, shown in Fig. 28, care should be taken that the inside brace, shown
from 1 to 5, is so drawn that a portion will meet the top member of molding
at 1, at part of the ogee, as shown at 2, at the flat portion, shown at 3, and on the
flange of the drip, shown at 4. Bolts are then inserted through the molding and
brace, as shown at 1, 2, 3, and 4. The thickness of the wall A is taken and the
brace made to extend through it, allowing for a flange to bend down behind the
wall, as shown at 5. The length of the flange should be less than the hight of a

brick. Care should be taken in drawing the top flange and lock of the molding
that the lock J, Fig. 28, comes directly over the center of the gutter plank H, so
that when the sheet metal lock of the gutter lining is locked into J of the molding
and pounded down with the mallet the blow come directly over the center
will

of the wooden plank PI. If the lock ,J should come in further than the thickness
of the gutter plank H, a bad seam would be the result, because the locks could not
be driven together, there being no foundation to pound on. It will be noticed that
that portion of brace in Fig. 28 which meets the ogee at 2 at once gives the shape
of the gutter on the inside, against which the plank II is laid, as shown.
After the molding is formed on the brake, and set together to the required
length, the braces are inserted about 30 to 36 inches from centers, care being taken
that the length of the brace from R to S, in Fig. 28, is correct so as to slip over the
wall.

The mason, when building up the wall, usually has a scaffold on the front,
which is often used by the cornice maker to put up his work. One way to set
moldings of this kind is to have the mason stop with his wall when he gets up as far

as shown by the dotted line V, Fig. 28. The braces are put in the moldings in the
shop, with the flange S 5 already bent. A hole is punched through the brace,
as shown at 5, in which to fasten the wire.

Now set the molding and braces upon the wall and have the drip R of the
molding fit well against the face of the wall, as shown. As the molding will have
a tendency to tip forward when set, fasten a piece of wire in the hole 5 of brace,
press down the brace at S firmly onto the wall, and fasten the wire with an anchor
nail into the joint of brick work shown at 6. The wall L is now built on top of
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 567

the braces, which holds the molding in its proper position. As the full depth of the
gutter down to the wall K is not required, blockings of wood are placed upon the
braces, as shown at E, Fig. 28. In gutters of this kind the carpenters should
prepare the pitch of the gutter. F represents the lowest point of gutter and N the
highest; and after obtaining the required length of the gutter the lowest point
would be blocked up with wood to the hight of F and the highest point blocked
with wood as high as N. A chalk line is then stretched from NF and inter-
to
mediate blockings placed. The gutter is planked out as shown by F F F and
connected with tins roof boards, aft r which it can be lined with either tin, copper
or galvanized i on. locking the lining into the front lock on molding as before ex-
plained, and leaving a flange on roof of about 4 inches, as shown at O, which would
be sufficient lap whether the roof were covered with tin, slate or shingles.
It is the writer’s preference in putting up moldings of this kind to let the mason
and framer first finish their work complete. When the work is put up before,
by the time the mason has finished his wall and the framer has his wall plate and
rafters set the molding is usually pressed out of shape and flattened.
When putting up the molding after the wall is finished, set it temporarily

against the wall and mark where the braces will come, so as to cut the holes shown
from L to V, Fig. 28. As be-
fore explained, the angle of
brace S 5 should be less than
the hight of a brick, so that
the holes cut with the use of
a chisel and heavy hammer
through the brick wall need
be the hight of one brick
only. The braces having been
slipped through are then

drawn down with wire, as be-

fore explained, and the mason

closes up the holes with Fig. 29. — Front Elevation of Molding, Leader and Head
brick, thus holding the braces firmly in position. Y in Fig. 28 represents the
leader to carry the water from the gutter. The back of the leader, lying
against the wall, up through the blockings, as shown by the dotted
is carried

line, and intersects the gutter on the bottom line F. The front of the leader
is run up through the molding and intersects the plank H at F. Now, if th*
 568 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

leader was left in this position it would deface the entire front of the molding; so
to overcome this a projection the width of the leader is placed over it, as shown
at F', Fig. 28. This at once forms a leader or conductor head, the face of which
is shown at E, Fig. 29. The projection 7 8 and 7 8, on either side of the leader F,
Fig. 29, is the same as the projection 7 8 over the leader Y, Fig. 28.

Fig. 29 also shows a portion of front elevation of the molding G, which miters
to the leader head E, as shown.
Fig. 30 is a part of showing top brace fastened at top and
Fig. 28 reversed,
bottom to prevent the gutter from breaking down when filled with snow and ice.
After the gutter is lined and the top lock is sold-

ered watertight a galvanized iron brace is screwed

to the roof boards and into the plank to the front
of the gutter, as shown. These braces are placed
about 30 to 36 inches apart, and are made of
3-16 X 1 inch band iron, the same material being
used for the inside braces, shown in Fig. 28.

Fig. 30. — Part Section of Gutter, Showing Havin « " OW explained how the WOtk IS to be
Top Brace constructed and put up, we are in a better position
to take the measurements and obtain the patterns.
Fig. 31 is a rough sketch of the roof plan of a bay window, showing the
leader, projection of the leader head and angles of walls. The measurement
for the moldings would be taken upon the wall line from A to B, B to C and C to I),

I J
Fig. 31. — Roof Plan of a Bay Window.
the angles ABC and BCD being the same. The angle is taken with a bevel, as
explained in a previous article. The angles at A E and D F are square. Two
miter patterns would be required, one for the angle A B C or B C D and the other
for the leader head shown in Figs. 47 and 48. *
To obtain the two patterns for the miters proceed as follows: Let A2 Fig. 32, ,

represent the section or profile of the gutter, shown at F', Fig. 28. Place the profile
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 569

in its correct position, as indicated, having the line 12 13 of the profile A2 per-
pendicular, and divide the profile into a number of parts, as shown. In line with
2 3 of the profile A2
place the angle of the leader head, as shown by H I J or

1 2

Fig. 32. —Method of Obtaining Two Miter Patterns, Using One Profile

I J O in Fig. 31, which is a right angle, as shown by B' A' C' in Fig. 32. Then
again in line with 2 3 of the profile A 2
,
Fig. 32, place the angle of the wall A B C or
B C D of Fig. 31, as shown by B A C in Fig. 32.
The next step is to obtain the miter lines of these two angles, for which pro-
ceed as follows: Place one leg of the compass at the point A', Fig. 32, and strike
an arc, as shown, from C' to B'. Now, with C' and B' as centers strike the tw^
 57° Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

arcs, as shown intersecting each other at D' and 0. A

drawn through these
line

two intersections will be the required miter line, as shown from E' to A'.
The same method is employed for obtaining the miter line for the other angle.
With A as center strike the arc from C to B; then with C and B as centers strike
the two arcs shown intersecting each other at D and J. A line drawn through D and
J will be the required miter line, as shown from E to A, Fig. 32. When miters for
different angles are required, and the profile is the same, it is well to use this method
of placing the miter lines under one another, thereby saving considerable time in

spacing the profile for each miter line.

From the divisions on the profile A2 drop perpendicular lines, as shown, cut-
ting the miter lines F/ A' and E A At right angles to the perpendicular lines
draw the line H I indefinitely, upon which place the stretchout of the profile A2 ,

as shown by the small figures 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. At right angles to the stretchout

line H I draw lines indefinitely from the small figures, which intersect with lines

of corresponding numbers drawn from the intersections on the miter lines E' A'

and E A parallel to the line H I. Draw lines through these intersections; then
HIKJ will be the miter pattern for the angle required for the leader head shown
at E, Fig. 29; and L MN the miter pattern for the angle taken on the wall line
ABC or BC D, Fig. 31. It will be noticed that the angle B' A' C', Fig. 32, is a
right angle, and that the pattern obtained is for a square return miter. The
method here shown is the long rule for obtaining square miter patterns, and it is

the writer’s preference always to use the short method ;

but when cases arise where
miter patterns are required at other than right angles, and a plan must be drawn
as B AC in Fig. 32, then we can just as well draw the plan of the right angle B'
A' C', as but one operation is required to intersect any number of miter lines.

Fig. 33 shows the method of cutting the full size patterns from a sheet of iron
with as little waste as possible. Let A B C D represent a sheet of iron, upon which
the patterns for the leader head are to be laid out.
In practice, the front edge of the sheet at B would be cut straight, so that the

lock would show an even edge when bent at the brake, and to which the lock of
the gutter lining would be attached, as at J, Fig. 28. A stretchout of the profile
A2 ,
Fig. 32, is now taken upon a strip of zinc about § inch wide, upon which the
bends of the moldings are dotted off. These dots are now transferred upon the
sheet by placing the zinc stretchout even on the line A D, Fig. 33, and dotting off

the sheet by means of a scribe awl and hammer. Horizontal lines are then drawn
through these dots, which represent the bends of the molding. Next turn the
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 57 1

pattern A of Fig. 32, and place the line 2 2 of pattern to correspond with the line
2 2 upon the sheet of iron in Fig. 33, and mark the miter, as shown, from H to I,

with a scribe awl. Take the width of the leader Y, Fig. 28, and place it as shown

Fi£ 33. — Method of Cutting Full Size Pattern

from I to J on the line 15 15, Fig. 33; then, reversing the pattern A of Fig. 32, lay
the point 15 of the miter upon the point J on the line 15 15, Fig. 33, and having
the line 2 2 of the pattern upon the line 2 2 of the sheet of iron, mark the miter,
as shown, from K to J. Then will KH I J or E of Fig. 33 represent the pattern
of the face of the leader head shown at E, Fig. 29. As the bottom of the leader
head is to be placed on the face E, Fig. 33, and the sheet of iron not being wide
enough, a small piece of iron would be soldered on. At right angles to I J draw
I S, equal in length to I J, and make a square, as shown. Draw the dotted diago-
nal lines, the intersection giving the center point from which to strike the circle
corresponding to the diameter of the leader Y, Fig. 28, and which would be cut
out with a circular shears or snips. This completes the pattern for the entire face
and bottom of the leader head, laps being allowed, as shown by the dotted lines.
Where the leader head intersects the moldings, as at H and 0, Fig. 31, it is.
called an inside miter. Therefore the pattern A of Fig. 32 would be placed in
such a position on the sheet of iron shown in Fig. 33 that L M would represent
a reverse cut, or inside miter. M N of Fig. 33 would be joined to I S, take the
As
width of I S and place it as shown by M N and L 0, and mark the miter cut. Then
will L M N 0 or F of Fig. 33 represent the projection of the leader head, shown

at F', Fig. 28, and the miter cut 0N of Fig. 33 be connected to the face E on the
cuts J K of II I. Now take the pattern A of Fig. 32, and place 2 2 of the pattern
 57 * Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

upon the line 2 2 of the sheet of iron and mark a reverse or inside miter, as shown
by P R, Fig. 33. Allow laps, as shown by the dotted lines from P to R; then
will AP RD or G represent a portion of the molding G, Fig. 29, on which the
leader head would be joined, the cut L M on Fig. 33 being joined to P R of the
same illustration. The measurement on the molding would be made upon the
line R 15 of Fig. 33, that being the bend which sets upon the brick wall. What-
ever more molding would be required to obtain the desired length would be joined
to the piece, G, Fig. 33, having the miter cut the same as B, Fig. 32, for the angles
A BC or BC D, Fig. 31.

ANOTHER MOLDED GUTTER ON BRICK WALL

Fig. 34 is another form of molded gutter for brick wall, showing the method
of fastening it to the wooden wall plate B. A represents the brick wall, B the wall

Fig. 34. —Fastening Sheet Metal Molding Against Wooden Plate

plate, and C the rafter upon which the roof boards are fastened. It will be noticed
that part of the molding, from P to E, drops down over the wall, and that the top
bend of the molding has an angle iron inserted at H.
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 573

After the detail of the molding is made, draw a section of the angle iron in
the top edge, as at H, also marking the position of the bolts through angle iron,
shown at 1 and 8. Now draw the top flange and lock of the molding, making the
top flange as wide as shown at F, so that the bolt 8 passing through the angle iron
will have plenty of play room to pass the lock J ;
or, in other words, the lock J
should be placed at such a distance from the bolt 8 that the gutter lining can be
locked into the lock J, without interfering with the bolt. When making the detail
of the inside brace, care should be taken that it meets the angle iron at 1, and the
length of the brace at XX should be such that when the plank L is laid upon the
portion of the brace from X to U it *vill come directly under the lock J; in this

way, when the gutter lining is locked into the molding the seam can be pounded
down tight. The other portion of the brace should meet the molding, as shown
at 2 and 3, then back to the wall plate with an angle bent upward and nailed to
the wooden plate at 6 and 7. The small angle at 4 and 5 is intended to keep the
drip molding tight against the wall, without nailing or defacing the molding. The
angle should be fastened to the main brace by means of a bolt, 4, and then bolted
through the flange of galvanized iron at 5. The hole 5 should be countersunk, so
that a smooth surface is obtained. Care should be taken in bolting the angle
4 5 to the main brace that one is exactly like the other, otherwise the drip mold-
ing will not lie even against the wall. The length of the stove bolt which is

inserted into the hole 5 should not be greater than the inside width of the member
Y of the drip molding.
After the molding is formed and set together to the required length the angle

iron is held in position with hand vises, as explained in a previous article, until
the top bolts are all inserted from the bottom up, as shown at 2, Fig. 35. After
the top bolts are all in place and the nuts fastened the front bolt 1 is placed through
the molding, angle iron and brace and fastened on the inside; the bolts are also
inserted at 2 and 3, Fig. 34, and the angle bolted to the main brace at 4, being
careful to have the distance from the angle 4 5 to the angle 6 7 the same as the
distance from the front of the wall to the wall plate B. The angle irons and braces
can all be put in the molding in the shop. Let us suppose the molding is 28 feet
in length, in which there are ten braces. In hoisting up on the wall two ropes
would be required, looping and fastening each rope on each side to the third brace
from the end and tying around the brace X, Fig. 34. When the molding is up
set it on the wall, and drive two anchor nails into the wall plate B at 6 and 7, thus
drawing the drip Y tight against the wall. The gutter is now lined with wood by
574 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

the carpenter, S being the lowest point and R the highest point, it being blocked
up with wood, as explained in a previous article. The gutter is then lined with
either tin, copper or galvanized iron and locked
into the lock of the molding at J, Fig. 34. In
Fig. 35 is shown a part of Fig. 34 reversed, with

the top brace bolted to the angle iron and screwed

to the roof board. At 1 is shown the bolt, pass-

ing from the outside through the molding, angle

Fig. 35. — Part of Gutter with Top Brace iron and brace and fastened on the inside. In
putting on the top brace, shown in Fig. 35, care
must be taken when loosening the nut of the bolt 2 that the bolt does not fall
inside of the molding. To prevent this lay a strip of wood onto the part of
brace X X, Fig. 34, before the gutter is planked, to uphold the bolt 8 when the
nut is loosened.
After the top brace is bolted at 2, Fig. 35, screw to the roof planks, as shown
by 3 and 4. This top brace will keep the gutter from bending down from the
weight of the snow and ice. In milder climates, where the snow is not considered,
the top braces could be omitted.
Let D, Fig. 34, represent a square leader, meeting the lowest point of the
gutter S, as shown by the dotted lines. To make a neat finish where the leader

Fig. 36. —Front Elevation of Molding, Leader and Head

D cuts through the drip molding, a small head is made for the leader, having the
same projection as the leader D, as shown by P E. Fig. 36 is a portion of the
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 575

front view of molding, leader and leader head, the section which is shown in
of
Fig. 34. 13 B represents part of the drip molding, A the leader head and C the
leader.
Having now explained the method of construction, as shown by the front
and sectional views, we will proceed to take the measurements and obtain the
patterns.
Let ABC D, Fig. 37, represent the plan view of a tin roof, showing the brick
walls and the molding on the front from A to B. 0 represents the section of a
square leader, shov n in Fig. 34 at B, and in Fig. 30 at C. When measuring the
length of the molding, measure upon the wall line from 1 to 2, Fig. 37. As no

Fig. 37. — Roof Plan, Showing Leader and Gutter

return miters are required in the molding, two flat heads, shown at A and B, Fig.

37, are placed on each end of the molding. As the water is to run to the center

of the building, the leader will be placed at 0, Fig. 37, with a projecting leader head
to the hight of the drip molding, the face of which is shown in Fig. 36 at A, and
the projection in Fig. 34 at P and E.
To obtain the patterns for the flat heads for the moldings, proceed as follows:
In line with the wall shown in Fig. 34, draw a dotted line as shown from 5 to A',

and at right angles to it draw a dotted line, H A', meeting the top bend of the mold-
ing H.
Transfer this angle, including the profile of the molding shown in Fig. 34, upon
a piece of galvanized by placing the galvanized iron underneath the detail
iron,

of the molding and pricking through by means of a scribe awl and- hammer. The
result is shown in Fig. 38 by A B C. In pricking through the profile on detail,

it is best first to divide the profile into a number of parts, so as to obtain the stretch-

out, and then prick through these divisions.

As the molding usually is made to represent stone after being painted and
sanded, and as stone work always shows the bearing upon the wall from the side
view, it is well to add 4 inches or more to the pattern of the flat head, as shown
from D to E, in Fig. 38.
57 6 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

Now take the stretchout of the top flange of the molding, shown from H to J

in Fig. 34, and transfer it as shown by F and G, Fig. 38, at right angles to A D, and
add the lock, as shown from H to I.

At right angles to D A, Fig. 38, draw the line A J. Take the distance of the

flange DF in Fig. 38 in the dividers, and placing one leg on the point J strike an

Fig. 38. — Pattern for a Flat Head Fig. 39. — Pattern for Return on Leader Head
arc intersecting the line F G at G. Draw a line from A to G, which will be the
miter for the top flange of the head, mitering with the top flange of the molding
at right angles in plan, shown by 1 A B or A B 2 in Fig. 37. At right angles to
F G, Fig. 38, draw G I, which completes the patterns. Allow lugs, as shown.
For the pattern of the leader head proceed as follows: Draw a duplicate

of the profile of the drip molding, shown in Fig. 34, at A, Fig. 39. Divide A into

a number of parts, as shown. Now draw any perpendicular line, as B C, upon

which place the stretchout of the profile A at right angles to the line B C, and from
the small figures draw lines indefinitely, as shown. From the divisions obtained

in the profile A drop perpendicular lines intersecting the corresponding numbers

drawn at right angles to the stretchout B C. A line traced through these inter-
sections from D to F will be the required miter pattern. Now take the distance
of the projection of the leader, shown at D, Fig. 34, arid with the dividers measure
the distance from the miter cut D F, Fig. 39, on the lines 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.; trace a
line through the points, as shown, from C to H. Then D F H C, or P and E, will

be the pattern required for the projection of the leader head shown by P E, Fig. 34.

In Fig. 40, B A and B represent a sheet of iron, on which part of the bends
of the molding have been lined, as shown. Let us suppose that, the length of
the molding having been obtained, the leader will come in the position on the sheet
shown by J K. Now use the pattern P E, Fig. 39, and place the point F, Fig. 39,
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 577

upon the point K, Fig. 40, placing the line F H of Fig. 39 upon the line K H of
Fig. 40, and draw the miter line shown from M to K. Now have J K, Fig. 40, the

width of the face shown at C, Fig. 36. Reverse the pattern P E of

of the leader

Fig. 39, and plact: the point F upon the point J, Fig. 40, placing the line F H upon
the line J F, and mark the miter line shown from L to J. As the projection, of
the leader head comes out as far as up to the line P, Fig. 40, when the molding is
formed, we can add a small lap, as shown from L to M, to the
pattern A of Fig. 40. Now, taking the right handed snips, cut
out the pattern, A of Fig. 40, commencing at the point K, on
the miter line up to M, over to L and down to J.

A in Fig. 4 1 represents the pattern for the face of the

Fig 4 e Face
leader head which was so obtained. It will be noticed that the <

0Vreader Hel d

face A of 40 and 41 has no lap attached, the same being

Figs.

the case with B and B of Fig. 40. For this reason laps have been added to the
pattern for the return on leader head, shown at P and E in Fig. 39. The miter
cut C H, Fig. 39, is joined to the cuts M K or L J, Fig. 41, and the cut D F,
Fig. 39, to the cuts M K or L J, on the sheet B B, Fig. 40, when setting together.

TEN FORMS OF GUTTER CONSTRUCTION

In the following article are shown 10 different forms of gutter construction
used under different conditions. The simple forms are those used on frame struc-
tures, while the complicated are employed on fireproof construction. In Fig. 42

isshown the simple form used under the eaves of shingle roofs. A is a double
beaded gutter fastened to the roof C by means of the hanger B. These hangers
can be obtained in wire or strap form or of malleable iron from dealers in tinners’
supplies. In Fig. 43 A shows a regular half-round eave gutter, turning on the
578 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

roof at B. When the roof is tile, slate or shingles, the flange B is made 8 inches
wide. When the roof is of metal a lock is attached to this flange B as shown at C.
In Fig. 44, shown another
is style of gutter, the bott om of which rests on the
brick wall and the back of which is flanged to the roof boards with a lock at b for

Fig. 47 Fig. 48

Different Forms of Gutter Construction

locking purposes. When the roof is of gravel or slag a guard is placed on the gutter
flange, bending it direct to the gutter as shown at e, making a V-shaped guard
or
and tacking it with solder to the gutter flange, as indicated at X by h and i. This
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 579

guard prevents the tar or slag from running into the gutter in hot weather. A
wire edge a is placed at the top of the gutter, and to this the ordinary braces are
fastened. In case tile gutter overflows the water has a tendency to follow the face
of the mold and run between the gutter and brick wall, thereby causing a leak.
This is overcome by soldering an angle B along the entire length of the gutter before
it is set; this acts as a drip and leads the overflow over the face of the wall.
In some cases when' an eave gutter is objectionable a roof gutter is employed,
as shown by A in Fig. 45. If the roof is covered with tin the lower part at the eave
a is first covered a short distance under the gutter as shown, after which the gutter
is set, allowing a lock along a level line to which to lock the flat or standing scam
roofing. Should the roof be covered with shingles, slate or tile, the lower part of
the eave is first covered, as shown in diagram ('; then the gutter is set with the
required pitch, the braces fastened and the rest of t he roof laid as indicated. Leader
connections are usually made as indicated at B with wire mesh bent V shape to
act as a strainer over the outlet, as shown at b.

When the front or face «..f a building is covered with corrugated, V-shaped,
pressed brick or any other style of metal covering, or when faced with shingle
or slate, the rafters running flush with the building line, the finish at the eave is

made as follows: After the roof boards A and face sheathing B in Fig. 46 are in
position, the required blocking C is nailed in position, and the metal casing D
is nailed over the wood blocking at a and b. A groove is formed as shown, and
into this is placed the face covering E, the drip H protecting against leakage in
case of an overflow. After the casing D is in a position the gutter F is set in the

usual manner, allowing a lock at C if necessary for metal roofing.

Fig. 47 shows another style of construction when the rafter B projects over
the brick wall. The rafters are generally set upon the plate C and cut at an angle
shown by D at the bottom. The sheathing E is then placed, being careful to have
a furring strip or blocking built in with the wall to the required hight, on which
to nail the eave mold. This strip is shown by F. Having obtained the proper
projection and hight, the molding is nailed to the roof at a and to the bottom of
the blocking at b. Better practice is to use wood screws to fasten at 6; this pre-
vents the loosening of the lower part of the mold by the nails being drawn out

through the action of the weather and sun. When the mold is up the gutter J is

set, fastening at d, or using band iron hangers and top braces.

Fig. 48 shows a case of fireproof construction when the gutter is hidden below
the roof line. The roof is covered with tile in this instance, but the method of
 5 ®° Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

construction is similar, no matter what the roof covering may be. A shows the
terra cotta cornice supported on the wall. The roof rafter rests on the 3X8 in.

plate, the roof and back of the gutter being sheathed as shown. The top of the

cornice is filled with concrete, as shown by B, to continue in line with the sheathed
roof as shown. In this concrete the gutter is formed, and the gutter is lined with

cold rolled copper down to the eave as far as a and on the sheathed roof as far as

b. In laying this gutter all seams should be first tinned, then locked and sweated
with solder, being careful to fasten it with cleats.

The gutter being lined, the tile roof is started by using closed end tile, then
the regular tile, allowing 2-inch lap. The gutter is so placed so that the third tile

will lap over the top of the gutter, as shown by C, I) and E. This third tile E
is only placed at the ends of the roof to make
when viewed from below,a finish
and is omitted otherwise so as to allow the rain water to drain into the gutter. The
remainder of the tile are laid in regular order, as shown by F, G and H. The gutter
is drained to the inside of the building in each corner, or in recesses built in the wall,
to cast iron pipes, as shown by M. At L L is shown a sheet lead goose neck which
is run from the gutter J and caulked into the iron pipe M. A copper basket strainer
J prevents the outlet from being choked with dirt, leaves, etc.

When a gutter is to be joined to a stone cornice, coping or the like, the work
is accomplished as shown in Fig. 49, in which A is the stone or terra cotta cornice
and B the roof rafter. At its proper place a groove or raglet is cut into the stone
shown by A, or if terra cotta this raglet is molded into the clay before hardening.
The wood blocking C and the lining of the gutter F is first completed by the car-
penter, after which the molding D is set in position with a lock at E and an edge
into the raglet A. On a good job this raglet is filled with molten lead or plugged
with lead at intervals and then filled with molten sulphur. Sulphur makes a tight
job and need not be caulked like lead, because when the sulphur cools it expands,
while the lead contracts on cooling. The molding D being fastened, the gutter
lining is now placed in the position shown, locking at E
and allowing a lock at G.
The lowest point of the gutter is at F and the highest point at H. The leader con-
nection is similar to that shown in Fig. 48.
In Fig. 49 the forward part of the stone or terra cotta cornice is left exposed
to the weather, which in some cases is objectionable and is overcome as shown in
Fig. 50, in which holes A are drilled into the stone or modeled into the terra cotta
about 18 inches apart, 1 inch in diameter and about 1$ inches deep. These holes
are plugged with lead, and when the blocking B is completed the molding D is
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 5 8i

set, with a beaded edge at a, which acts as a drip. Brass screws are put through
the metal D and screwed into The screws should not be soldered
the lead plugs A.
to the metal, but a concave cap should be set over them and soldered. This
makes a tight seam and allows for the expansion and contraction of the metal, as
shown at X. The gutter lining is locked into C and the leader connection made
in the usual manner.
Fig. 51 shows a rigid form of gutter construction on which the painters’
scaffold can be hung if need be. Using this construction there need be no fear

of expansion when the gutter freezes in the winter. It is a construction used on

all first-class jobs. After the wall has been built to its proper hight and rafter
D put in position the distance is measured from the front edge of the wall a to
the front of the plate b and the necessary brace made. The angle iron B is 1J
Xljx J inches in size and runs throughout the entire froht edge of the cornice.
It is bolted to the brace C at e and through the top of the cornice at E. A bolt
passes through the brace and cornice at the drip a.
The cornice A is now upon the wall and fastened to the wooden plate D
set

at 6. This draws in the drip snug against the wall. The gutter is then planked
as shown by h j, it being noted that the lock m is so placed that the plank h meets
 I

58a Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

it to allow the closing of the lock m with the mallet when the gutter lining m n
is locked to it. After the gutter is lined and the lock m soldered, top galvanized
iron band braces are bolted across the top of the gutter as shown by H. E repre-
sents the bolt ready -to receive the top brace, which is indicated at F, which shows
the nut. The brace is then screwed to the roof as at J. When using band iron
braces the tendency of the water when flowing down the roof is to follow the brace

and allow small streams of water to flow over the front. This is overcome by
putting the twist in the brace as at L. The water is then directed into the gutter
and the construction incidently makes the brace more rigid. The bolts for the

top braces are placed about 2 inches beside the inner brace C and a metal wedge
or strip placed under the head of the top bolt to keep it from falling on the inside
after the gutter is lined.

PRACTICAL TALKS ON GUTTERS—

A cornice recently used on a building provides the subjects for the accompany-
ing illustrations. The design was intended to enhance the effect of the overhung
roof, which was supported by braced rafters 3 feet 6 inches apart, a large bracket

covering each rafter and its brace; the space between brackets being filled in

with a cornice of plain, unmolded metal.

Fig. 52 is a vertical section through the wall and overhung roof, showing
sections of the cornice and gutter, a side view of the brackets and a dotted line
view of the wood rafters and brace. Fig. 53 is a section on A B; Fig. 54, a section

on C D; Fig. 55, a section on E F; Fig. 56, an enlarged view of the adjustable

slip lock connection between brackets and cornice; Fig. 57, an enlarged view of
lock K, and Fig. 58, an enlarged view of lock J.

It will be seen from the illustrations that the rafters and braces cut the cornice
almost completely in two and practically resolve it into a series of short filling-in
pieces between the brackets. This suggested the idea of making an adjustable
interlocking connection between the brackets and cornice sections. Therefore,
the brackets were made with reverse, bent inwardly, projecting grooves or locks

on the front, top and back edges, into which the raw edges of the soffit and frieze

section of the cornice could be inserted and secured. Section A was formed with
lock K to connect with the foot mold E, and lock J to connect with the fascia mold
L. The foot mold E and fascia mold L were made in 20-foot sections. The work
was then delivered to the building and put up as follows:
 —

Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 583

A 20-foot section of foot mold E was first secured in place by screws, and then
the first bracket — which, of course, was suitably modified to form an end bracket
was secured in place by nails driven through the groove lock flanges into the wood
backing. A section of A was then placed in position by raising it into place along-

side of the bracket, springing the vertical back of the same to a curve, so that

lock K could be raised and slipped over the upwardly projecting flange of foot mold
E, and then sliding A along against the bracket and into the grooves or locks on
the edges of the same, securing by screws, N, which passed through A and the

bracket flange and into the wood backing. The next bracket was then placed in
position, slide locked to section A and secured thereto and to the wood backing by

screws N. Thus a section of A and a bracket were alternately secured in position

until the first 20-foot section of foot mold E was covered. Then a 20-foot section of
 5®4 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

fascia mold L was put in place and secured by screws to the wood backing. The
bottom edge of the brackets at the point J having the same groove lock as section A
at that point, a continuous groove was thus formed to receive the upwardly
turned inner edge of fascia mold L. A section of gutter provided with a lead
drip M, was then placed in position and secured by ordinary braces, thus com-
pleting one section of the cornice. Several roof boards were temporarily left off

in order to allow access to the back of the cornice, which made it easy to connect
the slide lock joints.
It will be seen that, owing to the adjustability of the slide locks, the work
was assembled in place on the building, with the brackets properly spaced, even
quicker than it could have been put together in the shop, with the advantage,
in the former case, that the work was completed, whereas, in the latter case, it

would not only still have been necessary to erect the work after assembling it, but
it would have been difficult to get all the brackets spaced to exactly suit the spac-
ing of the rafters.
The principle underlying the construction used in this case, i. e., the use of
adjustable lock connections between the brackets and cornice sections, where the
cornice is nearly severed by its supporting brackets, could be more largely used
than it is. Modifications to suit the conditions in each case will, of course, be

necessary; but the principle is good and can be safely recommended.

PRACTICAL TALKS ON GUTTERS—II

Gutters constitute one of the most important branches of the tin and cornice
business. They are made in various forms, typical illustrations of which are
shown herewith. The form of a gutter changes with the climate in which the
building is located, conditions being created in Northern latitudes by low tem-
peratures that never, or, at least, seldom, occur in Southern latitudes. Thus
roof drainage is a much simpler problem in warm climates than in cold.
In designing gutters for use in warm climates, there are but three general

conditions to meet, viz. That the gutter be large enough, that it be pitched to
the outlets and that it be made water tight. Any of the forms shown can be made
to meet these requirements, of course; but, in gutters for use in cold climates, the
additional requirements occasioned by contraction and the presence of ice and
snow must be met. For instance, in draining an ordinary slate roof in New Eng-
land, it is advisable to use a gutter which, when filled with ice, will not act as
 .

Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 585

a dam to the water which falls upon or is melted from the ice on the roof, thereby
forming a pool which will back up over the slates behind the gutter and flow into
the building. Gutters like those shown in Figs. 56a, 57a, and 58a will cause this

result, whereas gutters like those shown in Figs. 59, 60, 61, and 62, being placed

at the extreme edge and which do not project above the plane of the roof, will
not constitute such an obstruction.
Usually gutters are set when the weather is comparatively warm, and, in
cold climates, provision should be made for the contraction of the metal, which
occurs later. This contraction should be provided for by expansion joints, placed
not more than 50 feet apart. The necessity for these joints is another reason why
a form of wall gutter should be used, as the joints are most readily made in this

form of gutter. The usual manner of constructing these expansion joints will be
shown in a later article. The object of the joints is, of course, to afford a flexible
point or connection to take up the expansion and contraction in the length of the
gutter, thus releasing the seams of strain, and consequently lessening the liability

of leaks from broken seams.

In copper gutters, the end lap seams should be tinned before the gutter is

formed, and when joining the 8-foot sections together in the shop, after forming,
the joints should be riveted, the rivets being placed not more than 2 \ inches apart,
and the seams then soaked full of good solder, using a clean flux and a large, well
heated soldering copper. In joining the 16-foot or 24-foot sections on the build-
ing, the joints should be riveted as much as possible and then heavily soldered
 586 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

All wall gutters should be stiffened with galvanized or tinned iron bars, not

smaller than 1 X 1 inch, and twisted dogs, 1 X | inch, and 30 inches apart ,
well
riveted to the bar and secured to the roof. Such gutters should also be provided
with drips, either formed integral with the gutter, as in Fig. G2, or a lead drip se-
curely soldered thereto, as in Fig. 59. The latter method is preferable, for the
reason that the bottom of the gutter is left plain and free from bends, and the dip
or groove a, Fig. 62, incident to the former method, thus being less likely to catch
and hold leaves and debris that tend to corrode the metal. Furthermore, the
pendant lead drip can be bent or dressed to suit irregularities in masonry work,
which cannot be done when the drip is formed integral with the gutter.
Ice is not likely to form and remain in gutters of the types shown by Figs.
63 and 64, for the reason that the entire under surface of the gutter is within the
building and therefore exposed to the heat from below, which prevents the ad-
hesion of ice to the gutter, leaving a free passage for the water to the outlets at all

times.

PRACTICAL TALKS ON GUTTERS—III

Different methods of getting out and laying or putting up some of the gutters
shown in the preceding article are described as follows:

First, take Fig. 63, already mentioned. Assuming the material to be tin or
copper, it should be first put together in rolls of proper width, and the seams well
locked and soldered, care being taken, if the gutter is of copper, to tin as much
of the ends of the sheets as will be taken up by the locks before turning the edges.
The carpenter or mason usually leaves a stage in position at the eaves, and as the
roof below the gutter should be slated before the gutter is put in, thus necessitating
the presence of the slater with his roof stages, the next step is to take the gutter
in rolls to the building and form it on the spot, as follows:
Roll the material out on the roof just above and parallel with the gutter,
securing it in a perfectly straight line with small nails in the extreme top edge, but
partly driven, using the stages above mentioned to operate from. Then take a
narrow strip of metal the length of which equals the width of the gutter lining,

and form it to the profile of the gutter trough at one end of the same, by pressing
it into place in the trough; prick punch the bends. Remove and straighten the
strip, lay it on the corresponding end of the gutter lining, and transfer the prick
marks from the strip to- the lining. Repeat this operation at the other end of
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 587

the stretch. The length of the stretch is governed by the distance between the
highest and lowest points in that slope or portion of the gutter. Now, mark the
two middle bends by chalk line the full length of the stretch, and make the lower
middle bend with the gutter tongs. Tack a few blocks on the roof below the gutter
and adjacent to the face just turned up, to prevent the work from sliding down
the roof. Then remove the retaining nails in the upper edge, and turn the up-
per middle bend with the tongs, thus resolving the work into a long U-shaped
trough, except that the bottom is flat instead of rounded. Now drop the lining
into pla. e in the •;,un and hold down with the foot, pressing on a narrow board
laid in the bottom of the gutter, and bend the top and bottom laps or aprons over
on the roof abo e and slated roof below, respectively.
Just before turning the apron over on to the slate below the gutter, a brake
or angle of about 45 degrees should be turned on the edge of the same with 4-inch
gauge roofing tongs, thus insuring that the edge of the metal will lie close to the

slate. This apron should be secured by screws passing through the slate, or, what
is better, a narrow board about the thickness of the slate roofing should be laid

on the roof flush with the lower edge of the gutter trough, against the lower edge of
which the slate ends, thus forming a protection for the slate, as well as means of

securing the metal apron. The upper apron is simply nailed along its edges to
the roof boards, and finally covered by the slates or shingles.
Another method is to form all the bends in the brake in 8 or 10 foot lengths,
and deliver the work to the building in sections. This is a much quicker method,
provided the carpenter work of the gutter is straight and accurate, but such a
carpenter job on gutter troughs is seldom met with.
The advantages of the first method are, rounded bends that do not crack or
strain the metal, close fitting of the lining to the wood work, saving of seams and
saving of time in measuring and making dimension sketches. Its only disadvantage
is the comparative difficulty of bending, which is not serious. The one advantage
of the latter method is the comparative saving of time in forming, its disadvan-
tages being sharp bends, except when certain brakes or dies are used, discrepancy
between the profile of the lining and that of the trough, thus leaving the lining im-
properly supported, multiplicity of seams to make outside of the shop, and time
consumed in measuring dimensions and making sketches.
A gutter like that shown in Fig. 56 is very easily made and applied, and can
be satisfactorily formed on a brake, as the hight of the wood core above the roof
is the same at all points, the pitch of the gutter being obtained by placing the core
 5 88 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

at a slight angle with the eave. When the metal is not wide enough to form the
entire stretchout in one piece, a lock seam is usually made at “a,” Fig. 56a,
as indicated in Fig. 65.
What has been said about the gutter, Fig. 63, applies to the gutter, Fig. 57a,
but, as the latter must be neatly finished over the outer edge of the crown mold,
something will be said on that point.
A method of finishing a gutter edge is shown in Fig. 66, which has been found
effective and economical. Strips of galvanized iron are cut and bent at right
VET AL

SECTION C-D

Fie- m
Construction of Gutters

angles in the brake or bar folder, to form angle pieces 5-8 inch on one side and
|
inch less than the width of the face of the crown mold on the other. The narrow
leg of the angle is then nailed to the face of the crown mold with the wide leg flush
with its top, the gutter lining is then hooked over the wide outstanding edge.
All is bent down together as far as possible with a pair of roof tongs, and then laid
up close to the face of the mold with a block and mallet, thus no nails or raw
edges
are left exposed.
In a gutter, as shown in Fig. 64, the pitch is by runni ng
usually obtained
the bottom line of the gutter at an angle with the wall, which
varies the width of
member “a.” Therefore, the best way to manage this gutter is to turn the locks
on the flat sheets, first tinning the edges, copper
if is used, and then take the
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 589

material to the building and lay it directly in place, as shown in Fig. 67, using

cleats, not under edge nails. Heavy roofing felt should be used under the metal.
In some cases, where the girth admits, the gravel edge can be made in the

shop on the brake, and used without support; but, as a rule, it is better to nail
a f-inoh wood ground strip on the roof and form the metal over it, thus having
the otherwise unsupported gravel member protected against crushing if stepped on.
Fig. 68 is an enlarged sectional view on line AB of Fig. 67 and Fig. 69 a similar

view on line, C D.
The oughly s“'.3cr .‘he seams and cap flash the edge against the wall with heavy
sheet lead, extending at least 2 inches into the wall in moderate climates and 4
inches in cold ch nates. It is always best to build in the flashing as the wall is laid.

All tin or galvanized iron gutter linings should be thoroughly painted on the
under side long enough before laying to allow the paint to dry.
Attention has been called to the likelihood of the nails in the lower edge Of
the gutter, shown in Fig. 63, being drawn out by the sun. Other methods of

finishing this lower edge are, therefore, shown in Figs. 63a and 63b, which obviate
the difficulty mentioned. The entire gutter is not shown, it being deemed sufficient
to show the edge to be finished. Referring to Fig. 63a, it will be seen that a wood
strip, a, is nailed on the roof flush with the lower edge of the wood gutter, against
which the slate finishes. The thickness of this strip should equal the thickness of

the slate roof. On top of strip a another strip, b, about twice as wide as strip a, is
nailed. Strip b extends down over the slate about 2 inches. To the lower edge of
strip b a metal strip, c, is nailed, as shown, the top edge of which is turned down par-
allel with the upper surface of strip b . The gutter is locked on to this edge, as indi-
 59 ° Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

cated by the dotted lines, and then double seamed down over and forming a covering
for the nails which secure the metal strip c, and at the same time securing the lower
edge of the gutter, by means of the seam, in a neat and substantial manner.
In executing this finish the first thing to be done is to nail the strip a in po-
sition ;
then finish up the slate roof, after which wood strip b is nailed in place, the
metal strip c applied, and the gutter double seamed thereto. It will be noted that
metal strip c covers the nails which secure the upper course of slate.
Another method of finishing the lower edge of roof gutters, shown in Fig. 63b,

is by means of a slate pocket. It will be seen that the pocket, d, is formed on the
lower edge of the gutter into which the slate finishes. A separate strip, e, is then
inserted into this pocket for the purpose of covering the slate nails. Strip e is

secured in place by soldering to the gutter at intervals at the point /. As there

is no strain on this strip, securing by solder is a durable method.
Either of these methods can be applied to gutters as illustrated in Figs. 56a
and 63 respectively, or to any form of roof gutter the lower edge of which finishes

over a slate, shingle or tile roof.

PRACTICAL TALKS ON GUTTER WORK—IV

In getting out and putting up copper wall gutters like those shown in Figs.
60, 61 and 62, the following methods have been found to be good: Assuming that
patterns and measurements have been provided, the next step is to lay out a
dimension sketch or plan of the gutter, as in Fig. 70, indicating and marking the
length of each sheet or section, as shown. Then cut and mark the stock accord-
ing to the sketch, being careful to do all marking on the inside surface of the gutter

so that the brake man will know how to form the pieces, right or left. Also mark
the surface of each lap to be tinned. It is only necessary to tin contact surfaces.
Now, tin the laps, and form the gutter, except the bend a, Fig. 71, which should
generally be made when the gutter is set in place on the wall, as it is difficult to
make this bend in the shop, so that the member b will vary in the exact proportion

necessary to suit the pitch of the gutter.

In the meantime the gutter bars and dogs should be prepared. The bars
should be cut a trifle shorter than the length of the gutter sections, measured on
the outer edge of course, and punched for the dog rivets. The dogs should be cut,

punched and twisted, and the end which rivets to the bar bent, leaving the roof
bend to be made outside with a properly constructed pair of bending wrenches.
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 59 1

Now put the gutter together shown on dimension

in 16-foot sections, or as
sketch, Fig. 70, “open” indicating the seams to be made at the building, and put
in the bars, being careful to allow the bars to project several inches out of one end

Construction of Hanging Gutters

of the gutter section, leaving it that much short at the other end, so that when
the sections are joined on the building, the joints of the gutter and bar respectively
will be dodged or broken, as indicated in Fig. 72, which avoids weakening the gut-
ter at the joints.

Before the bar is put into the gutter it should be laid on the outer face of the
same, and the dog rivets holes marked on the copper, so that after the bar is

folded in place there will be no difficulty in locating and punching the holes through
the copper.
As the dimension sketch, Fig. 70, shows a straight stretch of gutter over 80

feet long, it is necessary to use an expansion joint constructed as follows: Re-

ferring to Fig. 73, it will be seen that the two adjacent sections of gutter each have
end heads, c and d respectively —that is, section a, being placed at the extreme
end of the section and the top edge cut drawn from the inner top edge
off on a line

of the gutter bar to the roof bend, while the end head c in section b is placed about

1% inches back from the end of the gutter section and projects up about 1J inches
above the end head in section a, as indicated. When the gutter is put up sections
59 * Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

a and b are laid together end to end, as shown, with a space of about § inch between
the respective end heads, the lap c is bent down over d, and the roof apron seam,
e, well soldered.

In putting up gutters of this kind the use of nails driven through the bottom
or back of the gutter for the purpose of holding down to its seat should be avoided,
it

as the dogs are amply sufficient for this purpose when properly formed and secured.
The dogs should be riveted to the bar with large copper rivets and secured to the

roof with large tinned wrought iron nails well soldered and wiped around. In
soldering or wiping around the dog nails a gasoline torch should be used to heat
the dog nails and surrounding copper so as to insure the thorough soaking of the
solder under and between the entire contact surface of the dog and copper, thus
removing the possibility of the entrance of water through the holes pierced in the

copper by the dog nails.

In making the “open” seams the torch should be used to warm the bar mem-
ber and enable the solder to flow completely around the bar, so that the seams will

be watertight up to the top edge of the bar. It is difficult to accomplish this or

successfully solder the dogs if the heat of a soldering copper alone is depended upon.
The gutter seats on walls are usually pitched to the outlets, but in putting up
“flat back” hanging gutters it is left to the metal man to look out for the pitch,

there being no wall seat, therefore it is advisable for him to use a spirit level in

setting such gutters, as the builders cannot be depended upon to leave the roof

eave exactly horizontal. In the rare cases where the eave is left exactly level
the roof bend of flat back gutters can be made in the shop with safety, it only being
necessary to lay the loose pieces end to end in a straight line, forming stretches
of gutter on the floor, locate the roof bend at each end, allowing for pitch, con-
nect with a chalk line and bend the several component pieces in the brake at the
chalk mark. It would be a simple matter to figure the location of the roof bends
in all gutters if the masonry or carpenter work was accurate, but such is seldom
the case.
Ordinary eave trough hanging gutters, which together with the hangers can-
be bought from stock, is too well known to justify description, but a special hang-
ing gutter now being largely used by New England’s leading architects will be
briefly described.

A general view of this gutter is shown in Fig. 74, and an enlarged section
through one end in Fig. 75. It will be seen that the bars are not punched, there
being a horizontal longitudinal recess left under same which receives the end of
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 593

the supporting dog. A and B is the clamping dog. The threaded roof dog C
passes through both the clamping and supporting dogs and is provided with a nut
below the latter and another nut above the former. It will be seen that the
threaded and nutted roof dog not only carries the gutter but provides for the pitch;
the supporting dogs A connect the gutter with the roof dogs C, and also prevent
the sides from moving inwardly; the clamping dogs B prevent the sides from
spreading, and being about f inch distant from the supporting dog, forms to-
gether with same a support or fulcrum that braces the gutter against tilting or
twisting vhen stepped on by ice on its outer edge. The roof dogs are
or struck
countersunk into die roof boards and ecured by two large screws, and the gutter
are usually cons! acted easily carries the weight of a man.

HINTS ON MAKING CONDUCTOR PIPE AND EAVE TROUGH

These are the methods adopted by a successful sheet metal worker and are
presented here for a guide to others when equipping a sheet metal working shop
for making articles so that they will be regular in size and thus avoid annoyance.
In my shop a varied line of sheet metal work is done, yet I have a great deal of
demand for eaves trough and conductor pipe ;
as I am frequently called upon to
repair, renew and extend some of my work, it is important that the size shall be
regular to avoid trouble and expense.
In making these articles I use an 8-foot cornice brake, a groover and edger
and a crimping machine. Conductor pipe is made in 30-inch lengths, with a
grooved seam that is flattened down tight with a mallet and tacked with solder
in the center. At the squaring shears, I have a gauge for every size of conductor
pipe — 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6-inch — so that every piece of pipe that is cut is exactly the
same in size and we never have trouble in getting them to fit.

We cut all the tubes connected with eave trough § inches smaller than the
conductor pipe. This saves a lot of trouble, and it is surprising to see how easy
it is to connect a conductor pipe when it will slip up readily over the gutter tube
or outlet.
For eaves trough I use what is commonly known as the ogee gutter in every
possible place where I can, as it is easy to form, easy to rivet together in lengths,
easy to solder, easy to paint, and, what is most important, it always looks well
and pleases almost everybody.
594 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

As will be seen from the illustration, a sharp, square bend is avoided in order
to prevent breaking the galvanizing. At the top the front is bent as shown to
form a finish, and a double edge is pro-
vided to give strength. At intervals
varying with the size of the gutter,
braces are riveted to strengthen the
gutter as shown in the sketch.

My down-spout or conductor-pipe
Fig. 76.—Section of Eaves Trough and Conductor Gauges gauges are made of galvanized iron 2
inches wide and have a double edge. They have a hole punched in one end
so they can be hung up, and the size is marked on them with a prick punch so
there can be no mistake.

EAVES TROUGH FOR 30-FOOT RADIUS

It is probable that if the eave trough is erected in relatively short sections that
even from a close distance it will have the appearance of conforming to the cir-

cular line of the building without itself

being curved. Assuming that it may not

be convenient to obtain eave trough in
lengths as little as 4 feet, 8 foot lengths
could be cut in two. Then the effect of

using straight sections 4 feet long can be

brought out by reference to Fig. 77. This
shows a portion of a plan of the roof in

which the distance from A to B, or radius of

the curve, is 30 feet. The drawing is not Fig. 77. —Eaves Trough for Roof 60 Ft. in
Diameter
to scale, but will serve to indicate the
idea and on that account does not need to be drawn strictly to scale.
Suppose that a section of the eaves trough is laid with its middle point per-
pendicular to the end of the radius at the point B, so that its end C extends
2 feet one way from the radius A B and the other end D also 2 feet. If we con-
nect the points A and D this line will cut a circle of the outline of the barn
roof at some point as F. Obviously, the distance A F must be 30 feet, so the
interesting thing is to determine the length of the line F D, or how far from the
curve of the bam roof the end of the 4 foot length of eaves trough will lie. The line
AD is the hypotenuse of a right angle triangle of which the sides are 30 and 2
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 595

feet long. Its length is, therefore, equal to the square root of the sum of the squares
of the lengths of the two sides, or the square root of the sum of 900 and 4, or 30.60.
This indicates that the length of the line F D is 0.06 ft., or about f in. Whether
it would be advisable or possible to spring the eaves trough a matter of \ in. in a
length of 2 ft. may be a question, but it would seem that if eaves trough of
about this length were erected so that one section slipped into the end of the other
with a slight angle, the eaves trough could be built to conform as closely as
needed to the outline of the roof. It is possible that it would be advisable to put
up the 4 it. length' so that the center in each case lies slightly within the circle
of the roof edge bringing the ends of each section slightly beyond the circle.

GUTTER AROUND A CIRCULAR CORNER

Flaring strips must first be cut for the various sections of the gutter;
then raised and stretched to the desired profile and curve of the veranda,
as follows: First, draw the profile of the gutter, as shown by A B C D E
in Fig. 78, and 3 feet from the eave line D
draw the vertical line c a. Divide the profile
of the gutter into as many spaces as the gutter
is to have sections, which in this case are
four, as shown by A B, B C, C D and D E.
Then through A B average a line, as shown,
intersecting the vertical line c a at a. In a
similar manner average lines through B C, C D
and D E, intersecting c a at b, c and d, respec-
tively. With a as a center strike the blank or
pattern J, obtaining the stretchout from A B,
and adding for the wire, as shown. In a similar
manner obtain the blanks H, G and F, using
b c and d as centers. Edges are allowed to the
patterns, as shown. After being raised and
stretched the pieces are joined by riveting and
soldering, shown in diagram X, where the Fig. 78.—Gutter Around a Circular Corner.
as
Obtaining the Blanks
wire is shown by A 1 and the various positions
of the laps by B
1
C 1 and D 1 The blanks J and H are raised in pieces about
,
.

30, or 36 inches long as shown in Fig. 79, where A is a wood or lead raising
596 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

Mock, B the proper sized raising hammer, and J or II the blank. The center
of the blank is first hammered; then the buckles
drawn out along the edges. are
While A B and B C in Fig. 78, are raised on the block, C D must be stretched,
1

as shown in Fig. 80, in which A is the mandrel or blowhorn stake, B the stretching

hammer and F the blank, which is stretched along the edges b b and a a . When
the blanks have all been formed to their required shape they are dressed upon
the round head stake, as shown in Fig. 81, by placing the mold C upon the st ake
A and using the mallet B to take out any buckles. Some little skill is required
upon the part of the mechanic to bring each mold to its proper shape.

BEADING GUTTER WITH HAND TOOLS

In the accompanying illustrations are shown the four operations employed
for beading gutters by hand.

Fig. 82. — Beading Gutters. Bending the Sheet Fig. 83. —The Position on the Bench
In Fig. 82, A shows the sheet of metal on the
bench projecting over the edge of the bench as
far as B (the amount of material required to in-
case the bead). It is then turned down with the
mallet, as indicated at C. This first operation
could be avoided by making a bend in the brake
as shown at C. The second operation is indi-

cated in Fig. 83, where the sheet A is laid upon

Fig. 84. —Bending the Sheet the bench with the edge C turning upward. Now
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 597

take the required size rod or gas pipe, place it as shown at B, and using the
mallet turn the metal C over the rod, when it will look as shown at A in Fig. 84.
Then, holding the sheet in the position there shown, turn the metal tightly around
the rod B, as shown in diagram C, using the sharp edge of the hammer D, being
careful not to make any dents on the sheet A. When this operation is completed
the rod is tightly incased.
To remove the rod so that the other sheets can be beaded, lay the sheet A
flatupon the bench and tap lightly along the bead with the mallet, when the rod
can easily be draw on.'. In shop use the rods have a ring at one end, as at E,
i

from which they hang against the wall. This is also used to draw the rod out of
the sheet after if is beaded.

GUTTER SUPPORT AND BRACE

The accompanying illustration Fig. 85, shows how to fasten an ogee gutter
to a building without disturbing the shingles.

Form the sheet metal cylinder just the right

length on the gutter header, then solder the

sleeves, which serve as braces, into the gutter
at sufficiently frequent intervals to insure sup-

port of the gutter without strain when fastened

to the building. The fastening is accomplished
by a nail about 3-10 X 7 inches, which is

driven through the face of the gutter and passes

through the sleeve and the back of the gutter
and firmly into the fascia or board that finishes
the building at the eaves just under the shingles. Fig. 85. —Gutter Support and Brace
When a sufficient number of these braces and nails are used experience has
shown that good service is rendered.

HANGER FOR EAVE TROUGH

The hangers are easy to make, cheap and durable, and the wind does not
blow the trough down let it blow ever so hard. Use No. 19 hoop iron, f-inch wide,
cut 21 inches long, for shortest hanger for the ordinary trough, made from tin cut
7 inches wide. Use No. 18 hoop iron, |-inch wide, for the trough made from tin
 598 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

9 1 inches wide. Starting with the shortest strip, cut each subsequent one about

i inch longer, to allow for fall of trough. Two nail holes are to be punched in
each end of the straps, which should be placed about 3A feet apart, on the building.
Ordinary hoop iron can be used for the hangers, but if painted or galvanized they

Fig. KG. — Hanger in Position for Receiving Trough Fig. 87. — The Completed Trough and Hanger
are much more durable. The hangers are formed as in Fig. 86, which shows one
in position on roof to receive trough. When forming the hangers, the bends are
to be made in the order indicated by the figures ;
the first bend is made at 1 ,
the
second at 2, etc. The increase in length of hangers to allow for proper fall of trough
is allowed for between bends 1 2 and 5 6. The hangers having been nailed to
the roof, as shown in Fig. 86, and the trough soldered in as long a length as can be
handled, the ladder is placed against the building where the center of the trough
is to come, and the trough carried up and placed in the hangers. The two nearest
hangers are then to be nailed to the roof, when the ladder can be moved to the
highest end of the trough and the other hangers nailed as shown in Fig. 87, and
so continue until the lower end is reached, when the ladder is in position for put-
ting up the conductor pipe.

A HOME-MADE BEADER
The bed of the machine Fig. 88, is made of a piece of 4 X 6 yellow pine 8 feet
6 inches long. The top of this stands 30 inches above the floor, and is supported
by four legs,which are secured to the bed piece by means of bolts running clear
through. These legs have a cross brace at the bottom, from which angle braces
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 599

run up to the bed piece. On the top of this a piece of 1-inch brass pipe is secured
by means of cast iron angle pieces, as shown in Fig. 89. These angle pieces are
fastened to the bed by wood screws. Another part of the apparatus is made of a

piece of 5-8 inch round machine steel. The piece of steel and a pipe were taken
to a machine shop and the pipe had a slot § inch wide cut in it lengthwise its entire

Fig. 89. — Sectional View of Beader

and Clamps

Fig. 88. V Home Made Bender. General View

length, 8 feet 3 inches. The piece of machine steel had a slot cut in it 1-16 inch
wide and | inch deep for its entire length; and each end was squared so that a
crank could be attached to it. was fastened to the bed by means
After the pipe
of clamps, the steel beader was run through it and the cranks attached, when
the machine was ready for use. By inserting the sheet iron in the slot in the

beader and by turning the crank at each end so as to reduce the strain on the
steel beader shaft, a bead could be formed on a piece of galvanized sheet iron 8
feet long.

A CHISEL TO CUT THE BEAD OF THE PATTERN

OF EAVE TROUGH MITERS
Those who have had occasion to make miters in the half round hanging gut-
ters that are generally used know the difficulty and the tediousness of cutting the
small curves on the edge where the bead is formed. In the engraving herewith,
Fig. 90, is illustrated a steel chisel and is shown a piece of sheet metal along which
the miter pattern has been marked out, with the. chisel applied to the pattern

where the smaller curves occur, so that by one blow from the mallet when the metal
is laid on a suitable block, these curves are cut in much less time and with much
less labor than would be possible with the ordinary hand snips or bench shears.
The made from a piece of 3-16 X 2$ inch flat steel. The steel has been
chisel is

formed together to make a handle to facilitate its use and a head on which the blow
 6oo Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

may be struck. The cutting edge is forged and shaped to the curve desired, after
which it is ground sharp to do the cutting. The tool is so simple that it can be
readily made by all who desire to benefit by the labor saving attending its use. Of
course the balance of the miter is cut with
the snips; and it is well to dress down the
burr, formed by cutting with the chisel and
snips, by laying the material on the smooth
surface of a block of cast iron and striking
with a mallet the surface of which has been
rasped smooth. It is to be understood that
such little kinks for the shop as this are of
positive value ; still it is advisable to install
a press (power, if power is available) with
the proper dies to cut and prick mark these
miters thereby saving time; providing of
course that sufficient quantities of gutters,
etc., are sold to warrant the investment.

Fig. 90. —Cutting Gutter Miters

HANGING LONG EAVE TROUGH

Many different styles of eaves are met with, and different styles of gutter
and hangers are used. In hanging gutter on a barn 80 feet long put up the gutter
in two sections of 40 feet each. When the eave projects considerably without

Fig. 91. — Hanging Long Gutters

any back strip nailed to the end of the rafters, always have one put up 6 inches or
more wide according to the pitch of the gutter. Then nail gutter straps to it about
2 \ feet apart, as shown by Fig. 91. Make them out of good tin painted on both
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 601

sides, and cut them 1 At the center of the strap

inch wide and 28 inches long.
rivet or solder another strap half as long to hold the gutter from being lifted up

in a wind storm. Having nailed up the straps make a loop of one, as shown in
the illustration, about 10 feet from the high end of the gutter, for the work
should always commence at the high end. Now place the ladder about 20 feet
from the end and pick up a section of the gutter at the middle of the 40 feet and
mount the ladder, when if it is not a windy day, one end of the gutter can be
easily pushed through the loop and the gutter secured by another loop near the
ladder. After this, moving the ladder the other straps can be fastened so as to
give the gutter a proper pitch, and the first section is completed. The second
section is put up m the same way, and when it is secured the two sections are
connected and the straps fastened to maintain a proper pitch through the entire
length. When all is securely fastened the open seam between the two sections

must be soldered ;
this completes the work ready for the conductor to be attached
to pipe at the low end of the gutter. Solder the down straps under the bead of

the gutter about 10 feet apart, and when properly nailed they hold the gutter se-

curely in place, and the strongest wind will not lift the gutter out of the straps

or destroy the pitch.

HOLDER FOR EAVE TROUGH

For a holder when soldering eave trough, make a sheet-iron cylinder, ABC,
Fig. 92, the diameter of gutter and 4 feet long, or longer if desired. Form a strip
of iron the length of cylinder and rivet to same, as shown F

at D. This forms a straight edge for the bead on trough

to rest against. Then form two or more wire springs, as
shown by E F G, for holding the trough in position while
soldering. These springs are to be hinged to the cylinder
as at G, and bent so as to go over the bead and lock over
D, as shown at E. The springs are hinged at G, so they can
be turned back to release the trough after it has been
soldered. Then cut two disks from 1-inch board to fit in
the ends of cylinder and which can be secured in place
by nailing. In the center of each disk, as at M, drive a wire
for the cylinder to revolve on. A 6-inch board, K L, for

stand, and two 8-inch uprights, similar to H J, complete

Fig. 92 . —Holder for Eave
the machine. Trough
 W

Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

EAVE TROUGH HANGERS

Pieces of tin that are from 18 to 20 inches long are cut into strips 1 inch wide
and used for stays, as shown by A in Fig. 93. These stays are brought around
under trough, nailed to cornice, and placed 6 or 8 feet apart. Shorter strips,
from 10 to 16 inches in length, are used for the uprights B, and are bent around
the cross bars C and soldered to same. The cross bars C are made from pieces
of tin 1J inches wide, and from 3 to 6 inches long,
according to the size of trough they are intended

^
p for. These cross bars are formed in triangular
shape, placed with the opening down, in top of
W' difr
|p
:

jA trough, and soldered at the ends. D represents

a piece of 1 1-inch hoop iron cut 10 or more

/m inches long, having a slot in one end and pro-
W vided with holes for nailing to roof. D is nailed
nP' / to the roof, as shown in Fig. 94, the upright B
passed through the slot and drawn up
r r so as to
Fig. 93. —
Eave Trough Hangers.
Various Parts of Hangers give the trough the proper slant. The upright
.. B is then cut off 1 inch above D, the ends bent
over each way and under, being pinched close

c?r> cz>

Fig. 94. —Trough Attached to Roof Fig. 95. — Die and Punch for Cutting Slots in Band Iron
with the flat pliers. shown the die used for punching the slot in the
In Fig. 95 is

end of hoop iron. The die is represented by F and attached to it is the guide
E, which allows the hoop iron D to pass in the proper distance and insures the
punch being placed over the opening in die. The punch G is represented in
proper position for punching the band iron D. The punch and die can be
made by any blacksmith and should not cost over 50 or 75 cents.
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 603

AN EXPANSION JOINT FOR GUTTER LINING

The greatest trouble in using copper making the proper provision for
is in

taking care of the contraction and expansion, and in this connection it is well to
remember that this is much greater in copper than in any of the other materials
used for lining gutters.
Copper expands or contracts 0.0115 inches for each 100 feet of length for each
degree of difference in temperature. This means that a piece of gutter lining 100

Pig 96. Arranging for Expansion in Copper Gutter

expand nearly 1J inches in length in a difference of 100 degrees of

feet long will
temperature. As the actual difference between the extremes of the coldest weather
in winter and the hottest weather in
summer is considerably more than this,
the amount to be taken care of is still more than the amount stated above.
It is probably safe to assume that the maximum variation in temperature

from the coldest weather in winter to the hottest weather in the sunshine in the

summer will be 150 degrees. On this basis, it will be seen that the amount of ex-

pansion in a gutter lining 100 feet long will be 1.725 inches, or practically If inches.
Now, if this gutter is put in during the maximum heat of the summer, without
making provision for the contraction, it will be found that a number of the seams
willbe broken from the strain put on the gutter by the contraction of the copper,
which will be shortened If inches, as there is no way to prevent the contraction.
On the other hand, if the gutter is put in during the severe weather of the winter.
 ;

604 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

without making provision for expansion in the summer heat, this expansion will

add If inches to the length of the gutter, which will cause it to buckle up in heavy
ridges, and then the contraction of the copper will cause these ridges to crack.
Obviously the proper way is to exercise judgment and common sense in using this

material and to take into consideration the temperature prevailing when the gutter
is put in.

Regardless of the temperature neither edge of the gutter should be nailed

under any circumstances. The outer edge should be locked to a strip nailed to
the outer edge of the gutter board and should be locked so it can slide along freely
when contracting or expanding.
The inner edge should have a half-inch turned and should be deated. All
cross seams should be heavily tinned on both sides of the metal before being edged

the edges should be J inch wide, the lock well hammered down and heavily soaked
with solder. Too much stress cannot be laid on thoroughly tinning the sheets
on the ends for the locks, turning edges \ inch wide and soaking the solder in well,

for theseseams are subjected to great strain. If there is very much of this work
it would be best to tin the sheets on the ends by dipping them and then letting

as much of the solder as will cling to the ends of the sheets remain on them. Then,
when the seams are soldered, this solder amalgamates with that soaked into the
seam and makes a solid joint all the way through.
So far the preparations and instructions are the same, regardless of the season,

but the work at the job must be carried out with due regard to the temperature.
For instance, if the gutter lining is put in when the temperature is at the lowest
that it is likely ever to be it will not be necessary to make any provision for con-
traction, but a piece of gutter 100 feet long should be free at one or both ends to
the extent of If inches or $ inches for a gutter 50 feet long.
Supposing we have a piece of gutter 100 feet long, draining to both ends,
with a high point in the center. We should put this in place in two pieces which
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 605

will lack at least 1 £ inches of coming together, and then we should solder an end
piece in each gutter at the high point, with the top of this piece as high as possible,
but at any rate at least 1 inch higher than the outer edge of the gutter. (See Fig.
97). These two end pieces should be set not closer than If inches, as in the warmest
of the summer weather the expansion of the copper will be sufficient to bring them
together.
The part of the rear of the gutter which extends above the end pieces should
be lengthened by soldering on an extra piece until it will lap over on the other
piece about as shown <v. Fig. 96; but it should not be soldered to this piece on both
sides, but left free on one side for expansion and contraction. This should also be
cut off on a bevel at he end, as shown, so the water will run across the seam.
:
One
of these ends should bend over on top square 2 inches and then turn down 1 inch
or more to keep the uater from getting in between the two end pieces. A section
through these joints would show like Fig. 97. This shows the positions of the
ends when the temperature is lowest.
In the hottest weather of summer they will be close together, like Fig. 98.

If the gutter lining is put in during the hottest summer weather the ends should be
close together, as shown in Fig. 98, as the lining gutter will then be at its maximum
length and all the provision should be made for contraction.

As the gutter lining will seldom be put in during either extreme, it will be
necessary to use judgment, and to decide according to the temperature prevailing
how much of the allowance should be made for expansion and how much for con-

traction. In considering this the writer assumes that the lowest temperature
to which the gutter lining will be exposed will be 30 degrees below zero and that
the maximum will be 120 degrees. Then, when putting when the
in gutter lining

temperature is about 45 degrees above freezing point, we would make equal

provision for expansion and contraction, and in placing the two ends would set
them | inches apart, which would give us an allowance of $ inches for expansion
and l inch for contraction.
In figuring on copper work it is necessary to figure that the labor will cost
considerably more than for tin as it requires more time to do the work, and in
addition to this the man who pays a “copper price” expects “copper quality,”
and he is entitled toGreat care should be taken to get the material in smooth
it.

and free from buckles, as these mean broken places in the gutter. If these direct-
ions are followed there should be no complaint where copper is used, and it should
last indefinitely and without expense for painting and repairing.
 6o6 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

GUTTERS IN WOOD WORK

Two different types of boxed-in gutters, designed not only to carry away
rainfall but also to prevent any damage by snow slides, are the subject of the ac-
companying illustrations. On flat roofs having a slope of less than 2 inches to
the foot there is, of course, no need for pro-
tection against snow slides— at any rate in
the case of porch roofs where the snow will
melt and run off before it slides. The gutter
shown in Fig. 99 is finished with 20 X 28 inch
terne plates made up in rolls 28 inches wide.
The strip of tin extends upward underneath
the shingles about 12 inches at the high point
of gutter and about 6 inches at the low for
it s not necessary to trim unless it is desir-

Fig. 99. —A Cornice Gutter Fig. 100. — Gutter on Porch Roof

able to have the waste tin; where it is fastened. While the low er edge projects
straight downward over the cornice, forming a drip edge, so that water collect-
ing toward the edge of the gutter can fall clear of the cornice. This makes a
gutter wide and deep enough for an ordinary roof. If a more ornate finish is

desired it may be secured by soldering a 1-inch roll on the drip edge described,
this arrangement not interfering with the free fall of the water.

The gutter shown in Fig. 100 is applicable to flat roofs. The particular style
as a part of a porch roof, accommodate the architectural conforma-
made wide to
tion of the bracket and cornice. This is a form of construction such as may be
used to extend an old roof line to improve appearances. The tin of the roof is
formed into the shape of a gutter on the new wood work and carried over the edge
of the cornice, as in the case of the gutter shown in Fig. 99. The gutter of this
description provides a wide waterway and can be easily placed on an old building
to take the place of a hanging gutter.
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

FORMING RIDGING AND GUTTERS ON THE

CORNICE BRAKE
When a ridge roll is to he formed, as shown in Fig. 101, the operations are
similar to those shown in Figs. 102 to 105, inclusive.
First, find the girth of the ridge roll shown in Fig. 101 and make the square
bends as indicated by 1 2 3 and G 7 8 in Fig. 102. Place 1 2 3 in the recess between
the top clamp B and the bottom clamp C, as shown by 8 1, and close the top
clamp B on dot 4. Y‘>ru make a square bend, as shown by A 1. Leaving the
sheet in this position its slmwn by A 1 in Fig. 103, place the required size former a
in position, fastening it by ti e clamp b. Press down A over the former until it

has the position shown by B.

Release the former and reverse the sheet and place it in position, as shown
by B 1 in Fig. 104. Close the top clamp on dot o' and make a square bend, bring-
ing the sheet in the position shown by 1° B. Leaving the sheet in this position

place the former a in position as shown in Fig. 105, and press down 1° until it

strikes the clamp b at c. Remove the clamp b and press C in its proper position,

shown by D, which completes the forming of the ridge roll shown by 1 8 in Fig. 101.
In Fig. 106 is shown an 0 G gutter with beaded or wired edge on the outside.
Obtain the girth of the gutter and bead the edge in the usual manner, after which
place the sheet in the brake in the position shown by 1 8 in Fig. 107. Close the
top clamp on dot 2 and make a square bend as shown by 1° 8. Now tip the bend-
ing leaf A in Fig. 108 as shown and place the sheet 1° 8 in Fig. 107 in the position
shown by 1° 8 in Fig. 108. Then by gradually drawing out the sheet to dot 3
and closing the top clamp at each division between C and 3° the position 1°, a, b
and C are obtained when the dot 3 reaches 3°.
Do not take out the sheet, but close the top clamp on dot 4, as shown in Fig.
109, by C 8, and make a square bend, bringing the sheet in position shown by A 8.
Leaving the sheet in this position, as shown by A 8 in Fig. 110, fasten the former
a by the clamp b and draw A in the position shown by B 8. When making this curve
care should be taken not to pull down at d, for this would bring the upper curve
d 3' between 3' and 4 in the direction of the arrow, until the vertical pressure at

i completes the mold and 3' touches the former at 3°. The rest of the bends shown
by 5, 6 and 7 in Fig. 106 are bent in the usual manner.
When a half round gutter, shown in Fig. Ill, is to be formed on the brake
the method to be used is that shown in Figs. 112 to 115, inclusive. After the
 6o 8 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

wired edge has been turned on the gutter shown in Fig. Ill place the sheet in
position, as shown by A 3 in Fig. 112, and tipping the bending leaf slightly as was

Method of Forming Ridging and an Ogee Gutter

done at A in Fig. 108 obtain a slight curve to the front part of the gutter. Now
reverse the sheet and place it in position, as shown by B 3 in Fig. 113, close the
clamp on dot 2 and make a square bend, as shown by A 3.
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 609

Leaving the sheet in this position, as shown by A 3 in Fig. 114, fasten the re-
quired size former a and draw A over the former until it has the position shown
by B. The former should be smaller than the profile of the gutter, as the metal
will spring back again after being drawn over the former. By referring to Fig.
Ill it will be seen that the angle at 2 is not a square bend, and as a square bend

Fig. 117

Fig. 1 12 Fig. 115

isshown at 2 in Fig. 114, release the former so that the sheet will appear as shown
in Fig. 115 by B. Then press it down in the position shown by C, or until it has
the proper angle, being careful that the pressure is exerted at a. This completes
the forming of Fig. 111.
 ;

6io Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

Fig. 116 shows another shape of gutter on which no bends are required. This
shape could be formed in a manner indicated in Fig. 108, but a quicker and simpler
way is shown in Fig. 117, which is also applicable to the gutter shown in Fig. 111.

First, bead the gutter in the usual manner and place it upon the bench B in Fig.
117, as shown by A. Now obtain an iron pipe or wooden roll, C, of the required size
and length, being careful to have them a trifle smaller than the profile, because the
metal will spring, and fasten —say, at distances of 3 feet apart —clamps as shown at
D, the clamp to catch under the bead as shown. Now if two or three men (accord-
ing to the thickness of metal used) spread their arms, grasp the pipe firmly and
slowly roll it over until the desired position F is obtained the gutter will be finished
so far as the forming of the roll is concerned. In this manner the form shown in
Fig. 116 is obtained. If Fig. 117 were to be used for the form shown in Fig. Ill
a bend would be made in the brake on dot 2, as shown by C 3 in Fig. 115.

Fig. 118 shows another form of 0G roof gutter, the method of forming which
is practically the same as that for the gutter shown in Fig. 106. The final pro-

cesses, however, are shown in Fig. 119. Starting at dot 4, which corresponds to
dot 4 in Fig. 118, space the distance between 4 and 5 in Fig. 119 into equal parts,
as shown by a b c d 5. Draw out the sheet to dot a and slowly but firmly close
the top clamp, when shown by a' then draw out
the gutter will have the position
to dots bed and 5, always closing the top clamp at each dot, when the gutter will
d'
appear, as shown respectively by 6' c' and 1'. Then 1' D will be the desired
shape to correspond to Fig. 118.
It should be understood that the higher the bending leaf D° is raised the
closer the divisions are made between 4 and 5 and the tighter the top clamp is

closed the smaller will the circle be, while if the bending leaf D° is tipped very
slightly, the divisions between 4 and 5 being less in number, and the top clamp
closed lightly, the larger will the circle be in the gutter. Experience and practice will

show the various operations to use in bending the various size molds and curves.

PATTERNS FOR GUTTER MITERS ON ROOFS OF

DIFFERENT PITCH
One shown by A B C iri the accompanying illustration,
roof is half pitch, as
and the other is one-third pitch, as shown by A 1 J 2 1, Fig. 120. The shape of the
gutter is shown by the profile M on the half pitch roof, and is the given profile.
For the benefit of readers who do not understand about roofs of one-half
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 611

ind one-third pitch we will explain how these pitches are determined. By a roof
)f one-half pitch it is understood that the vertical hight A J is equal to one-half
he width of B C, while a roof of one-third pitch is understood to be one where the
vertical hight is equal to one-third of its width.
The first draw any line, as B C, which bisect, thus obtaining the
step is to
point J. At right angles to B C and from J erect the line J A, equal to B J or J C.
From A draw lines to B and C; then will A B C A represent a roof of one-half
a

pitch. From the points B and C in elevation construct a plan, as shown by DE

F G, and parallel to EF in plan draw the line H I, as shown. Transfer the dis-
1
tance from C to J in front elevation, placing it as shown from I to J in side elevation,
and divide the line C B into three equal spaces (for one-third pitch), as shown
by a b. Take the distance of one of these spaces, as C a, and place it as shown by
 6ia Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

J1 a' in side elevation, at right angles to J1 1. Draw a line from I to a', extend-
ing it until it meets the line drawn at right angles to H I, equal in length to J A
2
in front elevation, as shown by J 2
A 1
in side view. Then will J A 1
I be the side
elevation of a roof having one- third pitch.
From A 1
,
at right angles to H I, extend the A
line
1
J 2 until it meets the center
line A K in plan L. Draw a line from L to G and L to F, which will represent

the roof plan of the two pitches. Let M be the given profile of the roof gutter
placed upon the roof having one-half pitch, or it could be placed upon the roof
of one-third pitch if desired. As the roofs are of different pitches, it will be nec-
essary to obtain a modified profile on L K in plan, to admit the mitering at the
hips L G and L F.
To obtain this modified profile, divide the profile M into equal spaces, as shown
by the small figures 1 to 9. At right angles to BC and from these small figures

drop lines intersecting the hip line L G in plan, as shown. From these inter-
sections and parallel to G F draw lines indefinitely into the side elevation, as shown.
Now, measuring in each and every instance from the line B C in front elevation,

take the distances to points 1 M and place them on lines of similar

to 9 in the profile
numbers in side elevation, measuring in each and every instance from the line H I,

thus obtaining the points shown from 1' to 9'. A line traced through these points
will be the modified profile through L K in plan.

For the pattern for the gutter on the half pitched roof, draw any line, as O P,
at right angles to D G, upon which place the stretchout of the profile M, as shown
by the small figures 1 to 9. At right angles to 0 P and through these small figures
draw lines, which intersect with lines drawn from intersections having similar
numbers on L G in plan, at right angles to D G. Trace a line through these points;
then will 0 P R S be the pattern for the gutter on roof of half pitch, formed after
the profile M.
For the pattern for gutter on the roof of one-third pitch, draw any line, as
T U, at right angles to G F, upon which place the stretchout of the profile N, as
shown by the small figures 1' to 9'. At right angles to T U and through these
small figures draw lines, which intersect with lines drawn from intersections hav-
ing similar numbers on L G in plan, at right angles to G F. Trace a line through
the points thus obtained, and T U V W will be the pattern for the gutter on the roof
having one-third pitch, formed after the profile N.
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 613

PATTERNS FOR THE MITERS OF A GUTTER MOLDING

The accompanying, illustration, Fig. 121, shows how an inside and outside
right angle miter can be obtained. Let A rep-
resent the profile of the gutter mold, placed
upon the proper pitch of the roof, as shown.
Divide the mold A into equal spaces, and place
its girth upon the vertical line B C, through
which horizontal lines are drawn and inter-

sected by vertical lines dropped from similar

numbered points in the mold A A line traced .

through points thus obtained, as shown by D E,

will be the miter cut, and E B C D will be the
outside miter cut and E D G F the inside
miter cut.
The required pitch, so as to have water run
Fig. 121. — Obtaining Miters for Gutter
to the outlet, would be made in the part num- Molding

bered 1 2 3, and will necessitate but a slight change of procedure to obtain the
miter cut of the pattern for that part.

PATTERN FOR EAVE TROUGH MITER AT ANY ANGLE

A simple way to lay out gutter of any size and cut the patterns for it, at any
angle, is to lay out line A of any length, sufficient to give the width of the gutter

desired, Fig. 122. About the center of this line set compasses with one leg on the
line at B, and the other extended until it will mark the radius of the gutter. In
this instance laying out a 5-inch half round gutter, so the compasses should
be set to a radius of 2\ inches and a half circle struck.
Strike line C C parallel with A A and as far from it as half the diameter of the
bead of the gutter will be. With 5-inch gutter the bead is generally \ inch. Half
of this is \ inch, therefore CC will be \ inch from A A and parallel with it.

Set the compasses to \ inch and move them along on line CC until the outer

leg of the compasses touch the outer radius of the gutter, and with this as a start-
ing point and D as a center, draw a
bead of the gutter, and then add
circle for the

the tongue of the bead, which should be just the width that your beader slot will
take.
 614 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

Parallel to line A A and at any convenient point lay out line E E about 11 or
12 inches long.
Beginning at the inner edge of the tongue of the gutter bead mark this edge
No. 1, set the compasses with the leg on 1 and the other at the bend of the tongue,
which will be called 2.

<
o

With the compasses set as above, carry them over to line E E and set them
down. Mark the two points made by the legs 1 and 2 the same as on the profile.
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 615

Carry the compasses back to the profile, leaving them set as for 1 to 2, or set

wider if desired to make the spaces longer, and successively set off 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,

9, 10, 11 and 12 on the bead, each of these distances being the same as from 2 to 3.
Mark off these spaces on line E E immediately following 1 and 2, already laid
off, and number them successively from 3 to 12 as shown.
The spacing on the gutter proper need not be so close as on the bead, because
the gutter does not change direction so sharply as the bead, therefore set the com-
passes for increased distances, as shown from 12 to 13, and proceed to divide the
gutter up into equal spaces, as shown by 12 to 26, inclusive, and these spaces set
off on line E E.
This leaves one apace to be determined yet, and the stretchout is measured
first make the space 26 27 take up balance of required girth. If it is
so as to
desired to make gutter out of 10-inch girth measure on stretchout 10 inches from
1 and mark same 27 on line E E of stretchout. Set the dividers so as to get the
space from 26 to 27 and then mark this distance on profile from 26. This brings
the back of the gutter in this case \ inch higher than the front, which is a good
point as it will insure the water being thrown away from the building if the gut-
ter ever overflows on account of the leaders being clogged or frozen, instead of

overflowing on the rear edge and wetting the walls of the building.
In laying out the spaces on a stretchout it is not necessary, as many suppose,
to make the spaces come out just even. Many starters at pattern cutting are per-

plexed by this and space off the profile time and again in an effort to make the
last space come out the same as the others. The proper method is to lay out as
many spaces as may be required for that surface and lay them all out the same dis-

tance except the last one.

These are stepped off on the stretchout, and then the dividers are changed
to suit the last space, and it is stepped off and set down on the profile. It is only

for convenience in laying out the work that the spaces in any curved surface,

as from 12 to 26, are made the same. They could all be made different, but this
would make more trouble in laying them out on the profile and on the stretchout, a
this would require the dividers to be changed for each space. What is necessary is
to space corresponding points exactly the same on the profile and on the stretchout.
Having done the spacing properly on both the stretchout and the profile
and numbered all the points as they should be and as shown on accompanying
sketch, take the square or T square, and from the points obtained and at right
angles to AA and E E, draw lines indefinitely as shown. These lines drawn from
 6i6 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

the profile of the gutter give the plan of same, and a line drawn across this gutter
with a 45-90 degree triangle will give the miter line for a square miter.
To get the angle for an octagon miter use the same triangle and draw line FF
crossing line 7 of the plan. Parallel with line F F and exactly as far as from it as
line 26 on the plan draw line G G. Where F F and G G intersect
is from line 7,

with lines 7 and 26 marks the beginning and end of the miter line for octagon miter,
as shown on sketch. These two miter lines, marked “ miter line for square miter'’
and “miter line for octagon miter,” show in the plan just exactly the way the
gutter would appear if it were cut off to a square or an octagon miter if we were
looking down on it.
From the points where the lines in the plan cross the miter lines carry lines,
at right angles to the plan, across lines of the corresponding numbers in the stretch-
out, and a line traced through these intersections gives the correct pattern, to
which should be added (on half the pieces cut) the edges, or laps, desired.

In the sketch the lines are carried across the stretchout to the corre-
sponding lines in the stretchout, but it is not necessary, and is really confusing at

times, to have so many lines, as all we really need to mark down are where the
ines cross corresponding lines in the stretch out, as shown by the short lines cross-

ing 1 to 16, inclusive. This method allows of cutting the pattern for any angle
desired, and if the reader has no triangle he can get his miter lines by using a bevel
set to the proper angle. For instance, with his bevel set for an octagon angle he
can mark line F F, and parallel with it and at the exact distance from it that line
7 is from line 27 he can set off line G G, and where these intersect with lines 7 and
27 on the plan he traces his “miter line for octagon miter.”

PATTERN FOR GUTTER MITER OR HIPPED ROOF

For the patterns for a roof gutter on a square hipped roof which has a one-
fourth pitch, the gutter having a profile as shown by A B in the accompanying
illustration, Fig. 123.

This miter should be developed the same as a return miter, and a mistake
in problems of this nature, is often made in not placing the profile of the
gutter in its proper position, as shown correctly in the sketch. The first step
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 617

is to draw correctly the pitch of the roof. This is done by making d c

equal to one-fourth of any line a b, or, in other words, the rise c d is equal to
one-fourth the span a b. Then a c or c b represents a one-fourth pitch. Now
draw the desired profile A B, which then divide into equal spaces, shown
from 1 to 13. Draw the stretchout line
C D at right angles to a b, upon which
place the girth of the profile A B, as shown
from 1' to 13'. Draw the usual measuring
lines, which intersect x
>\ lines drawn par-
allel to C D from similar numbers in the
section. Then will C D E F be the desired
pattern.

PATTERN AT ANY ANGLE FOR

OGEE GUTTER
In the accompanying illustration Fig.

124, is shown the principle used in develop-

ing the pattern for a gutter at any desired
angle. In this case the angle BCD has
been made 45 degrees, but the same princi-
ple is used, no matter what degree the
angle may have. First draw the profile of

the gutter, shown by A, which divide into

equal spaces, shown from 1 to 11. Place
the desired angle BC D in line with 2 3 of Fig- 123.— Pattern for
Roof.
Gutter Miter on Hipped
.

the profile, as shown. Having the angle in

its proper position the next step is to obtain the miter line C c. This is done by
using C as center, and with any radius describe an arc intersecting BCD at a
and b. Using a and b as centers, with the same or any other radius describe arcs
intersecting each other at c. Draw the line C c, which is the miter line desired.
From the various points 1 to 11 in A drop vertical lines intersecting the miter
line C c from 1 to 11. At right angles to B C draw the line B E, upon which place
the girth of A, as shown from 1 to 1 1, from which at right angles to E B draw lines,
which intersect by lines drawn parallel to EB from various intersections on C c,
6i8 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

resulting in the intersections shown. A line traced through the points thus ob-
tained, as shown by F H, will be the desired miter cut. As the wall line is shown

from 9 to 10 in A then will 9' 10' in pattern be the line from which measurements
are made.

PATTERN FOR RAKING EAVE TROUGHS

To get the miter patterns where the horizontal half round eave troughs AB
and C D in Jig. 125 join the raking trough, proceed as follows:
In Fig. 126 draw the plan A B C D,
showing the angles of the wall, and
above the same draw the side elevation
A B C D
1 1 1 1
,
in which 12 H represents
the pitch of the roof and E and E 1
the
given profiles of the horizontal eave
troughs at bottom and top, respect-
ively. As the inside cut of the miter
B in Fig. 125 will answer for the miter
C, it is necessary only to obtain the
Fig. 125.—rPerspective of the Eave Troughs. , , - , , . J ^
pattern for the lower miter, B.
Divide the trough E in Fig. 126 into parts as shown from 1 to 12, allowing
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 619

127, upon which place the stretchout of the profile E in Fig. 126, and draw
the vertical lines in Fig. 127, as shown. Now, measuring in each instance from
K L in Fig. 126, take the various distances to points 1 to 13 on the miter line

13 3 and place them on similar numbered lines in Fig. 127, also measuring in
each case from K. L Through points thus obtained, trace the miter cut
C D. Then will 1 C D 13 be the pattern for the horizontal trough A B, and CF
ED in Fig. 127 the pattern for the horizontal trough C D.
6io Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

Before obtaining the pattern for the raking trough an oblique elevation and
true profile through same must be obtained. Parallel to BC in plan in Fig. 126,

draw G F 2 perpendicular to which and from 12 -in plan erect a line, intersecting
1
,

G 1 F2 at 12. Extend the line H F until it cuts the wall line B C in plan at F and 1
,

from F perpendicular to B C, erect a line, intersecting G 1 F 2 at F 2

1
,
Extend it .

so that F 2
H 1
will equal F H in side elevation. Draw H 1
12, which is the true
pitch of the roof on BF 1
in plan. From the various intersections on 13 3, at right
2
angles to B C, erect lines meeting G F1
,
as shown. Then, measuring in each in-
stance from the line G F, take the various distances in the profile E from 1 to 13
and place them on similar numbered lines drawn from the miter line in plan, meas-
2
uring in every case from the line G F resulting in the intersections shown from
1
,

1 to 13 in the oblique elevation, from which points draw lines indefinitely parallel

to 12 H 1
,
as shown. Take a tracing of the profile E, with the various intersections
on same, and place it at right angles to 12 H 1

,
as shown by E2 ,
from which, at
right angles to 12 H 1
,
draw lines^ intersecting those previously drawn. Trace a
line through points thus obtained, when J will be the true profile of the raking
trough. Knowing this, the pattern can now be obtained. r

At pleasure draw the perpendicular M N. Draw also M N in Fig. 128, upon

which place the stretchout of the profile J in Fig. 126, being careful to measure
each and every space separately, as they are all unequal. From these divisions

in Fig. 128, perpendicular to M N, draw lines shown. Measuring from the line

MN in Fig. 126, take the various lengths to the various points in the miter line

T and place them on corresponding lines in Fig. 128, measuring from the line M N.
A Une traced through points thus obtained is shown by A B. Then A B
will 1

13 be the miter pattern for the lower corner of the raking trough, shown by B in
Fig. 125, and A BCD in Fig. 128, the miter pattern for the upper inside corner
shown by C in Fig. 125. The horizontal troughs are to be formed after the profile

E in Fig. 126, while the raking trough is formed after the profile J in the oblique
elevation.

BEST MATERIAL FOR LINING GUTTER

It is the consensus of opinion that the best material for gutter lining is in the
order named : soft copper, lead, tin and galvanized iron. Zinc is but little used
It is agreed that copper if properly laid to allow for expansion and contraction
is the most durable material. The objection to lead is that while the metal
 I

Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 621

itself will last, it creeps when expanding and contracting, and this moving of the
metal causes buckles which eventually crack; and the metal tears very easily.

Copper is most always specified on high-grade jobs. For ordinary jobs a good tin

plate, if carefully applied, will make a substantial gutter.

It must be remembered that a roof receives harder usage than any other part
of a structure, especially the gutter —in summer the terrific heat of the sun and
then a cool night, with perhaps a shower that is virtually a deluge; in winter
extreme cold, snow, ice and sleet; storms that would pierce armor plate. Is it
to be wondered that the material succumbs to the strain? If we buy a pair
of the best shoes and wear them continually over rough pavement, through mud,
snow we expect that very shortly we must discard them; so why look
or water,
for the impossible and demand that gutter linings last forever? Realize the
aforesaid and when you line a gutter do it in the best known manner and give a
reasonable guarantee and when the inevitable occurs let the house owner admit
that his shoes are worn out and need repairing or replacing —that is, his gutter
lining does.

LINING A LARGE GUTTER WITH COPPER—

It is suggested that 20 ounces cold rolled copper be used to line a gutter like

Fig. 129 so as to allow for expansion and contraction. It should not be calked
direct to stone coping but as indicated. The lining should be laid as shown in

the illustration, Fig. 129, to allow for expansion and contraction. The entire

lining is free to work with this method. First a ledge indicated by a should
be calked into the stone coping, having an outward bent flange at the top, to
which the gutter lining is hooked as shown at b. The lining is bent in a manner
as shown, with a lock attached at c, which goes under the tiling. This lock is

fastened to the sheathing by means of cleats indicated by d and fastened or

nailed at e.

In lining the gutter use sheets 72 x 36 inches wide, as the gutter issome 5
feet wide, tinning the edges of the cross seams 1\ inches on both sides and thor-
oughly sweating the joint with half-and-half solder, using 8 or 10 pounds soldering
coppers and rosin as a flux.
622- Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

At the highest points of the gutter expansion joints should be used as indi-
cated in the illustration, in which A A shows the wood or concrete base over
which the lining is laid. At the highest
point of the gutter, instead of contin-
uing the lining, a space of about $
inch is provided as indicated by f and
two heads soldered to the lining as in-
dicated by B, with outward flanges as
shown. Over these two flanges the
cap C is slipped. This allows the metal
to expand and contract.
Thus by having expansion joints
Fig. 129. — Allowing for Expansion in a Gutter
at the highest points of the gutter and
the front edge hooked at b and cleated at d the entire lining has not a single nail
in it and is free to expand or contract. The front ledge at b also prevents any
water from running over the front edge of the coping, which is an annoyance in
winter weather when the sun thaws the ice on the coping, which drops and freezes
below in the shade.

LINING GUTTERS WITH COPPER—II

The following method is suggested for a gutter 75 feet long and of a width
that takes 84 inches of copper. Under no consideration should the copper lining
be nailed to the sheathing. When the walls at the side and two ends, shown by
A in Fig. 130, are carried up as far as D, build in a cap flashing as there shown.
The carpenter should then line out the gutter or
valley with smooth sheathing warranted not to
shrink, as shown by B and C, being careful to

have a good pitch toward the leaders. The

copper lining E is then put in position, slipping
one end under the cap flashing D, and the other
on the roof and have the slates so laid as to
cover the copper about 6 inches. The copper
to be fastened here by cleats as shown by G and H, and use copper 36 inches
wide so as to have as few seams as possible. Where the cross seams occur the
sheets should be thoroughly tinned 2 inches wide on both sides and a lock
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 623

placed thereon and fastened with cleats, as shown in the illustration, where G
represents the sheets fastened by the cleat H, and nailed to the sheathing at I.

In no case should the sheet be nailed directly to the wood lining, because the
expansion and contraction of the metal would cause the copper to tear out at
the nail. By using cleats the copper has a chance to expand with the heat of the
sun and contract with the cold, the portions under the cap flashing and slate
being entirely free. When the locked seams are thoroughly closed with the
mallet use heavy coppers and thoroughly soak the seams with half and half solder,
raising the cap flashing slightly to allow the soldering of the upright seam. Then
lay a smooth board aoout 6 X 12 inches over the cap flashing and dress down
well with the mallet.

REPAIRING BURST SEAMS

Thoroughly soak the seams with solder then over the seams solder a strip of

copper which has been tinned, and of course where the edges of this strip is sol-

dered to gutter tin that part of gutter then thoroughly sweat the solder in, going
over two or three times and on the upright part of gutter reinforce the soldering
by placing heavy stitches of solder close together.

LEADERS, GUTTER LINING AND COPPER ROOFING

ON CONCRETE BASE
In the followihg illustrations are shown the methods employed in laying the
copper gutters and roofing on a job in New York City. In Fig. 131 is shown the
section and elevation of the gutter and leader and in Fig. 132 the plan of the soffit.

It will be seen that the entire framing is of iron, with the brackets of wrought iron.

In Fig. 131 A is a sectional view, in which the arch D is of enameled brick,

as shown in the view of the soffit in Fig. 132 by D 1
. Over this arch in A in Fig.

131 is concrete D E, given the required surface pitch to the outlets. On the con-

crete is the gutter lining, this locking into the angle iron B. The roofing connects

to the gutter by means of the mold C.

In the elevation shows the leader head placed under the outlet tube of the
F
gutter at V, the leader head F being connected to the lower head J by means of
the gooseneck H. The main leader head J is then connected to the leader L,
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

which is held in position by the cast iron fasteners N, secured in turn to the stone-

work P by means of expansion bolts. The leader projects from the wall the dis-
tance indicated by N on the plan Fig. 132, while F and J represent respectively
1 1 1

Fig. 131 —Section and Elevation of the Gutter and Leader

the soffits of the heads shown in Fig. 131 by F and J. The amount of the com-
pound curve in the gooseneck H is indicated in Fig. 132 from F 1
to L 1
.
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 625

The method used in laying the roofing and lining to overcome defects caused
by expansion and contraction of the metal is shown in connection with Figs. 133

and 134. In Fig. 133 the construction of the gutter lining is indicated and also
the method of securing the molding at the eave of the roof without nailing, but by
the use of cleats. A is the brick wall, B the concrete gutter lining and C the con-
crete roof. E is the gutter lining, laid into the concrete gutter and locked into
the angle iron at F and flashing up under the concrete roof at H. The angle iron
at the front edge at F is secured to the ironwork as shown in Fig. 131.
Before the copper ’ining E is laid the cleats D and N are riveted to the gutter
as shown and the rivet heads soaked with solder to avoid leaks, care being taken
to obtain the correct location the cleats so that when the molding J is placed
on the eave of the roof the hem edged flange 0 will rest into the hook on the cleat,

which is then closed with the mallet as at

N. Note the drips formed on the molding
at X and X. The upper flange of the
molding J has a lock attached which is

Fig. 134. —Construction of Copper Roofing

cleated to the roof L at M. Thus it will

be seen that the entire lining and eave

mold have no nails driven into the metal,

thus allowing it expand and contract

to

freely. The cross seams in the gutter are first tinned, then edged, cleated and

seam with solder, using rosin as a flux.

locked, thoroughly soaking the
The roofing was constructed as indicated in Fig. 134, in which A B is the

concrete roof. Wooden strips shown by C, D and E are nailed at given distances.

Knowing and the hight of the strip the copper sheets are bent on
this distance
the ends of the sheets, so that the
the brake in long lengths, tinning and edging
cross seams can be locked. Assuming that this has been done, the sheets are
laid in position as indicated by F, H J
and K. The first operation is shown at L.
then closed and turned down in
The cap M then slipped on and the locks are
is
sheets have room for expansion and
the position shown by N. In this way the
nails excepting where the cleat is nailed
contraction, the entire roof being free from
6z6 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

to the roof at the cross seams in F, H, J and K in the manner indicated in M of

Fig. 133. At the ridge of the roof the sheets are double locked, as in standing seam
roofing.

MAKING AND ERECTING THE CORNICE, GUTTERS, ETC.,

FOR A BUILDING AT A DISTANT POINT
There was erected a large building, for the joint use of a railroad as a terminal
station and of the government as a custom house. It was made absolutely fireproof

Fig. 135. Section at the eaves.

throughout, no combustible material being used. The main building was two
stories in hight and about 130 feet square, with a 40-foot square court surrounded
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 627

by a promenade covered with special steel frame skylight construction. The train
shed was the width of the main building plus 20-foot awning on each side and
700 feet long The roof of the train shed was constructed with three monitor
ridges making two valley gutters, besides the eave gutters on the sides and awn-
ing gutters.
On the (rain shed there was approximately 2000 feet of awning gutter and
something like 1500 feet each of eave and valley gutter, all made of No. 20 gal-
vanized iron supported in wrought iron hangers and drained by wrought iron
pipe conductors connected with the gutter by brass fittings. On the main build-
ing there was about 5. ,n feel of main cornice of 20-ounce copper, 160 feet of

copper court cornice, 1800 square feet of special skylight, 1000 feet of copper
cresting, a number of large copper ventilators, two flagstaffs with
fancy copper

bases and several elaborate copper finials.

The metal work was done by a concern which made it all complete ready

for erecting, so that nothing remained to be done at the building but to put up the
sections of cornice, gutters, etc. A man was sent from the shop to do the work
with local help. It will be seen from this that the planning and execution of the
work in the shop must have been well-nigh perfect, as it all went up without the
least hitch.
 6a8 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

Fig. 135shows the building construction at the eave, where the main cornice
was attached, and a cross section of the main cornice and gutter also a side ;

view of the wrought iron supporting brackets and hangers. Fig. 136 is a detail
showing the cornice brackets and gutter hangers alone. One-inch angles, a a 1
and a2 run continuous, the brackets being spaced about 3 feet 6 inches apart.
,

Fig. 137 shows how the joints were made in a a 1 and a2 B is the gutter hanger, .

which was made of § X H inches bar iron. The hangers were riveted to angle
2
a at b and to the roof beams at c and c
l
. The brackets were all alike, as the
cornice was horizontal, but the gutter was made with a fall, each shed being
about 20 feet long. Hangers B were
therefore made of different depths, as
indicated by the dotted lines, Fig. 135,

the width, of course, remaining the

same.
The main cornice was about 3 feet
high and had stamped modillions and
egg-and-dart and dentil courses. The
work was planned so that the brack-
ets were built in the wall by the ma-
sons. Next the gutter hangers were
put in place and riveted, next the cor-
nice then the gutter, and lastly the
copper connecting piece, a, Fig. 135.

It will thus be seen that both cor-

nice and gutter were accessible on both
sides, which allowed of riveting the

seams when being put up. After a

Fig. 140. — Plan of Skylight, Gutters, etc. was put on, dogs, d, made of § Xl£
inches galvanized strap iron, were riv-
eted to the standing edge e through a and the gutter and to the No. 18 corru-
gated iron roofing by two rivets at / and f
1
. No expansion joints were made in
the gutter, as it lay loosely in the hangers and was not sufficiently attached to
anything to prevent free expansion and contraction.
The method of laying out the gutter was as follows: An elevation of a line
of gutter was made to a 1£ inch scale horizontally, as indicated in Fig.
138, showing
the highest points, a and a 1 and the lowest point, b. Horizontal line,
,
j j, Fig.
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

139,was then drawn to represent the highest point in the bottom of the gutter
From b, Fig. 138, a line was dropped across j j, Fig. 139, and k established 3 inches
below it, which was the actual fall of the gutter, and lines i k and k i drawn, show-
ing the slope. Seams c, d, e, f and g, Fig. 138, and centers of hangers, 1, 2, 3,

-4MI- -j* 4 [ 1 1 1 4*“

Fig. 142. —E & D, Dentil & Frieze Coarse (c)

etc., Fig. 139, was then spaced exactly to scale horizontally and lines drawn from
them across j j and iki, Fig. 139,
as shown. The construction of the gutter and

hangers above j j did not vary, see Fig. 135.

Center lines, 1, 2, 3, etc., being spaced horizontally exactly to scale, and

and k being spaced vertically full size, the difference in the length of 1, 2, 3, etc.,
j j
 630 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

between lines j j and i k i was the actual difference to be made in the drop of the
different hangers, and the difference in length of lines c, d, e, f and g between these
lines was the difference in the ends of the 8 feet and shorter lengths of gutter.
All the hangers were numbered in consecutive order, and to show where the
numbers belonged a small plan of the building was made, as indicated in Fig.

140, and the different stretches of main cornice and gutter lettered A, B, C, D, etc.,
thereon. A separate layout was made of each line of gutter, as in Figs. 138 and
139, which represent line A, Fig. 140. The gutter was got out by these layouts
and each piece marked accordingly. The work was put together in the shop in
16-foot lengths, and strictly in accordance with the layouts.
1 2
As angles a, a and a ,
Fig. 136, run continuously, and the lines of cornice

vary in length somewhat, which varied the spacing of the brackets, a layout of
each line of bracketing and cornice was made, showing the spacing and locating
the rivet holes to be punched in angles a, a} and a 2 . The layout is indicated in
Fig. 141, which represents line of cornice A, Fig. 140.

Lines 1, 2, 3, etc., Fig. 141, represent the center of rivet holes in brackets

through which angles a, a and a 2 are riveted.

1
Wood pieces were built in the wall,
to which the lower part of the cornice could be secured by brass screws, and when
the walls were completed up to the point g, Fig. 135, the brackets were placed
in position and angles a,
1 2
a and a riveted thereto —which took care of the spacing
of the brackets —after which the wall was continued up and the roof structure
placed thereon. The holes in beam h for receiving the gutter hanger rivets were

punched by the sheet metal man with a heavy screw punch. The holes in angle
a2 and gutter hanger, at b, were, of course, punched in the shop. The 2-inch
bracket angle k was made long enough to extend through the wall about 2 inches
and had its inner end split and the flanges turned as indicated at l, which firmly
secured it against being pulled out by the weight of the cornice and gutter, the
weight having that tendency.
Fig. 135 shows seams in the cornice at the points m and m 1
,
which divided
it into three sections of courses and facilitated the work of assembling. A layout
of each course was made as indicated in Fig. 142. Course (a) represents the crown

molding section ;
course (6) the soffit section, and (c) the egg-and-dart, dentil
and frieze section. Ornaments were placed on the frieze under every alternate
modillion. The vertical lines designated by letters indicate the seams in the

cornice, and those designated by figures at course (6) the center of modillions
and those at course (c) the center of ornaments.
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 631

It was, of course, necessary to carefully develop and figure all these layouts
before any actual work was done in the shop. After all the layouts were made
they were traced and blue printed and all the work in the shop and at the build-
ing was done from the same drawings and data.
A complete copy of all data was
sent to Thus every one connected with the work thoroughly
the builders.
understood and was governed by the same plans. All numbering and let-
tering on the gutter hangers and
other wrought iron work was done
by means of steel die stencils, which
stamped the number imo the metal.
This was necessary, as the work
was painted in the shop and .gain
at the building before being put up,
and any marking that depended
upon color was therefore useless.

Fig. 143 shows the junction of

the main level cornice with the main
gable cornice on the front of the
building, and it will be seen that
the gable modillions, dentils and
egg-and-dart molding, as well as the cornice, were raked. Fig. 144 is a section
on a-a of Fig. 143 looking upward. The main gable cornice is the same as the
main level cornice, except that the frieze and foot molding has been left off; the
brickwork of the gables between pilasters being corbeled out in such a manner as
to take the place of the frieze, this junction between level and gable cornices being
novel. The gable cornice was laid out in the same manner as the level cornice.
Fig. 145 is a cross section through the gable cornice showing the junction
with the corrugated iron roofing, and the method of securing the wrought iron
brackets. It will be seen that the roof beams a overhang the wall and are faced
on the ends with a channel bar b the same depth of the beams. The top hori-
zontal angle c of the cornice brackets was made longer than for the level cornice
and riveted to the top flange of the channel. The front vertical angle d of the
brackets is secured to the bottom flange of the channel by a short piece of angle
e riveted to both as shown. The 2-inch bracket angle /, instead of extending
through the wall as for the level cornice, was cut off so as to project into the wall
about 3 inches, and holes were chiseled in the brickwork after it was built to
 63a Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

receive the ends of the angles. Continuous 1-inch angles, a a 1 were used in the
,

2
gable brackets, but a ,
Fig. 136, was omitted because of the connection to the
flange of the channel bar.
The cornice moldings were gotten out in the usual manner, except as to a few
points. Fig. 142, shows the spacing of the modillions and frieze ornaments as
related to the seams in the cornice. Therefore, in getting out the 8-inch sheets
or sections of modillion and frieze courses, after the laps were allowed, the dis-

tance from the seams to the nearest modillion <,r ornament was measured off and
two prick marks made side by side in an imaginary line across the cornice indi-

cating the center of modillion or ornament. In the modillion courses these prick

marks were made at the point a, Fig. 146, and when the sheet was cut and
pricked ready for bending, it looked like Fig. 147, the prick marks 6 showing the
center of modillions.
The face and sides of the modillions were stamped, but the bed moldings were
made of plain crimped copper (all the copperwork was crimped) and connected
to the stamped portion of the modillion in the usual manner, as indicated in Figs.
148 and 149, which shows a section on a-a and 6-6, respectively, of Fig. 150, the
latter being a perspective view of a modillion in place on the cornice. Fig. 151
is a pattern of c, Figs. 149 and 150. The prick mark d, Fig. 151, was made in the
pattern and pricked lightly into each piece, so that when was formed
the modillion
ready to place on the cornice, prick mark d showed as indicated at d l Fig. 150. ,

This saved the time and possible inaccuracy incident to measuring or guessing the
centers of the modillions when attaching^ them to the cornice. It requires much
less time and is far more accurate to prick the modillion courses and moldings
than to do the measuring necessary to spacing after the cornice and modillions
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 6 33

are completed. Proper allowance was, of course, made on each end of the
crown molding course for the miters at the junction between the level and the
gable cornices.
Figs. 138 and 139 represent the layout of one line of the main cornice gutter.
After this layout was completed the work of getting out the gutter and hangers
was proceeded with as follows: For convenience the profile of the gutter was
traced from the full size detail represented by Fig. 135, as indicated by Fig. 152.
The solid line, of course, showing the lowest point of the gutter and the dotted
lineJ J the highest p ant. Next, lines a~a b-b x , Fig. 153, were drawn parallel
x
,

to each other and spaced the width of tne gutter apart; then the line o o x was
drawn perpendicularly across these two lines; then lines c e d d x e e were drawn 1
, ,
1
,

x
parallel to o o and represented the seams in the gutter. These seams lines were
x
spaced exactly to 1^-in. scale from o o Then the full size stretchout of
.

the shallowest part of the gutter was laid out on o o 1 ,

and the stretchout of the
deepest point of the gutter on e e and the lines o e and o 1 e 1 drawn, cutting the
x

intermediate seam lines which established the stretchout of the ends of the three
different pieces of gutter.
As the material was of No. 20 gauge, it was necessary to make proper allowance
in the stretchouts, so that the end of one piece would lie in the end of the next
piece. Fig. 154 is a side view showing a lap joint in the gutter, and Fig. 155 is a
section on a a of Fig. 154. It will be seen that the stretchout of inside end A, Fig.
155, must contain less material than outside end B. In Fig. 153 c c 1 is the stretch-
2 3
out of B, and c c that of A. It will be seen that allowance made in the bottom is

and in both sides of the gutter. This seam allowance was also made in all lap
seams as shown*. Having thus obtained the stretchouts, the piece of paper on
which they were laid off was laid on the ends of the sheets and the points pricked
into the iron. Fig. 156 represents the three sheets of iron of which one shed was
made. The paper stretchout sheet, Fig. 153, was laid on the left hand end of
x
sheet No. 1, Fig. 156, with stretchout o o about J inch back from the end of
2 3
the sheet, and the points pricked through; then stretchout c c was pricked on
the right hand end of the sheet in a similar manner; then stretchout c c1 was
transferred to the left end of sheet No. 2, and stretchout dP dP pricked on the right
hand end; then stretchout d d was transferred to the left end of sheet No. 3, and
x

1
stretchout e2 e3 on the right hand end. Stretchout e e was of course used on the
left hand end of the adjoining sheet of the next water shed, and the process con-

tinued inversely.
 <>34 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

The lengths of the sheets Nos. 1, 2, 3 was, of course, taken from the layout,
Fig. 138. The dimensions shown being net the laps are allowed in addition to

Method of Preparing Cornice Moldings and Cornice Gutter

same. After the sheets were thus pricked marked, they were cut to the proper
width, which prepared them for the 8-foot upright power brake.
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 635

In getting out the wrought iron gutter hangers a full size detail of the hanger
was taken irom the full size by Fig. 135,
cornice and gutter detail, represented
as indicated in Fig. 157. Owing to the thickness of the hanger it was necessary
to draw the center line a a, from which to take the stretchout. The stretchout
of the different hangers in a water shed was obtained as follows:
Referring to Fig. 158, a a' and b b' were drawn parallel to each other and
spaced a distance apart equal to c, in Fig. 157. Line 1, Fig. 158, was then drawn
perpendicularly across a a' and b b', and the stretchout of the "hanger, No. 1, Fig.
139, laid off thereon, ps indicated. Lines 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 were then drawn, being
spaced to a 11-in. scale, in accordance with the layout, Fig. 139. The stretchout
of the hanger No. 6 Fig. 139, was then laid off in line 6, Fig. 158, and lines c d
and 1, G, Fig. 158, drawn, cutting the intermediate lines. The holes and bends
in the hangers are then taken from the detail represented by Fig. 157, and spaced
on stretchout lines 1 and G, Fig. 158, as indicated. Lines were then drawn con-
necting corresponding {joints in No. 1 and No. G, which located the holes and bends
in 2, 3, 4 and 5. These lines were then exact stretchouts through centers of hang-
ers. Lines were then drawn on each side of these center lines, spaced half the
width of the hanger therefrom, and the stretchout sheet, represented by Fig. 158,
was then laid on the bar iron and the cuts, holes and bends center-punched through
the paper into the material, and each hanger immediately die-stencil marked,
after which the material was cut and punched.
The hangers were bent up cold with special dies in a 5-foot upright power
brake, as indicated in Fig. 159, the bends being rounded so as not to break or
unduly strain the fiber of the metal. It will be seen at a glance that bending in a
brake in manner saved most of the time, which would have been consumed
this

in heating, and bending in a vise, or otherwise by hand, and was easier and quicker
than using an ordinary brace bender.
Fig. 160 represents a cross section of the awning gutter, showing method of
hanging, and Fig. 161 the train shed valley gutters, and Fig. 162 is a section of
the court cornice and gutter, which receives the water from the special steel frame
skylight. The inside edge of the court cornice gutter had a 5-8 inch lock edge
turned on it, as indicated at a, and the finishing piece b, was locked to it and notched
out to around the bottom of the skylight bars, as indicated after b was secured
fit ;

by clips c the seam was closed down with a heavy mallet. Fig. 163 represents
a cross section through one of the skylight bars and Fig. 164 shows how the glass
was secured at the bottom to prevent sliding down.
 63 6 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

The last three gutters, with their hangers, were planned and got out in the
same manner that the main cornice gutter was, except that the bottom bend lines
of the gutter, corresponding at a a' and b b' Fig. 153, were not parallel, and similar
y

Some of the Special Gutters and Details of Skylight Work

lines of the hangers, corresponding to a a' and b b', Fig. 158, were also converging,
as the bottoms as well as the sides of these gutters tapered.
In these gutters the distance a b, Fig. 153, was equal to width of bottom of
gutter at highest point, and a '
b' equal to width at lowest point. In Fig. 158 a b
was equal to the width of the bottom of the highest hanger and a' V equal to the
bottom width of the lowest hanger. Otherwise the entire process of laying out
and getting out was similar to that above described.

EAVE FINISH FOR METAL ROOFS

Herewith is number
presented a of methods for securing sheet metal roofs
at the eaves. A very simple method is shown in Fig. 165, where the tin is bent
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 637

over the roof boards and nailed. This manner of securing the tin is very defective,
as the underside of the roof boards are unprotected, and, unless the tin extends
below the edge of the roof
boards, capillary attraction
will cause water to be drawn
between the tin and the
boards. In Fig. 166, the
tin is bent down and out
so as to form a drip, and
while this form appears to
,
Fig. 165. — Single Bend in Tin Fig. 166. — Double Bend in Tin
be an improvement on the
previous one, the underside of the roof boards being unprotected, there is a chance
for either wind, fire or water to enter. In Fig. 167, is presented a method that
finds favor with many tinners. A strip of galvanized iron is nailed along the
eaves, and over this strip

the tin is laid and locked

over the edge. This does
not form either a fire or
wind proof finish, as the
underside of roof boards
are unprotected. In Fig.
168, the roof tin is so formed
Fig. 167.- Sheet Iron Nailed Fig. 168.— Tin Bent Under
bdge of Roof &g reac h under the roof
to Roof
boards and cover them, and
if the space between brick and roof boards is well filled with mortar or cement, a

tight joint will result. As shown in Fig. 169, strips of tin are so formed as to
extend under the roof
boards, and at the same
time project sufficiently to
allow the roof tin to be
hooked on, thus protecting
the under side of the roof
boards and forming a drip.
In Fig. 170 the roof tin is Fig. 169. — Drip Formed by Bent Fig. 170. —Drip Formed in
„ Strips of Tin Roof Tin
so formed as to produce a
drip, the tin being secured to the roof boards by nailing. In Fig. 171 the roof
 63 8 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

tin is bent in such a manner as to form a drip, and at the same time extend
under the lower part of roof boards. Strips of tin can be formed, as
shown in Fig. 172, and
placed under the eaves,
being secured by nailing.
The roof tin is then to be
hooked on and double
seamed over. It is to be
understood that these
methods are applicable to
Fig. 171. — Tin Bent Under Fig. 172. — Double Seam at
Roof Board Eaves the linings of box gutters.

A ROOFING NOTCHER
It consists of a
board 2 inches thick and 10 X 14 in size. At one end of this
is fastened securely a piece of tool steel, one edge fitted as a cutting
edge, and
attached to one end, by means of a bolt with a countersunk head, is
the other
blade of the shears, which terminates in a short handle. The upper
blade is so
bent that a very slight movement opens the jaws of the shears sufficiently to insert
a sheet of roofing tin. The upper
blade is connected with an upright
support by means of a spring which
keeps the shears continually open.
Guide plates are screwed to the
board, as shown, so that the sheet of
tin to be notched can be pushed up
. , . , , ,
Fig. 173. — A Roofing Notcher
against the guide plates, a corner
extending beyond the lower blade of the shears. The spring holding the blade
of the shears open, the upper blade can be brought down and a corner of the
sheet neatly and correctly cut off, as is required for flat seam roofing laid one
sheet at a time. It is a simple matter to attach a rope to the upper blade of
the shears so that it can be drawn down by a motion of the foot in a stirrup
placed in the lower end of the rope, leaving both hands free to handle the roofing
sheets. If the blades are made
heavy and good material, fastened securely to-
of
gether, several sheets may be notched at the same time. It is found in practice
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 639

that a man can notch the roofing sheets more quickly by this means than can
be done by either hand or bench shears, and certainly much more accurately.

A DEVICE TO ROSIN ROOF SEAMS

This apparatus, as shown by the illustration Fig. 174,
is used to apply the rosin on seams of roofs by filling it
with powdered rosin and placing the end with the small
hole on the seam and inserting a hot soldering copper in the
rosin which then melts and flows through the small hole and
on the seam as the de\ ice is drawn along.
It is made funnel shape about 4 inches in diameter
at the large end, 3-16 inch at the small end and 6 inches
long; to this is attached a handle 2 feet long of
Fig. 174. — Rosining Roof
lj-inch band iron. Seams

STORING LADDERS AND SCAFFOLDS

Herewith is presented a method of storing ladders and scaffolds in length from
20 to 28 feet. As the space in the shop was limited, a novel idea came to mind,
namely, to make the necessary hooks, bands and rollers, and store the ladders
or scaffolds underneath the floor beams, or, in other words, hang them beneath
the ceiling. The illustrations herewith presented will show how this was accom-
plished. In Fig. 175 is shown the front and sectional views of a ladder hanger,

the ladder being placed at right angles to the beams. A, in the sectional view in
Fig. 175, indicates the wooden beam; B, the sectional view of the 3-16 X 1 1-inch

band iron bracket, which is screwed against the beam A as shown; D and D show
the front elevation of the brackets, screwed to the beam C. The width of the ladder
J being known, the brackets D and D are spaced accordingly, so as to allow the

ladder or scaffold play room to slide in or out, as shown. E represents a £-inch

iron rod placed through the brackets D and D as shown.

Byboring or drilling two J-inch holes at each end of the rod E, two pins, H
and H, are placed in it to prevent the rod from slipping out of the brackets when
putting up the ladders. Before placing the rod E through the brackets a 5-8-inch
gas pipe (inside measure) is slipped over it, as shown at F, and forms a roller,

which lightens the work of sliding the ladders in place. L, Fig. 175, indicates
640 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

a stationary hook made of 3-16 X lj-inch of band iron, twisted half way around,
as shown, and screwed fast to the wooden beam. M is a twisted hook fastened
to the beam with one long wood screw, which acts as a pivot, and allows the hook
to be swung outward when desired. To hang a long ladder, say 25 feet in length,
the brackets D and D and hooks M and L would be placed about 20 feet apart.
To slide the ladder between the ceiling with hardly any trouble whatever proceed
as follows: Raise one end of the ladder up from the floor until it rests upon the
pipe F Fig. 175, then raise the other end of the ladder, being careful always to

FLOOR LINE

iVxi*
g
0
0
D
mmem ^
0
©
0
H H
0
% GAS PIPE

Fig. 175.— Front and Sectional Views of a Ladder Hanger, Hung Crosswise to the Beams

FLOOR LINE FLOOR LINE

HINGED

Fig. 176 —Front and Sectional Views of a Ladder Hanger, Hung Parallel to the Beams

press toward the pipe F, as the tendency is to slide out; now,

holding up at arms’ length, obtain a spruce slat 1J X 3 inches Fig. 177 .—Spruce
it
Llfter
in thickness and long enough to reach the ceiling, have a groove
cut in one end of the slat, as shown in Fig. 177, and placing the groove under
one of the rungs of the ladder, raise it slowly, always pressing toward the pipe

F, until it sets in the stationary hook shown at L in Fig. 175; now press the hook
N forward by means of a strip of wood to the position M, which secures
the ladder.
When taking down the ladder or scaffold the same operations should be
performed reversed. Fig. 176 shows the front and sectional views of a ladder
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 641

hanger, the ladder being hung parallel with the beams; whereas in Fig. 175 the
ladder hung at right angles with the beams. The only change required in this case

is that the brackets shown at D and D in Fig. 176 require twisting, as shown,
and the hook shown at M in Fig. 176 must be hinged so as to allow it to work back
and forth.

SUGGESTIONS FOR LAYING SLATE ROOFING

There was a time in the history of slate roofing when was considered a
it

definite trade, and guarded >0 jealously in its details that the slater did slate work
only. When tin work was required, such
as valleys, flashings, etc., the tinner was
called on to execute it. During the last

decade or more, however, all has been

changed in this, as well as in work of
other character, and there are now
more tinners doing slate roofing than
legitimate slaters, and we desire to say

at the very outset that what follows is in-

,78 - Method of Uyin* s,ate at the Eaves

tended more especially for the benefit of the numerous roofers and tinners who have
had no experience or opportunity to learn slate roofing, while at the same time it
may interest and meet the approval of old slaters.

Fig. 179. —Lining ft Cornice having a Gutter —Showing a Valley in a Roof

Fig. 180.

The better sizes of slate are considered as varying from 10 X 20 to 12 X 24,

the smaller size for dwellings and small buildings, the larger for factories and bams.
6^ 2 , Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

A good size for a medium roof and one easy to lay is 11 X 22, giving X 11 exposed
surface. However, in a great many localities a 2-inch lap on the third course is

given instead of 3 inches, which would make the exposed surface 10 X 11. Of
this we will speak later.

The object of using an even multiple of length by width is to be able to break

joints evenly in length by the width when required. Slate of different lengths
may be used on the same roof when necessary, if the width is the same, and the
length equal throughout any one course. This is done by regulating the lap of
the slate so that they all have a lap of 3 inches at the bottom over the nails driven

to hold the second course below them.

The only exception to this is at the eave, where the bottom or eave course is
laid lengthwise, as shown by A A, Fig. 178, from gable to gable. The next or
second course covers the bottom course, edging with it at the eave, and lying
lengthwise up the roof, but starting with a half width slate, bringing the joint, as
shown at C, after which whole slate will break joints throughout the row, as shown
by B The next or third course D is started with a full width slate, breaking
B.
joint over B B and lapping 1$ inches over the top edge of the bottom eave slate,
as shown. The next or fourth course is started with a half width slate. Con-
tinue alternating until the comb has been reached. Three inches are usually
allowed for the third under lap, and slate quarrymen and dealers send enough
pieces to the square to lay a full square allowing the lap referred to, yet in some
localities where quality is sacrificed for price, a 2-inch lap only is given, making
a saving of \ inch to each course of slate, apparently trifling, yet amounting
to 30 square feet in two sides of such a roof as that shown in Fig. 181. The size
of the roof being 20 X 14 feet 10 inches and the size of the slate used being 10 X 20
inches, the roof will require 21 courses, with 24 slates to the course, with 3-inch
lap. With a 2-inch lap less than 20 courses will cover the same surface, a saving
of 48 slates 9 X 10, equal to 4320 square inches, or 30 square feet, or approximately

5 per cent, a small gain for inferior workmanship.

The color of the slate to be used must be determined by the customer. Black
is a color that will not fade and is very desirable. A good quality is found in the
Bangor district in Pennsylvania. Unfading green, sea-green, purple, variegated
and red are quarried in Vermont and north New York. Red slates are unfading,
but they are too expensive to use except in working out such a design as that
shown by Fig. 181, in which the red slates are shaded lighter than those supposed
to be black or green. This design requires only 48 to either side of the roof.
 —

Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 643

A pleasing combination for figure or design work is made by using purple

for the figure and unfading green for the body. Sea-green looks well when new,
yet the liability to fade and form all manner of grotesque figures, renders it un-
reliable. Sea-green is the cheapest slate for roofing purposes, and the monotony
or sameness may be broken, when it is used exclusively, by running courses of
the slate with the comers cut, as at A and A in Fig. 181, alternating with slate
having square corners. The soundness or quality of the slate may be determined
by a slight tap of the hammer in laying. If a clear ringing sound is given out you
can depend on their being perfect. If defective, black slate break lengthwise,
green slate through their width.
Slate from the quarry must be in carload lots to get the best freight rate,

and as it is rated at 600 pounds a square, 40 squares 12 tons — minimum

is a
carload. Unless one has contracts calling for more, as a start, this amount may be
divided into 30 squares green and 10 squares of purple, size 11 X 22, which is not
too large for a small building or too small for a larger one. It is good stock and
can be realized on at any time. No matter, however, what size or color you pre-
fer, do not order less than a carload, as local freight rates on slate are ruinous to

profits.

Too much care can not be taken in lining a cornice having a gutter, as illus-
trated in Fig. 179. No matter what metal it may be lined with, galvanized iron,

after copper, an important item is to have the back part of the gutter at B higher
than the front C, the first course of slate to be laid 2 or 3 inches higher up the roof
than a point level with the front as shown at A. This is to provide against an
overflow into the building in case of freezing and snow thus forcing the overflow
in front in case of an emergency, especially when the conductor pipe has become
clogged. To prevent the latter, wire strainers should be placed in all outlets.
All the metal of the roof gutter above the first row of slating nails is useless; nails,

in short, should not be driven through the metal at all, as the expansion and con-
traction of the metal will work holes the larger, and if not high enough leakage

will follow. Capillary attraction and nail holes have been the cause of hundreds
of unexplained leakages.
A valley in the roof is shown by Fig. 180, one side of which has the slate laid
complete, and has the eave course started on the left side showing the slate pro-
jecting over a common plastering lath “L,” laid along the edge of the valley over
the metal to give the valley course of slate the proper elevation at their butts.
The lath is held in place by means of strips of galvanized iron nailed to them as
 644 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

at A A. These strips are nailed back of the edge of the valley and not through
the metal. The slate can project over the lath an inch and the lath be placed 5
inches from the center of the valley on each side, giving 4 inches of exposed valley
on each side of the center. To get an even edge it is best to use chalk and line it.

For hip and comb finish it is good economy to use a ridge roll, as illustrated

Fig. 181. — Roof Showing use of Slate of Various Colors, Forming what is known as the Double Maltese Cross Design

Fig. 182.— Hip and Comb Finish Fig. 183. —Style of Eaves Trough Hanger Recommended
in Fig. 182. The comb or ridge rafter should project above the roof sheathing
an inch to allow the cap to be nailed to it, as shown at A and A, and also against
which the slate may abut.
Flashing, chimneys, fire walls, skylights or places where the roof abuts against
another building are proceeded with in the same way as in tin or shingle roofs,
the slate being cut to the required size and shape.
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 645

The roof foundation may be either lath £ X 3 inches or 4 inches, or solid sheath-
ing. If lath are used they will have to be spaced so that the top of the rows of
slate will rest on the center of the lath, the bottom slate having a 3-inch lap over
the top of the second course below, as shown by Fig. 178. If the size of the slate
is 10 X 20, this will give an exposed area of 85 square inches to each slate, or measur-
ing surface of 8£ X 10.

Unless very cheap work is desired it is at all times advisable to use common
sheathing, surfaced on one side, placing the rough side up; this, covered with
slater’s felt, wall prevent sleet, snow or driving rain from being forced into the
garret. Slate should not. hind at the side e<’.ges, as it will prevent drainage between
the slate and induce breakage by freezing in cold weather.
If laths are used upon which to lay the roof, the bottom or eave should be
sheathed solid for at least three courses, to provide a solid base for the eave trough
hangers, etc. A hanger free from the roof is undoubtedly preferable, and such is

shown in Fig. 183, which can be made in the shop of hoop iron and of a gauge
suitable for the purpose intended; that is, it does not require as heavy iron for a

3£ inch hanger as for 6 or 7 inches. The band D is formed in the rolls after the hole
E has been punched or drilled, after which the hook C is formed by turning the
end down £ inch to receive the back edge of the trough. The front is slightly

curved as shown ;
the strap is then riveted to the brace A, having two screw holes
at B and F, which completes the shop work on it. In hanging the trough a brace

is placed at each end of the roof, secured to the fascia board, or the end of the rafters,
by means of wood screws; one “F” above the hook C and one engaging both
the strip D and the bracket A at the holes E and B. The bracket at the outlet
being lower than the one at opposite end provides for the pitch and a line stretched

from the bottom of one to the other provides a gauge for the placing as many more
in the intermediate as may be deemed necessary. The trough is laid in the bracket,

using care to have its back edge the engage hook C, Fig. 183. When the strip

D is formed over the bead in front, as shown by the dotted lines, the hook C and
the formation over the bead will keep the trough in shape and position; its ad-
vantages are an unobstructed flow, strength, and the avoidance of nailing through
the slate.
A set of slater’s tools requires but small outlay, a handy blacksmith being
able to make all required. However, a set bought from a dealer is generally bet-

ter proportioned and the additional cost so slight that it is advisable to buy from
the latter. A slater’s hammer, a ripper, shown in Fig. 184, a stake and nail punch
 646 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

are required. A home-made hammer can be made by welding a steel point to

the blade of a hatchet, as at Fig. 185.

A steep roof requires scaffolding. The brackets may be made out of scrap
pieces of wood to be found around a new building, as shown in Fig. 186. The

Fig. 189. —A Roof Paint Bucket Fig. 187. — Details of one Form of Derrick used in
Raising Slate to Roof

Fig. 186. —A Scaffold Bracket for Slaters' Use Fig. 188. — A Projecting Beam Derrick
pitch of the bracket is regulated to conform with the pitch of the roof by the length
of the standard support A. The bottom board need not be longer than from 16

to 18 inches. A galvanized iron strip, G, is nailed on the under side of it ait D,

and is of a length to reach over the top of the last course of slate laid, approxi-

mately 18 inches; and to allow the front of the bracket to be down the roof far
enough not to interfere with the lap of the next course of slate to be laid, the brackets
are distributed across the roof, nailed to the sheathing by means of the galvanized
strips, and common 10 or 12-inch sheathing boards are laid on top of them,
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 647

from which to work. Slates are laid upon the boards and stacks of slate are piled
immediately above the brackets, and the number of brackets required for safety
must be determined by the workmen. The slate is laid up the roof, over and
regardless of the galvanized iron strip, and when the roof is completed the bracket
is removed by placing one hand on the slate over the galvanized iron strip and bend-

ing the strip close up to the bottom of the slate, when it will break off, freeing the
bracket.
A device for raising slate to the roof is shown by the derrick illustrated in
Fig. 187. This derrick is made with 2X4 standards, A A, 7 feet long. Two
boards, 1X4 inches, are nailed, one on each side of the standard near the center
B, and of such a length as to spread the standards 3 feet at the
bottom and 6 inches
at the top. The top rod, \ inch, will secure the standards firmly by using nuts
and washers both inside and outside, which are drawn up tight, as shown at C C
in the detail sketch at the left. The rope J with the loop F is tied around the rod
and taken to the comb of the roof, where it is coiled around the board H, which
is nailed and projects over the opposite side of the comb, as shown. The wheel
D, or iron sheave as it is commonly called, shown at D in Fig. 187, is made after
the style of a bicycle rim, but of iron, and about 1 foot in diameter. A bolt passes
through it, to which a forked rod is attached, on the end of which is the hook G,
which engages the loop F of the rope J. The rope E should be of a length that will

allow both ends to touch the ground after passing over the wheel D. A small
chain may, if desired, be attached to the end of the rope engaging the slate, which
will not allow the slate to slip as easily as a rope. Two men can elevate the slate
with ease with this derrick, which is secured on the roof by means of a platform.
This platform may be about 4 feet long by 3 feet wide, supported in front so as to

make it level, as shown. The standards A A are toenailed to the platform and
the top is fastened as has been described with the rope J. The derrick should
lean out over the cornice or eave far enough to avoid striking any projection of
the building by the slate in being hoisted.

The mnn on the ground and the one on the platform can both pull on the rope

until the slate is high enough to be pulled in and balanced on the center brace B
until the rope or chain is loosened, when the platform man gives the rope a down-
ward throw and while he carries the slate to the roof scaffold the man below loads
up again.
A projecting beam derrick can be made as illustrated in Fig. 188 and operated
as above described, or a horse may be used on the ground instead of man power by
 648 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

passing the rope over a snatch block, held firmly to the ground by a stake. The
platform may be as already described, the exception being in regard to standards
and beam. The latter are made of 2 X4 oak timber from 10 to 12 feet long, pro-

jecting over the eave as at A and passing back of and nailed to a rafter of the roof

at D at an elevation giving the desired pitch. It is braced at the platform with

two side braces B, which are spread at the bottom, as shown in Fig. 187, and are
toenailed and secured to the beam by a bolt at C.
In relaying slate in part, upon a roof undergoing repairs, the row or last course
to be laid must be secured by driving the nails between the slate of the row above
and covering the nail heads by slipping a strip of galvanized iron over the heads
and under the slate.

Or, better still, the last course can be secured in place by nailing strips of
sheet metal \ inch wide, and long enough to extend about 1 inch below the
bottom of the slate; then shove slate under the course above and bending the
strip over the bottom of slate suspending it in its proper position.

The double Maltese cross design, Fig. 181, is one of the most pleasing designs
that can be laid with green and purple slate, having a red relief, as shown by the
slate of lighter shade, and withal an easy one to develop. The length of rafters

and width of the roof are reduced to inches and the amount divided by the exposed
length and width of the slate, giving the number of slate to a course and the number
of courses required. When this has been ascertained a rough draft may be made
by the workman, similar to Fig. 181, and taken upon the roof, which will show at a
glance where each slate on the roof should be located.
In driving nails care should be taken not to draw the slate tight, otherwise
freezing weather, followed by a thaw, will crack them, or burst the nail head
through, allowing the slate to slip down the roof.
A roof paint bucket made to conform to the pitch of the roof and used in slate
roofing for valleys, flashing, etc., shown in
is Fig. 189, and may be made in size

to conform to the fancy of the workman. For tin or metal roofing, the steel spring
band A riveted on each side is intended to engage the standing seam to, help
prevent the bucket from slipping, and a No. 6 wire across the top, as shown at
B, may be used to wipe the brush of excess of paint.
For contract roofing it does not pay to use seconds or No. 2, or do indifferent
work, as one poor roof will ruin the reputation of a score of good ones. If a price
cannot be gotten that will justify good slate and careful workmanship, it is far

better to turn the job down. Your reputation for quality and skill will soon make
t
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts 6 49

itself manifest and you can get fair prices. It has long been said that the founda-
tion of a house and the roof were the important items to consider, and no one
able to build at all will object to a fair price if satisfaction is assured.
In making an estimate see that there is a complete and full understanding
as to the terms of pay and guarantee of work. If the roof is in the country, never
fail to mention hauling the slate to the work and returning that not used; also
terms for board, free or otherwise, for your man and horse or team; also specify
the price per square for all tin or galvanized iron work, and also that there be a
foot of width added as extra for the length of each hip and valley on the roof.
If copper nails are to b^ used, add 25 cents p.-r square extra, otherwise use common
galvanized slater’s nail . Ridge roll, Fig. 182, should be used on all hips and over
I he comb and price pe r loot speciiied. As it is almost an impossibility to remember
all the items to be considered when taking a contract, each roofer should have some
simple printed contract form that he may draw up at his leisure to meet his own
views, embracing all items that could probably come under dispute, thereby sav-
ing himself possible untold annoyance and oftentimes cash.

A SLATER’S ADJUSTABLE SCAFFOLD BRACKET

These are instructions for making a scaffold bracket which can be adjusted
to suit various pitches of roofs, and which has its suspending strip of iron so con-
structed that it can be slipped from under the slates so as to change it to another

place on the roof.

may be said that roofers care very little for the various patented scaffolds
It

and the many schemes of adjustable brackets. They prefer the well-tried method
ofmaking brackets out of scrap pieces of wood to be found around buildings, and
hanging them from strips of sheet metal. When the scaffolding is being removed
these strips are broken off and the part under the slates is left there.

This method of scaffolding is rapid and safe, while with the strip made so as to
allow for withdrawing it from under slates there is the positive danger of inadver-
tently pushing the brackets up, thereby dislodging the strip from its hold on the
nails.

bracket of this type can be easily constructed as follows: Cut two pieces
A
of 1-inch board 6 inches wide, one 30 inches and the other 25£ inches long, and

connect them with strong hinges as shown at D in the diagram. The standard
C is a piece of 1-inch board, 6 inches wide and 16 inches long. To keep this
 650 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

standard in place 1 X 1-inch cleats are nailed to the base of the bracket, as shown
at E, and the standard is fastened to these cleats by bolts through G, which is

made of heavy sheet iron and nailed or screwed to the cleats.

The adjustment two other roof pitches by one standard is shown by the
to
dotted lines. By using different lengths of standards, adjustment to a greater
range of pitch is obtained. Plenty of play should be allowed when spacing these
cleats, for it is desirable to keep the standards plumb. It has been found that when
using different sized standards it may be necessary to put a standard in, say,

the first space of the roof piece H and the second space of the platform or plank
rest, piece J.

The strip K is made by a tool maker of tempered steel and the notches cut for
as many nails as are deemed necessary to support the load. In this case there are

six. The notch is better They are spaced about If inches. The
shown by L.
strip is 2 inches wide and 1-16 inch thick. The length A is such that when bracket
is placed on the slates the first notch is above the last course of the slates laid and

allows the top of the bracket to be down far enough not to interfere with the top
of the next course, and just so low that when the bracket is being released from the
nails it can be pushed up just the distance required to be slipped from the nails
without the bracket hitting the slates.
 Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts <5
5i

It is suggested that for a very steep roof like a mansard, a scaffold built up
from the eaves and tops of the dormer windows be used in preference to these
suspended brackets.

A FALSE-BOTTOM GUTTER
When it is desirable to have a small molded gutter show up level and still

have the requisite pitch to the leader, and owing to the gutter being small it
would not pay to have a wood lined or box gutter, as described in another part
of this book; then the aceompanjung illustration, Fig. 191, should answer.
This gutter is only a molding on the outside, and can be formed up to suit
the job, and is nailed to the fascia board at B. This molding is riveted and sol-

dered at the seams, care being taken, when doing this, not to press on the molding,
as it s very easy to push the molding
at the seam, thereby having it out of
line, and of course crooked.
After erecting the molding by
nailing at B, and holding up the front
temporarily, the ining or inside gutter,
which has the proper pitch to the
leader, is put in, 24 ft. at a stretch,
fastening it at D to the molding as
shown, and nailing to the fascia in
the back. Those seams at the ends
of the 24 ft. lengths cannot be readily
Fig. 191. — View of False Bottom Gutter in Place

riveted, therefore, previous to laying in, place these seams together on the

ground, looked along the two lengths, and straighten (or use a chalk line).
Punch holes as if for rivets, but instead insert 3-16 in. stove bolts, with the nuts
on the sides of the gutter, which will be inaccessible when in place; tighten up
bolts and solder the nuts, seeing to it that bolts are not soldered; remove the
bolts,take the two lengths apart and then they can be set in place in the molding
and bolts re-inserted in their places, same as if in a tapped hole, and seams heavily
soldered.
This method of making a false bottom has the additional advantages of
allowing for a pitch from the very top of molding to bottom, and should the bottom
leak it will be manifest by dripping from the molding at A, which should be suffi-
 652- Gutters and Roof Outlet Layouts

cient warning to renew bottom before molding becomes rotted The braces also.

are made from 1-8 X 1 in. tinned band iron and formed as shown, bolted at C
to the gutter and nailed to board at the back. If desired, the bottom could be

flanged back on the roof and under shingles or slate, and likewise the brace could
be nailed to roof.

MAKING AN ACID CUP FROM A BOTTLE

Some shops furnish the men with a suitable receptacle for the acid in sheet
metal soldering. It being a fact, though, that oftentimes, especially on outside
work, the men must find something
to hold the acid and to allow of dip-
ping in a brush, the following is pre-
sented.
Take any clean bottle, such as
a beer or soda water bottle, and
bind around it a narrow strip of
sheet metal as Fig. 192. This strip
should be about \ in. wide and
bound as tightly as possible with a lock joint by turning with the pliers small

edges as B, Fig. 193 and then dressing them down as A, Fig. 193.
After this swab some acid on the strip, and with a hot soldering copper,
solder around the strip, using some solder of course, and before the bottle and
strip have a chance to cool, put acid on the strip, with the brush following the
soldering iron as indicated in Fig. 194. This will cause the glass to split on
the line of the strip and a fight blow will break the lower half of the bottle
from the neck. Sometimes the glass is rather tough and the heating and cooling
must be repeated two or three times. This is the conventional manner of
makin g these cups and it takes very little time and is certainly worth knowing.
 SECTION VI
(Pages 653-784)

SHEET METAL ROOFING

PATTERNS
 : ;

Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 653

Practical Sheet Metal Work and

Demonstrated Patterns

MEASURING ROOFS
This article will give the rules for obtaining the true amount of material
required when covering flat or hipped roofs and square, octagonal and conical
towers; also the methods of obtaining the true lengths of the hips and valleys on
pitched roofs. The diagrams shown herewith are not drawn to a scale as architects’
drawings will be, but the measurements on the diagrams are assumed, which will
clearly show the principles whicn must be applied when figuring from scale draw-
ings or from sketches made when measuring the roof itself.
Assuming that the plans from which we are figuring are drawn to a %-inch
scale, when measurements are taken every % inch represents 1 foot, % inch
equals 6 inches, and so on. If the drawings were drawn to a %-inch scale, then

% inch would equal x

12 inches, /± inch equal 6 inches, % inch equal 3 inches, 1-16
inch equal 1)4 inches, etc. When going estimating a small scale rule 6 inches in
length is usually carried in one’s pocket with pencil and note book and some loose
pads. The title of the items which we propose to take off the plans is usually
written as follows
(Mention name) (What kind)
Estimate to for
(Number, street and city)

roofing for building number.

(Name) (Name) (Name)
Mr owner; and
(Number, street and city)

architects; number.
We now read the specifications carefully and note what material is to be used

for the roof covering. If tin, note what brand is required and its thickness, IC or
IX ;
if it is on paper or painted underneath before laying and how many
to be laid
coats will be applied to the top what size sheets and how many pounds of solder
;

will be used to the square (a square in this connection means a surface space of 10 X

10 feet); and will the tin be laid flat or standing seam. After observing these

points the quantities are taken off the plans. If the roof is to be covered with
slate, note what size and how thick the slates used are to be ;
if they are to be
nailed on sheathing or porous fire proof blocks, and with galvanized or brass nails
if the slates are to be laid on paper, and if the flashing and valleys are to be of tin,
galvanized iron or copper.
 654 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

Knowing all this we can make our estimate accordingly. Next ascertain if

the specifications call for a tile roof and whether shingle tile, Spanish or other form
of tile; if they are to be laid, as mentioned, in connection with slate roofing or

are to be fastened to the purlin with copper or galvanized wire. All these are im-
portant considerations in arriving at a close estimate. If a felt roof is required and
the tinner is to attend to the flashing, note how many layers of felt are necessary,
also if each layer of felt is to be thoroughly saturated with hot asphalt cement or
just coal tar, and if gravel or slag is to be placed over the top layers. If the roof
is to be covered with shingles, and assuming that the tin roofer looks after the
flashing, note what kind and size of shingles are to be used, how much they will

be laid to the weather and what kind of nails are to be employed, etc. We must
become familiar with these points in order to figure accurately.
The following are methods of arriving at the amount of roofing required for
flat roofs; so to figure the amount of material required on aflat roof, shown in Fig.
1 by ABC D, and which measures 20 X 20 feet. Multiply 20 X 20 feet giving 400
square The chimney measures 1X2 feet and equals 2 square feet deduct
feet. ;

this from 400 square feet. Then 398 square feet will be the true amount of surface
to be covered on the roof shown in Fig. 1 Allowance should be made for the .

flashings turning up against and

into the wall at the sides. Fig. 2
is a little more difficult, and shows
a plan having air shafts at the
sides. A B C D represents the
general plan view of the roof,
which measures 22X84 feet, as
shown. In a roof of this kind we
Fig. i. Flan of Square Roof will figure as if there were no air
shafts at all, and then deduct the shafts and chimneys
later. Thus 84 X 22 feet equals 1848 square feet. The
shafts at each side are cut at an angle of 45 degrees, and
measure from the outer corners a to b 20 feet, and from
the inner comers c to d 10 feet. Now, as the angles are
45 degrees, we must average the distance between 10 and
20 feet, which will measure 15 feet, as shown from e to /.
As the distance from i to j on a horizontal line is 5 feet,
multiply 5X15 feet, giving 75 square feet; double
this for the two shafts, making 150 square feet.
 :

Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 6 55

Two chimneys are shown, each 1X4 feet, equals 4X2 feet equals 8, plus
150 feet equals 158 square feet. Now deduct 158 square feet from 1848 square
feet, leaving 1690 square feet of roof surface in a roof of the dimensions of Fig.
2, minus the flashings.
Another case of flat roof that may arise is shown by A B C D in Fig. 3. In
this case the same rule is employed as that given in connection with Fig. 2.

Multiply the width by the length in Fig. 3, thus

18X60 feet equals 1080 square feet if the roof
has no breaks. Now deduct the chimney of
1X3 feet, which equals 3 square feet; deduct
|
I
the shaft of 8 X 14 feet, which equals 112 square
feet. The angle at the rear of the building
measures 8X20 feet, which equals 160 square
feet; from this deduct one-half, which leaves 80
square feet. Now then we have 3 + 112 + 80
feet equals 195 square feet to be deducted from
1080 square feet, which leaves 885 square feet of

material required to cover a surface of the size

given. In diagram E is shown the principle

which is applied when figuring the deduction of

angles. The size of the square is 8X20 feet

Fig. 8. Another Shape of Flat Roof and equals 160 square feet, as mentioned. Now
by drawing the diagonal a b we cut this amount in half, as shown by the shaded
lines, and will make it 80 square feet, as noted.

We now have pitched roofs, as shown in Fig. 4, in which shows the ABC
front view of the building and D E F G the side. The length of the rafter
measures 12 feet, as shown from A to B in front view, and the length from G to
F on the side view measures 66 feet. Now 12 X66 feet equals 792 square feet for

one side. and we have 1584 square feet. Now deduct the chimney,
Double this

which is 6 feet wide by 2 feet, shown on the rake; 2X6 feet equals 12 square
feet, which deduct from 1584 square feet, and leaves 1572 square feet for a plain

pitched roof.
In Fig. 5 A B C shows the elevation of a pitched roof having four hips, and

D E F G the plan of the hipped roof. The diagonal lines shown from D to F
and E to G show the hip lines in plan. While it may appear difficult to some to
figure the quantities in a hipped roof, it is very simple, if the rule is understood.

The length of the rafter shown from A to C in elevation is 10 feet and the width
 65 6 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

of the building at the eaves of the roof is 16 feet on each side, as shown in plan.

As the hipped roof runs to an apex in the center, then the distance between the
eave line D E and apex a in plan will measure one-half of 16 feet, or 8 feet, as

Fig. 4. Simple Form of Pitched Roof

Fig. 5. Pitched Roof with Four Hips Fig. 6. Diagram Showing Methodof^Estimating Hip Roofs

shown. Now multiply 8 X 10 feet equals 80 feet by 4 sides equals 320 square feet
of roofing required on a building of the dimensions given. As the hips must be
covered with a metal capping to avoid leakage oh roofs, it becomes necessary to
learn how to obtain the true length of the hip. This is accomplished by dropping
 ;

Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 6 57

a line from the apex A in elevation, cutting the line C B

Now extend the at a .

line C B as C E 1
. Now take the distance of the diagonal a E in plan,
and place it as shown from a to E in elevation, and draw a line from E to A,
1 1

which will represent the true length of the hip. Multiplying this amount by 4
will give the amount of capping or ridge roll required on a hipped roof of the size
given.
The method of estimating hipped roofs when the sides are of unequal pitch is

explained in connection with Fig. 6. A BCD shows the plan of the roof, the
ends measuring 14 feet and the sides 24 feet. The side view is indicated by E F
G, showing the rafters »f 14 feet length, and the end view by H I J, with rafters
of 10 feet length. As the length of DC in plan is 24 feet, then will the averaged
distance between a and b be 12 feet, while using the same rule the averaged dis-
tance between a and c is 7 feet Now multiply the length of the rafter I H in end
view, which is X 12 feet in plan, which
10 equals 120 feet; twice this is 240 feet.

In similar manner multiply the length of the rafter EG in side view, which is

14 X 7 feet in plan, which equals 98 feet; twice this equals 196 feet, plus 240 feet
equals 436 square feet. Deduct the chimney, which measures 2 feet 6 inches in
side elevation by 4 feet in plan and equals 10 feet; deduct this from 436 square
feet, which leaves 426 square feet of covering required for an unequal pitched roof,

as shown in Fig. 6. For the length of the hip take the distance from A to B in
plan and place it on the line F G extended in side view from a to B Then draw 1
.

a line from B 1
to E, which is the true length of the hip for one corner.
A more difficult problem in roof measurements is illustrated by Fig. 7, in

which a deck and mansard roof is shown, with intersecting dormers. ABCD
shows the side view and A B C I) the end view. The plan of the mansard and
1 1 1 1

deck roof is shown by E F G H and I J K L, the dormers being indicated in the

views, as shown. It is desired to see how much roofing material will be required

to cover the mansard and deck roofs, also the tops and the cheeks of the dormers
also how much hip ridge for the roofs and valleys for the dormers will be needed.
The roof measures at the eaves 18 X 32 feet, and at the deck 6 X 20 feet.
Now multiply 6 X 20 feet equals 120 square feet; the chimney is 3 feet by 1 foot

6 inches, and equals 4 feet 6 inches. Deducting this will leave 115J4 square feet
of surface on the deck roof, Now average the distances between the eave lines E
F and E H and deck lines L I and I J, as follows: 32 —20 feet equals 12 feet,

divided by 2 equals 6 feet. Now either add 6 feet to 20 feet or deduct 6 feet from
32 feet, which will leave 26 feet, as shown. In similar manner average the end,
obtaining the amount of 12 feet, as shown. As the length of the rafters in both
 65 8 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

end and side views measures 14 feet, then multiply 14 X 26 feet giving 364 feet,

multiplied by 2 sides giving 728 square feet. Then again 14 X 12 feet equals 168 X
2 ends equals 336 square feet, making a total of 1064 square feet. We now deduct
the dormers. The length of the dormer cutting into the main roof from h to j in
side view is 8 feet 6 inches ;
the length of the cheek from h to i is 6 feet ;
the
width of the dormer in plan is 4 feet. Now multiply 4X6 feet equals 24 feet by
4 dormers equals 96 square feet. The width of the pitched roof of the dormer cut-
ting onto the mansard roof on the rake is 2 feet 6 inches, as shown in side view,

n e-M*
-H

Fig. 7. Plan and Elevation of Mansard Roof with Deck and Dormers

while the averaged distance in the plan view of the dormer, between the line d e
and the apex o, as shown from /to g, is 2 feet. Then 2X2 feet 6 inches equals 5
feet, multiplied by 4 dormers equals 20 feet. Now add 96 feet and 20 feet equals
116 square feet to be deducted from 1064 feet and leaves 948 square feet in the
mansard roof minus the dormers. The covering for the cheeks and dormers is as
follows: The hight of the cheek is 5 feet and the width of the cheek is 5 feet;
5X5 feet equals 25 feet, multiplied by 4 dormers equals 100 square feet. The
pitch on the roof of the dormer equals 2 feet, as shown, while the averaged distance
 :

Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 659

between the eave line b of the dormer and the ridge line c is shown by k, which is
6 feet. Then 6X2 feet equals 12 feet, multiplied by 8 roofs of dormers equals 96
square feet. We then have
x
115 /l square feet in deck roof,
948 square feet in mansard roof,
100 square feet in cheeks of dormers,
96 square feet in roofs of dormers, making a total of
1259^> square feet of material required for the mansard and deck shown. In
previous problems the leng+h of the hip was obtained from the elevation; in this
one we will show how it, is obtained from the plan, either method being desirable.
From B in Mde view drop the vertical line B a, intersecting the line D C,
the point
as shown. Now tal e the distance a B and place it at right angles to K G in plan,
as shown by K B a Draw a line from B to G, which will be the true length of
.
2

the hipped ridge or rafter. In similar manner the length of the valley behind the
dormer is obtained. Take the hight of the roof of the dormer b c in side view and
place it at right angles to the valley line of the dormer mwin plan, as shown by
m Draw a line from b' to n, which is the true length of the valley.
b'. Eight
times this amount will be required, whether made of tin, zinc, galvanized iron or
copper.
Fig. 8 shows a hipped roof with wing attached. Only special attention will

be given to those parts which have not been explained previously. Assuming
that the main building were minus the wing, it would be figured in similar man-
ner as explained in connection with Fig. 6. We would, however, in this case
have to deduct the space taken up on the roof for the chimney in Fig. 8, and
deduct the space where the wing intersects the main roof. The chimney is 8 X8
feet in size, as shown in plan, and intersects the pitch of the roof at a distance of 6

shown in front elevation. Now average the distance in plan between the
feet, as

apex a and the side of the chimney b c, as shown from /to h, which is 4 feet; then
4X6 feet equals 24 square feet. Now in the side elevation the chimney cuts into
the pitch roof also at a distance of 6 feet, as shown.
The line of the chimney in plan c i equals 8 feet, and the ridge line, as far as
chimney intersects it, from a to j, measures 4 feet. Then average the distance
between a j and c i, which is 6 feet $nd is shown by h k. Then 6X6 equals 36 feet,
multiplied by 2 sides equals 72 feet, plus 24 feet for the front equals 96 square feet,
which would be deducted from the main roof covering. The space which will be
deducted from the side of the main roof to admit the intersection of the wing is
obtained as follows: The width of the wing in plan is 30 feet. Now average the
 :

66o Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

distance between the points m n and the apex o, which will measure 15 feet, as

shown from r to t. Now multiply 15 feet by the length of the rafter y z in side
elevation, or 20 feet, which equals 300 square feet, also to be deducted from the
main roof. For the amount of roof surface in the wing only proceed as follows
The length of the ridge from o to v is 35 feet and the length of the eave from n to

Fig. 8. Plan and Elevations of Hip Roof with Wing Attached

u is 20 feet. Now average the distance between the eave and the ridge, which
will be 27 feet 6 inches, as shown from t to w. Now multiply this by the length
of the rafter u s in front elevation, which is 20 feet; thus 27 feet 6 inches multi-
plied by 20 feet equals 550 square feet, multiplied by 2 sides equals 1100 square

feet of surface on the roof of wing. To obtain the length of the valley, o n in plan,
drop a line from the apex u in front elevation until it intersects the line A B at v ;

now take the distance o n in plan and place in front elevation from v to x and draw
a line from x to u, which will be the true length of the valley and at the same time
the true length of the hip, because the end of the wing and the ends of the main
building each measure 30 feet.
In Fig. 9 only that portion will be shown which has not been explained in
previous figures, and that is, how much will be deducted from the side of the main
 1

Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 66

roof to admit the intersection of the wing. Referring to the elevation, the wing,
intersects the main roof at a distance of 7 feet, as shown, and the width of the wing
in plan is 10 feet. Now average the distance between the apex b and points of in-
tersection d and a in plan, which will be 5 feet, as shown from/ to h. Then mul-
tiply 5X7 feet equals 35 square feet to he deducted from the side of the main roof.

The length of the valley is obtained by taking the distance a b in plan and placing

Fig. 10. Finding Quantities in a

Tower of Any Shaped Base

it as shown from a to b' and drawing the line b' c, which will be the true length

of the valley.

„ X n Fig. 10 is indicated the method of finding the quantities in a turret or

tower whose base is either square, hexagon, octagon or any other shaped figure.

Let A B C represent the elevation of the tower, whose plan on B C is shown by

DEFGHIJK. Lines drawn to the center L in plan, as shown, represent the

hip lines. Now, assuming that one side of the tower, J I in plan, measures 10 feet,
then average the distance between J I and the apex L, which will be 5 feet, as
shown. The length of the rafter shown from A to B in elevation being 40 feet,
then 40 X 5 feet equals 200 feet, multiplied by 8 sides equals 1600 square feet

Pig. ii. Octagon Tower with Square Base Fig. 12. Plan and Elevation of Conical Spire

surface in the tower of the dimensions given. For the length of the hip draw the
center line A L, intersecting the line B C in elevation at a; then take the distance
of one of the hips in plan, as L D, and place it asshown from a to D1 in elevation.
Draw a line from D1
to A, which is the true amount of the hip, which must be
multiplied by 8 for the full amount of the eight hins.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 663

Here shown a more difficult problem in figuring roof surfaces, as illustrated

is

in Fig. 11. Here A B C D represents the square base of a tower or other object,
from which a transition to an octagon takes place, as shown in plan by E F G H I
J K L, the elevation of the tower or other subject being shown by M N O P R S.
It is this portion, shown by MNP
O, which forms our lesson. The length of the
rafter from O to M in elevation is 8 feet and is the true section on the line ef in
plan. As the base line in plan is 16 feet and the top line in octagonal plan is 6
feet, average the distance between the two as follows: 16 feet minus 6 feet equals
10 feet, divided by 2 equals 5 feet, plus 6 feet equals 11 feet, as shown by c d.
Now multiply 8 X11 Act equals 88 fee- multiplied by 4 sides equals 352 square
feet for the four sides. For the gore piece F GB in plan it will first be necessary
to find the true lengJi of the 1 after on NB in plan. This is accomplished by tak-
ing the distance XB and placing it on the line M N in elevation extended, as
shown by IJ. W
At right angles to W IJ draw the line W V until it meets the line OP ex-
tended, as shown. Draw a line from V to U, which will be the true section on X
B in plan. The distance from F to G in plan measures 6 feet. Now average the
distance between these points and the corner B, as shown by a b, which is 3 feet.
Now, assuming that V U in elevation measures 10 feet, multiply this by 3 feet,

equals 30 feet, multiplied 4 times equals 120 square feet for the gores. Add 352
square feet for sides, which will make 472 square feet of roof surfaces in the transi-
tion piece shown. The length of the hip is obtained by taking the vertical hight
in elevation h i and placing it in plan at right angles to B G from G to j; then

draw a from/ to B, which will be the true length of the hip, which must be
line

multiplied by 8 for the full amount for the eight hips.

Fig. 12 gives the method employed when estimating on conical spires or
towers. Assuming that the base of the spire, C D in elevation, is 14 feet, as
shown by A B in plan, then average the distance between the base C D and the
apex E in elevation by dividing 14 by 2, which will be 7 feet, as shown by F G.
As the circumference of a circle is found by multiplying the diameter by 3.1416,
or, as used in practice, 3 1-7, then multiply 7X3 1-7 feet equals 22 square feet.

The length of the rafter being 30 X 22 feet equals 660 square feet of surface in a
spire of the dimensions shown in Fig. 12.
 66.4 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

THE PITCH OF ROOFS

There seems to be a diversity of opinion in the trade regarding the question

of the proper designation of the pitch of a roof.

It is generally recognized that

the pitch of a roof is measured in parts
of the span. For example, if a build-
ing is 24 feet wide and the rise of the
rafters is 4 feet, the pitch would be one-
sixth, Fig. 13. If the rise was 8 feet
the pitch would be one-third; if the
rise was 12 feet the pitch would be one-
half, and if the rise was 16 feet the pitch
jL i.i
would be two-thirds. In some sections
Fig. is. The Pitch of Roofs it is customary to indicate the pitch in
degrees of a circle, which is the most comprehensive and should be universally
adopted.

MEASURING ROUGH FRAMING FOR SHEET METAL

CONSTRUCTION

In the following article will be described how measurements are taken from
rough framing at the building, whether the framing is of wood or angle iron, and
how the details are laid out in the shop for the sheet metal covering.
For a practical example, there has been selected a belfry, such as was worked
out in the shop, showing how to proceed in a job of this kind. It will be assumed
that Fig. 14 is the architect’s scale drawing of a belfry, square in plan, sitting
over the ridge of a main roof. The base is of slate with copper hip ridges and pro-
jecting cornice. The roof of the belfry is also copper, in which a scuttle is
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 665
provided. The four sides have circular arches with round and square
pilasters
capped by a projecting cornice, over which the spire is slated,
the hips being fin-
ished with copper hip tile. Over the apex of the spire a cross not shown is placed.

Fig. 15. Section through A B in Fig. 14

Fig. 10. Taking Measurements from

Framing

When receiving a drawing of this kind, we look for a horizontal section

through A B, which is shown in Fig. 15, and find that the wooden uprights are in-
cased with metal. This forms the basis for taking measurements at the building.
 666 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

In work of this kind the framer or carpenter and sheet metal worker work together,
so as to avoid any errors. The framing for the belfry looked as shown in Fig. 16.

Now all that was necessary to measure was the width of the uprights, which was 5
in., and the distance between the uprights 1 ft. 11 34 in., making the distance
from out to out 2 ft. 934 bi.

The eave of the roof of the spire projects 6 in. on each side, making the total
width of the eave 3 ft. 934 i n - The finial measurement is the bight from eave of
spire roof to eave of belfry roof, which is 4 ft. 34 bi. The bevel of the belfry base

is now taken by setting the bevel B in the position shown, until the upper arm is

in a level position, which is proved by setting on the small spirit level a. The
distance is now noted between the arms as b. The bevel is now closed and can be
opened to this distance when making the detail in the shop.

When drawing the detail one-half is all that is required. In Fig. 14 C DEF
shows the outline of the frame measurements taken from Fig. 16. Outside of this
outline in Fig. 14, the profile of the sheet metal work is drawn as indicated by the
dotted lines. A section of a pilaster placed in its proper position is indicated at J.
Notice that the curved molding of the arch comes outside of the frame line and
that the ceiling of the arch miters as shown in Fig. 15, by A BC I) E. Having
drawn this one-half face the patterns can then be laid out, finishing two full faces in

the shop and joining the other two on the job. When drawing the outline of the
metal work around the frame line, play room should be given, so that the metal
work will fit easily around the framework, without any cutting of the wood or
metal.

TIN ROOFING

The lasting qualities of terne plate, and if it is better made than in the time of

our fathers, has been argued pro and con. The question of whether a standing or
a fiat seam is best; cleats or nails through sheets; provisions for expansion and
contraction, specification for good tin roofing; paint; the sheathing; whether to
use paper or not under tin. All these and many more have been discussed. The
gist of these disquisitions is reprinted in these series.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 667

Sheet metal tiles and shingles, are not considered as they are manufactured
articles in a variety of styles and the method of application is as varied and will
require more space than is here available.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR A TIN ROOF

The language of most architects’ specifications is ambiguous and while compe-

tition makes it necessa-y to deviate considerably from the best methods it is well

for those who desire tv have the best methods or to safeguard the prestige of tin
roofing to have a cletr, compn hensive specification. Though some may discredit
the use of cleats it cannot be gainsaid that nailing through the sheets leaves a weak
pointat the nails as shown in Fig. 17, for the nail will be almost to the edge of lock
and sometimes exposed, and as nails are usually dirty, often rusted, the solder

will not take. And of course there is no provision for expansion and contrac-
tion when nails are driven through sheets.
From the many discussions on tin roofing and a number of specifications

presented the following has been selected as being representative:

Specifications

A sheathing will be provided of good, well seasoned lumber, narrow widths, free
from knot holes and of even thickness. The boards will be laid with tight joints, or

shall be tongued and grooved ;

nail heads well driven in. Sheathing shall be
white pine or spruce.
All tin used for roofing all parts of this building shall be X, or Y or Z brand.
No substitute for the above grade or brand will be allowed, and the same is to be

purchased from the jobber or manufacturer in boxes.

The sheets used for standing seam roofing shall be made up into long lengths

in shop. The cross seams shall be locked together and well soaked with solder.
One coat of paint shall be applied to the under side before laying.
If the sheets are laid singly the size shall be 14
X 20, painted one coat on
under side before laying. The sheets shall be fastened to the sheathing boards by
cleats, using three to each sheet, two on the long side, one on the short side. Two
1-in. barbed wire nails to each cleat, no nails to be driven through the sheets.

All seams whether locked or standing shall be made according to the accom-
panying diagrams. No nails shall be driven through the sheets.
 668 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

All tin used for standing seam roofing shall be applied the narrow way, fastened
to the roof with cleats spaced 8 in. apart. Cleats locked into the seam and fastened
with two 1-in. barbed wire nails to each cleat.

All flat seam roofing shall be applied the narrow way, fastened to the roof with
cleats spaced 8 in. apart, cleats locked into the seam and fastened to the roof with
two 1-in. barbed wire nails to each cleat.

The edges for standing seam roofing shall be turned up not less than 134 n
i -

at right angles to the roof when the cleats shall be installed. Then another course

Method of Making Flat and Standing Seams

Weak Points of Seams Nailed Through Sheets

Fig. IT.

with lj^-in. edge turned up. Adjoined edges shall be locked together and the
seams so formed shall be flattened to a rounded edge.
The valleys shall be formed with flat seams using sheets the narrow way.
All solder used on this roof shall be of the best grade and guaranteed one-half
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 669

and one-half solder ( one-half tin and one-half lead ), using nothing but rosin as a
flux. Solder to be well sweated into all seams and joints.
Surface of tin to be carefully cleaned from all rosin before the paint is applied.
All tin shall be painted one coat on the under side and two coats on all exposed
surfaces. The first coat shall be applied to the upper side immediately after laying
with a hand brush, well rubbed in. The second coat shall be applied in a similar
manner in not less than two weeks after the first coat has been put on. All paint
used shall be of the best matallic brown mixed with pure linseed oil, japan only as
a dryer. No patent dryer or turpentine shall be used.
No unnecessary talking over the roof or using the same for storage of other
material shall be allowed When necessary to walk over the roof, care must be
exercised not to break the coat mg of the tin. Particular care and attention must
be given to the laying of the gutters that, when finished, there shall be sufficient
pitch to prevent any water standing therein.
No deviation from these specifications shall be made. They must be carried
out in every particular. A first-class roof only will be accepted.
When paper is specified the same is to be of the waterproof kind. Paper is

not recommended.
Explanation of Diagrams

Flat seam roofing when the sheets are laid in strips or one at a time.

AA shows sheets with edge turned ready for locking.

B sheet or strip laid with cleat locked over turned up edge. The cleat is 134-

in. wide. Two 1-in. barbed wire nails are driven through the cleat into the roof
sheathing. These nails must be driven close as possible to the edge of the sheet,

otherwise the cleat will have too much must be spaced 8 in. apart.
play. Cleats

seam or
C, joint completed by locking the two edges A and B together and
soldering. The cleat is not shown.

Standing Seam Roofing

DD, edges of sheets or strips turned up at right angles to the roof not less
than 134 and 1^4 in- respectively.

E, sheet or strip laid with cleat locked over upturned edge. Cleats spaced 8

in. apart and fastened with two 1-in. barbed wire nails.
F, opposite sheet or strip laid in place.
G, edges of the two sheets or strips locked together. Cleat not shown.

H, second operation of locking the edges.

J, the standing seam complete.

 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON ROOFS

There always has and always will be a large field for roofs made of sheet metal.
Copper is the best, when the first cost is not minded, and after years of use is a
first-class investment for one who lias the money. Terne plates undoubtedly come
next, providing they are rightly made and Some makers in this country are
laid.

making just as good terne plates as were ever made in Wales. The quality of
material in the coating mixture, the quality of the oil in the flux, the proper alloy-
ing and laying on the base sheet are just as honest now as in any period of previ-

ous manufacture. The coating is better applied to the sheet. Every inch of sheet

is better covered and protected and worth more than formerly.

If every one who bought terne plate took the trouble to get best plates, with
not less than 40 lb. coating per box, there would be less trouble with tin roofs
than now, provided the plates were rightly made into a roof on the spot. The best
makers will sustain any effort made toward confining consumption of terne plate
to the best quality, but when you get it it can be spoiled by the way it is mis-
handled. It does not purport to be a sheet metal which will withstand nonprotection.
Protection is made by paint. Everybody should know that he should paint
a tin roof. Good paint can be had at low prices. Do not make the mistake that
the least possible of the cheapest paint is good enough for a tin roof, and do not
complain of roof being useless when no paint at all is used. Do not, after laying,

leave roof unpainted so long that it gets rusted ;

some painters claim that paint
clings better to a rusty roof, but this is an idea only of theirs — slightly easier and
more agreeable to the painter to follow. It is a fact that it is easier if plate is
made by palm oil process to wait until by exposure the grease is removed but ;

such delay cuts short the life of the roof. Put enough paint on both sides, and
use it often enough on the upper side, every three years, and use good paint. You
will have to do this to counteract disintegration. Give this advice and you will

cause those in interest to think well of you and your experience. Saying farther:
Do not use acid flux on the seams, but always resin. Solder with an iron hot
enough to soak solder well into seams but not so hot as to burn the tin from the
plate.
As to fire protection. Metal roofs are the best, returning to tin because it is

the cheapest giving same results. You will find parties who are laying roofs with
about same material that you take to build your fire. These parties claim and
proove to you that their roofs will not burn. Prepared roofs of composition do
 I

Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 671

burn occasionally, and more furiously than a tin roof, no matter what is said about
it. The best prepared composition roofing has been known to burn through in
less than 7 min. Tin alone takes more than twice the time ;
and if you want it to
stand still longer in fire first put under the tin when laying the same an impervi-
ous felt of 11 lb. to the 100 sq. ft. Back
by an asbestos laying of 1G lb. to 100
this

sq. ft. and you will further reduce conducting of heat by a full half, bearing in
mind that such a roof as last named is of great importance in retarding progress of
conflagration.
Other advantages. A roof of good tin is extremely durable, weather proof,
fireproof, lightning proof It has a particularly neat, attractive appearance, espec-

ially where laid with standing seams. It is clean and sanitary, and therefore
especially recommended for use where rain water is collected in cisterns. It is not

affected by heat or cold. The slight expansion and contraction of the metal are
taken care of by the cleats used to fasten the tin to the roof, which allow a suffici-

ent play. With all these advantages, good tin is extremely light in weight, an
important point often overlooked. It is not easily damaged by being walked on.
Finally, a good tin roof is easily repaired in case of accidental damage. These
repairs can he made quickly and cheaply without allowing serious damage to the

building, no matter what the weather conditions may be.

The foregoing outlines are points that relate to the making of a good tin roof,
and if you wall frankly tell your customers the facts and show them that final econ-
omy is not to be had by cheapest materials or methods it need not surprise you to
find that those who are paying the bills want something that will last.

A PRACTICAL TALK ON TIN ROOFING—

In discussing the subject of tin roofing nearly all members of the trade agree

that flat seam roofs put on at the present time do not as a rule give as good satis-

faction as those of 50 years ago. While opinions differ as to why this is so, prob-

ably a large majority hold to the belief that it is due solely to the difference in the
quality of the tin used then and that put on the market now. But any one en-
gaged in this line of work will do well to bear in mind the sentiment of the saying
that “a chain is no stronger than its weakest link," for no matter how good the
tin used, if the sheathing boards are unsuitable for the purpose or the workman-
ship poor in any particular, the extra quality of the tin counts for very little.
6j2 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

That there are large quantities of poor tin on the market every one must admit,
but it is equally true that well coated sheets are to be had if one will pay the price,

and if these are used and the necessary care and judgment exercised in doing the
work, tin roofs can be put on to-day that will prove as durable as any in former
years. In any discussion as to how to put on good tin roofs or how to avoid poor
ones, there is one fact that must not be overlooked and will not be by the most ex-

Fig 24. Weak Point when Nailed Through Seam Fig. 19. Guide for Protecting Edges

Fig. 80. Fig. 21. Fig. 22. Fig. 28.

The Painted Sheet ImproperlyNotched Properly Notched Guide for Notching Sheets

perienced and observing among the trade, and that is that tin plate as a roof cover-
ing is not a success unless conditions under the roof are favorable.If put on a
building in which there steam or gases that are injurious to metals, no tin will
is

last, no matter how good the quality. Again, if put on a kitchen that is not
plastered overhead but just ceiled, the steam from the cooking, combined
with the
condensation, will put out of business the best tin plate ever made,
and it will not
take very long to do it either.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 673

A campaign for better roofing is a much needed one, but it must be a campaign
of education or it will avail but little. Nearly every one engaged in this line of
work is possessed of the necessary mechanical skill to do good work, but what they
lack, or many of them at least, is a knowledge of the theory of it. Just as long as
tin is used where the temperature underneath is at times from 60 to 90 degrees
warmer than on the outer surface, just so long will complaints be heard about the
poor quality of tin. No one need get the idea that the tin made 40 or 50 years
ago would stand such conditions, for it never was nor never could be made to
stand it.

That there is room for improvement in the quality of roofing tin is manifest to

every one in the business of laying roofs, but there is just as much need for a bet-
ter understanding of the conditions under which tin can be used with success and
where it can’t. Good sheathing boards, good tin and good workmanship are all

necessary, but with all these a short lived roof will be the result unless the under
side of the roof is ventilated in every instance where ventilation is necessary to
prevent condensation. The average architect thinks his duty done when he has
specified a certain brand of tin to be used and then holds the roofer responsible for
its lasting qualities, regardless of whether conditions under the roof are favorable or
not. It is for this reason, if for no other, that the roofer should look more into

the matter of what conditions are favorable to tin plate, and then he is in a posi-
tion to warn architects, builders and owners of what to expect if they insist upon
having tin laid where it is impossible for it to last. It is far easier to fix the re-

sponsibility where it belongs before the work is done, and, besides, neither archi-
tects nor builders are going to assume any responsibility as long as the roofer quiet-
ly submits to having all the blame put on him or on the tih he uses. The first re-

quirement of a good tin roof is good, smooth sheathing boards upon which to lay
it. For this purpose boards of an even thickness and thoroughly seasoned should
always be used, for if not dry they will shrink after being laid and so strain and
break the seams in the tin. Light or springy boards should not be used, as the
seams cannot be pounded down as smoothly as when the boards are solid and firm.

Very little pitch is required to discharge all the water that falls on a roof, but arch-
itects’ and builders’ specifications often get so near the danger line that any settling
of the building allows the water to stand in pools until it evaporates, and when
this is the case trouble is pretty sure to follow, for no roof can be expected to do
duty as a reservoir. Any less than J^-in. fall to the foot can hardly be considered
safe, while on the other hand any more than 3 in. to the foot is too much to allow
the solder being well soaked into the seams. It is of course the work of the car-
 674 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

penter to provide proper sheathing boards and lay them with a suitable pitch, but
it oftens happens that he, through ignorance or indifference, does this work in such
manner that the roofer is handicapped in his efforts to put on a roof that will prove
satisfactory.

After the carpenter work, the next step to be considered is the quality of tin
to be used. In spite of many opinions to the contrary, the high priced, well coated
sheets are probably worth as much more than the cheap ones as is asked for them.
The cheap tin is made because there is a demand for it, but the roofer who is really

desirous of building up a reputation for doing good work will find it to his advan-
tage to use the very best he can prevail on his customers to pay for. The added
cost of a good plate is in the coating, and coating means protection to the plate.

All this should be pointed out to prospective customers in an effort to get them to
pay the difference between a good roof and one that is likely to make trouble.

The difference in the cost is all in the tin plate, for it costs no more to put on the
best than it does the poorest.
Just as important as the quality of the tin is the size of the sheets used. It

would no doubt seem a ridiculous proposition to most members of the trade to-day

to advise the use of sheets 10 X 14 in. in size, but the fact is that using sheets of
this size, as they did largely half a century ago, is the principal reason why roofs

gave less trouble than they do new. Small sheets are better than large ones for
the simple reason that there is less expansion and contraction on each sheet, and
consequently less breaking of the seams. The best flat seam roof the writer ever
saw was laid with 10 X 14 sheets. It had been doing good service for over 40 years,
and was in good condition as well as smooth and snug to the sheathing boards and
without breaks in the seams. But this small size requires considerable time to
put on, and for that reason will probably never be popular with the trade and for
general work in this line the 14 X 20 in. size will be used, and if the method of
fastening the sheets to the sheathing boards as hereafter described is followed the
14 X 20 sheets will make a good, serviceable roof. But sheets of a larger size than
these should never be used with any expectation of getting good results.
Painting the sheets on the under side was seldom, if ever, done 50 years ago,
and is not generally practiced now except in some localities. In some instances it
is not necessary, but the idea is a good one, for in the event of a storm coming on

before the roof is finished, the sheets already laid are protected on the under side.
And even after it is finished leaks are frequently made by accident and not dis-
covered and repaired until some water has found its way through. When this
occurs if the tin is protected by paint there is no danger of its being injured. To
 :

Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 675

judge of the importance of painting the underside, itmust be remembered that if

moisture once reaches that side of the tin it will begin to rust, and continue to do
so until it has eaten through. But if any practical benefit is derived from painting
the under side it is necessary to let the paint get dry and hard as well before the
work of laying is begun. When the seams are being soldered the paint will be
burned just under where the coppers touch the exposed side, but as the solder gives

Fig. 27. Finish at the Eaves Fig. 28. Rosin Spreader for Seams

an added thickness to the coating it is just there that the paint can be best spared.
The expense of painting the sheets is not so great as might be supposed, for it can
be done by a boy or other cheap help. The following method will be found both
quick and convenient
Take three narrow strips of wood and nail them on a bench or box of conven-
ient hight, as in Fig. 18, the distance inside the strips to measure 14 in. one way
and 20 in the other. Then make a frame and 3 or 4 in. wide, with
of 3^ -in. stuff

pieces set in each corner, as shown in Fig. 19 the frame to measure 14 X 20 in. out-
;
 6j6 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

side. Then after the tin is notched, or clipped at the corners, each sheet can be
slipped between the strips on the bench, where it and the frame if
will just fit,

placed on the sheet inside the strips will enable the painter to- paint the whole sur-
face of the sheet except 3^ in. The sheet after being painted will
on the edge.
look like Fig. 20 and not have any paint near enough to the edges to make trouble
while soldering.
In making tin ready for the roof it is not necessary as a rule to square the
sheets, for if of good quality they are near enough square for all practical purposes

in the roofing line. But care should be exercised in notching the corners. As
work of a helper and done with the squaring shear, it is
this operation is usually the

better to have some one more experienced set the machine. Too much clipped off
the corner means a waste of time and solder to make tight. The corner looks as
shown in Fig. 21 when too much is taken off. It should look as shown in Fig. 22. As
it is a difficult matter to cut just enough off each corner without any guide, the
use of the device shown in Fig. 23 will be found a great convenience. It is made
of tin or sheet iron and can be held in position on the squaring shear by the clamp
that belongs with the shear, or if notching is done with the snips it can be tacked
on the end of a bench, and while the sheet is held in place with one hand the cor-
ner, which will project just the right distance, can be clipped off with the other.

As roofing folders do not all turn the same width of edge or lock, it is impossible
to state just how much ought to be taken off the corners in every instance, but, as

before stated, if the sheet after being folded is as open at the corners and no more
so than Fig. 22 it will be found to be about right. It may seem unnecessary to
call the attention of any one with any knowledge of the work to a detail so obvious
as this, but many who know better make trouble for themselves by neglecting to
see that corners are notched as they should be.
In laying seam roofing there are two ways of fastening the sheets to the
flat

sheathing boards. The one most practiced being that of driving the nails through
the sheets just under the lock, is shown in Fig. 24, and it is this practice that causes
a lot of trouble with tin roofs, as the solder is not strong enough to hold and leaks
around the nails begin the destruction of the roof. In laying metal roofs it must
be borne in mind that the expansion and contraction are due to a natural law that
no one can prevent being enforced, but if the Bheets are fastened in such a manner
as to allow the metal to expand and contract without breaking the seams, then the
trouble from this source is overcome.
The method of fastening the sheets with cleats is shown in Fig. 25. It holds
the sheets firmly and yet yields enough during changes of temperature to prevent
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 6 77

the breaking of seams, and even should a break occur, there is no nail hole in the
sheet to let water through, as is the case where nails are driven through the sheets.
These cleats should be cut about 2 in. long and 1 in. wide. As they can be cut in
the squaring shear and the lock turned on them in the shop folder by a boy or
helper, their cost is very little, especially as they can be made of odds and ends of
scrap tin that would otherwise be wasted.
The use of cleats in laying flat seam roofs is well understood and practiced in
some sections of the country, but in others it is not customary to use them. Of
course it takes longer to lay sheets when fastened this way, but it is time well in-
vested. The usual practice of laying sheets singly is the most satisfactory except
where the tin has to be turned up against another building or a side wall. In a
case of this kind it is better to get out a strip the right length and after soldering
to turn up as much as is needed, leaving a lock on the surface of the roof to be
hooked on to, as shown in Fig. 26.
In laying the first course care should be taken to leave enough projecting over
the edge so that when turned down and nailed the tin will extend below the nail-
ing strip and so cause a drip to form at the eaves, as shown in Fig. 27. If this is

not done the water will run down the molding and discolor it, and besides a gutter
hung under the eaves will be of no use if the water follows the woodwork after

leaving the tin.

To insure well locked seams it is necessary to keep the edges of each course
straight, and it will be easier to lock the sheets well if after one is laid the seam at the
point A and the point B in Fig. 25 is flattened down with a stroke of the hammer
before laying the next one. Three cleats are enough for each sheet if placed as
shown in Fig. 25.

It is advisable not to lay any more tin than can be soldered each day, but if

for any reason it is thought best to lay more it is better not to mallet it down, for

it will be just as near tight and if rain falls on it the seams will dry much quicker
than if flattened down. Seams that are malleted down smooth are easier to solder

and hold better than when uneven.

Rosin makes the most satisfactory flux, and the most convenient way to apply

it is to melt it on the seams with the aid of a home-made funnel of about the
dimensions given in Fig. 28. In soldering off a roof it is well to use as large

coppers as the pitch of the roof will permit, for small coppers both heat and chill
too quickly for satisfactory work. If too hot the coating is injured, and if too cold
the solder is not sweated into the seams as it should be. For a roof of ordinary

pitch or fairly flat, coppers weighing 8 or 9 pounds to the pair should be used, but
 678 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

if the roof has a pitch of 2 in. or more to the foot, lighter ones can be used to better
advantage.
The long seams on the roof should be soldered first, and before the rosin is

run on the short ones the butt of each seam ( see H in Fig. 25 ) should be tapped
down smooth. It pays to use good half and half solder, not only because it makes
a better job, but because it flows more freely and so saves both time and solder.

If the roofer really wants to do good work in this line he must be willing to take
or pay for the necessary time to do it. It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the
foolish practice of trying to make or break a record while doing this work is

responsible, for as many poor roofs as is poor tin.

PRACTICAL TALKS ON TIN ROOFING—II

To knock out strips in the shop the work can best be done on a special bench
about 20 feet or more in length, made of 2-inch or thicker yellow pine or other hard
wood planed smooth on the top side. The bench should be 30 inches wide, with
a pitch of 1 inch down to the front, so that solder will flow readily. It should be
well supported, and some benches are made with iron plates 3 inches wide and %
inch thick where the locked edges come to stand the wear of the mallet. The back
edge must be perfectly straight from end to end, with a hard wood gauge about 3
inches high extending the whole length. This edge may be faced with metal to
prevent wear and preserve its trueness as a straight edge.
After the sheets have been edged, with one edge turned up and the other
down, a number may be spread along the bench to have their edges locked togeth-
er to form a continuous strip. This is best done by locking one pair of edges at a
time. The first sheet must be held firmly against the straight edge by a gauge
fastened to the bench or by a double hook, one end of which catches the sheet and
the other catching over the back of the bench. Some men nail the first sheet to

the bench with two roofing nails. The other sheets may then be locked on one at
a time and have the seam flattened down tight with a mallet, great care being taken

to see that the side of each sheet is perfectly in line against the straight edge guard
at the back of the bench. A box of tin contains 112 sheets, and in some shops
they are put together in four rolls of 28 sheets each and the rolls when soldered
weigh about 60 pounds. The seams may be soldered as soon as the locked edges
of one strip are flattened down with the mallet and before rolling up, or the roll

may be completed and several boxes of tin may be put together and the soldering
done at another time.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 6 7S j

In soldering an old hand will want coppers weighing eight pounds to the
pair, powdered rosin, good solder and a fire pot large enough to heat the coppers
quickly. Experienced men are very careful to leave a space % inch unsoldered
or very lightly soldered at each end of the seam. This will make it easier to turn
the edges and make the locks on the roof. The strips are generally 20 inches wide
and 20 X 28 inch tin is used, owing to there being fewer seams to be soldered than
if 14 X20 inch tin is used. If 10-inch strips are needed for valleys or flashings it

is only necessary to slit the 20-inch tin down the middle. If 14-inch strips are
wanted labor is saved by putting the tin together in 28-inch rolls and slitting it

down the middle. After the soldering is done the tin is ready to be painted on the
under side, if the contract demands it, but in painting a space % to % inch
wide should be left along each edge, so that no oil or burned paint will interfere
with soldering on the roof.

The rolls when finished are about a foot in diameter, and the end is fastened
to the roll by tacking with solder lightly so that it can be easily opened with the
roofing hammer, or the rolls may be fastened with wire or tin strips.

If the strips are for flat seam roofing, half-inch tongs are used to turn half-inch
edges on the strips. The tongs have jaws about 20 inches long, with holes in one
jaw and curved pins about 2 inches long in the other jaw which work through the
holes, and they are set so that the edge turned on the tin is just ]/^ inch wide. In
laying the tin the first strip is laid at and parallel with the eave and extends over
so that is can be turned down and fastened with 1-inch barbed roofing nails about
2 or 3 inches apart. The J^-inch edge is turned on the other edge of the strip,

which is fastened to the roof with barbed roofing nails about 4 inches apart, for the
closer the nails the easier and quicker it is soldered and the less solder required.
The must be driven back in under the edge, so that when the edge of another
nails

sheet is hooked in and flattened down tight with a mallet the nail heads will be
covered. If tinned nails are used the soldering will be more secure. By this
method there are no nails in the cross seams, and in consequence some roofers use
strips only 14 inches wide, while others use 20-inch strips for all such work.
The soldering should be done with heavy coppers with blunt ends, so they will
hold the heat, and the seams should be well soaked with a hot copper so that the
solder will sweat into the locks and make the seams surely tight, for any time spent
in hunting for and mending leaks is a dead loss, even if no damage is done to the
building. For flat seam roofing a sheet at a time the sheets are notched, edged and
stacked in lots of 11 sheets for 14X20 tin, and 25 sheets for 10 X 14 tin. The tin
now being ready for use at the building, it will be convenient to provide a box,
68o Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

say 12 X 16 inches in size and about 4 inches high, made with three compartments
and with a circular handle over it. One-inch wire nails, 234-inch wall hooks and
rosin are placed in these compart-
ments. The tools required are eight

pound soldering coppers for roofing,

Fig. 29. Square End Roofing Copper
as shown in Fig. 21), and six pound
pointing up coppers, as shown in Fig.
30; a file, a hammer, shears, a com-
pass, a punch, a cold chisel, a mallet,
Fig. 30. Pointing Up Copper
a scraper, a trowel, and chalk and
chalk line. A fire pot 15 inches high and 8 inches in diameter is required for the
roofing coppers, a smaller pot 12 inches high and 6 inches in diameter is large

enough for the pointing coppers and will consume less coal. Solder, coal, acid for
galvanized iron connections, a paint brush, and paintskin, an iron block on which
to forge coppers, a rope and wheel to hoist material, a broom, and a small tool box
with lock and key to lock up tools and material over night, constitute all that
would be required for work on the roof.
The heavy soldering coppers arc used for flat seam soldering and the lighter
ones to do “ pointing up,” or soldering upright seams. The file is employed to
clean and smooth the coppers. The coppers are tinned with rosin when used for

soldering tin work, using rosin as a flux. They are tinned with sal ammoniac for

soldering zinc or galvanized iron work, when acid is used as a flux. The hammer
and shears are used in laying the tin, the compass for scribing circles or for other
purposes. The punch is employed to make holes in double thicknesses of metal,
the cold chisel to dig out joints for flashings, the mallet to flatten the seams, the
scraper to obtain a smooth, clean surface on old metal joining to new Avork, and
the trowel to paintskin the joints of
the flashings connecting with the walls.
In starting a small shed roof, Fig. 31,
which has no gutter, the Avater dripping
off at A, the tin B is laid sheet by
sheet, allowing it to project over the
eave about 1 inch, as at A. It is finish-
ed at the top, as shown by the last
course C, which also projects at D ;
then
Fig. 81 . Starting and Finishing a Shed Roof with a piece of plank measuring about
4X8 inches and 1 inch in thickness the edges are dressed down well with a mallet,
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 681

as shown in diagram E at a, after which it is nailed, as shown at b, with 1-inch

roofing nails. A mistake which is often made is in dressing the edges with a
mallet. This causes the edge to lose its straight line and to show a succession of

Fig. 83. Laying and Nailing the Sheet

buckles. Occasionally on a shed roof, or other roof of frame buildings, a ledge is

built on the gable or side walls, as in Fig. 32. This is the proper form to throw off
the water well and avoid acute angles. These strips are put on before the roof is start-

ed, having a lock at A, and being turned over the clapboarding or other surface with
a drip, as at B. Assuming that the roof is to be covered with 14X20 plate, the
sheets are laid as indicated in Fig. 33, the general rule being to lay the sheets in
the direction of the arrmv A, giving four nails to the sheet; one at the butt, two
on the long side and one on the short side, as shown by the dots. This will make

a firm roof, and hold the seams well. If less than four nails are used the tin is apt
to buckle, causing a drumming sound when it is walked upon.
 68a Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

While time is saved in the laying, double this time is lost in soldering, for the

heat of the coppers will raise the seams, causing a succession of buckles which
retard soldering and require 10 per cent, more solder. In laying the sheets the
hammer is used, as indicated in Fig. 34, A being the sheet locked into the sheet B.
The hammer is held in the position C, and is quickly moved forward in the direc-
tion indicated by the arrow, Doth on sheets A and B. The nail C is now driven
into the sheet A at the butt, which holds down the sheets A and B firmly; the

hammer is now placed as shown in Fig. 35, and held in the position D, the handle
inclined slightly upward. It is then pressed down and drawn quickly forward,
which again brings the edge in the position P, as in Fig. 34. The same directions

apply to the nailings in the centers of the sheets. If cleats are required instead of
nails they are bent as shown, at a, Fig. 34, and hooked to sheet as b. This is not the
proper location of cleat for they should be placed where the nails are shown in Fig.
_ 33. Care should be taken to flatten seams well with a
* 15131 * heavy mallet whose face has been rasped to a convex sur-

J
face, as Fig. 36. A mallet, as Fig. 37, should not be
I employed, as is often the case, for it will not. close the

I seams evenly. If it is not a windy day the rosin can be

I ground powder and swept against the seams with a
to a

„„ clean broom or the rosin can be melted on the seams by

;

Smooth Round taking a soldering copper which is sufficiently heated to A, B “' Mallet
Faced Mallet . .
for Roofing
melt the rosin and running the copper along the seam and
against the copper, holding a large lump of rosin. As previously shown, soldering
coppers for the flat seams are blunt on the ends and are tinned on two sides only.
Some mechanics file a groove A in the copper as indicated by
Fig. 38, about % -in. from the corner so that when the copper
is drawn along the seam this groove acts as a guide and keeps
B the greater part of the copper B, on the seam, soaking in the
Fur. 38. Soldering Copper
with Groove for Guide solder. When soldering a long surface, all the long seams,
indicated by C, C, and C in Fig. 33, are first soldered, then
the short seams, indicated by D and D. After this the “butts” E E E are gone
over to prevent any leak.
Another sheet, edged on the flat seam edger, by Fig. 39, and is
is illustrated

known as a valley sheet, having the edges A and B turned one way, while the
short sides C and D are edged right and left. In some cases where required the
short sides C and D are edged one way and the opposite sides A and B ri gh t and
left. The use of valley sheets is shown in Fig. 40. A roof on which the water
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 683

pitches towards the center shown by A, and the tin is laid from both sides, or
is

perhaps one side is worked up to the valley sheet and the edge peened into the edge
of valley sheet. Oftentimes a strip is
‘
‘knocked’ ’
out for valleys,
same as for by sheet and a
flashings, instead of laying sheet
bend made with a plank, as described later for gutter lining.
In Fig. 41 is shown how a box gutter made' of wood is lined with
8

Fig. 89.
A Valley Sheet Fig. 40. Laying a Valley

tin. The method which will be described for bending up the tin strips will also

apply to the bending of wall and curb flashings, etc. Therefore let A represent
thewooden gutter and B the tin lining in place, projecting over the wood molding at
C and having a lock on the roof surface at D. When the gutter is in place the tin

Fig. 42.
First Operation Bending Strips

Fig. 41.
Last Operation of Bending
the Strip

Fig. 41. Fig. 42.

Lining a Box Qutter Second Operation Bending Strips

is turned over at C and nailed, in the same manner asshown by a b in E, Fig. 31.

Assuming that the gutter is 20 feet long, in Fig. 41, “knock out” 10 feet of tin

strips of the required width, being careful to have a straight line ;

this is most
readily accomplished by tacking the first sheet with nails, then following the chalk
line or such other line as may be employed, and lock by means of a mallet the
required number of sheets.

The short seams are soldered, then the bending is done as shown by the three
operations in Figs. 42, 43 and 44, first striking chalk lines where the bends will

be ;
a blue chalk shows better on the tin than white chalk. In Fig. 42, A represents
 684 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

the tin strip and B an ordinary roof plank having a straight edge ;
C indicates the

first bend which is to be made. Now take the board, lay it at the required line,

C, and while standing upon it with the legs slightly spread, stoop down with arms
stretched, grasp the tin firmly and bend it slightly upward. Then it will appear as

shown in Fig. 43. Now grasp the tin again and in the same manner, and bring it

over to a right angle, after which use the mallet, as shown in Fig. 44, and dress it

well against the board. This will complete the last operation in bending the strip.

It should be understood that these operations are for the two bends a and b of Fig.
41 only, and that the other bends are made when the lining is in place by lay ing
a board in the gutter and standing on this so as to keep the lining well down in the

gutter, then with a mallet and board dress the tin over on the roof and over the
front of the gutter; turning the seam edge on the roof with tongs.

Connecting roof to wall flashings, etc. ,

will now be taken up. The methods
given are strictly correct, therefore a few remarks relative to reversing seams in
roofing will not be amiss, and it is believed that it is of sufficient importance to
reprint here the substance of the remarks relative to the question of having scams
against the water.

It is agreed that whenever practical the seams in all types of roofing should
be so as to shed water, and that you invite trouble when you have seams the other
way, for no matter how strong you solder a seam there is always a likelihood of
seam opening, and water would then run into seam, whereas if correctly made it

would flow over the open seam.

It is conceded, though, that it is often necessary to have seams reversed. To
illustrate —
we have a roof with a gutter and fire, or battlement, w'alls on the other
if

three sides we would first (after setting gutter) “knock out” flashing strips for these
three sides. These strips are nailed in place with the edge turned up. Then when
laying the sheets w e work from the strip on one side to the other and peen the
7

edge of sheet into the flashing ;

likewise at the top strip the last course of sheets
are peened into the strip making a seam against the water. And this method is

employed in a good many other cases, around chimneys, etc. The correct methods
will now be discussed.
Fig. 45 shows an extension roof which butts against the main building, whose
walls are frame. Assuming that the last course of tin is in the position shown, take
the distance from lock A to the wall B, bend off the strip as has been explained,
being careful that the tin goes high enough to lap at least 4 inches under the clap-
board D. If the clapboard is fast it should be loosened to allow tin to go under,
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 685

and not nailed, as is frequently done, on to the board D and then paintskinned.
This will eventually cause a leak. If this main wall were of brick or stone the tin
would be let into the joints, as indicated in Fig. 46. This engraving represents a
side strip on a flat roof with lock attached, to lay on the roofing. A shows the
brick wall and B the tin strip, having a 1-inch edge turned into the joint, then
wall hooked and paintskinned. It is usual to turn up side strips to the fourth
course of brick over the finished roof. When building the wall it is customary for
the masons to clean out the mortar where the tin is to turn in the wall. Should
they fail to do this, then the first thing to do before laying the roofing is to dig out
this joint with a hammer and chisel or an old saw. Fig. 47 shows a cap and base
flashing, which allows for expansion and contraction of the metal. When the wall
has been carried up tc the required hight, or four courses above the finished line of

Fig. 46.
Flashing under Clapboarding Side Strip Inserted to Con-
nect Roof with Wall Expansion and Contraction

the roof, the cap flashing B is placed in position, as shown, after which the mason
completes the wall and sets the coping. The base flashing A, having a lock as
indicated, is turned up under the cap B to within 34 inch of the top of the
cap flashing.
It often occurs that a skylight or scuttle is placed in a roof, the curb of which
must be flashed and the corners double seamed, as shown in Fig. 48, A representing
the scuttle opening and BODE the curb, the water running in the direction of
the arrow. Then the corners should be double seamed, as shown in diagram F,
and the locks made so that when closed, as at a, the water coming in the direction
of the arrow H, will pass over the seam. made in the opposite
If the seams were
manner the water would run into the joints. This shows how to seam the corners
and flash around a curb or bulkhead or any other structure on a roof. The method
of obtaining the correct seam lines on the front, sides and back is shown in Fig.

49, and is applicable to curbs, scuttles, chimneys, etc. A B C D represents a

 686 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

bulkhead over a roof around which flashing must be placed, the sides and top to be
covered with tin. E represents the last course of tin, which is laid before reaching

the bulkhead. To put in the strip F G, assuming that the distance from the lock to
the bulkhead indicated by F is 10 inches, bend off 10 inches on the strip, as shown
in Fig. 42, making the distance of G in Fig. 49, 4 inches, using 14 x 20 inch tin.

When the strip is bent up it is notched at the corners to allow for double seaming,
as shown at F in Fig. 48, notching the corners, Fig. 49, so that the portion H forms

Fig. 49. Flashing Around a Structure on a Roof

a lap on the roof, and to be pieced out later. The side strips K and K 1
are now
put in position, care being taken that the lock J of the side strip K runs above and
breaks joints with the lock I of the front strip F G.
The tin roof is now continued up to L, or the first seam above the bulkhead,
the flat portion at M being broken in the diagram to better illustrate the locks.

The line of theseam L is now extended with pencil, as shown by the dotted line,
so that the proper measurement of the distance from the bulkhead to the lock L
can be obtained, as at N. Bend off the rear strip O so that the lock P will be in
1
line with the lock L, exercising care that the lock J on the strip turned up against
the bulkhead will break joints with the lock J on the side strips. The roofing is

now continued from the locks L P, after which the corners NRST are pieced out
and soldered.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 687

The sides of the bulkhead are tinned up in the usual manner, allowing edges
for double seaming at the corners, and allowing a single edge at the top, as indicated
by UV W X C D, Fig. 49. Then, when covering the top of the bulkhead, the
roof is locked into the single edges UV W X C and D, as shown at a, and is then
turned over to form a double lock, as at b. The corners are now double seamed,
soldering the lower part 6 inches above the roof line, while the balance of the
seams at the corners and sides are painted with a thick coat of red lead. After
this they are flattened or closed with the mallet, which insures a tight joint.

We will now consider the soldering of upright seams, which becomes necessary
when cross seams occur in side or wall flashings or when the corners of curbs or

chimneys have to be soldered. Fig. 50 illus-

trates across seam in a side wall flashing, A B in-
dicating the metal flashings fastened to the wall
jointby the wall hooks a, b and c. The seam
being properly locked and closed, it should be
soldered in the following manner: First, pre-

pare or forge the soldering coppers, as in Fig.

30; the front A is wedge shaped, % inch thick
by about 1% inches wide, and is used for up-
right seam work. This style of soldering cop-
Fig. 50.
pers should be tinned on one side and on the Soldering Upright Seam
end only; if tinned otherwise the solder, instead of remaining on the tinned side,
would flow downward; by tinning the copper on one side only the remaining
sides will be black and will not tend to draw the solder downward. The soldering
copper being thus prepared, solder the upright seams in the manner indicated in
Fig. 50, holding the copper in the position shown by C. This allows the solder to
flow forward, while if the copper were held as shown by the dotted line D, the
solder would flow backward and away from the seam. First the seams are tacked,
in order that they will lie close then the seam is thoroughly soaked with solder,
;

‘ ’
after which ridges of solder are placed across to strengthen it. In soaking the ‘ ’

seam the copper should be placed directly over the lapped part, so that the metal
is thoroughly heated. This enables the solder to flow between the seams of the
metal, making a tight joint. The same method applies to any other upright seam.
 688 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

PRACTICAL TALKS ON TIN ROOFING— III

We will now give attention to the method of laying standing seam roofing, in

which the cross horizontal seams are locked as in flat seam roofing and whose
vertical seams are standing and locked, as will he described in connection with

Figs. 53 and 54. Assuming that the pitch of the roof is 18 feet long, the tin is

edged on the 14-inch side only, right and left, and many sheets are locked
as

together as are required for the 18-foot pitch. Some men prefer to “knockout”
long strips and cut much as needed.
off as

After the necessary number of strips have been locked and soldered, the standing

seams are bent up with the tongs, or, what is and quicker, the roofing
better
edger for standing scam roofing. This is a machine
into which the strips of tin are fed, being discharged
Fig. 5i. Edged^su^s Laid for Lock
j n j )en £ U p f orm as required and as shown in Fig. 51,

1 inch on the one side and 1 34 inches on the other,

q-
L- or they can be bent 134 inches on the one side and
sk A \" Jvf' 1 34 inches on the other, as is most desirable. This
~ gives a % inch finished seam in the first case and 1
> when completed.
inch in the second
Fig. 52. Cleat for Fastening Strips . .

to Hoof In laying the strips they are fastened by means

of cleats,shown in Fig. 52, with full size measurements. These cleats allow for
expansion and contraction of the metal, and are applied as shown in Fig. 53, which
also shows the first operation in applying standing lock roofing. Some roofers use
cleatswhich are not notched out, as is indicated at A in Fig. 52, but cut the cleat
square at the top, and instead of turning the cleat right and left, as in Fig. 53, they
only turn the cleat over the strip P>, the strip C not being secured until the second
operation is performed, as in Fig. 54. However, by turning the cleat as shown in
Fig. 53 both sides of the strips are held down and trouble from the wind is avoided.

Assuming that all the strips have been bent up and 134 inches, apply them
1

to the roof boards as follows : Let A represent the hanging gutter at the eave of
the pitch roof, having a lock bent on it, as at D. Take a strip of tin, B, having a
lock at the bottom, as at E E, and lock it well in the lock of the gutter, as shown.
Then with a cleat made of scrap tin, Fig. 52, place it as indicated in Fig. 53 by F.
Lay it tight against the upright bend of the strip B and fasten it with a roofing
nail at d. Now turn the edge of the cleat F over the tin strip, as shown at a; this
holds the strip B in position. It is usual to place these cleats about 20 inches
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 689

apart, and in some cases they are placed closer, as desired ;

sometimes two cleats to

a 28-inch sheet. The next strip, C, should have a 1-inch bend. Lay it tight
against the 1 34 -inch bend of the strip B, lock it well into the lock D of the gutter,
press it down well at the corner of the roof, and turn over the edge of the cleat, as

Fig. 53. First Operation Fig. 54. Second Operation

at h. This holds the strip C in position. It will be noted that no nails have been
driven into the standing seam strip, the entire roof depending on the cleats to hold
it down and prevent rattling.

The next operation is shown in Fig. 54. By means of the hand soamer and
mallet, or with the roofing double seamers, the first or single seam is turned over,
as shown at I). If the hand seamer is used it is held in the left hand and the
single edge is turned over with the mallet. Roofing double seamers are widely
used, and two One of the seamers does the
constitute a set to finish a seam.
bending and the other the squeezing. Both can be made adjustable for the first
or single seam and for the double seam. The operations are performed by the
foot treadle, the handles being used to clamp the edges. Much time is saved in
the use of the double seamers over that expended in the use of the hand seamers.

Fig. 65. Last Operation Fig. 86. Finishing a Standing Seam Roof at Gutter

When the seam D has been tightly closed the double seam is made, as shown at D
in Fig. 55, involving the same operations with both the hand and roofing seamers.
This is explained in connection with Fig. 54.
 .

690 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

If desired the seam E, in Fig. 55, can be soldered, but this is unnecessary on
a steep roof, as the water will not back into the seam. While the three operations
shown in the three preceding figures indicate the method of double seaming,
another method of locking the standing seam roof into the gutter edge is shown in

Fig. 5G, in which the standing seam is flattened and locked into the gutter, as
shown.
Fig. 57 illustrates a roof starting at the eave and having a hanging gutter and
gable wall flashing. A indicates the gutter flanged to the roof, as shown at B,
allowing the flange B to extend under the side flashing F, as at C. At the front
of the parapet wall notch out the flange of the gutter, and bend it up against the
wall, as indicated by the dotted line I).

When the gutter is in position and the

gutter braces fastened to it the side wall
or step flashing E F G is put in position,

stepping double courses of brick, as

shown, and flanging into the joints of
the brick work or other wall and fast-

ened with wall hooks and paintskins,

and overlapping the gutter flange D.
as at H
The strip is flanged outward on the
roof, as shown at J, Fig. 57, about
7 inches, or as much as the width of
the tin strip will allow, and on this
strip the l)£-inch bend is made, mitering the flange J over the flange B of the gut-
ter, as shown at I. The
strips K L M are now placed
in the positions indicated,
using the cleat N, as in Fig.
53, and also shown bj c d e

in Fig. 57. Care should

be taken to lock the strips
well at the bottom into the
lock Of the gutter flange B,
Fi * “• Finishing with a Comb Ridge

as is indicated by a b. O is the wire strainer or basket placed over the leader P.

The entire roof is finished in the manner indicated, when the double seaming is
done, as previously explained.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 691

Fig. 58 illustrates a finish made at the ridge of a standing seam roof. This is

known as a comb ridge. AB indicates a section of the roof boards, C D and E are
strips of tin having a single edge
at the ridge, as shown by I, while
the opposite strips F G and H have
a double edge at the ridge, as at
J. The standing seams K L M are
mitered and are soldered from K to
a, L to b and M to c. When the _. „ ^ „
Fig. 59. Double Seaming the Ridge
comb ridge is not required it can
be double seamed, as at A in Fig. 51), leaving the standing seam miter at B C and
D, and soldering from B to b, C to c and D to d.

When mitering the standing seams at the top it is better and quicker to make
‘ ’
a small ‘ gauge ’
with which to mark each strip at the top after the standing seams
are turned up. In Fig. 60, A
This “gauge,” or shape, can bo made as follows:
represents a piece of the tin strip in use before being bent up and about 12 inches

long. Obtain the angle of the roof at the ridge, as in diagram B C. Parallel to C
and B measurea distance of 1)4 inches and draw the lines
off T) E and E F ;
then
draw a line from E to H, after which hike a tracing of E H F J, to be placed as
shown by L M K; repeat
the operation at N. Allow
for the vertical seam O, as
shown. The dotted line P
indicates the allowance for
the double seam. Then all

the tin strips for one side of

Fig. 62. Ridge Oomb Finished with Standing Seam
the roof should be Cut with-
out laps, as shown by L M 0 N. The tin strips for the opposite side should have
laps for seaming, as in Fig. 61. This figure exhibits the top of the strip bent up
 692 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

and having laps. In Fig. 62 is shown another form of comb ridge, in which the
standing seams are flattened and then turned up the same as in standing
seam work, by means of tongs, and double seamed with the hand seamer, as
shown in the illustration. Fig. 63 shows the method of finishing the standing
seam when it butts against the wall and it is desired to put in a flashing. In this
case proceed as follows: A represents the roof boards, B and C tin strips put in
position, and having a lock as at E and D, the distance from the wall to the lock
being as desired. It will be noticed that
the standing seam H is turned over by
means of a mallet, as shown at J, after
which the flashing FG is locked into it, as
Then the seam K is
at Iv. tightly closed
with the mallet and the seam KH soldered.
If the roof is steep the soldering is not nec-
Fig. 68. Flashing Against a Wail
essary. The top of the flashing is flashed
into the wall and fastened with wall hooks, a be and d, and is then paintskinned
or cemented.
The method of turning over the double standing seam H, as shown at J, is
sometimes employed where the seams meet at the ridge, as at B C and D in Fig.
59. Then they should be cut square, as at a b in Fig. 60, and turned over, as
shown by J in Fig. 63. Double seam and solder at the ridge, as at A in Fig. 59.
It is not out of place here to remark that for a tile roof that abuts a gable wall

as in Fig. 57, the flashing would be bent and put in as the strip J. Though most
likely it would be bent up straight, with the w all and roof andr
covered with a cap
flashing, E F, still giving the same appearance as Fig. 57.

PRACTICAL TALKS ON TIN ROOFING—IV

There is a question with some roofers as to whether it is best to use a revolv-

ing roofing edger ip preference to ordinary roofing tongs in turning up edges for
standing seams. While it is true that the revolving edger is very much more rapid
than tongs, so far as turning out edged courses goes, careless use of the edger will
leave the tin in such shape that the extra time consumed in doing the double seam-
ing goes far to offset any gain over tonging. If the edger is not firmly secured to
the roof and the tin passed perfectly straight through it the result will be much
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 6 93

variation in the width of the edges turned up. It is a common practice when put-
ting on roofing requiring long courses for one man to start one end of a roll of tin
through the edger located at the high point of the roof, and for another man to take
hold of the tin as it emerges from the edger and draw it through rapidly instead
of winding it through by turning the handle. In pulling the tin through in this
manner the operator is almost certain not to walk straight down the roof, or the
machine may slip a little so as to cause feeding of the strip too much to one side of
the machine. If the pressure favors the wide edge side, the result will be too
much tin to fold into the double seam on that side, as indicated at a, Fig. 64, and
too little tin on the other to stand up high enough to be folded into the double
seam, as indicated at b. If the pressure favors the narrow edge side the result will
be too little tin on the wide edge side to double seam, as indicated at c, and so
much on the narrow edge side as to necessitate triple seaming, as indicated at d,
which adds unnecessarily to the labor of double seaming. A course of tin thus im-
properly edged is indicated in Fig. 65, and it will be seen that the edges not only
vary in width but the course is made slightly crooked.

In edging tin with a revolving edger, the machine should be firmly secured on
a portable base, and this base should be provided with forked standards for carry-
ing the axle, which in turn carries the roll of tin which is being run through the
machine. Fig. 66 gives an idea The tin should be started
of this arrangement.
through the machine and the lower end slightly turned up as indicated, so that it
will slide down the roof without catching against the edges of boards, etc., and it

should be forced through by turning the handle of the machine. The tin should
not be pulled through independently of the handle. Care should also be taken to
see that the axis of the rolls is exactly paralled with the ridge, or perpendicular to
the rafters of the roof, so that the weight of the course after it has been passed
through the machine for some distance will not tend to pull the tin one sided.
The uprights a should not be located so as to interfere with a true entrance of the
tin into the machine.
If the revolving edger is worked in this manner fairly reliable results can be
depended upon as regards width of edge, but experience has shown that the aver-
age roofer is not content to grind the tin through the machine in this comparatively
slow manner, when he can take hold of it and pull it through on a run, though he
is almost certain to hamper the double seaming operation and cause badly finished
work in the end. While even the grinding through method in using the revolving
edger is considerably quicker than tong work, there still remains a slight disadvan-
tage, in the stretching of the tin, which causes the standing edge to be somewhat
Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 695

buckled or wavy, making the first operation of the double seaming comparatively
difficult.

Fig. 67 shows a course of tin as it appears when edged up with roofing tongs.
shows how the tongs grasp the edge, and it will be seen that the width of
Fig. -68
edge turned is entirely governed by the gauges a and the method of operation is
such that varying widths of edge are not likely obtained. These roofing tongs

being usually 14 to 20 inches long and thus turning up that length of tin at each
bite, the stretching of the edges is almost entirely avoided, and the finished result

isa course with straight and rigid standing edges, as indicated in Fig. 67, so that
when they are brought together for double seaming the first operation is much
easier than if the edge had been stretched and buckled.
In tonging it is necessary to go over the edge twice —the first time turning it
half way up, or to an angle of 45 degrees, and the second time finishing it as indi-
 ,

696 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

cated in Fig. 68. In passing, attention is called to a defect in most roof tongs, viz.

lack of bearing surface around the pivot bolt b. The result of lack of this bearing

surface is seen in Fig. 69. When the handles are operated to open the tongs, one
side or the other of the blades, from some cause, such as being held by friction

against the gauge, etc., may remain nearly closed, while the other side is opened
much wider than necessary, and in sliding the tongs along the edge of the tin the

side thus rem aining nearly closed is liable and in fact does usually strike against
the seams, as indicated at a, causing annoyance and delay. The tongs shown in
Fig. 69 are as they are usually made, i. e., with scant bearing surface around the
rivet bolt b. Fig. 70 indicates how this working part should be made. When thus
made and the bolt is kept as tight as possible without making the tongs work hard,
the blades will be held parallel in opening and closing the tongs.
Where the gutter conditions are such that snow and ice are not likely to lie or
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 697

water to back up on the roof, a good and cheap method of joining the courses to
the gutter is shown in Fig. 71. The first operation in producing this joint is

shown in Fig. 72, a 1 ^-inch. edge being turned on the gutter, the roof courses
being cut off so as to project a scant % inch over this edge, and the bottom ends of
the double seams being flattened over, as shown. The second operation is indica-
ted in Fig. 73, the two edges having been turned up perpendicular to the roof with
the 134 -inch gauge roofing tongs. The edges thus turned up are then double
seamed, after which this gutter double seam is unallotted over flat in the center of
the courses, allowing that portion at the bottom ends of the double seams to stand
nearly perpendicular as indicated in F'g 71. This gutter seam is not hammered
down at the last named points, for the reason that the tin folded into the double
seam would be likely to break when straightened out again, and furthermore when
left standing at the point shown the seam is better drained and less likely to leak.

Where there is some possibility of water being backed up to the level of the
gutter seam, the method of joining indicated in Fig. 74 is best. In making this
connection a hand folder, as indicated in Fig. 75, is very useful. A %-inch edge
is turned on the edge of the gutter, and the course is cut just long enough to pro-
ject 24 inch over this edge, as indicated in Fig. 76, the standing seams being
notched just flush with the edge of the gutter as indicated at a. The bottom end
of the course is then raised about 6 inches above the roof, and the hand folder,
Fig. 75, slipped on to the edge and tin edge turned as indicated in Fig. 77. If

the course has not been cleated

or secured in position, the edge
can be turned under to the point
a, and then the course let down
low enough to allow hooking on
to the edge of the gutter and
then drawn up taut and secured,
but if the course has been clamp
tongued into position and is

being cleated, the edge should

Fig. 79. Finish of Butts Fig. so
only be turned down square as
indicated at b. The course is then pressed down on the gutter edge, and has its

edge held down by a weight (a hand seamer is very convenient for this purpose)

and the edge tucked under with a hammer as indicated in Fig. 78, after which it

can be malletted down.

Attention is called to the advisability of refraining from tightly malletting
 698 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

down such lock edges until they are about to be soldered, as the sharp bending of
the material, resulting from tightly malletting
down, opens uj) the pores, so to speak, of the tin

coating and one night’s exposure to the atmo-

sphere causes rusting and the surfaces of the tin
in the lock being brought close together, capil-
lary attraction holds considerable moisture in
the seam, which fact, together with the rust,
makes soldering very much more difficult than
if the seams had been left open with rounded

unbroken edges and separated surfaces, as in

Fig. 81. Butt Finish Complete
the latter case neither corrosion nor capillary
attraction takes place toamount to anything, even if the seams are left in this con-
dition for several days and are subjected to rainstorms.
A good method of finishing the butts of double seams is indicated in Fig. 74.
The operations involved are as follows First the double seam is left as shown in
:

Fig. 79; the end of the seam is then turned by means of a hammer and heavy

i
V
£

, j

1
J

Fig. 84. Adjoining Standing Seam Fig. 85

chisel, as indicated in Fig. 80, and finished as indicated in Fig. 81. The butt is

well soldered at the points a, Fig. 81, making a perfectly tight roof surface up to
the top of the double seam at the point b. All that has been said about joining
the roof to the gutter also applies to joining the roof to valleys.
A good method of finishing the ridge is by double seaming. When covering
the first side of the slope the tin should be left projecting 1 24 inches above the

ridge and the double seams finished and flattened down as indicated in Fig. 82,
after which this 124 inch edge is turned back parallel to the second slope of the
 Sjieet Metal Roofing Patterns 699

roof, as indicated by dotted lines a, Fig. 82. When the other slope of the roof is
covered the tin should he left projecting a scant ^ inch above the last named edge
and the double seams finished and flattened down at the ends as indicated in Fig.
83. Both edges are then turned up vertically, as indicated by dotted lines, Fig.
83, and double seamed together.
In laying the two slopes of roof care should be taken to have the double seams

dodge each other, as indicated in Fig. 84, even though it should be necessary to
start the second half of the roof with a half width course cut especially for this pur-
pose. If the double seams hit each other as indicated in Fig. 85 it will be found a

practical impossibility to double seam the ridge. What has been said about ridges
also applies to hips.

We will assume that a roof has been started and a chimney is encountered.
 700 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

Assuming the chimney to be of average size, the first thing to do is to lay a cricket
behind the chimney, as indicated at a, Fig. 86, extending well up on the chimney
sufficiently high to insure against water running over it when snow is banked
behind, and extending up the roof far enough to bring the edge on a level with
the top edge of the tin against the chimney. Cricket a should have a 34 i n °h lock
turned on its upper edge and sides.

Supposing the tin to have been laid up to within a half course or so of the
chimney, the next course b is laid alongside of the chimney before being edged up.

A straight edge is then laid along the bottom edge of the chimney at c, extending
across course b and a line struck. The straight edge is then shifted to the top edge

of chimney, as indicated at d, and another line struck. The last course laid usually

has its 1^-inch edge next the chimney, so that the edge to be turned on the new
course to be double seamed with said edge should be 134 inches wide. There-
fore measure 134 inches in from the edge of b, as indicated at/; and then take the
distance e from side of chimney to the side of last course laid and set it off as indi-
cated at g. Thus the lines hi, j k indicate the opening which must be made in the
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 701

new course to slip by the chimney. As the tin should turn up at least 6 inches
against the side of chimney, measure off 6 inches from line i j, as indicated by
the line l vn.

The straight edge should now be laid against the lock edge of cricket piece, a,
in the position indicated by dotted line 0 ,
and a line struck across the course. The
distance from the edge of the side lock of the cricket piece to the side of last course

laid, as indicated by p, should then be laid off at q, and % inch allowed for locking
onto the top and side edges of the cricket piece.
Now cut lines hi, k j, l m, s t, u. Edge up the course and bend the tin up
square on line i j, which fits against the side of chimney. Course h is then ready
to place in position, as indicated in Fig. 87, after which the edges which lock upon
top and sides of cricket at a are turned with the fingers and the peen of the hammer
in the usual way. The course on the other side of the chimney is laid out and
 70 a Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

handled in a similar manner. The hack of chimney then has the piece a and a,
indicated by the dotted lines in Fig. 87, soldered in place, after Avhich the chimney
is ready for counterflashing in the usual way.
When a pipe is encountered, as indicated in Fig. 88, an opening is cut in the

tin through which it is to pass in the following manner : Strike lines across the
course from a straight edge placed against the top and bottom surface of the pipe
next the roof, as indicated at a and b. Lay off 1 j/£-inch edge c, then lay off dis-

tance d at e; make / equal to diameter of pipe, and trace, an ellipse within the rec-

tangle thus laid out, as indicated. If the pipe extends up too high to allow of
raising the course up and slipping it down over the pipe, cut into the ellipse from
the side of the course, as indicated by g h, and cut out the ellipse. Now turn up
the 1 %-inch edge on the new course and open up the cut g li to allow of slipping
the tin by the pipe. Then the 1 J^-inch edge can be turned and the course cleated
and double seamed into position, as indicated in Fig. 89, and cut g d soldered up.
If the pipe never gets hot a very good finish around it can be made by simply
providing and soldering a collar around the pipe, calked with oakum and elastic
cement, as indicated in Fig. 90. A stout copper wire should be twisted around
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 7°3

the collar near the top edge and he drawn tight before the lap is soldered, which
will keep the collar perfectly tight against the piece of calking.

Fig. 91 shows a good way to finish the top of the courses against a monitor or
other upright wall. Assuming that the tin is to be turned up 6 inches the top of
the courses should be notched, as indicated by the solid lines of Fig. 92, G inches
from top end. After the course is tongued up and the G-inch flashing part turned
up it looks like Fig. 93. The butts of the double seams are finished as indicated

in Fig. 81, page 46. The laps a, Fig. 91, as well as the butt ends of the double
seams, are of course well soldered. If it be a clapboarded monitor or side wall
against which the top of the courses finish the boarding of course simply laps down
over the upturned tin, but if it be brick work the upturned flashing edge is

counterflashed in the usual manner.

A good method of finishing around smoke stacks is shown in Fig. 94. It was
shown how the roof flange of the smoke stack should be provided with lock edges
 —

7°4 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

for joining on tin roofs. Where the stack is of such size as to make the distance
a a considerable it is advantageous to double seam the roof flange to the tin roofing,

along the sides, instead of locking and soldering. All flat soldered seams that run
parallel with the rafters should be avoided, so far as possible, as the soldering is

sure to break sooner or later and cause leaks, whereas the standing double seam is

just as cheap to make, if not cheaper, and will never leak.

The roofing should be locked to the top edge of the roof flange and butts of
double seams finished in the same manner as previously described and illustrated
in Fig. 81. The connection between the lower edge of the roof flange and roof is

finished in substantially the same manner, except that the process of making the
connection differs. The seam should be made so as to shed the water downward.
Solid lines of Fig. 95 indicate the operation, which consists of, first, turning a 1-inch
edge perpendicular to the roof on the bottom of the roof flange and preparing the
top portion of the course that connects to it, as indicated in Figs. 92 and 93, the

only difference being that 34 inch is turned up instead of 0 inches. The double
seam is then finished, after which the roof flange is single seamed over the top edge
of the course, as indicated by the dotted line of Fig. 95, and then the seam is mal-
leted down, as shown in the broken view of Fig. 94. This seam, as rvell as the
lock seam at the top of the roof flange and all butts, are soldered.

If a roof has sufficient pitch there is little or no danger of standing seams

leaking. If they should even after they have been gone over with a mallet they
may be soldered where necessary by turning seams over enough to permit
soldering after which they can be straightened up square again or seams can be
painted with white lead by means of a small brush.
It might be stated that while the soldering of cross seams was advised, some
roofers claim it is best not to solder these cross seams, saying it allows for a free

movement of the metal when expanding and contracting.

For a large class of roofing e when i. .

,
a particular brand or quality, which

cannot be had except in loose sheets, boxed, is not required —the entire question
of putting tin together in strips or rolls is best solved by purchasing it already put
together in rolls, painted or unpainted. Tin in this form is to be had from a num-
ber of concerns, sopie of it being put up in rolls consisting of 20 X 28 sheets locked
together, soldered and painted in the usual manner hy hand. While other brands
consist of long sheets, some as long as 10 feet, the completed rolls being produced
by a machine something like 80 feet long. As a general proposition, for ordinary
roofing the long sheet answers very well.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 705

ROOF CLEATS FOR FLAT SEAM

Another method of cleating to that

recommended in Fig. 25, page 675, is to
place a cleat on the top of the two
sheets where their edges come together,
as shown in Fig. 96. This covers the two
laps and holds tightly down in its place
the sheet which covers this lap. When
the cleats are placed in this way the sheet

Fig. 96. The Placing of Roof Cleats

is not apt to buckle when soldering, as
it will invariably rise up slightly owing
to the expansion caused by the hot copper.

USE OF PAPER UNDER TIN ROOFS

Paper used under a tin roof deadens the noise and protects the tin from the
effect of unsatisfactory sheathing boards. Some insist that a waterproof paper
should be used and others prefer a soft felt. There are others who think that the
tin should be painted on the under side and then there is no occasion for the use

of any kind of paper. They hold the opinion that should there happen to be a
leak in the tin roof waterproof paper will keep a pool of water under the tin to help
in its destruction. If a sufficient quantity gets there it will run for some distance
on the paper before it makes itself manifest underneath, which adds to the diffi-

culty in locating the leak when repairs are to be made. At times a felt has been
used containing destructive chemicals in its makeup, which have been detrimental
to the durability of the tin plate. When the tin is heavily coated, whether pro-
tected with a coat of paint afterwards or not, there are those who believe that there
is no need for paper under it, if it is laid on well seasoned dry sheathing boards,
laid smoothly, and if an air space is provided underneath the roof to prevent con-
densation on the under side.
If paper is used under the tin it must be paper that has in its composition
nothing injurious to the tin, as tar, sulphur, etc. Many cases have been cited of
entire roofs being destroyed owing to this.
 706 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

COVERING A CONICAL TOWER WITH SHEET METAL

One of the most difficult jobs in flat or standing seam roofing is that of cover-
ing a conical tower. As the roof in question is round in plan and tapering in

elevation, it is necessary to know the method for cutting the various patterns. In
Fig. 97, let ABC be the elevation of a tower to be covered with flat seam roofing,

using 10 X 14 inch tin at the base ;

the tinning to be laid on two-ply felting, and
each sheet nailed with four %-inch wire nails, the sheets being edged not less than

% inch to insure a good lock. Assuming that the tower at BC is 10 feet 6 inches
in diameter, we any convenient place at the building, strike a quarter plan,
will, at

as for example that indicated by J E F, which will be used when getting out the
pattern for the bottom of the gutter shown by dotted lines at B and C. The
straight part of the gutter requires no pattern, and the slant part is obtained the
same as for flaring work. As the diameter of the tower is 10 feet 6 inches and
equals 126 inches, the circumference is obtained by multiplying this amount by
3 1-7, which equals 396 inches. As 10 X 14 inch tin plate is to be used at the base

of the tower, the nearest width which can be employed and which will divide the

base in equal spaces is 13 1-5 inches without laps, thus dividing the circumference
into 30 equal spaces. This width of 13 1-5 inches and the length of the rafter A B
or AC in elevation will be the basis from which to construct a triangle, in which
all the patterns for the various courses will be laid off.

To obtain the patterns for the various courses proceed as follows : It should

be understood that the diagram which will now be constructed will be enlarged so
as to better show the methods involved. At any convenient place at the building

stretch a piece of tar felting of the required length, tacking it at the four corners

with nails to keep it from slipping. Upon the center of the felting strike a chalk

line, as AB of Fig. 98, making it equal to the length of the rafter AB orA C of
Fig. 97. At right angles to A B, Fig. 98, at either side, draw the lines B D and

B C, each equal to 6 3-5 inches, being one-half 13 1-5 above referred to. From
the points C and D draw lines to the apex A. As the width of the sheet used is

10 inches, and as %-inch edges are put on each side, thus leaving 9 %. inches, mea-
sure on the vertical line A B 9% inches in succession, until the apex A is reached.
Through the points thus obtained on A B draw lines parallel to C D intersecting
the lines A C and A D, as shown. Then will the various patterns 1, 2, 3 and 4 be
the net patterns for courses having similar numbers.
Take the shears and cut out the patterns on the felting and number them as
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 7°7

required. For example, take the paper pattern number 1, place it on a sheet of
tin, as shown in Fig. 99, and allow
% inch edges all around, and notch the corners,
as shown by A, B, C and D. Mark on the tin pattern No. 1 29 more, as 30 are
required to go around the tower. Treat all the paper patterns from 1 to the apex
in similar manner.
Of course where the patterns become smaller in size, as at the top, the waste
from other patterns can be used.

In Fig. 100 isshown how the sheet should be edged, always being careful to
have the narrow side toward the top, with the edges at the narrow and right hand
side toward the outside, while the lower and left hand edges are edged toward the
inside, all as shown in the diagram. Lay the sheets in the usual manner, breaking
 708 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

joints as in ordinary practice. As the seams are not soldered, be careful to avoid
making “busters” —in other words, failing to interlock the joints.

After the entire roof is laid, and before “pounding down,” or closing the
seams with a mallet, take a tool brush and paint the locks with thick white lead,

then close with the mallet. This will make a tight job.
The roof being covered, put the finial, I) of Fig. 97, in position, when the job
is ready for the painter. As method used for obtaining the patterns for the
the
various sheets in Fig. 98 is based upon the principle used in obtaining the envelope
of a right cone,some readers may say that in accurate patterns the line from C to
D should be curved, and not straight, as shown. To those it is said that the
curve would be so little on a small pattern where the radius is long that a straight
line answers the purpose just as well in all practical work, for it would amount to

considerable labor to turn edges on the curved cut of the sheet, and there is cer-

tainly no necessity for it. Supposing now that the tower shown in Fig. 97 were to
be covered with standing seam roofing, the method of obtaining the pattern would
be a little different. As the reader knows, standing seam roofing, when required
in single sheets, is prepared by locking together sheets of the required number, the
crossseams being soldered, the side edges then being bent up on each side 1)4
and 1)4 inches respectively by means of the roofing tongs. Care should be taken
when bending the standing seams that the cross seams do not crack, and to exam-
ine same before laying on the roof, as this is very often the cause of leaks which
are very hard to find afterward. As the circumference of the tower at its base is

396 inches, and assuming that 14 X 20 inch plate is to be used at the base of the

tower, the nearest width which can be employed and which will divide the base
into equal spaces is 17 5-23 inches, without edges, thus dividing the circumference
into 23 equal parts. Then will this width of 17 5-23 inches and the length of the

rafter AB or AC in elevation be the basis from which to construct the pattern for
the standing seam strip, for which proceed as follows : Let ABCD in Fig. 101
‘ ’

represent a 20-inch strip ‘

knocked out, ’
or locked together and soldered, using
%-inch edges; through the center of this strip draw the line E F. Now measure
the length of the rafter AB or AC in Fig. 97, and place it on the line E F in
Fig. 101, as shown, from H to F. At right angles to H F on either side draw the
lines F O and F L, making each side equal to 8 14-23 inch, being one-half of the
17 5-23 above referred to. From points L and 0 draw lines to the apex H. At
right angles to H L and H O draw the lines H P, equal to 1)4 inches, and H S,
equal to 1)4 inches, respectively. From points P and S and parallel to H L and
H O draw the lines P I) and S C respectively. Then will P S C D be the pattern
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 7 °9

for the standing seam strip, of which 22 more will be required. When getting out
the balance of the 22 strips it can be accomplished in the quickest way as follows:
Take the pattern just cut, lay it upon the roof or bench, and scribe a chalk
line around the entire pattern remove the pattern.
; Now start with a 14 X 20 inch
sheet and tack it with nails at its lower end to keep it from slipping, as at L and
O; then, having the chalk line just scribed as a guide, lay the following sheets,

being careful to use the waste as the apex is reached. After having “knocked
out’’ 22 of these and soldered the same, the pattern is laid over each one and
strips

accurately marked, cut and bent up. It is then laid on the tower, fastened with

cleats and doubled seamed with the hand seamer and mallet in the usual manner.
If the tower was done in copper or galvanized sheet iron, where 8-foot material
could be used, as many sheets would be locked together as required ;
then metal
could be saved and waste avoided by cutting the sheets as shown in Fig. 102, in
which ABCD shows the sheet of metal and E and F the pattern sheets, the only
waste being shown by the shaded portion.
Where the finial sets over the tower, as at D in Fig. 97, the standing seams are
turned over flat as much as is required to receive the finial, or small notches
would be cut into the base of the finial as to allow it to slip over the standing

seams. Before closing the standing seams take a brush and fill seams with white
lead, then close up tight, which will make a good joint.

ROOFING OF A LARGE DOME

The tin work on the dome, Fig. 103, was laid as follows: After finding the
exact center or axis of the dome on top a large wood template was made shaping
the under edge to conform with the curve of the dome. A line was then struck at
the base of the dome, drawing a circle all around to
start the tin straight ;
then dividing this line up into
exact number of equal spaces, the first row of sheets

was cut in the shape of a triangle and the locks turned

on same, always with the idea of having the water to
run over the seams, and not against them. The
sheets of the next row were cut perfectly square, with
Pig. 108. Roofing a Large Dome ,

one corner up, the opposite comer down, and locked

the joints. Each following row was cut square and of the correct size to circle
710 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

the dome. This allows the bending of the sheets to fit the shape of the dome, and
make a perfect, smooth roof, conforming with the curve of the dome without
a wrinkle. The seams were all hammered flat and smooth, and at a distance it

looks like a concrete roof.

As the illustration shows, the sheets are laid diamond-shape, reducing the size
of the sheets as they near the top, and laying them so that every edge on the sheet
overlaps the lower edge, to shed water perfectly. The flat portion on the top of
the roof was laid like any flat roof would be laid and soldered.

QUANTITY OF TIN FOR ROOFS—Continued

GIVING THE NUMBER OF BOXES AND SHEETS REQUIRED TO COVER ROOFS OF VARIOUS
SIZES, RANGING FROM 10 TO 10,000 SQUARE FEET
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

QUANTITY OF TIN FOR ROOFS—Continued

GIVING THE NUMBER OF BOXES AND SHEETS REQUIRED TO COVER ROOFS OF VARIOUS
SIZES, RANGING FROM 10 TO 10,000 SQUARE FEET

ROOF

OF

SURFACE
•
JJ.2, Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

QUANTITY OF TIN FOR ROOFS—Continued

GIVING THE NUMBER OF BOXES AND SHEETS REQUIRED TO COVER ROOFS OF VARIOUS
SIZES, RANGING FROM 10 TO 10,000 SQUARE FEET
FLAT SEAM STANDING SEAM
Edged X in. Edged % in.
|
Single Lock I Double Lock
seam. 1-in. seam. X-in, seam-
*-in. l*in. seam.
„
| 8 §
Si §3 fes-J J3 a d .5 d i d
d d d i i
f2|| |?i| |5 1! |j|i |j|i fig !jg $* Is?
8
1f|2 ffli sf|| sflf
Ifli
fr pF i-Ii ti Ml Ml M al MSI,
a
M i 5! 1 ^ 1
- M*
20 x 28 14 x 20 20x28
20 x 28 14x20
14 x 20 20x28
20 x 28 14 x 20 20 x 28 14 x 20 20 x 28
B. S.
0 65
1 18
1 83
2 36
2 101
8 54
4 5
4 69 I 2 2

6 107
7 59
8 12
8 77
9 80
9 95
10 48
11 0
11 65
80 12 18
58 11 72 12 83
86 12 19 18 86
2 12 79 13 101
80 18 26 14 58
58 18 85 15 6
86 14 82 15 71
2 14 92 16 24
81 15 89 16 89
_59_ 15 98 17 42
8100 87 17 106 8 51
8 16 105 18 59 8 82 18 111 8. 110
81 17 52 19 12 9 0 19 65 9 80
59 17 111 19 77 9 81 20 20 9 61
87 18 58 20 80 9 61 20 86 9 92
I CD 20 95 9 92 21 41 10 12
81 19 65 21 48 80 10 11 21 107 10 48
59 20 12 22 0 10 61 10 41 22 62 10 75
87 20 71 10 58 22 65 10 92 10 72 23 16 10 106
10 88 28 18 11 10 102 28 82 26

21 97
8 21
m
22 25
19

10 78 28 24 86
11
11
11
42
78 24 25
11
11
21
51
24 Wn
24 108
11

11
sr
88
22 44 22 85 10 101 24 11 67 24 101 11 104 24 89 11 82 25 58 12 8
4400 22 102 28 82 11 18 24 25 58 12 28 25 42 12 0 26 12 12 89
4500 28 48 28 91 11 46 25 26 6 12 54 25 107 12 81 26 79 12 71
4600 28 107 24 88 11 74 25 26 71 12 85 26 59 12 61 27 88 12 102
4700 24 58 24 98 11 108 26 27 24 18 4 27 12 12 92 27 100 18 22
4800 24 111 25 45 12 19 27 27 89 18 85 27 76 18 10 28 54 18 58
25 57 25 104 12 48 27 28 42 18 67 28 29 18 41 29 9 18 84

7000
,26

|
4

86 50
26

87
51
8T“ST
4
12
15
17
76
24~
84 89
28
W 1 16
r
20 s nr W~W Of ir~4r T¥ W~W
28 106

40 59
18

19
98

47
28 98

40 41
18

19
72

10
29 75
S
41 60
14

19
4

72
41 78 42 87 45 46 86 22 21 46 15 21 92 47 62 22 51
46 95 47 70 22 91 |50 52 12 24 108 51 101 24 61 58 45 25 29
10000 152 6 52 102 26 107 57 100 27 88 57 74 27 81 59 87
 X

Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 71 3

BASIS OF CALCULATION
FLAT SEAMS EDGED ONE-QUARTER INCH
This table is calculated on a basis of J^-inch edges on 14X20 and 20X28
sheets, consuming about 1 inch, covering a space 13X19 and 19X27 inches and
exposing a surface of 247 and 513 square inches respectively.

FLAT SEAMS EDGED THREE-EIGHTS INCH

This table is calculi* ted on a basis of %-inch edges on 14 X 20 and 20 X 28 sheets,
consuming 1
% inches, covering a space 12%X18% and 18%X26% inches and
exposing a surface of i'43V.r and 507|| square inches respectively.

STANDING SEAM, SINGLE LOCK

This table is calculated on the basis of %-incli single lock cross seams, con-
suming inches of tin and covering 228{£ square inches when edged 1 and 1 %
inches and giving a finished seam %
inch high, and covering 222*V square inches
when edged and 134 inches and giving a finished seam 1 inch high, with 14
20 tin. With 20 X28 tin edged in the same way with a %-inch finished seam
477 8V square inches are covered, and with a 1-inch finished seam 463^ square
inches are covered.
STANDING SEAM, DOUBLE LOCK
This table is calculated on the basis of the amount of tin consumed by double
lock machines, which is 1 TV inches by measurement for cross seams and covering

222$-| square inches when edged 1 and 1% inches and giving a finished seam %
inch high, and covering 216|j square inches when edged an d 134 inches,
giving a finished seam 1 inch high, with 14X20 tin. With 20X28 tin edged in
the same way with a %-inch finished seam 47 lg-]- square inches are covered, and
with a 1-inch finished seam 458 j-f square inches are covered.

DIRECTIONS FOR USE

Look for the number of squares nearest the required surface. Note the quan-
tity of tin opposite in the column for the kind of roof to be put on, whether it be
1-4 inch or 3-8 inch Flat Seam or 3-4 inch or 1 inch Standing Seam, Single
Lock or Double Lock, and set down
Then, in the same manner,
the amount.
determine the quantity of tin for the odd feet and add this to the former amount.
Reduce the sheets to boxes by dividing by 112.
 :

7*4 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

FLAT SEAM EXAMPLE

How much 14 X 20
edged J4 inch covering 13X19
tin will be required to cover
a roof 4,665 square feet flat seam?
First look for 4,600 square feet (=46 squares) and set down the quantity
opposite, thus:
23 boxes 107 sheets
Then for 65 square feet and set down 38 sheets

Making a total of 23 boxes 145 sheets

which is equal to 24 boxes 33 sheets.

SINGLE LOCK STANDING SEAM EXAMPLE

How much 14X20 tin will be required to cover a roof of 3,752 square feet
with single lock cross seams and 1-inch standing seams?
First look for 3,700 square feet (=37 squares) and set down the quantity
opposite, thus:
21 boxes 48 sheets

Then for 52 square feet and set down 34 sheets

Making a total of 21 boxes 82 sheets

DOUBLE LOCK STANDING SEAM EXAMPLE

How much 20 X 28 tin will be required to cover a roof of 2,987 square feet with
double lock cross seams and %-inch standing seams?
First look for 2,900 square feet (=29 squares) and set down the quantity
opposite, thus
7 boxes 102 sheets
Then look for 87 square feet and set down 27 sheets

Making a total of 7 boxes 129 sheets

Dividing 129 by 112, they are found to be equal to 1 box and 17 sheets,
which added to 7 boxes
Give a total of 8 boxes 17 sheets
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 7*5

RUNNING A TIN ROOF OVER A FIRE WALL

In the accompanying illustration, Fig. 104, are shown the methods of lining the
fire walls and connecting them to the main roof and to the cornice roof. Let
ABC represent the cornice roof, fire wall and main roof respectively, and DE
and F the sheathing line. Now, assuming that the tinning has been started
below G, the courses are carried as far as H, when the distance is measured from
H to I. A regular strip is now laid

out, soldering the short seams, before

bending up to the required width

H I, after which it is locked into
the lock H, and will appear as shown
by J K. The courses L M N, etc.,

are laid in the regular manner, as

on the flat roof, leaving the last

course N to project over the cornice

roof, as shown by O. If the fire

wall is level all round the project-

ing tin plate 0 is turned over on

the cornice roof with a mallet, as
shown by the dotted line P. The
course R S, etc. ,
are again laid in the
regular manner, cutting off the last
course S to within an inch of the
line of the cornice, asshown at T this allows for turning over and nailing.
;

If the fire wall shown in the sketch was the back of the roof against which the

water would run, then a valley flashing would have to be put in first, as shown by
U V, which allows the water to run over and not against the seam. If the fire
wall was unequal in hight and the tin was to be turned over the cornice roof as just
described, we would not be able to obtain a straight course on the cornice roof. To
obtain a straight course in this case the last course N could be flanged out 1 inch,

as shown at W, after which the top courses are laid as shown at X, which are after-
ward turned down and double seamed, as shown at Y. The cornice roof is now
soldered, being careful to solder down the fire wall about 4 inches, while on the
main roof the strips against the fire walls where the joints are made should be
soldered up about 8 inches. The seams on the fire wall are left unsoldered and
716 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

are made water by painting them, before they are malleted down, with a good
tight
thick coat of white lead in oil, after which they are tightly closed with the mallet
and then “white leaded” again. Assuming that the fire wall was of brick, stone
or terra cotta, the same rule is observed for covering, except that the fire wall is

covered with standing seam, locked into the strip K at the bottom and double
seamed as at W X and Y at the top.
A roof covered with IC terne plate will make a good roof, but certainly not as
good as IX tin, because the IX is heavily coated and of thicker gauge metal and
will or ought to outlast the IC brand.

JOINING A COPPER CORNICE WITH A TIN ROOF

For buildings of a first-class character, there is a growing demand for copper

cornices, in many cases the roof being of tile or concrete. In some instances, how-
ever, the cornice maker is called upon to connect the copper cornice with a tin roof,
and all who have had experience with the use of copper in connection with tin
roofing plate are aware of the action
which takes place between the two metals
when exposed to the atmosphere, which
results eventually in destroying the tin

plate. It is remarkable how quickly

the tin plate can be destroyed on occa-
sion, though in some cases no disad-
vantage has resulted from the connec-
tion for a considerable time. In order
to prevent, as far as possible, the de-
struction of the tin plate, use an oil

burlap or canvas between the two

metals, as shown in the accompanying
view, Fig. 105.
Fig. 105. Sectional View Showing Method Make it a point to run the flashing
of Applying the Canvas
from the tin roof up behind the copper
for a considerable hightand fasten it securely to the battlement. This portion of
the tin work is given a heavy coat of good paint. Over this is placed a piece of
oiled canvas running up above the tin flashing and extending down on the roof so
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 7*7

that the copper of the cornice cannot possibly come in contact with it. After the
oiled canvas is in place it is also given a coat of paint and the copper work fastened
to the battlement in a secure manner. It has been proved by experience that the
use of the oiled canvas, even in other methods of connecting the tin and copper,
has greatly prolonged the life of the tin plate.

A FEW REMARKS ABOUT FLASHINGS

Flashings are of vital importance in roof construction. It is seldom that a leak

occurs in the clear body, or surface, of a roof, be it of tin, slate, tile, or composi-
tion. In most cases, the leaks are in connection with the flashings, or finish
around uprising walls, chimneys, pipes or other structures. To thoroughly describe
and illustrate all the various forms
of flashings would require so much
time and space that it will be neces-
sary to dismiss the subject with a
few general remarks upon princi-
ples.

The best material for use in flash-

ings is sheet lead ;
the next is cop-
per, then zinc, tin and galvanized
iron, in the order named. The
same piece of flashing should never

be attached to both roof and wall. The flashing should be in two parts—namely,
the “ under flashing, ” which is lapped on and nailed, locked or soldered to the
roof and turned up against the wall or rising surface, and the cap flashing, ”

which is built in, let in or secured to rising wall or surface, and which laps down
over the upturned part of the under flashing.
The reason for avoiding the use of flashing made of one piece, permanently
attached to both roof and wall, is that the uneven settling of the roof and wall, or

the relative difference in the expansion and contraction of the roof and wall, will
inevitably injure the connection between the flashings and the wall, or the roof, as
it is strained between the two contending forces; whereas, if the flashing is in two.

parts, one attached to the roof and the other to the wall, and connected by an
 718 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

adjustable lap only, ample provision is made for the independent movement of
both roof and wall without injury to the flashing.
The hight of flashing and the depth it should extend in the wall are matters
of latitude. What would be a matter of first-class flashing in New Orleans would
prove entirely inadequate in Boston. Ignoring wind, a Southern roof seldom has
anything more serious to take care of than rain water, the gutters and conductors,
being free of obstruction, allowing the water to drain off as fast as it falls ;
whereas,
a Northern roof is liable to have its outlets clogged with ice, and water to accumu-
late until the roof is, in effect, a small lake. Or snow will drift and ice form at the
junction of the roof and the wall, forming obstructions that will lead the water over
the top of the under flashing, if it does not extend well up against the wall.
In New England, the winter rains are driven, or soak, entirely through exposed
12-inch walls if the bricks are not of good material and thoroughly burned. The
writer knows of a number of instances in Boston where it was necessary to entirely

cover exposed party walls with tin, from the ground to the roof, the tin being laid
‘ ’

flat lock, secured with cleats, and the sheets laid ‘

diamond style, ’
leaving the seams
at an angle of 45 degrees, as shown in Fig. 106, thus avoiding all vertical seams.
The method of providing for the water that soaks into an ordinary wall that is

exposed to a considerable sweep of the wind and is pierced by an opening for a bay
window is shown in Fig. 107, the opening being spanned by I-beams which carry
the wall. In addition to the flashing shown, copper pans of the same length as
the beams, about 1 inch wider than the thickness of the wall and 2 inches deep,
are seton the top of the beams and the wall is built in the pan. Drains are pro-
vided at each end of the pan to carry off the water as it soaks through the wall into
the pan. But for these pans the ceiling of the bay window would, in wet weather,
be constantly dripping when the direction of the wind is such as to drive the rain
against the wall.
On high grade jobs such as churches, under the copings and sills of the win-
dows, etc., it is advisable to place copper, inasmuch as, in the majority of cases,

these sills, coping and the like are of a porous stone permitting the percolation of
water which often times finds its way into the building, giving the impression that
the roof leaks and entailing an expensive controversy between either the architect
or the owner, and the roofing contractor. It is, however, well to bear in mind
that, unless cap flashing was built in during the construction of the wall, even, in
which case it would be advisable to see that the joint is thoroughly cemented, the
paintskinning of the joint should be done with extreme care, packing it in until
it oozes out.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 719

COPPER FLASHING ON THE MODERN

FIREPROOF BUILDING

On modern fireproof buildings the roof is either supported on terra cotta or

reinforced concrete arches. A cinder concrete fill is placed on these arches ;

and
as arches are level throughout, this fill is graded to the outlets.

Fig. 108 . Copper Flashing on the Modem Fireproof Building

On this fill five ply, more or less, of waterproofing is applied. Then the
copper flashing C, Fig. 108, is fitted and nailed in place. As the cap flashing I) was
built in the wall it is necessary to raise it a little, so that base flashing C may be
slipped under the cap flashing. This cap flashing is dressed back with a piece of

smooth board about a foot long and nailed to another stick for a handle, which is

used like a mallet. It is to be noted that the edge G of the cap flashing is turned
the cap to wall and is required on most
upward in the wall; this secures

public buildings.
The waterproofing men lay a felt strip, swabbing it with tar, over the nails of

the base flashing at E and coat entire roof with a generous amount of tar.
 J2Q Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

Bricklayers can now lay the flat tile roof H in this manner. They first spread
the cement (sand and Portland cement) over a small area, then, just as in brick-
laying, they set their tiles. After all the tiles have been laid a thin grout of
cement is broomed over the tiles filling in the joints.

FLASHINGS FOR SLATE OR SHINGLE ROOFS

In Fig. 109 A is the roof surface, B the side or gable wall and C D the half
round hanging gutter, which last should be flashed up under the shingles or slates
at least 8 inches, as indicated by the dotted line E F, and against the end of the
gable wall, as at G. A corner flashing should be joined to G and E E, as shown
by the dotted line E 1
,
on the side of the wall. This being done, the braces H
I, etc., are fastened to the front of the gutter and screwed to the roof board.

Fig. 109. Putting in Step and Counter or Clap

Flashing for Shingle or Slate Roof

The or shingler then lays his eave course, the tinner furnishing
slater
him
with shingle flashings, which are made of tin and painted before
being applied.
They are to be bent up 2 % inches on each and
than the
side in length 2
% inches more
slates or shingles are laid to the weather.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 721

The shingle flashing is laid on the eave course and over the same. The courses
are then laid in order, the flashings being put in with every course, as indicated by
X X, etc., or as is better shown at J, which illustrates the flashing overlapping the
previous flashing K, the bottom O of the flashing J running within ^ inch of the
bottom line of the slate or shingle R.

When the roof has been covered the tinner puts on the counter or cap flash-
ing L M, flashing into the joints of the brick work and continued around the end
of the brick wall P, overlapping the shingle and gutter flashings. If desired the cap
flashing can be made in small pieces, having seams at a and b, which saves material.
Fig. 110 shows the flashing just arovnd a chimney or other structure passing
through the roof, where the covering is slate, tile or shingle. This method also
applies to metal roofs, with the exception that the flashing is locked and soldered
on the metal roofing, while in this case it is flashed over and under the roof cover-
ing of slate or shingle.

Referring to the diagram, AB and C the last

represents the line of the roof,
course of slate or shingle, butting against the bottom of the chimney. The flash-
ing D is now put in, the lower flange being made wide enough to cover the nail
heads, and the top is flanged into the joints of the brick work. The roof covering
being continued, the side flashing E is put in, using shingle and cap flashing, in
the same manner as described in connection with Fig. 109.
When the back of the chimney is reached a cant board or saddle is put in by
the carpenter, in order to throw the water to either side. This board is then cov-
ered with metal, as shown by H K, stepping into the brick joints and flanging up-
ward on the roof at least 18 inches above the top of the saddle K, to prevent any
leaks resulting from a snow storm. A chimney in a roof, as illustrated, always
J2.2, Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

forms a pocket when the snow slides ;

and if the flange F J L is not carried high
enough the snow in melting will suck under the flashing and cause a bad leak.
A valley is put in on a pitched roof, the covering of which is not of metal as
shown in Fig. 110, A and B representing the roof surface; D and E, the gutter,
flanged on the roof 8 in. and F G the valley, flanging 7 in. on the roof each
side, and having a water lock or drip H and I. The valley is laid from the bottom
up, overlapping the gutter flanges, as at H and I, if it is laid in lengths as is usual

say from 8 to 10 ft. the joint should be overlapped 2 in. as at J K, running the
valley to the top of the ridge. Care must be taken in fastening the valley not to
nail through it. Otherwise a leak will occur. Cleats should be used as at L, so
that when the slates or shingles are laid over the valley and the water flows down
the lock prevents the water from going sideways and causing a leak, whereas if

nails were driven direct into the valley a leak would occur at once.

PLACING BLOCKS ON ROOFS TO WHICH ARE FASTENED

PLATFORMS, BRACING RODS, ETC.

In Fig. 112 is shown a piece of joist called blocks, covered with tin or other
metal, the joist being cut to any desired bight. In this case it is 3 X4, and 8 inches
in hight. A flange 1 inch in width projects all around the bottom of block, as

shown in Fig. 112, and is used to solder water tight to the roof. The dotted line

shown at the side at B, and top at A, indicates how the laps are placed, and over
the top of the laps, as shown at A, a piece of metal is soldered water tight. These
blocks are now set in their proper positions on the metal roof, say about 6 feet
apart, and soldered water tight to the tin or galvanized iron roof. This keeps the
water from soaking under the block and rusting out the metal roof. After all of

the blocks have been properly placed, cross joists are set on top of same. Then
spruce strips of 1)4 X3 inches in thickness are nailed at right angles to the cross
joists not over 2 inches apart. In making the platform it should be made in such
sections that it can be easily removed in case the roof needs repairing or painting.
If the roof was very large quite a number of blocks would be required, and as there
may be some objection to the expense of covering the blocks, Fig. 113 shows how
the covering could be avoided. A in Fig. 113 represents the wooden block of the
same size as shown in Fig. .112. If the wooden blocks were set direct upon the
 ,

Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 7a3

tin or galvanized iron roofs it would be found after each rain, even after the roof
was dry, that itwould be quite wet between the wooden block and metal roof,
because the air could not circulate, and in time the tin or galvanized iron would be
rusted through. Therefore, to avoid the rusting of the tin or galvanized iron,
and still not cover the blocks, proceed as follows: In Fig. 113 B represents
a piece of 18 ounce sheet copper tinned on both sides, projecting 2 to 3 inches all
around the entire block, as shown in Fig. 113, and is then soldered water tight to
the roof. On top of this sheet copper the wooden block is set. The water soaking
between the wooden block and sheet copper would have no effect in destroying the
copper, as would be the case if placed direct upon the tin or galvanized iron, as
before explained. The sheet copper is tinned on both sides, so as to avoid any

electrical action between the two metals that would eventually destroy the tin or

galvanized iron.
The method first described is often used as a means to fasten stay rods, etc.

for various purposes, such as a brace for signs, smoke stacks, and the like.

A block is first nailed to the roof and then covered as explained, and then the
rod is secured to the top of this block in a bed of white lead.
In many cases on steep roofs there is a chimney at the eaves ;
and to provide

a perfect draft, the chimney is built quite high — sufficiently so, to have its top
above the ridge of the roof. In this case the chimney is braced by passing a
wrought iron belt around it, about midway, and guyed to the roof with stiff rods.

The rods are higher at the roof end than at the chimney and are simply flashed
with sheet metal for, say a distance of six inches, inasmuch as any water on the
rod would flow away from the roof.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns
7 a4

SHEET LEAD FOR ROOF FLASHINGS

A knowledge of how to properly handle sheet lead is of considerable value to

any roofer who has anything to do with the work on many of the artistic suburban
and country homes now being built. Flashings are necessary, but when unduly
prominent are objectionable features in the architecture of a building, and the
nature of lead is such that it can be satisfactorily used where harder metals can not
with any degree of neatness, as on a round tower, for instance.
Straggling, prominent flashings and aprons which attract the eye to various
chimneys, instead of to the more important parts of the house, are not likely to

Fig. 114. Unattractive and Conspicuous Appearance Fig. 115.Neat and Inconspicuous Appearance of
of Lead Flashings Let Into Irregular Joints Lead Flashings Let Into Groove in Stonework
m Stonework
meet with favor from the owner or designer, however well they may serve their
purpose. The use of lead will often make all the difference between success and
failure in getting a desired effect.

The workman who has not had an opportunity of learning how to handle this
material, however, will probably not be any more successful than if he had used tin.
This may be seen in the job shown in Fig. 114, which is a tower on a church
recently built, with lead flashings around it put on in such a manner that they are
the most prominent features of the roof. The roof is of red tile and the stone of
tower is laid in irregular courses, the blocks being of somewhat large size.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 7 a5

The flashings have been put on piece by piece with the sections of tile, and the
upstands have been fixed into the .nearest vertical and horizontal joints. These
being at irregular hights and sometimes 12 to 14 in. above the roof, give the
whole job a patchy appearance. The battered and wrinkled lead at the corners,
due to inexperience of the man who laid it, does not make it look any better, and
this part contrasts unfavorably with the excellent workmanship on the rest of the
building. By laying the lead on the plan shown in Fig. 115 a much superior job
would have been obtained, and it would have been inconspicuous. The nature of
the building stone will not always admit of turning the upstands into cut grooves
or “raglets,” but in this case it would.
Where a very hard stone is used the upstands are sometimes set up as shown
in Fig. 11G and fixed with spikes to convenient joints. The head turned on the
upstand about 1 in. from the upper edge provides a rest for the cement pointing,
and this also covers the spikes used in fastening.

In laying lead flashings, as shown in Fig. 115, the lead is cut into strips of the
desired width, say 12 in., and dressed flat on a smooth plank. A groove or raglet
about 1 in. deep and % in. wide having been cut in the stonework 5 in. up from
the roof, and the point under the cap stone having been cleaned out to a similar
depth, work is commenced at the eaves and carried upwards.
A bead is turned on the side of the strip of lead by dressing over the straight
edge of a plank. This is shown at B in Fig. 1 17. This is to fit into the joint and
raglets, so that a water-tight joint will be made when pointed and also to provide

fastening. Whatever hight may have been decided on or is necessary, 5 in. more
or less below this head, the lead is dressed over and carried to its position, where it
is carefully dressed into place and the head set back in its groove. It is there

firmly fastened by driving the lead wedges in and calking them. The wedges may
be made from strips of lead tightly rolled, and about 1 in. wide.

V. ‘ "
’
Pig. 116 Fig. 117 Fig. 118
DETAIL OF FORMING LEAD FLASHINGS
The side flashing is turned up about 1 in. on reaching the breast of the tower
by beating up the lead into a “corner.” The breast flashing is set up similar to
the side flashing except that it is not turned over square, but to suit the pitch of
 7^6 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

the roof. Then at the cap-stone end turned up 5

and another outside corner
it is in.

worked on it. When this has been completed and squared up neatly to fit the
angle the piece is fastened in position. It must be allowed to project from 5 to 7
in. by the tower and a portion of the upstand is cut as shown at A in Fig. 1 18 to

admit of being dressed closely down.

The tower side flashing then put on in a similar manner and stopped at the
is

floor of the gutter behind the tower. It can also be laid in the manner shown in
Figs. 117 and 119. This is fitted under the tile and has a roll formed about
or slate
3 or 4 in. from the wall, which prevents the water from the gutter spreading.
This side flashing 3 in Fig. 119, comes out on top of the tile or slate at the breast line
of the tower and continues to the lower edge of the breast flashing as cover, the roll

Fig. 119. Flashing at Top Fig. 120. Flashing at Bottom Fig. 122. Pattern of Flashing

4 being stopped at the line and the lead beaten down over a rounded end as
of stone
shown in Fig. 120. The upstand is worked around the face of the tower about
3 in. and neatly trimmed off. Before working this upstand it should be cut as
shown by the dotted line in Fig. 120. This allows it to come down with less
chance of thinning and tearing the lead.
The upper end of this flashing is finished by beating the roll down flat at the
level of the gutter floor or a little above it, and the lead in the gutter is allowed to
project so that when beaten down it will make a complete cover across the flat part
of the side flashing. This corner must also be cut out before commencing to beat
it down, leaving sufficient to cover well the vertical part when it has been beaten
back. The corner must be kept round until it is almost completed, then it can be
squared up, care being taken to avoid tearing.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 727

The upper edge of the lead in the gutter on the roof side should be set up half
an inch and a fillet of wood of triangular section nailed behind it to carry the
weight of the tile or slate. The tile may fit closely over the roll on the side flash-
ing, or if slate is used a fillet nailed down the side will tilt the slates and butt the
edges against the roll, leaving a clear waterway from the gutter.

The wall upstand of the gutter may be turned into the raglet if not very long,
or an apron may be fitted over it and fixed in the same manner. This is to allow
of movement in expansion and contraction. Binding firmly on all sides will lead
to trouble through the permanent enlargement of the metal by expansion forming
bulges and, eventually, cracks.
A chimney might have each end dressed down to a side flash-
gutter behind a
ing as shown or have one end open and the other set up against a wall or stone cap
as in this case. This entails the working of two outside corners on the gutter and
the method of doing so may be briefly explained here. The lead having been
marked off at the correct floor lines of the gutter, is setup to its proper angle.
On setting up the end upstand two wide pig ears are formed as shown in Fig.
121. Holding a pear-shaped mallet inside the pig ear the lead is gradually drawn
up from the corner. A round dresser or bossing stick is used for this, the strokes

tending upward to draw the lead up and outward to dispense with the extra thick-
ness caused by contracting the lead at the angle. Keep the corner round until the
correct pitch has been gained. Only when it has reached this must it be squared up.
To work an inside corner cut the lead as shown in Fig. 122 and use the round
dresser with inward tending strokes, as the tendency is for the lead to thin and tear at
the corner. Draw the lead towards the corner by bulging out the upstand and
dressing towards the corner against a flat piece of wood, and do not attempt to
square the angle until it has been worked into the correct position. Do not rush,
either, too much, as nothing will be gained, and do not let the lead form into
wrinkles. Dress these out immediately if they appear.
Nails should never be driven through lead where exposed to the weather, as
the lead soon loosens up around them. Where flashings lap, tails should be left on

the lower sheet when trimming and dressed over the upper to prevent blowing up.
Use clips for fasteners instead of nails, and use only wooden tools to work lead, as

a hammer will cut into and seriously impair its life.

Lead of fair weight, 5 or 6 lb., will last a very long time if properly laid, as it

is practically proof against corrosion from acids contained in soot, etc. ,

and quickly
forms an oxydized surface that effectually protects it from the influence of the

weather.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

COPPER SIDING FOR PENT HOUSES

On practically every building of fireproof construction there are on the roof

smaller structures known as bulkhead or pent houses for the housing of elevator
machinery, tanks, etc. Perhaps one or two additional stories are built above the
roof line of the building proper and the pent-house method of construction is em-
ployed by reason of the lightness of material, as it adds but the minimum of weight
to the steel structure and foundation.

- Terno cotta Nocks.

foot of eve
I
mowing ..

- Edge of channel iron

fkahmg-8

Section on V-W

Section on S-T

Fig. 128. Details of Copper Biding for a Pent House

The scheme of construction makes use of a structural steel framework, with

terra cotta blocks for the walls. To prevent the ingress of the elements, sheet

metal is utilized for exterior finish. As this is a story of the siding, the many de-
tails of eave finish, flashing, etc., may be passed over, except to say the eave gen-
erally has some sort of cornice molding, perhaps just a molded hanging gutter.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 729

The sheet metal contractor has nothing to do with the structural details, but as
it is practically impossible to attach the siding to the terra cotta blocks, he should
reason with the architect and insist on a proper surface and wood grounds to nail
cleats to, Fig. 123. The modern method of obtaining a true surface is to secure
boards to the terra cotta at the base of the wall for the flashing B, which connects
with the main roof of the building.
A board at the lock of the eave molding A, together with a furring strip
ground, is provided as shown. The furring strip grounds are spaced about 2 feet
from base to eave to nail cleats to for holding the siding. The entire surface is
plastered flush with the wood grounds. Likewise around all windows and doors a
board is fastened as indicated by C, to which is attached the sheet metal casing.
There is a similar provision at corners of pent houses.
As it is usually imperative to make buildings weather tight as quickly as pos-
sible, the flashing, eave moldings, etc., are set long before the siding, for this can
be done when the need of the other work is not so pressing. Hence to facilitate
the applying of the siding a pocket is made in the bottom of eave molding, as at A.
The siding is cut to average 18 inches from seam to seam. This seam is the single
and double standing edge style as shown At F F
at F. is a horizontal section of
the seam to show the cleat H nailed to woodground G.
When the siding connects with the window or door casing, it has a single
edge as at J. At all pockets, A and K, an edge is bent on the siding the same
width as the standing seam. At the flashing B and at the top of windows or doors
a %-inch edge is turned out and soldered to the flashing, as shown, for example,
at the top of windows or doors at M. The siding over windows and doors is

erected after casings are put on. The siding is crimped to obviate buckles as much
as possible, while the casing is plain metal. When siding up to windows and doors
has been erected, the casing is fitted and put in place, beginning with the sill, then
the sides and last the top. The sill is soldered and also the miters D. Carpenters
can now renail into place the hanging stile E. The windows and doors are of

wood covered with copper or perhaps hollow metal.

If it is desired that no nails show as at J, for instance, then the method shown
at N can be employed ;
also the double seam, as in tin roofing, can be used for
siding having cleats to keep the siding in place.
If the hight from the roof flashing to the eave pocket is such as to require a
cross seam in the siding, the flat seam like that used in flat-seam tin roofing is

used and soldered on the back before erecting.

 73 ° Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

FLASHING LARGE SMOKE STACKS AND FLAG POLES

The method of flashing large smoke stacks and flag poles, etc., is shown in
Fig. 124, where A B represents the roof, C the smoke pipe, DD the roof flange, and
EE the vertical collar soldered to the roof flange around b C. Care should be
taken that the collar is a trifle larger than the pipe, which allows the pipe to move
without breaking the joint between the collar and the flange. The hight of the
collar E at the highest point of the roof should be not less than 8 inches, and over-
lapping this collar a flaring apron, F F, is set, as shown, overlapping the collar
about 4 inches. To hold this apron in position a flange shown at a a rests on the
ring H H, which is made in two halves from 3 - 16 X 1 inch band iron, as shown in

Fig. 125, in which the inner circle represents the pipe, around which the ring HH
is bolted at J J. This ring should be made a trifle smaller than the pipe, so that

H
Fig. 124. Method of Flashing Fig. 125. The Ring Fig. 120. Method of Obtaining Roof Range

when the flaring apron is placed inside of same, and the bolts fastened, it will

secure the flange of the apron tightly against the pipe. Before fastening the band
roofing cement is placed between the apron flange, band iron ring and pipe, which
makes a tight job when the bolts are fastened.
The method of obtaining the opening in the roof flange D D, in Fig. 124, is
shown in Fig. 125, which can be accomplished without the use of a draughting
board, as follows: First draw the line A B equal to the slant opening 6 C in Fig.
124. A B in Fig. 126 and obtain a. Through a draw the vertical line C
Bisect
D, making a C and a D each equal to one-half the horizontal distance E C, in Fig.
124. Take the distance B a, in Fig 126, in the dividers, and with C as center inter-
sect BA at F and E, through which points drive a nail as shown. Fasten the
ends of a piece of spool wire to the nails, making the loop as long, so that when a
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 73 1

pencil or prick punch draws the wire taut the point will meet C. With the pencil
G in position describe the ellipse as shown. Allow 8 in. around the ellipse for the
flange D D, in Fig. 124, which acts as a roof flashing.

PATTERN FOR A ROOF FLANGE

In the accompanying illustration, Fig. 127, are shown the principles employed
in obtaining a roof flange for a round pipe, the roof having an angle of 45 degrees.
In this connection it may be proper to remark that no matter what may be the
shape of the pipe, or what the pitch of the roof, the principles described are appli-

cable to any case, whether the flanges are made of copper, zinc, galvanized iron,
tin or sheet lead. Referring to the illustration, let A B represent the pitch of
the roof and C DE F the round pipe fitting on it. In its proper position above
the pipe place the profile, as shown, which divide into equal spaces, as indicated
by the small figures 1 to 5. From these small figures, at right angles to 1 5, drop
lines intersecting the roof line A B, as shown.
From these intersections and at right angles to AB draw lines indefinitely, as

shown. Now parallel to AB draw the line 1° 5°.

Now, measuring in each instance from the line 1 5 in the profile, take the var-
ious distances to points 2, 3 and 4 or 2', 3' and 4', and place them on similar num-
bered lines in the pattern, measuring in every instance from the line 1° 5°, thus
obtaining points 2, 3 and 4 or 2', 3' and 4'. A line traced through these points,
as shown by the shaded portion, will be the pattern for the opening to receive the
pipe. The width of the flange, however, will vary according to the style of roof in

use. If the roof is of metal, which allows soldering, a flange of 2 inches all around
is sufficient, while if the roof is slate, tile or shingle an 8-inch flange is usually
made. The flange is obtained by simply setting the dividers to the desired width
and scribing around the opening, as is shown by GH I J.

For the pattern for the pipe mitering on the roof A B, extend the line DE of

the pipe, as shown by D K, upon which place the stretchout of the profile of the

pipe, as shown by the small figures on D K, at right angles to which and from
these small figures draw lines indefinitely, as shown, which intersect with lines
drawn at right angles to E F from intersections on A B. A line traced through
intersections thus obtained, as shown by L M N 0, will be the desired pattern, the
 73 2 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

seam being placed on E F to avoid leakage. In diagram P is shown the method

of flanging the pipe and flange. R R shows the edge turned upward on the flange,
3

while S S shows the edge turned outward on the pipe. The flange and pipe fit

snugly and are then

‘
‘sweated’ ’
with solder, as shown by T T, which completes
the job

COLLAR AND FLANGE FOR SMOKE STACK

There are various methods of constructing the connection between a smoke

stack and roof. It is, of course, necessary to make the connection weather proof,
but in addition to this it should permit of ventilation or provide for a circulation of
air between the hot stack and the roof boards. There should be no rigid oonnec-
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns
733
tion between the stack and roof, as the vibration of the stack would break seams
and cause leaks. The opening in the roof should be at least 8 inches larger in
diameter than the stack if the roof is of wood construction.

Fig. 129 Fig. 132

CONSTRUCTING THE CONNECTION BETWEEN A SMOKE STACK AND A ROOF

Fig. 128 shows a sectional side view of a verygood form of connection. Fig.
129 is a section on A A, Fig. 130, a section on B B and Fig. 133 a section on
 734 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

C C. Fig. 128 shows a stack piercing a slate covered roof, in which case the roof
flange can finish with simple raw edges, as indicated in Fig. 129. This also holds
good in the case of a shingle or tile roof, except that in the latter case the flange

should be fluted to conform to the profile of the tiles. If the roof is covered with
tar and gravel the edges of the roof flange should be finished with a gravel stop, as
indicated in Fig. 131. If the roof is covered with tin the flange should be pro-
vided with simple lock edges and be joined to the roofing as indicated by Fig. 132
and the seam soldered.
The roof collar should be double seamed and soldered to the roof flange, as in-
dicated at the broken section, Fig. 128. The roof collar and flange is made in
halves to allow placing it around the stack, and when the roof is covered with slate,
shingle or tile, and consequently has considerable pitch, the two sections of the

collarand flange can be joined as indicated in Fig. 129, cleats a a being riveted to
the lower half of the collar and the upper half locked around same as shown.
Ample lap should be allowed between the upper and lower halves of the roof flange
and collar. The slate, shingle or tile work should be finished up as far as the
lower half of the flange will extend and the latter then placed in position over the
roof covering, The upper half of the flange is then put in position and the roofing
laid thereon. If the roof is flat cleats a a should be omitted and the joint in the
roof collar well riveted and soldered, the lap joint of the roof flange also being well
soldered. The roof collar should project at least 12 inches above the roof at its
upper side, and when the stack is large the upper edge of the collar should be
stiffened with an iron band b, made in two parts and bolted in place after the col-

lar is in place.

The stack flange and stack collar should be joined as indicated in the broken
sectional view of Fig. 128, and also made in halves and connected as shown in Fig.

133. The small gutter crimp c takes care of any water that may drive in between
the laps. The length of the stack collar is entirely dependent on the location of
the most available joint in the smoke stack. This joint should be opened up with
a cold chisel, so that the upper end of the stack collar can be inserted under same.
The stack collar and flange can be drawn tight around the stack by bolts d, so that

it will not be likely to slip down but ;

for large stacks a few lugs ( one of which
is indicated in dotted lines) should be riveted to the collar and secured by wires to
the joint in the stack. Holes can be made in the outer thickness of this joint by
driving a punch up underneath same and then using a cape chisel on the outside.

In the case of wood wood

roof construction a lining collar for protecting the
should be inserted through the roof boards into the roof collar and project downward
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 735
below the bottom edge of the rafters. This completely shields all wood work around
the stack. In no case should any wood work be allowed within 4 inches of the
stack, and when the roof is low and near the boiler there should be at least 6 inches
of clear space all around the stack.

The gauge of metal to be used is dependent upon the size of stack, temperature,
etc.,but generally the roof collar and flange should be of No. 20 gauge galvanized
iron and the stack collar and flange of No. 18 gauge. For small stacks, where the
collar is located at a considerable bight above the boiler, lighter material can be used.

ROOF FLANGES FOR SOIL OR VENT PIPES

The base sheet should be large enough to give ample flashing all around and
should be designed to suit the roofing material. On first-class work the flange
should be of copper, but occasionally for some patterns of tile used for roofing lead
will be found easier to work, as it can be formed into the depressions in the tile

better than any other material and will lay closer.

The size should be ample but vary

to suit the roofing material. A metal
roof, affording a surface to solder the
base plate to, will require a smaller
flange than any other roofing material.
A slate, a shingle or a paper roof will
require a larger flange and a tile roof
will require a still larger. In every
instance the roofer should be consulted
if possible, and on new work, if he is

on the job and will make a reasonable

price for the work, he should be engaged
to do it, as his contract generally requires
him to guarantee all roofing for a fixed
period of time, and unless he does
this work he cannot under his guar-
antee be made responsible for it.
Fig. 184. Roof Flange for Short Stacks rpl n should ,
The collar
.
. . . u ,
be double seamed
into the base flange, and the seam heavily soldered on the outside. The vertical
73 6 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

seam of the collar should be on the lower side of the pipe, so the water from the
roofing above the pipe will not run against the seam. The collar should be enough
larger than the pipe to allow same to slide through easily. In making it the collar
should be about % in. larger in diatneter, or % in. larger in circumferenc, than the
outside of the pipe of which it is to go outside, for it will be found that if this allow-

ance is not made the double seaming of the collar to the flange loses some of the
clear opening and will cause the collar to bind if it is not made large. There
should be no binding whatever and the collar should drop over the pipe and slide
down into place of its own eight. Absolute freedom is necessary because the expan-
sion and contraction of the pipe is always causing it to move up and down, and if

the pipe is long this movement is considerable. The settling of the building, or of
the rafters, or the shrinkage of the roof timbers and floor joists often cause an inch
or more of a variation. In either contingency a flange fitting the pipe tightly is

almost sure to cause trouble by buckling and cracking, breaking the seam where
the collar joins the flange or by breaking the roofing material.
The collar should be at least 12
SOU Pifit in. high, and 18 in. would be better,
LASFtC C£MEUT Fig. 134. The above method pro-
vides a practical and not very expen-
'vjjfjfl CAP ( TAPCMNG PART ) sive way of making a tight connection
at the roof, and the connection to keep

the water from getting down into

the building between the collar

and the pipe is simple, especially

if it is not necessary to run the pipe
more than 2 or 3 ft. above the roof.

A cap should be made % or %

in. larger in circumference than the
collar and long enough to reach from
a point 6 •
in. lower than the top of
the collar to the top of the pipe.
This is nothing more or less than a
piece of round metal leader with a
grooved seam. Then a sleeve 2 or 3
Fig. 185. Roof Flange for Tall Stacks
in. long should be formed of sheet
metal into a cylinder just a little larger than the inside of the pipe which
passes through the roof. This should be put into the pipe and opened up
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 737
aa much as possible until it fits snugly and is tight inside the pipe, and then the
seam should be soldered.
A circle should be cut of metal large enough to have a burr turned all around
the outside edge and then leave it the proper size to snap onto the cap and be
soldered. Then cut a hole in this circle just slightly larger than the inside diame-
ter of the soil pipe. Turn a % -in. edge out square all around on one end of the
little made to fit into the soil pipe, drop it through the hole in the circle
sleeve
and solder it. Then the cap dropping down over the soil pipe is held snugly in
place by the inner sleeve and the lower end laps down over the collar, forming a
cap flashing that is water tight but which will allow free play to the pipe and the
collar.

Of course, if the pipe must extend too far above the roof to make the above
cap impracticable, some other arrangement must be made. The best would be to
make the lower 8 in. of the cap the same as described above and then to double
seam to this a tapering piece about 5 or 6 in. long with only enough taper to make
it just the size of the outside of the pipe at a point 1 in. below the top of this
tapering piece, Fig. 185. Then run it through the thick edge and form a slight
depression clear around it and 1 % in. below the top edge.
From this depression to the top edge stretch the metal gently on the conductor
stake or on a piece of pipe with a hammer until it is parallel with the lower straight
piece of the cap. It should fit the pipe snugly.
If it cannot be soldered to the pipe a metal band of 3-16X1 in. galvanized
steel should be made to go around the top flange of the cap, formed to fit snugly
with both ends turned out square and so that they will have a space of % in. (or

% in. if the pipe is very large ) between them. There should be a hole in each to
take a bolt used in drawing the band tight to the pipe. To place the cap, drop it

down over the pipe and over the collar of the flange to the proper position.

It should not have the top edge of the straight piece at the bottom of the cap

closer than 1 in. to the top of the collar of the flange and 2 in. would be safer.

Force cement down between the flange of the cap and the pipe, put on the
elastic

band, screw it up tight and then put elastic cement over the top and against the
pipe and smooth it off with the cement beveled away from the pipe.
This connection allows absolute freedom of the pipe within the collar and of
the collar within the cap, and is a perfect method except for the joint where the
top flange of the cap hugs the pipe, but if this is properly and carefully made it

should never give any trouble.

If the vent pipe does not extend very far above the roof and lead is required,
 73 * Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

this flange is made by forming a pipe of sheet lead slightly larger than vent pipe
and with one end trimmed to suit pitch of roof and long enough to dress into vent
pipe as shown by Fig. 136. This sleeve is soldered to a suitable base sheet.
A good method for screw pipe vents is to have a coupling reamed which
covers the sleeve. Fig. 137 illustrates this method. This coupling is screwed
on after flange has been set. It is best to make —say cold
this flange of stiff metal

rolled copper. A popular manner of making the roof tight around vent pipes is

shown by Fig. 138. The top of the hub of the soil pipe is almost flush with the roof
and before calking the upper joint of vent pipe in this a sheet of lead with a hole
cut out considerably smaller than the hub is dressed in the hub.
The usual way for roofers to make these flanges is as illustrated in Fig. 139.
Though this is not recommended it is used more than any other method. A hole
is cut in a piece of metal, for the base, somewhat larger than vent pipe, and the
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 739

shape of the hole is guessed at. If impossible to drop this base piece over the top
of pipe it is slit in the front. Previous to doing this an edge is hammered up, on
the coping stone generally as shown. A tapering piece of sheet metal pipe is fitted

around this flangeand pipe and a mark made on the seam. It is taken from pipe
seam tacked with solder on the mark and an edge hammered out as shown. Then
this collar is placed around the pipe again and while held tightly against pipe seam
it soldered, also collar soldered to base, and to vent pipe. If it cannot be soldered
to vent pipe it is paintskinned.

TINNING EDGES OF COPPER SHEETS FOR ROOFING

When laying a flat seam copper roof of either soft or cold rolled copper it is

necessary to have the edges tinned about 1 % inches around the entire sheet on
both sides, so that when soldering the sheets the solder will be thoroughly
“sweated” into the seam. While this can be done at the mill, or with the sol-

dering coppers, a much cheaper and thoroughly practical method will be shown

PLAN

Fig. 143. Plan and Elevation

of Burner Enlarged

herewith by which the sheets can be tinned to any required width, of any size, by
any bright boy. When ordering sheet copper for this purpose a mistake is often
made by taking large sheets and cutting them to the required size. This ad.ds time
and labor to the job which is not necessary, because the sheets can be ordered
direct from the mill of the size and number required.
Assuming that this has been done, the first step required before tinning the
edges is to notch the corners off the sheets, the same as in tin roofing. The scrap
 ,

74° Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

from the copper sheets will then bring full price when sold for copper scrap, while
if the sheets are tinned first the scrap is covered with tin and brings less money and
uses more tin. When the sheets are all notched they are ready for the tinning,
which is accomplished as follows :

First construct a wooden box of 1-inch stuff, of the dimensions shown in Fig.

140, or large enough to admit the size sheet in use. This box is then lined out with
cold rolled copper, flanging and nailing along the top edge of the box. If the

sheets are to be tinned around the edges to a distance of 1 % inches, fill the box
with muriatic acid to a hight of 1 % inches, into which place zinc clippings, which
will start the acid “boiling,” the proper quantity of zinc being known when the acid
stops “boiling.” Care should be taken, in putting the zinc in the acid, not to add
too much at a time, otherwise the
‘
‘boiling,
’
’
will be so violent that the acid will run

over and be Only small quantities of zinc should be put in the acid at a time,
lost.

and when consumed more should be placed in until the acid stops “boiling.” This
is known as the “acid bath.”
For the heavy sheet metal pan, say of No. 16 black sheet
tin bath construct a

iron, with wire edges, the comers constructed the same as in a drip pan, with addi-

tional rivets in the laps, and of the size shown in Fig. 141, or large enough to
admit the sheet in use. This pan should be made tapering, so that when the tin
becomes cold the pan can be tipped and contents removed. A general view
showing the use of this pan is shown in Fig. 142, in which are also shown the
arrangements by which the tin is melted by gas. If desired pure tin need not be
employed, but a mixture of 50 per cent, tin and 50'per cent, lead can be used. The
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 74 1

arrangement of the gas and pan support is as follows : Let CC in elevation be the
bench or any other support, shown in section by C1 and D D in elevation two pieces ,

of joist as long as shown by D' in section, upon which the two iron brackets E E

in elevation are fastened, as shown by F F in section. These brackets are made

from 1/4 inch band iron, bent so as to receive the pan, and of sufficient hight,
as shown by E 1
in section, to allow the burners to go under. The pan G in eleva-
tion, or G 1
in section, is placed into the brackets, as shown, the wire edges keeping
the pan rigid at the top. The pan G should be always filled with molten tin to a
1

hight of 134 inches, as shown by H, always placing in a bar of tin or mixture of

one-half tin and one-half lean, so as to keep the required 1}^ inches of metal in
the pan.
For the gas connection obtain from a gas fitter a piece of gas pipe of the
required length, as shown at J in elevation, with a stop-plug at K and a gas hose fitting
at L, or a stationary connection can be made with a stop-cock at M. Holes are then
tapped into the gas pipe and air burners having three tubes each are placed about 7
inches apart, as shown by O, O, 0, etc., and as shown in section by N. In Fig.
143 is shown an enlarged view of the burner, showing the air holes in the three
tubes at A in elevation, Avhile B shows the plan view of the tubes. It is possible,

though, to buy Bunsen burners complete.

When tinning the sheets the acid and tin baths are placed in convenient posi-
tions and the copper sheets placed in a position between them. Then two adjacent
edges only, of a sheet are immersed in the acid bath ;
holding the sheet with a
pair of tongs or protecting the hands with a heavy pair of gloves. Holding the
sheet a few seconds with the corner in a vertical position to allow the acid to drip
off, immerse it in the tin bath, leaving it in the bath a few seconds that the portion

which is to be tinned will have the same temperature as the molten tin ;
then tip

it slightly to allow the tin to run off toward the corners, and tin the other edge
in the same manner. The sheets are now laid on one pile, which allows them to

cool, when the other two edges are tinned. In this manner a boy can easily tin
300 sheets of 16X20 inch copper in a day. Care must be taken that the tin bath
has the right temperature, otherwise the dripping becomes cold on the edges of
the sheet and cannot be inserted into the roofing edger when edging. In case
some sheets have become dirty or stained and will not tin, immerse them
in raw muriatic acid first, then into boiled, then tin. When the sheets have
all been tinned they are edged or folded in the usual manner, and laid on
the roof by means of cleats, so as to allow for the expansion and contraction
of the metal.
74 * Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

REMARKS ON COPPER ROOFING

Copper is a material which nearly always gives satisfaction as a roofing material

when it is properly applied, and complaint is rarely made except where it is trace-
able to poor or careless workmanship. A few points to observe in using this
material are to take the utmost pains to provide for the expansion and contraction
of the metal, which has a greater latitude of expansion and contraction than any
other roofing material.
For this reason it is desirable wherever possible to have the roof put on with
the regular standing double seam, such as is used for tin roofing, using the wide
gauge tongs and seamers, or else have the roof put on with the sides of the sheets

turned up against wood ribs which are run up and down the roof and which are
then covered with strips of copper locked over the sheets on each side of the wood
rib and these seams malleted down against the ribs. Of course the sheets are
cleated to the ribs, and the finished rib, in section, then looks like the accom-
panying sketch, Fig. 144. A like finish is made against the hips and ridges.
All cross seams should be heavily tinned before the copper is put together in
rolls, preferably by dipping the end of the sheet into cut acid 34 in. ,
and then dipping
into melted solder about 2 in., leaving in for 5 or 10 sec. and then removing. A
slight shake should be given the end of the sheet to shake off just a little of the

surplus solder, but the remainder of the solder should be left on the sheet. When
this is done a good seam can be made, because when the seam is locked together
and closed down tight, preferably on a cross lock seamer, the solder left on the
ends of the sheets by this tinning operation is remelted when the seam is soldered
and makes it practically solid all the way through, whereas if the extra solder had
been brushed off or wiped off immediately after the tinning operation there would
not be enough left on the sheets to help make the joint solid, and it would have no
strength except that given it by what solder could be soaked into the seam
by the iron.
The upper sketch in Fig. 145 shows a seam made by the former method. The
seam is shown solid, with nothing to indicate which is the copper and which the
solder except the difference in the color. The lower sketch shows a typical seam
made where the solder soaked in by the iron is depended on. In the upper, with
a 34 in. lock, the solder has a bearing surface of 3 in. ,
while in the lower, with the
same size lock, there is a bearing surface of only 1 in., and that only at the point
where it is the hardest to resist the strain.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 743
If it is impossible on account of the roof not having sufficient pitch to use the
wood rib or the standing seam construction, a flat lock roof is necessitated and good
results can be obtained, but the sheets should be tinned along all edges by dipping
and leaving the solder on the sheets. The tin can be tinned on the ends of the
sheets, put up in rolls, and then have the edges tinned by dipping the rolls (rolled
loosely) in acid and then in the melted solder, leaving them in for 10 or 15 min.
so the edges will get hot enough to let the solder flow off the edges and not stick

them together. The roll should be shaken up and down to remove the surplus
solderand then quickly unrolled on a bench or the floor, or the edges will stick
when the solder gets •old. This method will be found much quicker than tinning
with a soldering iron.
To facilitate the handling of the rolls a wire should be slipped through the
hole in the center of the roll with a piece of rod or gas pipe through a loop at the
bottom end and with a loop at the top end, through which a piece of gas pipe or a
wood handle 0 or 8 ft. long can be slipped. A man and a helper pass the small
piece of pipe through the hole in the center of the roll, and after it is through turn

Fig. 144. Copper Roofing with Wooden Ribs Fig. 145. Soldered Seams in Copper Roofing

it at right angles with the roll. They then slip the gas pipe or wood handle through^
the upper loop, raise the roll, dip it into the acid and then set it down into the hot
solder, which is come up on the roll 2 in. It is left in there about
deep enough to

10 min., while the men are putting in one or two more rolls, or taking out one or
two others. They then remove it, giving it a few shakes over the solder to remove
the surplus metal, and then they quickly unroll it, and after it is cooled it is rerolled

and the operation repeated on the other edge.

In laying copper on the roof whether flat lock, standing seam or wood rib con-
struction is used, the copper should be secured only by cleats, never under any cir-
cumstances using nails driven through the copper, though it is permissible to use a

nail through the sheet at the top of a course on a steep roof to hold it in position

until the cleating and seaming is completed. In this case the nail should not be
driven down and should be pulled out and the hole soldered. The nail
tight
should not be driven down and soldered, as the sun will surely draw it up through
the solder, no matter how heavily it is soldered.
 I

744 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

If the roof is larger than 20 or 30 ft., either way expansion seams should be
put in. A regular standing seam might be put in, turned down, heavily soldered,
and then turned up again. Another point to observe is that when the roof is put
on during hot weather more attention should be paid to providing for the expan-
sion and contraction, especially to provide for the contraction, as that is what
breaks the seams. Contraction will put considerably more strain on a roof laid in
hot weather than on one put on in cold weather, because the expansion is at or

near the maximum when the roof is laid, so that it is rigidly fastened at all edges
the contraction will have its maximum effect. On the other hand, if the roof is

laid during very cold weather but little attention need be given to providing for
the contraction beyond seeing that no nails are driven through the sheets, as the
contraction being already at or near the maximum, it is plain that it will put no
strain on the sheets.

It is necessary to be careful that no buckles are formed in the sheets on the

roofs or in the valleys or gutters, as these will, from the extreme contraction and
expansion, soon cause the copper to break at the point of the buckle. The writer
has seen this trouble experienced a number of times, and great care should be taken
to avoid it. By tinning all seams heavily before sheets are put together, providing
for expansion and contraction, putting in expansion seams where necessary, solder-
ing all seams heavily with real half and half solder, and using cleats as the only
method of fastening, there should be no trouble in securing a good piece of work.
Some may object that the method outlined herein are too expensive, but the
writer can only say that copper being an expensive material no man is justified in

failing to use any precaution to secure a satisfactory and durable job, especially
when the extra cost of $1 or $2 a square forms such a small percentage of the total
cost of the roofing. On a tin roof, costing $5 to $8 a square, the matter of $1 or
$2 added to the cost would be serious, as it would be a handicap of from 20 to 40
per cent. ,
but on a copper roof, costing $35 to $50 a square, it is a comparatively
small handicap and one which is justified.

PRACTICAL TALKS ON ZINC ROOFING—

A roofing which has special advantages for covering light structures, inasmuch
as it can be laid on zinc without any boarding whatever beneath it, is what is

known as the “Italian corrugation.” It consists of sheets of the usual dimensions

with one central semi-circular corrugation longitudinally, and a curved lap at each
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 745

side. This stiffens the sheet, so that in the case of large spans, the principals and
framing may be lighter than usual, and, as a consequence, less in cost. The pur-
lins may be as much as 10 ft. apart, if desired. The patent embossed hole
and screw is very handy for fixing this style of corrugation in fact, the work in
;

connection with it is very little. Referring to the engravings, it may be stated

that in Fig. 146 is given a longitudinal elevation of a portion of the wooden roll A,
with the corrugation B, and laps C, which should be about 4 in. ;
D being the bossed

Fig. 146. Longitudinal Elevation of Fig. 147. Section Through Fig 148. Elevation Fig. 149. Section of
Wooden Roll Roll and Cap Drip for Common Drip for Common
Roll Cap Roll Cap

Figs. 150 and 151. Drip Figs. 152 and 153. Method of Treating the Edges of the Zino in Covering
for Patent Roll Cap Flats or Platforms

hole, and E the screw. Fig. 147 is a section through the roll and cap, showing
the extent of laps. The screw should never be permitted to penetrate both sheets.
The wood rolls or battens may be 1% X3'in. Where drips are necessary in
zinc covered roofs they are arranged similarly to those on which lead is laid. Those
for the style of common rollcap, which has been spoken of, are shown in elevation

at Fig. 148, and in cross section at Fig. 149, A representing the extremity of the

lowermost cap in each case, and B the stop end of the upper roll. A fall of 3 in.
 746 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

from bottom to bottom is usually sufficient. The drips for the patent roll caps are
given at Figs. 150 and 151, the reference letters being the same as in Figs. 148 and
149. In consequence of the upturn of the lowermost roll, a fall of 3)4 in. must be
given to the boarding of the roof.

The application of zinc for the purpose of covering flats or platforms of pavil-
ions or temporary structures is also useful. In roofing, the carpenter will of course
give the platform the slight necessary fall, and fix in its center, between two slopes,

a stout batten of about 3 in. square, to do a somewhat analagous duty to the ridge
pole of an ordinary roof, unless the roof is of very small extent. Of course, where,
on the contrary, the surfaces are very large, the carpenter will have to make pro-
vision for drips. That being arranged, the first thing is to secure the edges of the
platform by nailing (preferably with end-headed nails) a strip of zinc or lead 4 in.

wide along each edge. The sheets of zinc must also have an upstand at each side

against the wall as far as the roof, and a similar set-up of 3 in. at their top ends,
which butt on the central ridge or batten. The upstand of these ends should be
soldered to that of the sides at each corner.
The edges of the zinc at the boundaries of the platform have now to be
turned over the projecting shown in Fig. 152. In the
strip of zinc or lead, as

sketches the strip or clip of lead or zinc is indicated by a dotted line. Of course
the zinc of the flat is cut level with the strip before turning in. The set-up againsl
the roll should be slit at the level of the roof, so that it projects on each side oi

the roll, and a small piece of zinc, of size sufficient to project as much, say 1 % in.

beyond edge of pavilion top, should be soldered over the same. The roll bein^

then slipped on the wooden rolls, and clasping the two upstands of the zinc sheets,

a small piece of the zinc roll, sufficient to cover the projecting pieces soldered or

should be mitered and soldered to the end of the roll, thus completing it and carry-

ing it over the edge of the platform, as shown by B in Figs. 152 and 153. Tht
end which butts on the central batten, should also have a smal
of the zinc roll,

piece of zinc soldered to it, in the same way that the roll terminating at a ridgt
pole has. The central ridge, or batten, may be made in two pieces as describee
for the wood rolls, only larger, say 5 in. or 6x1^ in. or \% in. This is bes
covered with lead, well dressed down over the top upstand of the zinc sheets, anc
the zinc soldered to the ends of the rolls.

Of course, any of the other forms of roll cap, etc. ,

which can be used for roofs
are also capable of employment for flats, and equally of course, the distance of th<

wood rolls apart will vary according to circumstances and to taste. Thus the zin<

may be either used of its full breadth, or cut down the middle and applied in hal
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 747

sheets. So, too, the rolls may differ in size, and of necessity the zinc roll caps
with them, according to locality of roofs, etc. Where bold effect is desired, the
large size will be used, and they are more impervious to wet where the fall is

slight, or exposure to wind or snow likely to be great.

It is essential in external zinc working, as in that of lead, to leave the metal, so
far as possible, free, and with plenty of play. Separate sheets should on no account
be soldered together, although, of course, (as it is not possible the lengths of the
sheets as obtained should fit every t'oof) occasionally a sheet must be lengthened
by soldering a piece to it. Zinc for flats and platforms of pavilions should always
be of tolerable substance. Zinc pavilion roofs are frequently, at the present time,
enriched to a great extent by oval and variously formed louvres, window openings
finials, etc. ;
anO even in some cases the metal is used in imbricated plates similar
to fancy roofing tiles. This is an old fashion revived, for similar forms were given
to lead in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, especially in France.
Zinc is of course not inflammable. It is therefore a safe covering for any build-
ing, including the private residence. There is among architects that
a current belief
zinc will burn. It is true, that a very high temperature sufficient to make iron
red hot or crack slate would cause zinc to vaporize giving the appearance of burning
by throwing off a bright green flame, but no ordinary temperature will do this.

PRACTICAL, TALKS ON ZINC ROOFING—II

There are several reasons why zinc has not been generally used in this country
for roofing purposes : more expensive than roofing tin. It requires more
It is
careful handling. It expands and contracts more than any other metal used in
roofing, so that if unskillfully laid it will not give satisfactory service. It will not
give long service near the sea, or in the vicinity of chemical or iron works where
fumes from the processes of manufacture are discharged into the air, the condensa-
tion and precipitation of their components corroding the zinc very rapidly. A large
roof in Newcastle-on-Tyne, England, covered with 22-oz. zinc was corroded so
badly in 18 months’ that it had to be stripped and re-covered with sheet lead, but
this case is exceptional.
Given proper conditions and workmanship the metal will undoubtedly
careful
‘ ’
give long service. There are hundreds of roofs on the other side which are ‘ ’

perfectly sound after 30 and 40 years’ service, and there is no reason why it should
not do as well here. The important thing to bear in mind in laying it is its high
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

co-efficiency of expansion. In a climate where the variation in temperature may

be 120 degrees there must be ample room left for the sheets to expand without
“bulging” and cracking, and to contract without pulling away clips, fastenings
and soldered seams. This is easily accomplished, as the sketches will show.
In covering a roof with a fairly steep pitch the procedure is much as in using

tin or galvanized sheets with standing lock. The lateral seams, however, are not
soldered. The turnover at the top of the sheet is 2 inches, while the lower end of
next sheet is turned in 1 inch only. This gives ample lap, and when put into
place the seam is flattened by a soft wooden dresser. Zinc clips 2 inches wide, two

Fig. 155, The Use

of Clips or Cleats Fig. 156. Section of Roll and Cover

Fig. 157. Arrangement at Gutter

Fig. 158. Flat Roofs with Drips and Saddle

Fig. 159. Lapping of Upstands at Drip

Fig. 160. Roll Cap Shield at Drip and Saddle

to each sheet, are foldedand nailed into place as in Fig. 155. These prevent th(
sheets slipping down the roof. The lower edge of the bottom sheet and the enc
sheets are prepared and fixed over an edging strip same with tin roofing, or set uj
against a coping or wall 3 inches or more should the roof require it.
The side next to the wood roll for the longitudinal seam is set up 1% inches
as shown in Fig. 156. This is dressed a littlebeyond the square, as the roll is nar
rower at the bottom than at' its upper part. Then the wooden roll is nailed dowi
with strips of zinc 9 inches long about 1 inch wide fixed under it. These strips ar<
bent over the upstand or the turned up edge of the zinc and then up on the edg<
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 749

of the cap when

where they are soldered, thus preventing the cap from slip-
fitted,

ping and dispensing with any necessity of nails through it. The top sheet next to
the ridge should be set up 1 ^ inches and the corners soldered. A clip may be
soldered to the under side of the sheet and nailed to the ridge pole to support this
sheet, or it may be nailed to the lower side of pole as the lead will give ample lap
over the nails. When all the sheets have been laid, the zinc cap is slipped on from
the lower side, taking care not to expand it so it will lose its close grip on the up-
stands. The clips are then trimmed off and soldered and the ridge covered with 5
or 0 pound lead, snugly dressed over the rolls and close in to the roof proper. The
caps may be finished at the eaves with a blank end soldered in, or returned, if the
roof delivers into a gutter as in Fig. 157.
Covering a flat roof or a roof with little pitch with zinc is rather more trouble-
some, as it has to be laid in steps. Commencing at the eaves in the usual way, or
by dripping it into a gutter, the sheets are set up as before described for the edges
and roll seam but instead of making a flat or lock seam at the lateral junction, a
drip must be formed —that is, where the length of roof requires more than one
8-foot sheet. The rise to the next flat should be 3 inches, and the first sheet is set

up that hight at the upper end. At 1 % inches up the upstand is notched and the
lower part bent around the longitudinal upstand and soldered, while the upper
part is allowed to lap over the top of the roll onto the next sheet, Fig. 159. When
the roll cap is slipped on a shield about 2 % X3 inches is fitted to the end pushed
close up to upstand and soldered to cap, as in Fig. 160. The next sheet being
turneddown 2 inches covers this, so that sufficient room is left for each sheet to
move. The sheet should never be turned down over this drip more than 2 inches,
or at most 2% inches, or trouble through capillary attraction may be experienced.
The caps are tied down in the same manner described. The saddle, if one is

necessary, may be covered either with zinc or making provision for clips below
lead,

the apron part to prevent its blowing up, and making any necessary joints, if zinc
with roll and cap or by working a hollow roll seam.
if lead,

Zinc flashings, aprons, etc. are commonly used now, and all that can be said
,

about them is that proper provision must be made likewise for expansion. Zinc is
a hard metal to work in cold weather and should always be warmed before a sharp
bend is attempted. It is well to lay the sheets out on a flat surface before using

them. They can be much more easily handled if this is done. Zinc requires no
painting. Where no other influence than the weather acts on it the oxidization
tends to preserve it, but should there be any possibility of damage through sul-

phurous fumes, etc., a good coat of lead paint will protect it.
 75 ° Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

PRACTICAL TALKS ON ZINC ROOFING— III

The information here given was secured at first hand during a residence in Ger-
many. Sheet zinc was first used for roofing purposes in Germany about the year
1800, and it has continued in popularity and has given entire satisfaction ever since.
It is estimated that, at the present time, 35 per cent, of the total output of the German
zinc mines is used for this purpose. A
roof made of No. 1G gauge zinc is guar-
anteed to last from 30 to 40 years with-
out repair. Thus its value is obvious.
Zinc is a metal that expands and
contracts through climatic changes to a
greater extent than any other known
Fig. 161. Belgian System Fig. 162. French System proper allowance
metal. If is not
made for this expansion and contraction, when constructing a roof, the zinc will
buckle and bend, and finally tear, and the older it gets the more' brittle it becomes.
The chemical action of zinc, it is, well to note, is under ordinary circumstances,
similar to the oxidation of iron. Under the action of air and water, an oxide of
zinc covers the material, which, however, can easily be brushed off in the early
stages. In a few weeks’ time, how-
ever, this oxide will become so settled
that it cannot be brushed off. Even
water will not affect it. It is this
oxide that protects the zinc from all

ordinary influences. Th is oxide how-,

ever, will not, of course, withstand the

action of acids, such as are emitted Fig. 163. German System Fig. 164. Eave Strip
from chimneys, nor of the salt air from the ocean. Lime, as used in mortar, and
cement in concrete also have their influence upon zinc, especially upon new zinc.
This, of course, refers only to fresh mortar and concrete. The chemical action in
this process, while very slow, lasting nearly two years, is a sure one.
Soot that may lie on the zinc will form electric currents, if the same is wet
through rain or moisture. These currents, no matter how weak, will act upon the
oxide and seek the weakest spots in the sheets, so that holes will soon appear that
have been eaten through the body of the zinc. The same result will happen if

copper or iron comes in direct contact with the zinc. This is one reason why all
 — —

Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 75 1

cleats used on zinc roofs must be tinned. All iron work, too, that comes in contact
with zinc should be galvanized or tinned.
The different systems of zinc roofing are in use in Europe, known respectively
as the Belgian, the French and the German systems. All have been in use a
good many years, and they are, with a few minor variations, nearly identical in

Fig. 165. End of Strip at Eave Fig. ICG. Finish at Eaves —Showing Metal Cap
construction. Each kind has its own peculiar shape, but all strive for one point
allowance for expansion and contraction. In Fig. 1G1 is shown the Belgian system,
which is we describe below.
the one Figs. 1G2 and 1G3 represent, respectively,
the French and German systems. In all three systems cleats are nailed to wood
strips about 9 inches apart, before the strips are nailed to the roof.

As above stated, zinc is a metal that expands with the heat and contracts with

Fig. 167. Broken View of Cross Seam Showing Cleat Fig. 163. Finish at Gable

the cold, and for this sufficient allowance must be mado when the roof is being
laid. A sheet of zinc 36 inches wide and 72 inches long will expand at least %
x
inch in width, and nearly /± inch in length in hot weather. Nails should never
be driven into the sheet. Nothing but cleats should be used. If nails are driven
 75 * Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

into the sheets, the heat will cause the zinc to buckle, and it will pull away from
the nails, leaving a hole, which will cause a leak. This point, and that of expan-
sion and contraction, must be carefully

considered in laying a zinc roof. The

action of the expansion and contraction
is somewhat different on the Belgian
system from that of the other systems.
The zinc, in the Belgian system, moves
into the bottom of the wood strips,
whereas, in the French, it moves up the
sides of the strips. In forming the edges
of the sheets,' care must be taken always
to get them as round as possible. If this

is not done, the zinc, in a few years,

Fig. 169. Wood strip Butting Against Wan will crack at these points.
To lay the roof an eave strip of iron is formed as shown in Fig. 164. In using
sheets of zinc that are 36 inches wide, the wood strips must be 34^4 inches from
center to center. Before the wood strips are nailed to the roof, the cleats, as
shown in Figs. 161, 162 and 163, must be nailed to the bottom of the strip. The
lower end of the wood strip is cut off as shown in Fig. 166.
The wood strip is then nailed to the roof, and over the end of the wood strip
is placed a metal cap, formed as shown in Fig. 166. This cap is nailed to the roof

and not to the wood strip. If there are any valleys in the roof, 12 inches should
be allowed on each side of the same and the strips be cut to this line. The same
should be done at the eaves. The same shaped cap as is used at the eaves should
be used at the valleys, and should hook into the seam of the valley, which should
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 753

not be less than 1 inch wide. The wood strip at the ridges and hips can be made
twice as large as the longitudinal strips. They can also be made of one size.

After the strips are all nailed to the roof, the same is ready to be covered with
zinc. The cross seams are the first to be formed. These are formed as shown in
Fig. 167, which gives a broken view of the cross seam, showing the cleat. After
these seams are turned, the sides can be turned in this manner. Take a piece of
leather or sheet lead and shove it in the cross seam, turning the sides up 1 % inches.
Turning seams in this manner does away with soldering. After the sheet has been

laid in its place, nail two cleats in the upper cross seam. As the sheets are laid in
place, turn the cleats down over the sides. These cleats must all be of a uniform
hight, so that when a cap is shoved over the ridge strip it will not be too loose.
The finish at the gable is indicated in Fig. 168. If there is a wall to be flashed
that runs paralled with the wood strips, the same may be flashed in the usual
manner. When a wood strip butts against a chimney or wall, however, flash as
shown in Fig. 169. The sheets in this case are turned up from 4 to 6 inches against

the wall, with the seams turned as shown, and the piece of zinc is shoved down
754 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

over the wood The cap is then placed over the wood strip and soldered.
strip.

Fig. 170 shows the method in which this work is carried out, with a ridge strip
and a common strip.

When the entire roof is laid and ready for the zinc caps, the bottom of each

wood manner shown in Fig. 1GG. The zinc sheets are

strip is already cut off in the

then turned over the wood strips, as shown in Fig. 171. From this, it will be seen
that it is necessary for the zinc cap that goes over the wood strip to be formed on a
slant at the lower end, so as to cover the entire strip. In Fig. 171 A and A' are
the eave shown in Fig. 1G4; B the wood strip, cut as shown in Fig. 1G5; C
strip, as

is the zinc cap; D and D' zinc sheets, with the ends turned over the zinc eave cap;

E the copper cleats and F F the roof boards.

Gutters, such as are used with zinc roofs, are of numerous shapes and styles.
In Fig. 172 is shown the construction of a false bottom zinc gutter, which is one of
a type generally used. In this sketch 1, is a band iron frame, 2 the sandstone cor-
nice, 3 a running board, and 4 the gutter proper; 5 is the eave strip, G the cover

for the running board, 7 a crown molding of zinc, and 8 a zinc strip that goes as

far as B, to guard against condensation or leaks. There is not much need of going
into details in describing these gutters, as the cut plainly shows the method of con-

structing them. If the gutter is very long, it is well to have expansion joints, so
that the zinc can contract and expand
at will. Fig. 173 shows the finished
zinc roof, indicating the different sec-
tions.

In laying a zinc roof certain points

should be kept in mind. In working
zinc on cold days it is well to warm the
metal to keep it from cracking. Cross
seams are the only seams that are to be
soldered, and then only when the roof
has a pitch of less than 15 degrees. All
Fig. 178. Finished Roof —Showing Different Sections
cleats should be made of heavy copper
and tinned thoroughly. Never drive nails into a sheet of zinc. Always see that
there is room enough for the zinc to expand between the wood strips. Never use
a sharp instrument in marking the zinc, as this is liable to cause cracks. When
cross seams are not soldered, they should never be hammered flat. The cross seam
on the lower sheet should be at least 34 inch wider than the cross seam of the
upper sheet.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 755

Nos. 14 and 16 gauges of sheet zinc are generally preferred for roofing pur-
poses, and nothing lighter than No. 12 gauge is ever used.
Where zinc is exposed to chemical action, as referred to at the beginning of
this article, it can be painted, but, before any painting is done, the zinc must have
a rough surface, such as is caused by the oxide or made by mechanical means. A
good time to paint zinc —probably the best time— is when the roof has a thorough

coating of oxide. The paint then takes a good hold and will remain some time.
for
Zinc can be painted at once if it is desired, but, as before stated, it must be on a
rough surface. The rough surface can be gotten by either sandpapering the roof
or scrubbing it wi- n sand. The
method is preferable, because it is the easiest.
latter

This will cause a roughened surface, to which paint will readily adhere. It is
better, however to wait until the roof has its own coating of oxide. The paint
will crack and peel off it the zinc has not this rough surface. Silicate of zinc is the

best mineral paint that can be used for this purpose.

LAYING TAR AND GRAVEL ROOFS

The sheathing can be laid with the pitch of the roof, or diagonally, or parallel
with the eaves, for it makes absolutely no difference which way it is laid, so long
as it is of even thickness and the joints are closed.

The roof will probably be a 3-ply, 4-ply, or 5-ply roof. In this connection,
3-ply means three thicknesses of the paper, 4-ply means
‘ ‘ ’
‘ply’ means ‘thickness,
’ ’

four thicknesses, and so forth. The paper, or tar felt, comes in rolls. This paper
is usually 3 feet wide, and a roll contains either 108, 216 or 324 square feet. This
lays one,two or three squares of finished roof, 1-ply, or one square of 3-ply roof.

This paper is generally sold by the ton, although it is sometimes sold by the roll.

It weighs about 14 pounds per 100 square feet.

At the eave of the roof should be nailed a gravel guard of galvanized iron or
copper, made as shown in the accompanying sketch, Fig. 174. Before it is put on,
one course paper should be rolled out parallel with the gutter, doubled over,
of
and this double thickness laid on the sheathing, with the edge flush with the outer
edge of the sheathingi The gravel guard is then put on, as shown, and the upper
edge carried about 4 inches over the paper and nailed 3 or 4 inches apart. The
outer edge is nailed also to the edge of the sheathing to hold it down.
 75 « Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

The up to this point, are the same for a 3-ply, 4-ply or 5-ply
preparations,
roof, but differ somewhat from this point on. If a 3-ply roof is wanted, the roofer

rolls out a strip parallel with the eave of the roof and stretches it along with the

lower edge just touching the %-inch projection above the roof on the gravel guard.
On top of this, 12 inches higher up, the roofer should roll out another course of
paper, and then as many succeeding courses as may be required to cover the roof,
each course covering 24 inches of the preceding one and leaving 12 inches showing
to the weather. At the top end, sufficient is put on to insure that three thicknesses
of paper is over all the sheathing boards. As each course is rolled out, it is nailed
along the top edge with 1-inch barbed rooting nails, driven through flat tin caps,

these nails and caps being about 12 inches apart.

In the meantime, the pitch has been heated in a kettle over the fire, and mops
made of mop yarn tied to handles like broom handles. The pitch is drawn up
onto the roof as needed in 5-gallon buckets. One man now starts along the edge
of the roof and turns back the paper and holds it while another dips a mop in the

hot pitch and runs it along on top of the gravel guard and the double course of
paper under the same, the object being to give a liberal coat of tar, so that the
metal will be firmly cemented to the paper under it, and there will still be enough
pitch to thoroughly cement the first course of paper when it is released. If the
courses are very long, the man holding the paper will soon get the knack of letting
the paper fall over on the hot pitch, so that it will lie down smooth. Each succeed-
ing course is turned back in the same way and the course next below it mopped for

a distance of about 12 inches up under the course just turned back.

After this is done, the roof is usually covered with a thick coating of pitch
poured out of a long handled dipper and deftly spread over the surface, care being
taken to see that it is spread over every inch of the surface of the roof. Though
some roofers spread the tar with the mop.
While this is being done, another man is busily pushing gravel, or slag, into
the pitch just spread before it has a chance to cool. This gravel, or slag, should be
dry, and if the weather is cool it should be heated, so that it will bed in the pitch
before the same cools. If gravel is used, it should be screened and nothing used
%-inch mesh, and nothing that will pass through a
that will not pass through a
smaller than %-inch mesh. The whiter and cleaner the gravel, the cooler the
roof will be and the better it will look. Gravel is generally used, but slag is some-
times substituted, although it is generally not considered so desirable by roofers,
and is not so easily manipulated. The roof is now gone over with a broom and
swept lightly, so that not too much loose gravel is left on it.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 757

To flash around chimneys,

walls, etc., copper is generally used. The roof
should be laid and the flashing put down on top of the same, running up on the
wall to the hight desired, and turning
out on the roof 4 inches and nailed 3
inches apart. It is then thoroughly
mopped over and a double thickness
of paper laid over it. Especial care
should be taken at these points partic-
ularly to see that the laps, etc., are
Fig. 174. Laying Tar and Gravel Roofs
all thoroughly ce.v.enled with the
pitch. Many roofers put some dead oil in the tar used for flashing to keep tar from
becoming brittle and thereby having a firmer hold on the metal; especially in cold
weather. A 4-ply roof is laid the same as above, except that the paper laps 27 inches
instead of 24 inches on each course next below, and each course shows nine inches
instead of 12 inches to the weather. It can readily be seen that this insures four
thicknesses of paper at every point on the roof, thus the term 4-ply.

A 5-ply roof can be laid the same way, showing 7 inches to the weather and
lapping 29 inches, or it can be laid like a 3-ply roof, mopped over and then a 2-ply
roof put on. This is the general practice and is the better method. When a 5-ply
roof is laid in this way, the gravel guard is not put down until the 3-ply is

laid and mopped over. This mopping over is done by spreading the hot pitch all

over the surface of the roof with a mop, instead of pouring it on with a dipper, as
explained above, when gravel is to be shoved into it.

The gravel guard is now put on on top of the 3-ply paper, and any flashing
needed is put on and nailed and well mopped with hot tar. Then a course of

paper is rolled out at the eave of the roof and 12 inches doubled under it, another
course rolled out on top of it, 12 inches higher up the roof, and then succeeding
courses are rolled out 18 inches higher up, each course lapping 18 inches over the
one below and showing 18 inches to the weather. This is mopped along the edges,
as described for the 3-ply roof, the pitch spread on and the gravel pushed in as de-
scribed. When this is properly done by men who understand the business, a first-

class roof is obtained at a minimum cost.

In this section of the country, thousands of acres of these roofs are put on
annually. These roofs are often guaranteed for ten years. If a more durable roof
is desired, asphalt should be used instead of the straight run American coal tar pitch,
as it is more elastic and less likely to get brittle with age and cold weather. The
use of asphalt adds about 50 cents per square to the cost of the job.
 758 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

CANVAS ROOFING

Ten-ounce canvas is to be laid over a tongued and grooved floor which has been
previously covered with a heavy waterproof paper. One object in using the paper
is to provide a resilient cushion for the canvas, so that the impinging of the canvas
against the edge of any obtruding board will not be cut or abraded by such edge
or surface.
Wet the canvas before laying and paint the under side of the canvas while it is

still wet with a heavy coat of white lead ground in linseed oil ; lay the canvas while
the paint is still wet; stretch the canvas as tight as possible, nailing closely with
4-ounce brass tacks ;
after being laid paint the upper face of the canvas with two
coats of best white lead.
By proper care of the roof is meant the keeping of its upper surface covered
with paint. In the course of a few years the paint oxidizes, scales off, irregular

cracks and seams appear, and sometimes patches appear, which, if touched by the
finger, crumble into dust. Whenever any of these defects appear it is time to go
over the roof with another coat of paint, taking the precaution to remove all the
old paint possible without injury to the canvas. Roofing canvas should always be
mildew proof.
If a cement covering is to be used for a porch roof, first lay down a matting of

wire mesh, or metal lath and fasten down firmly with galvanized iron staples, then
apply a coating of Portland- cement mortar in the proportion of 1 of cement to 3 of

sharp, coarse sand. The sand is to be entirely free from loam or any sort,
dirt of

and the layer should be not less than 1 inch thick. A lesser thickness would be
liable to crack under repeated strain of persons walking over its surface. The wire
or metal lath furnishes a good bond and backing for the cement. Of the two, wire
mesh is greatly superior to metal lath as to durability.

COLORING COPPER ROOFS GREEN

The best color is obtained by age, but for those who wish to obtain the effect
quicker we reprint the following The one method used most generally for turning
:

copper green is a solution of sal ammoniac and water. Add about 1 pound of pow-
dered sal ammoniac to 5 gallons of water, dissolve it thoroughly and let it stand
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 759

about 24 hours at least before putting it on the copper. Apply to the copper with
a brush just as paint would be applied, being sure to cover every place. Let it

stand for one day at least and sprinkle it with water, using a brush and splashing
it on lightly, for if the water is put on too freely it will run the color and streak it.

The next morning the color will be all that could be desired. The same effect will
be produced by using vinegar and salt instead of sal ammoniac, using about )4
pound of salt to 2 gallons of vinegar.

THE BEST PAINT FOR GALVANIZED IRON

As to the paint for first coating galvanized iron, beware of white lead, because
it remains soft and eventually peels; of zinc white, which will crack and flake; of
any of the light carbon paints which require much oil to spread, because these will
wrinkle and later on part. The cheap, ordinary mineral paints will not serve the
purpose either, because these are most liable to peeling. Red lead, as a base for
an all-oil paint, has given best service, but it, too, has given away at times, and the
cause of the trouble appears to be that in an all oil paint the oil is attacked by the
metallic zinc. A paint made from a heavy pigment that requires a small percent-
age of thinner for spreading will serve the purpose of first coating galvanized iron
after, either leaving the surface to oxidize or by washing with dilute muriatic acid.
Thus a mixture of equal parts by measure (not weight) of dry red lead and first-

class mineral brown, ground together dry and then mixed by hand with equal parts
of pure raw linseed oil and pure spirits of turpentine, without the use of any japan
or liquid drier, has given the most durable and effective results. Over this priming
any good oil paint may be applied and permanent adhesion may be looked for.
The reason for employing dry red lead is to let the paint oxidize on the surface
rather than to have it saponify the oil in the pot, as there is ample proof that such
paint is most liable to peel, it having lost its cementing qualities. Let it be noted,
however, that this semi-flat, yet fairly elastic paint is to be used for first coat only
and not as a finish. It is intended to isolate the oil paint from the metallic surface,
to prevent the latter from acting on the oil. And under no consideration should
boiled oil be used in mixing this first coat for galvanized iron. If a good grade
of mineral brown cannot be had, a fine, chemically pure oxide of iron, such as
Indian red, may be used in its place and serve the purpose even better. And no
more of the paint should be made at any time than can be used the same day.
 y6o Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

PAINTS FOR SHEET ZINC

A very durable weather resisting paint for zinc sheets is made by mixing
oxide of zinc with a fluid silicate, such as water glass and potash of soda, to which
the required pigments are added. The proportion should be about three-quarters
of a pound zinc white to every pound of silicate, with or without water. This zinc-
silicate paint becomes insoluble in water in about 24 hours. It is equally useful for

interior and outside work, but it should not be applied to greasy surfaces, nor to
old coats of paint. New zinc, not being oxidized, should first be prepared by the
application of a solution of 1 part of soda in 10 parts of water, and then be washed
thoroughly with water only.
To obtain a white color only pure zinc white should be used, but an excellent
imitation of stone may be prepared by mixing the proper coloring substance
first

with water to the consistency of a thick paste, and then adding this to the mix-
ture of silicate and oxide of zinc. The mixed paint can be kept in a closed vessel
for 24 to 48 hours, provided it is put in a cool place.
Another quick drying, weather resisting paint of a dark color is made by mix-
ing 6 pounds of graphite ( plumbago ) with 1 gallon of vinegar. The oxidized sur-
face of the zinc, previously well brushed, is painted with the above, one coat giv-
ing a sufficiently dark color. New sheet zinc, however, requires two coats, and
must first be oxidized by the following application, which is not strong enough to
cause any deterioration of the metal One part each of chloride of
: copper, nitrate
of copper, and sal ammoniac, dissolved in 64 parts of water, and 1 part of hydro-
chloric acid added to the solution.
These paints should only be applied in warm weather, as they are best kept
free from moisture for at least 24 hours.

PAINTS FOR ROOFS

A new hand who is sent out to paint a new tin roof is not apt to appreciate the
importance of the work he has in hand, neither is he apt to be as fully equipped
for the work as old hands who have been set to a similar task frequently. Whether
it is a flat seam roof or a standing seam roof there are sure to be some places where
soldering has been done. If the weather is good the older hand will immediately
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 761

hunt the soldered places and scrape off all the rosin that is along the seam or around
the solder. If he is very careful he may have an old dust brush and a sheet of tin
to take up this rosin and throw it over the eave, so that it can in no way become
mixed with the paint to do any harm. After he has been careful with the scrap-
ing work, if the roof has laid a few days, he may have provided himself with a
broom and will sweep all the dust off of the tin, so as to allow the paint to come
in direct contact with the surface to be protected, with no foreign matter to in-
terfere.

While the workman may have little to do with the character of the paint he is

to apply he will have a great deal to do with the mixing of it and keeping it of the
proper consistency while the work is being done. A great deal has been said about
the kind of paint that is beA adapted for painting tin roofs. Fortunately, for the
avoidance of any monopoly, there are several kinds of paint which are very good.
Venetian red and the metallic browns of the best grades are equally good. Unfor-
tunately there are many metallic browns on the market and some have very little

to recommend them, but whichever body is used, if it is ground in oil and mixed
with good oil and then properly applied it will stand the ravages of time without
a great deal of detriment. Many roofers may not be well qualified to discriminate
in the selection of their paint, and under such circumstances they may safely rely
on the paints which bring a cent or two more per pound before mixing as being
better than those which sell at a lower figure and have little but the price to
recommend them. The same may be said of oil. A good oil is rather expensive,
but in experience the covering qualities are greater, and the difference in cost is not
so great as the difference in the covering quality of the materials.

If it was possible to have good weather until the paint dried firmly the addi-
tion of some material to facilitate the drying would be neither necessary nor advan-
tageous. Owing to the uncertainty of the weather, however, and from the fact that

a small proportion of a good dryer is not detrimental, most men who provide paint
for roofs will mix in a small proportion of something which will quicken the drying
or hardening process. It is when improper materials are used in excessive quan-

tities to the exclusion of good oil or form too great a proportion of the mixture that
there is a positive objection to their use. When the workman has been furnished
with the right kind of raw materials and appreciates the necessity of stirring the
paint occasionally to prevent settling in the bottom and to keep the mixture of
the same consistency he is ready for the tools to apply the paint.
If the roof is flat enough, so that he can walk around on it with safety,men
differ as to whether a hand brush should be used or whether a broader brush may
 j6t, Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

be used on the end of a pole with good results. Some incline to the opinion that
the brush on a pole cannot be made to do as good work in rubbing the paint in well
and at the same time out so as to cover a large surface as when a hand brush is

used. Certainly the workman with a wide brush on a pole can cover more ground
with less labor and without tiring himself out as he would in the use of a hand
brush. Old roofers who enjoy an excellent reputation for good work and the long
service of the roofs do not require their men to use the hand brush, but are par-
ticular to see that the tool equipment is kept in good order. It is quite probable
that some of the cheapest tin plates used by these experienced and careful men
have rendered quite as good service as when high grade plates have been used by
other men who have not appreciated the destructive effect of some kinds of paint-

ing material.
Some of the black paints contain a considerable amount of sulphur, and where
a tin plate has a comparatively light coating the importance of the paint question
will be more readily understood when roofers generally are aware of the fact that
manufacturers have been devoting considerable attention to the careful study of the
effect with different paints freely advertised have when applied to tin roofs. Their
observations are corroborated by the experience of old and successful roofers. The
conclusions are that some paints will aid in the quick destruction of plates that are
heavily coated with tin, no matter what their base may be. These investigations
have been going on quietly for a long time, with the certainty that some who have
complained of the durability of the tin roof are more responsible than they know
for the early destruction of their work. With these facts before them for refutation
or verification it remains for the conscientious roofer to discover whether or not the
painting materials he is using are likely to cause trouble to his customer, and a
complaint for which he is entirely responsible.

ROOF PAINTING

There is money to be made out of roof painting if it receives the attention

which its importance entitles it to receive. Too often it is looked on as only a step
higher than whitewashing, is done largely for appearance sake and is expected to
last only a short time. If roof painting is to be made a branch of a business the
same care should be taken to make it do its share in building up a reputation for
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 76 3

good workmanship and serviceable materials as is given to the roof itself, or the
heater work, plumbing or anything else that is done by the shop.
The men who do it should be encouraged to feel that their work is important,
must be done well they must not be allowed to think that it is cheap work and
;

“any old way” will do providing they smear over enough surface in a day. They
should be required to take care of the materials and tools just as carefully as the
bright tin plate is taken care of and the best tools of the other mechanics are cared
for. A place and proper provision should be made them so the oil
for storing will
not waste, the paint cannot harden and the brushes become ruined by drying.

Fig. 175. Roof Painting

The provision made for this purpose, as shown by Fig. 175, has much to recom-
mend it and a view in the part of a shop devoted to the roof painters, which is given
herewith, will Avith the description be sufficient hint to those who make a specialty
of roof painting to profit by the example. A strong platform is built about 14
inches high, carried by legs made of 3X4 inch timbers supporting a frame made of
the same size of timber, on which the floor of the platform is laid. The legs should
be placed so that there will be a space of about 3 feet between them. The platform
should be about 30 inches wide and long enough for the oil barrels or tanks.
Tanks made of galvanized iron take up less room, as they can be made higher
and of less diameter than barrels The iron should be of
and can be kept cleaner.

24 gauge, and if 24 inch iron is used two widths will give ample hight to hold a
barrel when the diameter is 20 inches. The bottom can be double seamed on before
 7 64 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

the upper body is put on to the lower one. A flaring cover should be double
seamed to the upper body and should have a round hole with cover about 8 inches
in diameter in the center. Where the upper and lower body slip one over the other
at the center a few rivets should be put in to hold them firmly together and then
the joint should be heavily soldered inside and outside. A finish and strength is

given by putting a swedged band at the top, bottom and between, also well soldered.
A brass oil cock large enough to let oil be drawn quickly should be soldered into
the body within 34 inch of the bottom and bosses should be soldered on each side
to brace it.

The number of tanks required depends on the views held by the roof painter
*

and three will be enough in any case, one for boiled linseed oil, one for raw linseed
oil and a smaller tank for Japan drier. Some men mix the two kinds of oil or buy
it mixed, and then two tanks are enough. On the floor in front of the oil tank
platform a galvanized iron tray or pan should be placed to hold the measures and
funnels and catch any dripping. The pan, heavily wired around the top, should
be about 1 inch deep and about 14 inches wide and as long as the platform. This
will allow the paint can to be placed in the pan while the mixing is done, and will
afford a place where paint cans can be kept from marking the floor when in the shop.

A substantial wooden tub or half of a barrel should be kept full of water at one
end of the platform, in which the paint brushes may be placed when not in use.

They should be kept covered with water so that they cannot dry out and harden,
for to do good work in painting the brush must be of good material and soft and

pliable, so that the paint can be well rubbed in. A specially made brush on the
pattern of the whitewash brush but of better material and thicker is best for the work.

In mixing the paint there room for some judgment to be displayed and for
is

the body any of the good paints sold by the roofing supply houses will give good ser-
vice if ground fine. The mixing depends on the time of the year. In the summer
a drier is unnecessary if the weather is clear long enough for the paint to set well

before a rain comes. Only good linseed oil should be used in summer and for

painting it should be mixed in the proportion of 3 gallons of boiled oil to 2 gallons

of raw oil, and if for the first coat on a new tin roof it should be mixed thin, so
that this coat will dry out thin and hard after it has been well rubbed in. Every
part of the roof should be thoroughly covered and care taken to leave no pools or
thick coat at any place. If the work is done in cooler months or winter, when a
skin will form before the paint can thoroughly dry out, a drier may be used in
the proportion of 1 quart of the drier to 5 gallons of oil, more or less according to
the weather ;
less oil when very cold.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 765

Acheap and poor drier should never be used, but always a good drier. After
a roof has had a first coat of this kind of paint it should stand six months and then
be painted again. For the second coat the paint should have more body but
should be rubbed in with the same care, using the drier only when the paint is put
on in cold weather. The roof will now stand for three years, when it should
receive another coat of paint applied in the same careful manner.
Another important point that must be considered is the condition of the roof
at the time it is painted, particularly a new roof. If one of the cheaper, lighter
coated tin plates is used it must stand a few days, so that the grease and rosin will
come off, and then it must be swept with a stiff broom to get off all the grease,
rosin, dust, and particularly rust. If there are any rust spots they should be swept
till all rust has disappeared and a clean surface is presented ;
then the roof is ready
for painting. If one of the better old style heavy coated oil flux plates is used the
roof may stand a shower or two before the metal is exposed, so as to take the paint
properly.
If roofs are treated in this way a guarantee against leaks for a period of time
may be given if the roofer has put on the tin with the same care. This guarantee
carries a great deal of weight with those who look after the properties of estates
and costs nothing if good materials are used throughout with good workmanship
and under intelligent supervision. This branch of business can be built up by
keeping before those who own roofs the fact that leaky roofs destroy plaster, spoil
paint and ruin furniture, besides making the house damp and unhealthy. Leaky
roofs destroy themselves, but roofs kept in repair and painted honestly with honest
materials will last indefinitely.

EFFECT OF EXHAUST STEAM ON TIN ROOFS

In a condition of this kind the trouble is probably as much underneath as on

top, for perhaps excessive condensation owing to the heat of the boilers keeps the
underside of the tin wet and again there may be destructive gases from the furnaces.
On top the constant dripping of water from the exhaust pipe keeps the
tin in the vicinity of the pipe saturated and in due time the paint cracks and natur-
ally then the tin rusts away.
 766 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

A positive remedy would be to use copper for the environments of anything

which is destructive to tin. Of course the connecting of this copper to the tin roof
should be in way to insure no galvanic action between the two metals —tinning this
copper on both sides or making the connection by means of lead strips.

TIN ROOFS FROM OUR OFFICE WINDOW

Since so much has been said about the lasting qualities of the tin roof, our
attention is given to the roofs which can be seen from our windows, particularly
whenever men can be seen on these roofs. Within the recent past we have noted
men with steel shovels cleaning the snow from parts of tin roofs, and cannot but
wonder whether or not this work done by porters and other laborers is not likely
to bring a complaint to the roofer. It is a very natural thing when snow sticks to

a shovel for the man to strike the shovel forcibly on the surface cleaned, whether
it is a flagstone sidewalk or an IC The marks on the sidewalk very clearly show
roof.

that even the flagstone has indentations made upon it, and it is reasonably safe to
assume that the tin roofs that we are looking down upon have many indentations.
Even if there is no hole as the immediate result of the treatment by the snow
cleaner, quite probably these indentations will hold moisture which will eventually

lead to something more than pin holes when rust gets in its work.
On another roof with a box gutter a young man was seen with a coal hod and
a small shovel removing the accumulated dirt from the gutter. Whether this

attention to the gutter is the result of a leak or whether some observing man has
seen the necessity of it is a matter for conjecture. On the flat roofs in New York
City a great deal of cinder ashes and coal dust is carried up from the chimneys and
collects on the roof and is washed in the gutter, where it lies to hold moisture for

long periods. It is certain that the tin roofer never expected a gutter to withstand
such an exposure, even though it may be frequently painted with the best of
materials. The suggestion comes to our minds that roofers might frequently find
profitable work by calling the attention of owners to the possibilities for trouble
and be employed to remove them. There is no doubt but that owners would be
saved much needless worry and expense if a few simple precautions such as these
were observed. While the instances referred to occurred in New York, the same
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 7^7

slow processes of destruction are doubtless going on in all Northern cities where
there are Hat roofs.
Several weeks after writing the above we see that sheet metal workers are

engaged in patching up the roof in question. From the appearance of the tin
where the paint was scraped off there is no fault to be found, but the holes in the
showed that they were made with a shurp instrument and that burst seams
plates
had been hit rudely or stepped on. This is no new thing, but it only serves to
show how much needless blame is laid on tin roofing.

A FEW REMARKS ON LEAKS, ETC.

Tin roofs, comparatively flat ones especially, develop leaks not attributable to
age and sometimes not to lack of care, thus leaving the roofer open to suspicion as
to the quality of material used.

Many of these unexpected leaks are caused by thoughtless boys throwing at

random small, sharp-edged rocks and other things with weight enough to cut through
the sheet. Some are due to paint blisters breaking and exposing the metal,
generally just after a careless person has painted over old blisters instead of breaking
them. Some are due to a piece of flashing working out and allowing water to

drive behind and under where the metal cannot be repainted, destroying the sheet
by corrosion from below. Some are caused by standing seams being malleted down
in the direction that throws the inaccessible pocket on the side from which most
falling water drives, allowing moisture and dust to collect and cake, which facilitates

corrosion. Some are caused by soot and dust, which quickly beds in chimney
flashings; and, some result from not thoroughly painting dents, name-stamp
depressions, etc., or painting at a time when rain washes off the paint or either dew
or frost checkers or pits the surface, destroying the gloss and leaving a surface
adapted to retaining moisture.
To insure satisfaction with a tin roof or a valley on a shingle roof, use good
material to begin with. Paint the underside and let it dry, then paint it again just
before laying in place on the roof. This second painting covers scratches due to
handling and causes the sheet to slip without scratching through the dry coat when
laying. Use cleats freely and nail them close to the angle. On shingle valleys

place a feather-edge wood strip at each side, so the shingle edges at the valley will
 768 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

project over the strip and be held off the metal an inch or more. This avoids much
capillary dampness, allows repainting back under the shingle ends and admits air

where it is most needed. Paint valley tin on both sides and dry and paint again
below before laying. Give all tin work a coat of paint as soon as the work is done.
A roof should have the second top coat when the first is thoroughly dry.
If any holes are found, made by something falling on the roof or by nail-heads
wearing through from below, and no tinner is convenient, paint the places and nail
trunk or tar-paper roof washers over them, well bedded with putty. This is shown
in Fig. 17G. Two methods of placing the strips for valleys mentioned before are
illustrated in a conventional manner in Figs. 170 and 178, the former being adapted
to old work where the roof or valley is to be renewed. The valley shingles may be
raised from the tin, as shown in Fig. 178, by using thinner boards for the valley

than those of the regular sheathing.

To repair a roof with paint skins clean off the roof by removing all peeled
paint, dirt, etc. Over the defective spot give a coat of metallic paint. With a

Fig. 170. A Temporary Patch Fig. 177. Wood Strips on Valley to Fig. 178. Thin VaUey'Strip to Raise
on a Tin Roof Raise Shingles and Prevent Shingles off Tin
Tin from Rusting

trowel spread on one side of a piece of unbleached muslin of the required size a layer
of paint skins or roofing cement, and place it over the defective spot, pressing it

down firmly. Spread another layer of cement on top and smooth it down to the
lines of the roof. Over all this give a liberal coat of paint.

The only way to make a good job of relining the valleys on a slate roof is to
remove the slate, take up the old valley and lay the new one under conditions
which will facilitate good work being done. It is a matter of little importance
whether tin or galvanized iron is used if the sheets in both cases are heavily
coated and well protected. It would be practically impossible to slide a new valley
lining in over an old one, so as to avoid buckling and make a good job of it.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 769

TIN ROOF REPAIRING

Roof repairing is not a pleasant task by any means, and a good mechanic usu-
ally dislikes such work. Too frequently, however, this work is entrusted to the
poorer class of workmen and to the younger hands, with results that are satisfac-
tory neither to the employer nor to the house owner. Too much of such slighting
of work will result in loss of custom, most of which pays better than new work. It
will not be denied that job work, roof and gutter repairs included, returns a larger
and more certain percentage of profit than contract work, for which perhaps sev-
eral have competed.
Such custom, then, should be cultivated, and it is not enough merely to ad-
‘Repairs Carefully and Promptly Done. ”
‘
vertise It is necessary to convince people
of that fact by actual experience. The proof of this has been demonstrated many

Jonosvlllc, M. J., Sept. 1, 1942

Mr. <££/**>
—
DEAR SIR: ret snow and melting Ice will find
leaXn in a roof which la impervious to a shower of
rain. It taxes longer and ooate more to repair
roofs and conductors In cold weather than In mild
weather. Are TOUR roofs and rain wpoute ready for
the winter?
A coat of good paint at the proper time will
often save the prloo of a new roof. We employ tho
BEST MEN and the BEST MATERIALS. Both Phones.
Respectfully yours 9
Plumbing, Heating, J. TIMBER a co.,
and Tinning. 63 B. st.

Fig. 179. A Timely Hint

times by such directions as the following: Now, Mr. Tinner, your competitor,
Mr. Roofer, sent two boys up here two weeks ago, and although he has sent me a
big hill, the roof leaks worse than ever.” They always say the roof leaks worse,

although it would he safe to assume that it doesn’t. But let that pass; the real
point is to do your work so that it can’t leak.

A disagreeable feature of roof repairing, and one which cannot be entirely

overcome, is that the orders for such repairs are most plentiful when autumn is

changing into winter, and there is little desire for an out of door life high up in the
air. Moreover, this overplus of repair orders conflicts with other work which is
seasonable at this time, such as heater, furnace and steam work. In order that
this embarassment of good fortune may he a little more evenly distributed, a
form like that given in Fig. 179 may be printed on postal cards in typewriter style.
 77 o Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

Emphasis is placed on this style of type, as we believe a plain announcement of

this kind is more effective than a display “ ad.” of the same size. It will be easy
to suggest variations from the form presented, such as a letter sheet inclosed in an
envelope, with a good engraving of a scene representing water dripping through a
handsomely painted ceiling on to a carpeted floor, etc.

It sometimes happens that a customer insists on knowing the cost of repairs

before the work is begun. The uncertainty of such work requires that an average
section, comprising one-third or one-fourth of the entire roof, be laid off, and this
section be carefully gone over, one sheet and the leaks located plainly
at a time,

with chalk. By counting the leaks thus marked and adding to the number to allow
for the portion not marked, a fairly safe basis for calculation may be obtained. A
good price for the work should be set, as it is safe to infer that your competitor is

not in the game, particularly if he has been ineffective in a former attempt at

repairs.

It is poor policy, as well as dishonest, to induce a customer to repair a roof

which the judgment of the mechanic would condemn ;
and if the nature of the
leaks is such that a definite guarantee of a useful life for a reasonable time cannot
be given, the customer should be plainly informed of that fact. For instance, if

the leaks are mainly split seams, caused by the expansion and contraction of the
tin, the conclusion is obvious that, although the roof may be tight for a time,
other seams will open and cause new leaks from the same cause. The owner should
be apprised of that fact ;
and the better way to do so is by letter, retaining a carbon
copy to guard against future trouble.
A good and trustworthy mechanic should be given full charge of the job, and
furnished with sufficient help to run the job along with speed enough to prevent
its becoming a distasteful burden. A good plan is to have the best man hunt for

and mark all the leaks, taking one sheet at a time in regular courses across the
roof; another tinner to repair the leaks, and a boy to prepare them for soldering.

It will be found that the best tinner will find the leaks much faster than they can
be repaired. Two sets of soldering tools on the roof will, therefore, be necessary.

If the boy does the work of preparation well the three will be kept busy, as he
will be able to prepare the leaks as fast as the two tinners can solder them.
Taking it for granted that the roof is old and protected with several coats of
paint, a gasoline blow torch should be used to burn off the paint where it is neces-
sary to Bcrape for soldering. This makes the work of preparation quick and easy,
although the one using the torch should be cautioned not to poke the hot blaze
into a hole in the tin. The writer was once compelled to hold down the metal
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 77 1
capping of a ridge on a row of fine dwellings, the sparks meanwhile traveling along
the tinder like dry rot under the metal, while the hoy who caused the mischief
Avent down two sets of ladders after a bucket of water. As the hoy was instructed
not to hurry while in sight of the servants, nobody else knew of the danger.
To prevent the flame of the torch from scorching the paint on the tin further
than necessary, a strip of asbestos cardboard should be cut, with a slot of the proper
width, as shown by the cut in Fig. 180, and the heat applied to the unprotected
portion only long enough to permit of the easy removal of the paint by the scraper.
When no blow torch is at hand a paint burner can be used. This device is shown
which readily explains
in Fig. 180 itself. It is made of black sheet iron, with %
in. holes punched as shown. To this is riveted four legs of band iron so as to raise
the bottom of tl e burner about one inch from the tin. The heat is obtained by
using charcoal. A few hot coals are first taken from the fire-pot and placed in the

Fig. 180. A Torch Pad for Paint Burning. Fig. 182. A Seam Cap

paint burner, after which other charcoal is broken into pieces the size of a hen egg
and placed over the hot coal, the burner being filled with these to the top. The draft
which is created through the perforations soon has the coal in a blaze. The burner
is then set over the spot to be repaired. In a few minutes the paint blisters and
can be cleaned off with a cloth. A good scraper for the purpose may be made
from an old 10 or 12 inch flat file, shaped as shown in Fig. 180. Both edges of

the spear shaped end and the curved edge of the hoe shaped end should be sharp-
ened. It is important that the ends of the split seam leak be well cleaned and
scraped, as carelessness in so doing will result in the entrance of water beneath the
new repair.

The method so often followed of piling on solder to cover a leak in a split

seam is unsatisfactory in several respects. The leak is likely to open again through
the solder, on account of bubbles blown in by the moisture during the soldering;
and if the leaky seam occurs in the gutter the raised ridge of solder holds back the
 77 a Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

water. Less solder is required and a better repair is made by capping the split
seams with strips of good tin cut about %inch wide and slightly bent lengthwise
through the middle in the shown in Fig. 182. The edges of the tin
folders, as

need not be nailed down or prepared in any way, except that the strips should not
be kept on hand long before they are used, as they solder much better with the

edges freshly cut.

A leak caused by a nail head pushing up through the tin should be covered
with a cleat nailed down over it with a single nail as shown in Fig. 183. Where
it is necessary to fasten down tin
which has bulged up and broken
away from its fastenings, screws
should be used, with the same
kind of cleats.

Where it is necessary to place

Fig. 183. A Nail Cap Fig. 184. Fastening Down a Patch
a large patch, the old tin should
be cut away nearly to the size of the new patch and building paper placed under
the new The new patch should be blind nailed and soldered carefully. For
tin.

a reasonably flat roof the ordinary method of blind nailing is to turn up the edges
of the patch on all sides, nailing through the tin just inside the turned up edge
and battering down the turned up edges so as to cover the nail heads, as shown in
Fig. 184. For a long patch near the edge of a roof, where a good appearance is

Fig. 185. Blind Nailed Edge Patches Fig. 188. A Substitute for the Blow Torch

an object, or on a steep roof, the upper side of the patch may be blind nailed so
that the edge presents the same appearance as a lock seam, as shown in Fig. 185.
After themarked leaks have been repaired it is well to give the roof another
close examination, remembering that the customer pays for the time, while, if
called back to repair a forgotten leak, there is likely to be a dispute as to who
‘
should pay for the extra time, with the added humiliation of ‘taking two bites at a
cherry.” When the repairs are satisfactorily completed the acid may be washed
from the places repaired and the patches painted.
 I

Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 773

It is not a fool’s job to locate the leaks in a tin roof, and combinations of tim-
bers, boarding and roofing papers are sometimes found which will tax the ingenu-
ity of a smart man. The place where the water enters through the ceiling may be,
and often some distance from the actual leak in the roof. When a trouble-
is, at

some leak cannot be located by the ordinary method of measuring above and
below, the tinner is justified in cutting up the tin at the suspected spot, when an
examination of the under side of the tin may reveal the trouble in numerous small
pin holes, or at least lead to a search in the proper direction.
An interesting chapter might be written by almost any roof repair man on
peculiar leaks. An instance was when called upon to locate a leak some time ago
where two stories intervened between the ceiling where the leaked showed and the
roof. A quantity of fine cutlery was injured by it. There was a steam radiator
directly over the goods damaged, but the family renting the flat stoutly insisted
that the air valve had not been touched, and pointed to the dust on the floor as an
evidence of the truth of their statement. The dust certainly did look natural, but
after a search, which covered every possible source of trouble from roof or cornice,
cutting up the floor it was found that the plastering, joists and even the under side
of the flooring was thoroughly soaked with water from the radiator. While all

roof leaks cannot be attributed to radiators, here is evidence that the roofer may
be called upon to discover the cause of water damage or have his reputation and
the roof suffer by imputation.

CONDENSATION TROUBLES—

One of the most common of the many troubles of the roofer is condensation
on the under side. It often causes the utter ruin of the tin in an amazingly short
time. Many times the roofer is called to stop puzzling leaks which are nothing
else than the drip of the condensing interior atmosphere. And it is hard to convince
the average person that the roof and the leak (?) nothing else but aforesaid
is tight

drip. Again, spots appear on plastering which is not due, though always blamed
on the roof, to a leak but the chemical composition of the plaster and exceptionally
humid condition of the air.

has been said relative to this phaze of the roofing business and a few of
Much
the remarks from experienced men are reprinted here. From the opinion of many
 :

774 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

experts it is well to remember the following rules when doing roofing work

Always see to it that the space under the roof is thoroughly ventilated.
If because of the purposes of the use of the building there is a likelihood of the
air being in a continuous saturated condition and will come in contact with under
surface of the tin, then lay on the sheathing a dependable waterproof paper ab-
solutely free from anything in its composition injurious to the tin. This paper to
be laid from the top down so should there be a leak it will run under the first seam
of the paper and become manifest underneath instead of being held by the paper
and be apt to start rusting of the undersurface of the tin.
Protect a tin roof already down by covering the underside of sheathing with a
waterproof paper thereby protecting the tin and perhaps obviating condensation
by keeping the inside air from striking a cool surface.

CONDENSATION TROUBLES—II
The superintendent of the building called up to-day, and said one of the copper
decks was leaking around the ventilator. Went up and looked it over. We were
careful to have the copper turned up 3 in. all around the vent opening, and the
corners carefully soldered before the vent, a 24 in. one of standard pattern, was set.

It was held in place by stays on the inside and to insure against snow blowing into

the vent was soldered to the roof all around.

The small space between the copper flashing turned up inside the vent and the
sides of the vent base had filled with condensation, and finally overflowed into the
building. A nail hole was made in the vent base on each side to let the water out,
and a small piece of copper bent in a semicircle and soldered outside the holes, with
the top and bottom edges free, allows egress for the condensation and prevents
snow blowing in.

Had a lively argument with the superintendent of the job, when we told him
there was no leak, and he triumphantly asked why the vent on the other end of

the building did not “leak,” as had been the case with the one he complained of.
We replied that it was because the other end of the building was not being plastered.
Therefore there was less moisture in the air to condense, and we took him to the

other end of the building and showed him where the water was slowly dropping
from the weep holes we had made, and he had to admit that he was learning a few
things about roofing that he did not know.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 775

ROOF CONDENSATION TROUBLES—III

The architecthad an argument with me last week and could not be convinced
that there was no leak in the valley on the north wing of a building where we did
the work.
This wing is main building, and the ridge of the
several feet lower than the
roof of the wing runs into the slope of the roof of the main building, but most of
the roof below the ridge stops against the wall of the main building. A valley
starts 15 ft. out on this ridge and finishes
at the bottom at the corner of the main
building, making a triangular section of
roof running to a point at the low end
where the valley intersects the corner of
the main building, and for 10 or 12 ft. up
the roof we put on a copper watershed.
This sketch, Fig. 187, shows the lay-
out of the roof and valley. Near the bot-
tom of the valley the sheathing was wet in-
side the attic, but there was no snow, ice

or water outside, and had not been any for

several days as 1 had noticed this and

formulated my theory before the architect
kicked about the “leak.” Several days
earlier the sheathing had been wet under-
neath this valley all the way down, and
also underneath the whole of the copper
watershead, the wet section following the
lines of this work because of the facility
Fig. 187. More Condensation Troubles . , , . , . , ,
with which copper conducts heat away
and therefore cools off the warm air inside and causes condensation when the air

outside is very cold and the warmer air inside is very moist.
In this case these two extremes existed as the weather was very cold and the
air in the building very moist from escape at air valves in the steam heating system
and the drying of the plaster, so the sheathing became wet from the condensation.
Naturally this followed down the rafters, and the sheathing at the low points
became saturated while that near the top of the valley and the top lines of the
 776 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

watersheds did not get so wet and soon dried out when conditions improved, while
that near the bottom remained wet longer and it was the dampness at that point

which was reported as a “leak.”

I explained this to the architect, but he would not believe it entirely, and said

he would have to see a rain on the roof before he would believe the condensation
theory. I then examined the watershed, valley and roof thoroughly, and was
firmly convinced that there was no leak. The rain this morning showed the
architect conclusively that there was no leak, as a very heavy rain, continuing for
several hours, failed to let any water through, and he had to admit that he was wrong.

ROOF CONDENSATION TROUBLES— IV

A complaint made by the superintendent of a large building in course of con-

struction, and being plastered, was that there were some leaks in the roofs on one
side of the building beyond the wall line. The roof is of slate, over single ply
tarred felt, and the eaves project beyond the building about 4 ft. The weather was
quite cold; the building is heated and the air is very wet from the drying out of the
plaster and a number of open valves from the heating radiators.

The openings and numerous, allowing all the moisture

into the attic are large
and saturated warm air to rise to the attic, from which there was little chance for
egress, as nearly all the ventilator dampers were closed. In the attic we found
that on the east side of the building, the overhang of the eaves outside the wall line
between the rafters, was wet, except
about every tenth space, which would
be found to be dry. We then examined
the eaves on the west side of the build-
and found them all dry.
As stated, the eaves extend beyond
the walls of the building about 4 ft. ,
and
there is dead air space between the
rafters about 6 in. high and the distance
of the overhang, as cleats were nailed
to the sides of rafters as shown in accompanying sketch, Fig. 188, and to these
cleats were nailed sheathing boards, as shown. To the tops of the rafters, about 6
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 777
in. above, was nailed the roof sheathing. The lower side of the space was closed
by the molding nailed to the ends of the rafters. The upper side, on a line with
the inside of the wall, was open.
My theory was that the dead shown condensed the moisture from
air spaces

the saturated air, because extending beyond the wall line, this space was much
colder than the rest of the attic. The superintendent derided this theory and asked
why every tenth space was dry. I replied that this was one proof of my theory, as
this tenth space was the one in which a perforated ventilator was placed in the
lower sheathing just outside the wail line and the circulation of the air in this space
prevented the condensation of the moisture.

Then we went outside and I pointed out to him proof No. 2 of my theory.
There was frost on the copper gutter just outside each ventilator opening where the
warm, moist air from the vent opening struck against the gutter and was condensed
on it in the form of frost. Proof No. 3 was that there was no snow, ice or water
on the roof, and had not been for several days.

A fourth proof was that on the west side of the building, where the construc-
tion was just the same, there was no complaint of “leaks” and no moisture show-
ing on the under side of the roofing sheathing. This was because the sun was
shining on that side of the building and the air in these spaces was warm enough
to hold the moisture in suspension. The superintendent and the architect are
goods on us ”
‘
beginning to think that they will not be able to catch us with the ‘

on any leaks on the job, for whenever they have complained their complaint, like

this one, has been traced back to condensation and proved to their satisfaction to
be due to that cause.
There will be no trouble from that cause after the building has been in use,
because, first, the attic will not be nearly so warm, as the openings into it will be
closed, and second, the air will never be nearly so wet as the drying out of the
plaster and the leakage from open radiator valves has kept the air saturated.

A ROOFING CLEAT BENDER

A roofing cleat bender which in one motion bends the roofing cleat ready for
use on the roof, turning a %-inch edge on one end and making another turn 134
inches from this end is shown by Fig. 189. When the cleat is to be used on the
77 s Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

roof, all that is to be done is to place the 34*i nc h edge on the cleat over the 1^-inch
edge which has been turned on the course
of tin for the standing seams and to

drive the nails through the wider end at the

bottom of the cleat. Take a piece of hard
wood 1 inch thick, 8 inches wide and 6
inches long. To this secure another piece
of hard wood 134 inches wide by means of
a small wrought iron hinge at each end.

To the 1^4 -inch piece fasten with screws a

handle with an offset in it at the center.

To the wider piece of wood fasten by means

of wood screws an, upright piece of wood at each end, and to these uprights is

secured a piece of hard wood, the bottom side of which was placed just 134 inches
above the top of the pieces to which the lunges were fastened. Then fasten by
means of wood screws two piece of heavy sheet iron to the bottom piece, one piece
1 inch wide and the other 134 inches. The holes are drilled in these pieces of

sheet iron so that the edges of both are fastened even at the back. Fasten them to
the wood so that the narrower piece of iron is on the under side and the front
edge of the wider piece is flush with the front edge of the board. Now, by put-
ting the piece of tin that was cut off for a cleat under the edge of the sheet iron and
bringing the handle of the cleat bender in an upright position, the two bends are
made and the cleat formed in one movement.

ROOFING LADDER

This ladder known in trade parlance as a “chicken ladder,” has its convenience
enhanced by the adjustable bracket. The bail makes the bracket secure, while the
bolt prevents it from dropping from the ladder when moving about on the roof.
The slotted plate through which the bolt passes is placed under a smaller slot cut
in the top of the bracket. Only a round hole large enough to pass the bolt should
be bored in the ladder, thereby holding the bolt firmly in the ladder, while the
slot allows enough play to the bracket to prevent the leg of the bracket from
climbing the roof, as ladders with a fixed bracket will do while working upon them.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 779
By removing the thumb screw the bracket will be free to slide upon the ladder,
and the bail can be lifted and
placed under any cleat desired to
move the ladder up out of the
gutter, and the bracket is re-
fastened by putting the bolt
through one of the other holes

which have been previously

bored for the purpose. Fasten
the cleats to the ladder with
No. 8 wire nails, setting the
clinches well up in the wood so
as not to scratch the roofing
plates. The cleats are fastened

1234 inches apart. In Fig. 190

is shown the finished ladder
with the bracket at the top, Fig. 190 . Roofing Ladder —Ladder Complete
and Fig. 191, shows the bracket. It will be noticed that by means of a hole under
the different cleats the ladder can be adjusted to different lengths of rafters. It is

Fig. 191. Ladder Bracket Fig. 193. Bracket and Bail

made from pine board 16 feet long, 7% inches wide and % inch thick. The
cleats are 7% inches long, inches wide and 1 inch thick. The bracket top is

.
12 inches long, 7% inches wide and % inch thick, while the brac-

.
ket leg is 8 inches long, 7 % inches wide and % inches thick, and
the bracket brace, connecting the
two parts is 11 inches long, 7 % ^Ho||r

J. inches wide and % inch thick.

Fig. 192. Bail The bail, Fig. 192, is 8 inches Fig. 194. Bolt and Thumb Nut
square, formed of 5-16 rod, welded solid. The bail is stapled to bracket brace,
 780 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

as shown in Fig. 193, with barbed wire fence staples. Fig. 194 is a carriage
bolt 5-16X234 inches, which is used for fastening the bracket to the ladder, as
previously mentioned. The iron plate shown in Fig. 193 is 2X4 inches, screwed
to the underside of bracket, with slot in both plate and bracket through which
the bolt passes down from the ladder, the thumb nut, Fig. 194, being screwed up
next to the iron plate.

ROSIN SCRAPER

In the accompanying illustration, Fig. 195, is shown what is known as a wire

brush, which is used in practice as a rosin scraper. Before the seams in tin roofing
are soldered the rosin is usually burned on the seam,
and after soldering the rosin flows considerably. It is

often the case after painting a tin roof, where the rosin
had not been scraped off, that the rosin cracks and
exposes the tin plate and causes it to rust.

To avoid this after the roof is soldered, and before

shown in the illustration.
painting, use a wire brush, as
The brush has a wooden top and a leather handle into
Fig. 195. Rosin Scraper
which the hand is slipped. By working the brush
backward and forward with little force the rosin is removed, making the roof ready
for painting. By using the brush a considerable amount of time is saved compared
with using a penknife or flat scraper.

SHEET STEEL MORTAR SAW

The general custom of cutting the joint in brickwork for the

insertion of the edge of the flashing is away the mortar
to cut

with a hammer and chisel. A quicker method is to make a saw

196. From an as shown by sketch, Fig. 196. It is operated back and forth in
f Carpenter's Saw
the joint. Oftentimes these saws are just made from heavy
scrap iron with the top folded round shape to act as a handle.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 781

COMBINATION SCRAPER AND TIN CUTTER

When repairing tin or galvanized iron roofs, after the defective sheets have
been found, it is usual to use a chisel and hammer and cut out the defective spots,
and then use a scraper with which to scrape a smooth, bright surface on the old tin
or iron, so that a joint can be made with the new metal.
Or a case may arise where an old tin roof is being ripped up to make place
for a new roof. Before cutting, the old tin roof is usually divided into sections,
cut and measured, rolled up and tied and the size number of square feet in each
roll marked on the outside, so that i;i case a piece is wanted of a given size, it will

Fig. 197. Slow Method Fig. 198. Side View of Combination Fig. 202. Section through Tin Roof
of Cutting a Tin Roof Scraper and Tin Cutter Showing Cutter in Use

not be necessary to open the roll again for measurement. If defective sheets, or

an old tin roof, were to be cut out, using the hammer and shown in Fig.
chisel

197, a great amount of time and labor would be lost. To avoid this, and have the
scraper and cutter combined in one, there is shown in Fig. 198 a side view of a
combination tool for the purpose. The cutter shown at A is used to cut out the
old sheets, and the scraper shown at B is used to obtain a bright surface on the old

Fig. 199. Section Fig. 200. End View Fig. 201. End View Fig. 203. Section through Tin Roof Show-
through CD of Cutter at A of Scraper at B ing Scraper in Position for Use

metal. The made from %-ineh octagon steel, and, as shown in Fig.
scraper is

198, should be 10 inches long when finished.

Any blacksmith or tool maker can make the scraper to order, Fig. 198 giving
a good idea of how the tool should look when finished. Fig. 199 shows a section
at the line C D shown in Fig. 198 Fig. 200, the end view of the cutter shown at
;
 782 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

A, and Fig. 201 the end view of the scraper, shown at B. Fig. 202 is a section
through a tin roof with the cutter in position when in use.
It will be noticed that the end B is raised so that the point of the cutter
touches the roof. In practice the tool is grasped near the end B with the left hand,
and taking in the right hand an old mallet, which has already done its duty in
pounding down locked seams in tin rooting, the blows are struck as indicated in
Fig. 202, moving and striking the gutter alternately.
Fig. 203 also shows a section through a tin roof with the scraper in position
for use. In using the scraper, the end A, Fig. 203, is raised as shown, and, taking
the scraper in both hands, a dowmward pressure is exerted, at the same time draw-
ing the scraper backward and forward until a smooth, bright surface is obtained.

ROOFERS’ ELEVATOR

Here is an illustration, Fig. 204, and description of a roofers’ elevator that can
be used with satisfaction in the absence of something better for hoisting rolls of tin

to a roof instead of carrying them up a ladder. It should be made of oak, 1 34

inches thick and 6 inches wide, one part 3 feet long and the other part 2 feet long.
Buy a 14 inch extra heavy strap hinge, a pulley wheel 4 inches in diameter with a
34-inch hole in it, and a 34-inch
634 inches bolt,

long. In the short piece of oak at one end saw a

slot in the middle of the 6-inch side, 6 inches long
and wide enough for the pulley wheel to turn
easily. Bore a hole for the bolt to hold the pul-
ley wheel and secure them in place. Fasten the
two parts together with the strap hinge and it is

Fig. 204. Elevator in Operation ready for use. A strap made of band iron with
holes in each end for screws or nails to hold it on the roof should also be provided

when a considerable quantity of tin is to be raised. Standing on the long part will
answer for raising a few rolls. In use, all of the short part hangs beyond the edge
of the roof and a rope runs over the wheel to the ground, with a hook on the end
for fastening to the roll of tin. By pulling on the rope on the roof it works easily
over the pulley, raising the tin until the roll strikes the short part of the elevator,
when an up pull will make the hinge double back and drop the tin on the roof.
 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns 7®3

CONSTRUCTING AN OIL TANK

In Fig. 205 shown a perspective view of an oil tank. The constructive

is

view is shown in Fig. 206, in which A is the body, double seamed to the bottom
of B at C C. A heavy wire edge is placed at the top, as indicated. Galvanized
sheet metal bands are soldered at intervals around the tank, in this case only one,
D, being shown. They are made as shown at E F, a J^-inch e dge being bent at
an angle of 45 degrees at each side of the strip, and the strip being equal in length
to the circumference of the tank. These beveled edges are now soldered direct to
the tank, to prevent buckling and to secure stiffness.

The patterns for the tank are all rectangular pieces, excepting the boss, which
secures the faucet shown by B in Fig. 205. This pattern is obtained as shown in
Fig. 207, which shows a quick, accurate rule which requires no triangulation, the
A
I

Pigs. 205 and 206. View and Section of Tank Pig. 20?. Pattern of Boss for Faucet

pattern being developed by means of parallel lines. First draw the line A B, and
with A on this line as center, having the required radius of the tank, describe the

part plan C D. Locate the hight of the boss as EF and draw the diameter of the

faucet G H. Locate the distance that the boss should project on either side of the
tank as at J and I, and draw the lines J H and G I.

In its proper position below the line H G draw the profile of the outside of

the faucet, as indicated by K, one-half of which divide into equal parts, as shown
from 1 to 4 to 1, because in this case a seam will be placed along E F, and there-

fore in practice only one-half plan is required. From the various intersections in
 :

784 Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns

K erect vertical lines intersecting EG as shown. From these points parallel to

G I draw lines indefinitely intersecting the curve C D, as shown. While K repre-
sents the true profile on the line H G, a true section must be found at right angles
to G I as follows
At right angles to GI draw the line a b. Now measuring from the line 4 4'

in the section K take the various distances to points 1, 2 and 3 and place them on
similar numbered lines, measuring in each instance from and on either side of the
line a b, as shown from 1' to 4' to 1', which is the true section required.
For the pattern take the girth of the section just obtained and place it on the
line L M, drawn at right angles to G I, as shown from 1' to 1'. Through these
points draw the usual measuring lines, intersecting them by lines drawn at right
angles to G I from intersections on F G and E D, and resulting in the shape F 1 T 1

T
1 F
2
The triangular piece shown by E 1° F in plan is transferred to the pattern
as follows: With radii equal to F E and 1° E in plan, andF and 1 T respectively, 1
,

in the pattern as centers, describe arcs intersecting each other at e. Now with A E
v
in plan as radius, and l and e in the pattern as centers, describe arcs cutting each
other at m. Using m as center and using the same radius draw the arc Ve. Then
F e«F
d l
will be the pattern for the half boss, which must be formed after the true
section shown.
This is presented for those who may desire to make the tanks shown in
the article on Roof Painting, as receptacles for the oil and dryer necessary for
roof painting.
 SECTION VII

(Pages 785-900)

SKYLIGHTS AND LOUVRES

PATTERN LAYOUTS
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 7 85

Practical Sheet Metal Work and

Demonstrated Patterns

FLAT SKYLIGHTS
Although flat skylights involve the elementary constructive characteristics of the
entire category of skylights, they are nevertheless the fundamentals in the matter
of constructive features, and much time and thought have been expended in exper-
iments to simplify the design and learn a mode of expeditious handling.
The cardinal principals to remember when designing a skylight of any class
are :To design it of ample strength to resist imposed stresses or loads sections or ;

profiles of curbs, bars and the like must be as simple as consistent with required

strength to allow of rapid forming into shape on the brake, and the girth to be
such that they will cut out of the sheets without waste.
There are several kinds of flat skylights. Fig. 1 is a picture of the most com-
mon style, that which is set on a roof curb of sufficient hight above the roof to
insure imperviousness to storms,
the roof to have the necessary
pitch. A longitudinal section is

shown in Fig. 3, giving a design,

with a bar of 2-in. depth, that has
proved adequate for skylights of a
size up to 8 ft. wide.
It is to be understood that the
construction of a roof governs the
length of skylights, for by proper
anchoring of bottom curb of sky-
light to roof curb any length may Fig. 1. General view of Flat Skylight
be built, though the drainage of
the roof back of the skylight is then to be considered. In this case it is customary
to employ the built-in type, which allows the water on the roof back of the skylight

to run over it rather than to be conducted to the sides of the skylight by the saddle,
as indicated in Fig. 1.
 ;

Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

Naturally by reinforcing bars with core plates, as shown by Fig. 4, the length
of bar can be increased over the 8 ft. just mentioned. Should, however, the length
of required bar be considerable, it is advisable to abandon the type of Fig. 1, and
instead of enlarging the bar section and reinforcing with a core plate in the built-in
type of skylight, the roof should carry the load by a system of purlins on which the
skylight bars rest. The purlins should be spaced apart the distance bars are calcu-
lated to be self-sustaining; for instance, with the bar of Fig. 3, purlins would be
8 ft. apart.
The obtaining of the patterns for the skylight of Fig. 3 entails no intricate
methods of developing, the principal requisite being to be constantly on the alert
for means of strengthening and simplifying the joints as at A, B, C and D of ;

Fig. 2, which is a plan of the joints of the skylight, minus the glass and caps.
Therefore, for the pattern of the side curbs of the skylight, take the stretchout
of profile A, Fig. 3, and place it on the line X Y. Draw the customary parallel
lines through these points and from point of profile A drop lines to intersect like
numbered lines of line X Y. This, then, is the pattern of the joint A of Fig. 2 for

the side curbs, laps being allowed as shown dotted. This also, without the laps, is

the pattern for the upper curb, the cut of the pattern being the same at both ends.
For the miter cut of the side curb at the joint B of Fig. 2, drop lines from pro-
file B, Fig. 3, which is the lower curb, to those on line XY in this manner: From
7, 8 and G of B the line will intersect 9, 8 and 7 of the pattern as shown, also from
a of B to 6 of the pattern.
Following the simplifying idea, profile B from a to 0 will be a straight cut
that is, it will butt against the upright member of profile A 6 5. Hence, the cut
on- the side curb from 6 to 5 will conform to that part of profile B from 4 or a to 2.

It is, therefore, necessary to take the distance 4 a to 3 b and place it from 6 toward 5
of the pattern, as shown. A line projected from 4 of B, also from 2, will give that
part of the cut ;
the rest of the cut of the side of profile A is straight to 4, then
from 4 to 3 it goes back to suit 3 b to 2 of profile B, and is then straight. The
gutter of the side curb 3 2 1 is cut on the slant shown to allow the condensation in

the gutter of the side curb to drain into that (5 4 ) of the bottom curb. After making
several of these skylights it was found that the laps are best placed as indicated by
the dotted lines.
The pattern for profile B, or lower curb, at the joint B of Fig 2, will be the
same at both ends, and is obtained by placing its stretchout (profile B, Fig. 3) on
the line V W and drawing the usual parallel lines as shown. Project lines from
profile A, at 8 and 6, to intersect 8, 7, 6 and a of the pattern ;
as aforesaid, the
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 787

rest is a straight cut, so this will be the pattern of lower curb, with laps allowed as
shown.
For the pattern of the bar, or profile C (at joint C of Fig. 2, first), proceed as
follows : Place the stretchout on line T U and draw the lines through the points.
The vertical numbers 5 4 and 5 6 will

be a straight cut ;
the shoulders, or glass
rests, 6 7 and 3 4, are cut back to miter
on the shoulder 2 3 b of profile B. The
members of C, 3 2 and 7 8, are straight
cut, to butt against 4 3 b of B. The
gutters of C, 0 1 2 and 8 9 10, are cut

as described for the gutter 0 1 2 of A.

The cut of profile C at joint C, Fig.

2, is best obtained by using the same

stretchout, U T, and drawing a line paral-
lel to U T, as r s. The vertical members,
4 5 and 5 6, of C are straight, as shown,

and are on the line r s, to butt against 4 5

jitppcr Curb

WBor
Side

m ~7
Lower Curb

Fig. 2. Plan of Joints of Skylight

Cong Plot*

Fig. 4. Bar with Core Plate

of A. Then the shoulders, 6 7 and 4 3, are cut to suit those of profile A, 4 3, and
the depth of the cut, which is 4 3 of A, is taken with the dividers and stepped from
 7 88 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

line r s of the pattern and on lines 3 and 7. The gutters of bar c would be cut
straight, but are here cut on a slant to prevent interference when assembling,
because the gutters of the bar are set on top of that of the curbs. Allow laps as
shown by the dotted lines.
The caps should be formed as indicated by D for the bars and by D 1
for the

side and upper curbs; lower curb, of course, having none. For the pattern place
the stretchout of profile D ( same for D 1
) on the line R S, and the parallel lines

drawn through the points on this line are intersected by lines projected upward
from the profile D*. This will be the cut of the miter of the bar caps with those of
the upper curb. No laps are necessary and at the bottom the cap would have a
straight cut, the cap terminating at 1 of the lower curb B.
The side caps are cut straight at the bottom and one-half would be the same as
for the bar caps, the other half being cut as shown by the dotted lines g. The caps
for upper curb are of a length to fit between the bars. The spacing of the bars
should never exceed 24 in., eighteen in. being a good average, for glass is not
even self-supporting throughout when lying in, or nearly to, a horizontal plane,
and would break of its own weight. The upper caps then would agree to this width
and one-half would be cut as shown by lines g, the other half by line h, both ends
of the cap being cut alike.

The caps are held in place by soldering the upper caps to the curb, then to
these the side and bar caps, they being held to the glass by copper cleats, which
were previously soldered to the bar, about 8 in. from the lower curb.
In Fig. 5 is portrayed the manner in which an ornamental effect was acquired
on a church roof by turning the skylight cornerwise. These offer less obstruction

to the flow of the water on the roof than

the other type and snow seldom, if ever,
banks back of these. This, as is evident,
created some trouble for the carpenter in
the framing of the roof, which, however,
was not formidable as ;
for the skylight,

it was just a matter of changing the

procedure a little, to wit:

The two upper curbs were the same

as ( profile A ) in Fig. 3, each having the
miter cuts of side curbs of Fig. 3 to miter
on the two lower curbs of Fig. 6, which are of the profile B of Fig. 3. For the
miter at the extreme lower comers of the skylight of Fig. 6 another pattern of
 — 9

Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 7®

profile B of Fig. 3 was necessary, which was a square miter, obtained by the
principle of cutting any square miter.
In all a plan would be as shown in Fig. 6. This plan was necessary in the
development of the patterns of the bars and caps, new ones having been required
bide curb-

Cdp Patterns
Pattern of BarM /aid out by
C-D % Pattern of Bar At same method
Profile A offtf. 2.

Joint 3

Pattern of 5q
Miter of
v
Lower Curb s Lower curb•

Fig. 6. Method of Developing Patterns

owing to the bars mitering on the curbs at an angle ; the development should be
quite dear by a study of Fig. C. And it is of interest to state, this style of skylight

will cost about 10 per cent, more than

the ordinary one shown in Fig. 1.

Oftentimes there is not sufficient

pitch in the roof curb. Fig. 7 shows a
skylight with a single pitch for such a
roof, as it is desirable to have pitch con-
ducive to rapid drainage of the glass
surface. The deficiency in such a case
Fig. 7. Single Pitch Skylight can be met by raising the upper curb of
 79 ° Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

the flat skylight, all but the

part known as the apron (and
its shoulder), 9 8 7 6 of profile
A, Fig. 3. The space from 6
to 5 is then filled out. Of
course the weight rests on the
sheet metal constituting this
filling in and, perforce, the sky-
light size should not exceed,
say, 4 ft. in width, when 4 in.

to the foot is given as pitch.

A longitudinal section of
this skylight is given in Fig. 8,
together with the method of

allowing for the pitch in the

pattern of the side curbs on
line 6 of the pattern of the side
curb, Fig. 3. It is to be under-
stood that for the top curb the
compensation for the pitch
would be also on line 6, but
Fig. 8. Method of Compensating for Pitch in Pattern
instead of a triangular filling it

would be rectangular and of

the hight of the altitude of the

triangular piece ;
in other
words, the cut V of Fig. 8 is

the same on both sides for top

curb. There would be no change

in the pattern of the lower curb

(6, Fig. 3), except to bend

on the line a of Fig. 3 to the
Fig. 0. The Reinforcement
angle prescribed by the section
in Fig. 8. If wanted, the sky-
light size or the pitch may be
greater than stated if the top
curb is reinforced, as suggested Fig. 10. Longitudinal Section of Puttylees Skylight
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 79 1
by Fig. 9. A new design commensurate with requirements is recommended,
however, as it is impossible to guard against collapse when just the sheet metal is
depended on to resist compressive strains, even if reinforced.
Hundreds of small lights of this type and of a size up to 4 ft. wide are made
to need no putty. These are decidedly cheap, though absolutely weathertight and
substantial in the size mentioned. The design is shown by the sections in Fig. 10,
which answer for both, that with and without a pitch. The patterns are obtained
as described for the other types.

MAKING FLAT SKYLIGHTS

It is the intention m this exposition to elucidate a well tried procedure of
making flat skylights from the cutting of the material to shipping to the job. The
explanation is based on methods used by a large concern in the manufacture of
skylights. A skylight 7 ft. 9 in. X 15 ft. 3 in. will be used as an example, this
size being about as large as is advisable to make wholly in the shop. Fig. 11
gives the sections of a typical flat sky-
light, and as it is of interest to explain

the working of the modern power press,

Fig. 11. Section of a Typical Skylight

the bending operations of the parts of the

shown for both
skylight will be the hand
brake and the power press.
It is customary to preserve stub pat-
Fig. 12. Sheet Metal Stub Pattern
terns of sheet metal for the standard types
of skylights. These stub patterns are like the one shown by Fig. 2, which is that
of the lower curb. And to allow of cutting without waste, skylight sections are
designed to be of a girth that is an equal divisor of the standard stock; for

instance, assuming that the pattern of Fig. 12 has a stretchout of in. it would
cut four out of a 30-in. sheet. Having this set of stub patterns no further laying
 79 * Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

out of patterns is necessary, except to make a scale layout of the skylight on which
is shown all dimensions as indicated by Fig. 13. From these data the material
can be cut, for if the sketch states, for example, that a skylight is wanted 7 ft.

wide, the lower curb would be cut 7 ft. ,

measuring on the parts of stub indicated

thereon ;
and so on for all parts.

A putative job of 100 skylights of the size of Fig. 13 is required, for which
the accompanying Requisition List will read as shown. Therefore, the procedure of
making the skylight is as follows: The back gauge of the large square shears is

set to, say the girth of the lower curb pattern, 7^ in- This gauge is the same on
the foot and the power shears, and
the sheet is cut by pushing it through
and between the cutting blades until
it strikes the gauge, when the treadle
is brought down, throwing in the
clutch for the power machine, thereby
making cut by the descent of upper
blade ;
or with the foot machine caus-
ing the descent of the upper blade
Pig. 13. Layout of a Flat Skylight
by the leverage of the foot treadle.

This is repeated three times, and the piece remaining should be 7^ in.

REQUISITION LIST
200—Lower curbs (right and left) Size as shown
200— Side curbs (right and left) Size as shown
200—Upper curbs (right and left) Size as shown
200— Side caps (right and left) ...7ft. 6 % in.

1000— Bars ..7ft. 8# in.

1000— Bar caps ...7 ft. 8# in.

1100—Top caps 16# in.

2400—Soft copper cleats 2 X 1 in.

1100—Lights of 8
ribbed glass
/i«-in. ...16 X 92 in.

30—Tubs of linseed putty oil ,

. (110 lbs tub)

It is better practice to trim all the sheets, allowing for greater ease and
accuracy in the final cutting operations. To do this the girth is reduced on the
stub patterns ^ in., which will give % in. to trim from each side of the sheet.
As this is always preferable, then, instead of pushing the sheet at once to the back
gauge, the % in. is trimmed off by setting the front gauge 29% in., and holding
to that first. And after the fifty sheets are cut, and keeping the last strip of each
sheet aside, the front gauge is set to the 7%-in. mark and the old edge trimmed
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 793

from these strips. This is preferable to endeavoring to cut the last strip with the
back gauge, for even if another man holds the strip in back, or the strip is held
by an arrangement on the back gauge, the operator’s fingers are endangered, and
besides the cutting blades are strained owing to the inability of the holddown
attachment of the shears to grasp a edge. This cutting operation is

repeated for all the parts of the skylights, using 8 ft. sheets, for that is the best
length to cut from for this size skylight.
There are two methods of cutting the miters on these strips, which are now
called unfinished blanks, either by dotting off with a sharp punch and scribing the
outline with a sharp awl from the pattern to each blank successively and cutting
with the snips ;
or by a press with the proper dies which stamp out in one blow the
entire miter cut, and if necessary make the punch mark for bends. If the press is

used, the blanks must be cut square at the ends and to the right length, for say
with the bars 7 ft. 10 in. long and the dies requiring an allowance of % in. for
each miter, the blanks will be 7 ft. 11)4 in. long. It is immaterial whether the
30-in. sheet is cut to this length first or the blanks are ;
it having been found that
an operator can handle the blanks with greater speed and accuracy than the sheets,
compensating thereby for the four edges cut at once with the sheet, Whereas but
one is cut in trimming the blank. This trimming is better done on the 36-in.

square shears with the customary bench and gauge attached for long sheets. And
of course this ends the cutting of the parts, excepting when the blanks are cut with
the hand snips they should be dressed down with a mallet, holding them on a
smooth surfaced iron for the burr arising from cutting and the upstanding punch
marks interfere with the bending operations. These then are the finished blanks,
though in the matter of spacing the bars two methods are pursued, either to dot

off the spaces on the glass rests of the lower and upper curbs, which is ideal, for

after one set of curbs has been spaced the marks can be pricked to each blank from
this set, a saving of incalculable time, especially if blanks are cut by the snips.
The other method of spacing is to use a gauge of a length coincident with the
space between bars ;
this gauge is made by putting a couple of bends in a piece of
iron to stiffen it; and in assembling, bars are held to this gauge.
One of the most difficult descriptions for the pen, is that of bending operations

relative toforming sheet metal into the various profiles that it is possible to shape
this material. Not only that, but it becomes monotonous to write and read con-
tinuously the phrase, “reverse insert in brake and bend on dot No. 4.” In
consequence the explanations will be graphic rather than written, the diagrams
being relied on more than the text. For the lower curb, profile A, Fig. 11 begin
 794 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

bending operations as follows: Insert 7 to 8 in the brake and close clamp B,

Fig. 14, on dot 1, bring bending leaf A up, until it strikes the clamp B; this
‘

operation from now on will be called ‘all the way.

’
’
Lower bending leaf, release

clamp, push bent part in brake, close clamp which squeezes tight the hem edge as
shown, in Fig. 15. Pull blank out to dot 2, bring bending leaf up square as shown

First Bending Operations for Lower Curb

by Fig. 16, called in the rest of text, “bend square.

’
’
Remove blank all the way oat
of the brake and grasping it in the center, turn it end for end, that is, bring the
left hand end of the blank to the right hand end of the brake ; this is to be known
after this as “turn round.” Insert in brake, bend square on 3; Fig. 17. Take out,
turn around, bend square on 4, Fig. 18, turn around, bend all the way on 5, Fig.
19. Turn around, bend all the way on dot 7, Fig. 20. Insert this in the brake
and close, as Fig. 21. Turn around blank and bend on dot 6, Fig. 22. Plaoe
bend 5 in the brake and close, as per Fig. 23, which is the final operation for the
bending of the lower curb.
Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 795
 )

Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

Profile B of Fig. 1 1 is formed by starting on dot 4 with 9 to 5 in brake and

making square bend, Fig. 24. Remove from the brake and turn bottom side of

Fig. 26. Fig. 27.

First Bending Operations for Side Curb

blank up and insert 0, 1 and 2 in the brake ( to be known hereafter as

‘
‘turn over,
’
’

bend to required angle on 3, Fig. 25. Turn around, bend dot 2 to angle, Fig.

26. Remove blank to 1 and make the bend, bringing the bending leaf up care-
fully and stopping when the bend on dot 3 strikes the clamp of brake, as Fig. 27.

Turn over blank and make bend on dot 5 all the way, Fig. 28. Turn blank
around and bend square on 6, Fig. 29. Turn over and squeeze bend on dot 5,
Fig. 30. Turn the blank around and bend all the way on dot 8, Fig. 31. Push
this bend in the brake and flatten as Fig. 32. Push into the brake and make
bend on dot 7 square as Fig. 33. This completes the forming of the upper and
side curbs. Sometimes if material is heavy it is impossible to close the clamp on
the entire bend, in which case one end only is inserted, and this much flattened,
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 797
then a little more placed in the brake and closing the clamp, and so on. This, of
course, is likely to close the bend irregularly ;
therefore, it is advisable to exert the
utmost strength and close clamping leaf on the entire bend.
 8 ;

79 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

It is possible that some forcing will be necessary to have dot 4 pass the bending
leaf owing to dot 6 striking the face of bending leaf. With some machines the
face plate A is in two
parts, one being re-

movable which will

allow dot 4 to pass as

shown. Turn over
and bend on dot 7 to
the required angle,
Fig. 37. Turn the
blank around and
Pig. 86. Pig. 87.
bend dot 8 to angle,
Continued Operations for Bar
Fig. 38. Bend 9 as
shown by Fig. 39.
Turn over and bend
3 to angle, Fig. 40.
Turn the partially
completed bar around
and bend 2 to angle,

Fig. 41. It will re-

quire a little forcing
to get dot 2 into the
brake. However, by
removing plate A this

forcing amounts to but

Pig. 88. Pig. 88.

little, for the spring of the

metal is such as to allow
this forcing. It is to be un-
derstood that the plate A
may be left off during all

operations, providing the

material to be formed is not
Pig. 40. Further Operations for Bar Pig. 41.
extra heavy, which would
spring the bending leaf. Some brake operators close bend on dot 5 with their hands
asshown by Fig. 42. This assists in the complete closing of the bend in the brake
and naturally these remarks apply to all similar bends. Bend dot 1 as shown by
 Skylights! and Louvres Pattern Layouts 799
Fig. 43, then close bend on dot 5 as per Fig. 44, completing the forming of the bar.
It should not be out of place to state
here, that the usual method of gauging the
angles of bends, or rather determining just
how far to raise the bending leaf for such
bends as Fig. 37, and having found the
distance to have a gauge for subsequent
bends of similar angles, is by a quadrant and
adjustable stops as illustrated in Fig. 45.
Having set the stop, it can be turned down
so that bending leaf may go beyond it for
Fig. 42. Closing the Aunb Bend with the Hands
different angle bends; but experience has
taught that in the
#

rapid manceuver-
ing of the opera-
tor, he invariably
forgets the stop
when making the
next bend which
has the bending
leaf passing the
stop, and crashes
into it, and consequent-
ly the stop is moved
up because of the blow,

even if no injury re-

sults. It has been ob-

served that skilled
brake hands discard

these stops and quad-

rant, contending that
they are always in the
way; and guide to

them they make chalk

marks on the bending
leaf, indicated by Figs.
Fig. 46. View of Brake Showing Fig. 46. Bending Leaf Raised
45 and 46. Chalk Marks nntil Chalk Marks Coincide
 8oo Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

Occasionally on the completion of the forming of a bar ( the curbs likewise ) it

will be seen that it has not been formed true to the profile, bend 2 being above 8
for instance, or perhaps these two bends will not touch each other as they should.

Remedying Bending Defects of Bar

In the first case, by inserting the high part in the brake and slightly raising the
bending leaf, will remedy the defect. Inasmuch as it is customary either to tack
the bar at intervals on the bends 2 and 8, or to slide on a bottom cap, the fault of
the second case is not serious ;
still if it must be true to profile a good method is

first to place one part then the other of the bar (8 9 10) in the brake, keeping bend
8 even with the outer edge of the bending leaf, and holding a smooth piece of

wood, say 1 ft. long, on bend 3 and striking light blows with a mallet or hammer.
This is time-consuming and consequently due care should be used in forming to
have profiles true, and is mentioned here only because now and then a springy or
heavier piece of material among the lot will upset all calculations. After doing this,

Fig. 49.
Operations for Bending the Caps

bends on 9 and 1 must be remade, they having been squeezed out by the clamp.
And these two methods are shown by Figs. 47 and 48.
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 801

The operation for bending the cap D, Fig. 11, is quite simple; there being
no turning of the blank, it is expected that Figs. 49, 50 and 51 will convey the
procedure of forming. The cap E, Fig. 11, is bent similarly, excepting that bend
on dot 2 is of a different angle.

Forming these profiles on the drop press differs so much that the bending of
each profile will be explained separately, as was done for the hand brake operations.
Pursuant to this, therefore, the bending of profile

A of Fig. 11 is begun on dot 7, holding 6 to 0 in the

hands shown by Fig. 53. In all the other diagrams
as

it is to be remembered that the part of the blank on the

left hand side of the die (looking at the diagrams) is

the part held by the hands, as shown by Fig. 52, which

, ,, illustrates the right hand holding the blank. This bend
Fig. 52. Manner in which Sheet
ia Held is to be made to the smallest angle possible with the
acute die, and as bend, dot 1, is

the same way it will be necessary

to turn the blank end for end,

or turned around. Skilled brake
hands usually make the bend of

dot 7 on all the blanks, and as

the bench used in conjunction
with the power press is the swivel
type, it is swung half way around,
bringing the blanks in the correct Fig 58 Fig. 54.

position for bend on dot 1 as First Operations for Bending Lower Curb on Power Brake

shown by Fig. 54.

The acute die is re-
moved and the flattening dies
slid into place and set so as

not to close the bends too

n tight, when bend on dot 7
is closed as Fig. 55and then
dot 1 as Fig. 56, after which

Fig. 55. Fig. 56.

the blank is laid on the bench,
Flattening Hem Edges care being taken not to let the

blanks sag in the handling, as that would cause buckles to be formed in the
hem edge. The acute die is again put in position in the press and adjusted to
8oa Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

make square bends, and bend on dot 2 made, Fig. 57. The blank is now pushed
back of the die until dot 6 is in place and as it is somewhat difficult to steady the

Ji

Fig. 57. Fig. 58. Fig. 59.

Continued Operation for Lower Curb

back owing to the excess of weight of the blank on the side not held by the hands,
the upper die is caused to descend slowly, by working the treadle up and down,
and when the upper die almost
touches the blank, and when satis-

— fied that the dot is correctly on

r
the lower die, the die is caused to
descend and ascend rapidly, Fig.
58. Turn the blank over and
make bend on dot 5, Fig. 59,
holding 0 1 2 3 in the hands.
Turn blank over and bend dot 4,
Fig. 60. With the partially com-
Fig. 60. Fig. 61. pleted blanks on the bench, it is
Two Bends of Lower Curb
swung half way around ( some
operators prefer to turn each blank separately ) and make the bend on dot 3, Fig.

61. After running through all the blanks the die is set to make its smallest angle
and dot 5 is placed on the lower die and bend
made to this small angle, Fig. 62. When this
is done on all the blanks, the flattening dies
are placed in the press and the bend on dot 5
is closed on Fig. 63, completing the forming
of the lower curb.
To form the and top curbs B, Fig. 11,
side
the first operation is to bend dot 8 to capacity Fig. 62. Fig. 68.
of die, Fig. 64, and this bend is now closed Final Operations for Lower Curb
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 803

as per Fig. 65. Acute dies are again placed and adjusted to bend square,
in position

and bend on dot 7 is made, Fig. 66. The blanks are turned around by swinging

Fig. 64 Fig. 65 Fig. 66

First Operations for Side and Top Curbs

the bench hall way around and bend on dot 6 made, Fig. 67. The blank is turned
over and the bend on dot 5 made, Fig. 68. The blank is again turned over and

Fig. 67 Fig. 68
Two Bends of Top and Side Curbs

the bend on dot 4 made, Fig. 69. Once more the blank is turned over and the

bend on dot 3 made, Fig. 70. AH the blanks should now be on the bench, which

Fig. e» Fis- 70
Two More Bends of Top and Side Curbs
804 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

isswung around so that the blanks are end for end or turned around. The bend
on dot 1 is made to the required angle, Fig. 71, and then bend on dot 2 to angle,
Fig. 72. As the bend on dot 3 has been made square and not to the required
angle, the blank is turned and the bend on dot 3 is made to angle, Fig. 73. To

Fig. 71 Fig. 72
Two More Bends of Side and Top Curbs

make this bend, it will probably be necessary to send the helper to the back of the
machine to hold the blank, for at the front of the machine there is only the part

Fig. 73 Fig. 74 Fig. 75

Final Operations of Side and Top Curbs

from 0 to 3 to hold ;
this is permissible and is the customary procedure adopted
by many rapid operators, for it saves considerable time and labor in turning blanks
on the bench. For this reason, the back
machine should be kept clear of
of the

all such stuff as dies and formed or unformed material even the tackle used to ;

change the dies should be hung to one side. The bend on dot 5 is brought to the
smallest angle, as per Fig. 74. Flattening dies are now placed in position and the
bend on dot 5 closed, Fig. 75, completing the forming of the side and top curbs.
To remedy defects see Figs. 89 and 90.
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 805

The bar C, Fig. 11, is begun on dot 5 with 0 to 3 in the hands, and is bent
square, Fig. 76. The blank is turned over and the dot on bend 6 made square,
Fig. 77. The blank is drawn out and dot 4
bent square, Fig. 78. The blank is again turned
over and the bend on dot 3 made square, Fig.
79. The blank is pulled out to dot 7, which is
made square, Fig. 80. The blank is drawn out
to dot 1, which is bent to the required angle,
Fig. te Fig. 81. All the blanks are turned around by
First Bending Operation for the Bar
swinging the bench halfway around and the

Fig. 77 Fig. 78 Fig. 79

Continued Opera tions for Bar

Pig. 80 Fig. 8J Pig. 82

Three Bends of the Bar

 8o6 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

bend on dot 9 is made to the required angle, Fig. 82. The blank is pushed into
dot 8, which is made to the required angle, Fig. 83. The blanks are again turned
around by the bench and the bend on dot 2 made to the required angle, Fig.
84. The blank is turned over and the bend, which is now square, on dot
7, made to required angle, Fig. 85. The blank is pushed back and the square
bend on dot 3 is made to the required angle, Fig. 86. The square bend on dot 5

Fig. 8o Two More Bends of the Bar Fig. 84 Fig. 85 Continued Bends of the Bar Fig. 86

Although this is not a dissertation in geometry it should not be irrelevant to

point out that the bend on dot 7 is the same angle as the bend on dot 8 ( or 3 is

the same as 2); accordingly when the die is adjusted to bend to the angle of either
dot, the adjustment will answer for the other dot. When forming up a number of
blanks, however, it will be found that several will turn out imperfect. The reason
why the bars are not true
to profile is due more often
to the material not being of
uniform thickness, which

~J causes the die to make

bends of different angles,

than to the fault of the

Fig.87 Fig. 88 Fig. 89 Fig. 90
Final Operations and Remedying Defects of Bar operator. To illustrate,
in Fig. 89, one of the sides has not been bent sufficiently to the angle and by raising
the flattening dies and adjusting so that they will squeeze the side of the bar ever so
little it will cause part A of the bar to travel towards part B, which is what is desired.
If on the other hand the bar has too much bend on the angle of one side, as in Fig.

90, the flattening dies are brought down until they hold the vertical part or comb of
the bar with the imperfect side up, and a hatchet stake or similar tool forced between
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 807

the die by pulling the shank of the stake outwardly, the bar will true up. Before
doing this, a thin strip of steel is placed between the bar as indicated by line A B.
This method of trueing up a bar, of
course, is likely to pull the square bend
out a little, which is of no moment. Nat-
urally these methods apply to bars with
both sides imperfect, and to the top,
side and bottom curb. Although they
may not remedy the imperfection abso-
Fig. 91 Fig. 92 Fig. 93 Fig. 94
lutely, they will make the bars useable.
Complete Bending Operations for tht Caps
The caps D, Fig. 11, are formed by
bending dot 2 to the required angle, Fig. 91, and then bend on dot 1, Fig. 92.
Blanks are turned abound and dot 3 bent to angle, finishing the cap, Fig. 93.
For cap E, Fig. 11, the bend on dot 2 can be either made as in Fig. 91, which is

advisable, as it stiffens the blank for turning, and the other two bends made as in

Fig. 92 and 93, and then the bend on

dot 2 brought to the required angle,
Fig. 94, or the bend on dot can be
omitted and bends on dots 1 and 4
made as in Figs. 92 and 93, then the
bend on dot 2 made as in Fig. 94.
The forming of the parts having
been completed, the assembling is in

order in this wise : Bars are first

tacked with solder at 2 and 8, profile

C, Fig. 11. These tacks are about 3

in. long and about 1 ft. from the top
Fig. 95. Tacking the Bottom of the Bars
and bottom of the bar and about 1 ft.

apart. Observing due care while doing this so that bars will not twist, and to

assist in this precaution, the bars are placed bottom up between two straight strips

of wood nailed to the benches indicated in Fig. 95. The copper cleats for holding
the caps are now soldered on the bars and spaced according to the layout of Fig. 13.
This can be most readily accomplished by nailing a strip of wood to the bench of
the right hight. On this strip gauge marks are placed, for the cleats must coincide
in spacing on all The bar is laid on the bench with the strip of wood
the work.
supporting the comb part and the cleats soldered on by holding the cleat with a
pair of pliers and placing acid and a drop of solder on the cleat and bar and then
 8o8 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

soldering by holding the hot copper on the cleat and drop of solder until the solder
melts and flows all around and under the cleat, as illustrated by Fig. 96.

These handy as any method known to hold caps. They are, never-
cleats are as

theless, treacherous and tear the hands of the workmen if left in a standing posi-

tion, and are, therefore, turned down and again straightened prior to glazing. The
foregoing explanations for soldering cleats and tacking the bottoms are relevant to
the side curbs, and before laying these bars and curbs aside the laps are turned as
required. This preliminary work obviates the need of interrupting the general
assembling sequence.
There are no cleats to solder to the top and bottom curbs, but there is a seam
to be made as indicated in Fig. 13. The two parts of the bottom curb are laid on
the bench as shown in Fig. 97, lapping the seam the depth of the notches ( shown
by A in Fig. 12), for by doing this no further measuring of the curb is neces-
sary. After going to the ends of the curb and sighting, and being positive both
parts are in line both vertically and horizontally, the seam is strongly tacked on
all the vertical and horizontal members of the curb, not forgetting to tack the apron
part at the bottom, also at intervals along A. Holes are now punched and the seam
riveted by placing the rivets on a thin iron plate which rests on the bench. The
seam is then heavily soldered water tight, and while in the position of Fig. 97,
condensation or weep holes are punched between the spacing dots for the bars, as
indicated at B. It is to be understood that the riveting and soldering of the
vertical members is done when the curb is in the position of Fig. 98, and that the
seam of the upper curb is made in a like fashion, substituting the shape of the
upper curb in place of the lower curb of Fig. 97 and 98, and remembering to tack
2 and 6 (profile B, Fig. 11). Following the idea of completing all preliminary
work, before laying aside the upper and lower curbs, the laps are turned.
Before general assembling of the parts, a frame is made of stout timber con-
forming to the dimensions of the skylight, less % in. allowance for interference of
laps and the like. When sure that this frame is square and straight it is securely
nailed to the bench as shown in Fig. 99. With this frame in position a top and
bottom curb are placed on it and kept from falling off by a piece of band iron bent
and placed as shown by Fig. 100, one anchor at the center being sufficient.
A side curb is now taken and placed on the frame, and while one man makes the
miter to the bottom of the curb, another man makes the miter to the top of the curb,
both men soldering the miters as much as possible. This repeated with the miters
of the curbs on the other end of the skylight. The fire pot, acid, tools and the
like are moved about on a small traveling bench built for this purpose. Ten bars
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 809

are now stood on end at the bottom curb and one man stations himself at the top
curb, the other man at the bottom. The bottom man takes a bar and passes the
right end to the upper man, who just prior to placing the bar in the correct position,

turns down the small edge ( 1 to 0 of

Fig. 11 B), for the bar passes over 1 2 of
upper curb ;
both then placing it in cor-
rect position in respect to the center
spacing dots for the bars on the curbs,
and while a hammer held against the
chest is pressed against the glass rest
part of the curbs, the bar is soldered on
the glass rest, that is along 2 3 of A
and 4 3 of B, Fig. 11. The remainder
of the bars are likewise soldered in place,
Fig. 96. Soldering Copper Cleats in Position, Showing
Gauge Mark working from this center one to the ends.
As might be expected, this pushing with the chest and a hammer against the
curbs is not relished by the men and quite often there is too much of a spring in
the curbs and they cannot get the bars
down as far as they should in the glass
rests of the curbs, with the result that
the glass is short, though otherwise it

matters but little. The concern which

has adopted this procedure for making
with knurled Fi »- 97 Po8tion of Curbs for Makin« Seam8
skylights has a device -

grips which grasp the comb part of the bar. The tension of the grip is caused
by link motion, which is actuated by a lever, working on a ratchet arc fastened
to a block of steel that fits in the upright
member of the lower curb under the
glass rest; which receives the thrust,
thereby bringing the bar and curb to-
gether. The ratchet maintaining the
lever and grip at tension until the pawl
on the lever is released from the ratchet.
When all of the bars are in place two
men carefully lift the upper curb from
the frame and push the skylight along

Fig. 98. Second Position of Curbs for Making Seams the frame ;
then just before it is overbal-
 8io Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

anced they come to the front of the frame and stand the skylight on the floor on
its lower curb. Letting the skylight rest in this upright position against the frame,
the two men dress the laps of the bars
to the lower curb with a dull chisel and •

hammer and solder the laps of the

bars to the curb, that is along 3 4 of
A, Fig. 11. They also solder laps of

the miters of the curbs.

The skylight is again raised to the
frame, slid to the other side and stood
on the floor in an upright position on
its upper curb, the laps dressed back
Fig. 99. Wood Frame for Assembling the Skylight an d soldered On 5 to 4 and 3 to 2 of B,

Fig. 11, as before. Once more, the skylight is lifted back

to the frame, only this time bottom side up, and the
miters finished, also the bars are soldered to the curbs at
1 to 0 for the upper curbs and 5 for the lower curb, Fig.
11, completing the shop work of the skylight, which is

shipped to the job together with the glass, caps, etc.

HANDLING GLASS AND GLAZING SKYLIGHTS

As glazing skylights and hollow metal windows is part of the sheet metal
worker’s everyday occupation, it is of interest to explain how a large roofing con-
tracting firm of Brooklyn, handles glass with a minimum percentage of breakage.
On the job in question not one light was broken, assuredly a phenomenal
record. This job was a large pier. The roof was gravel and had 88 flat skylights
about 8X16 ft., with 11 lights of glass about 16^> X96 in. placed in a double
staggered row.
The working gang consisted of a non-working foreman, three mechanics and
two laborers. The glass was packed with straw in crates, as is customary, averaging
22 lights to the crate. These crates were piled in a double tier at one end of the
pier, as shown by Fig. 101. The first job, therefore, was to distribute the crates
along the pier and nearly under the skylight openings in the roof. The object was
to have glass piled on the roof in such a manner as not to have too much weight
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 8n
on one spot and within easy walking distance of a certain number of skylights to
be glazed and at the same time not to have too many shifts of the hoisting apparatus.
With a short pinch bar and a piece of wood as a fulcrum, one of the crates on

Fig. 101. The Tiers of Grates and Lowering a Crate from Upper Tier

the upper tier was raised sufficiently to put a piece of 2-in. pipe under it to serve

as a roller. When the crate had been carried along on the roller far enough to

balance on its edge, a block of wood one-half the hight of the crate was placed on

Fig. 102. Manner in Which Crates are Moved About

end against the end of the under crate. The upper crate was then carried along
with one end resting on a longshoreman’ s hand truck and the other end allowed
to drop on the block.
8l2 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

Experience has shown that it is not necessary to lift a crate bodily from a
hight, but it can be dropped by easy stages without damaging the glass. Hence,
in this case a block one-half the hight of the crate was used. The crate, however,
must never be on its side. From this block the crate on a roller.-
was allowed to fall
Then by means of these rollers, as in Fig. 102, it was pushed along the pier up a
long plank and on to a hand car, which was operated on a railroad track running
the length of the pier. When the crates had been carried on the car to the desired

Fig. 108. The Derrick, Method of Securing it, and Landing a Crate

location they were dropped from the hand car in the same manner as they were
dropped from the double tier.

To one unaccustomed to handling glass the terrific shocks these crates receive
would cause him to believe the entire contents were smashed, inasmuch as a crate
filled to capacity weighs several hundred pounds.
After distributing the crates along the pier the men went to the roof and rigged
the hoisting apparatus. This was the ordinary cornice derrick. As roof was
already graveled in, the derrick was erected on a heavy beam, so the sharp points
in the legs would not dig holes in the roof. To prevent a backward movement of
this beam, owing to the thrust of the derrick, it was lashed to the skylight curb,
and also a long joist was nailed to the beam and run along the roof till it hit the
roof curb, back of the derrick on the other side of the roof. This derrick of course
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 8x3

was placed on the high side of the roof curb, guyed and stayed in the usual manner,
all asshown by Fig. 103.
The derrick was not sufficiently strong to raise a full crate. The glass was
therefore, unpacked and repacked into crates which had been reinforced to stand
the constant strain of rehoisting and especially lowering, when the crate was really
thrown down. Eleven lights were sent up at a time, and while one crate was being
unpacked on the roof another was being packed below. To keep the crate from

Fig. 104. Method of Packing Glass in a Reinforced Crate and Lashing it for Hoisting

revolving while being raised, a guy rope was hooked to one end of the crate and
held by a man below. This procedure is portrayed by Fig. 104.
The hoisting rope was secured in the center of the crates with a sling allowing
rapid unhitching, etc., though it required some thought and care to balance each
crate. Of course, if it proved slightly unbalanced, it was steadied by hooking the
guy rope 6nd which had a tendency to rise.
at the

As the bottom of the crate was a heavy board and as the top was removed, a
stick was placed between the two sides of the sling to prevent it squeezing the glass.

A few handfuls of straw steadied the glass in the crate, for the crates were but
half filled by glass.
 814 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

To land a crate on the roof it was hoisted a foot or so above the curb and the
guy rope unhooked. Two pieces of heavy joist cut a few inches longer than the
width of the skylight curb and with a cleat nailed to engage the lower part of the
curb to keep the joist from sliding were then placed under each end of the crate.

The crate was lowered on these joists and slid along on them to the bottom of the
roof curb. The sling was then unlashed, the glass unpacked and placed along the
roof in empty crates when convenient, or the lights stood on their long edge against
the roof curbs. To obviate danger
of the wind blowing them down,
bags of gravel were placed against
them.
The crate was now relashed,
the straw and sling stick laid in,

the crate raised from the joists

which were removed from the roof
curb and the crate was allowed to
fall of its own weight, unwinding
thedrum of the derrick in its fall.
From this it is not to be under-
Fig. 108. Manner in Which Glass is Laid in the Putty on the Bars gtoo(j that the crate wftg to

strike the pier floor without retarding the speed of the fall as it neared the bottom,
although a smashed crate would be of small consequence, for there were plenty of
empty ones which were good for nothing more than firewood. To lessen the speed
of the falling crate, a stout board passed between the drum and the crank axle of
the derrick, acted as a brake, when the board was pressed on the drum using the
crank axle as a fulcrum for leverage.
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 815
The method of glazing was to place a heavy beam along the top of the roof
curb, the function of which was to prevent sagging of the skylight when sliding
the skylight on to the roof curb.The lower part of the skylight was then placed
on this beam and the upper part was supported at a bight that kept the skylight
level, with a horse made of an inverted 15-ft. plank that had legs at both ends

made of heavy boards as illustrated by Fig. 105. It might be said that as the roof
had but a slight pitch the roof curbs were constructed with an additional pitch, as
can be seen in the illustrations.

After placing the skylights on the curb and the horse, one man straightened
out the copper cleats, looked over the skylights for possible breaks or defects and
then puttied the bars. The two laborers carried the glass and two mechanics laid
the glass in as shown by Fig. 106, working from one end to the other of skylight.
After pressing each light of glass into the putty,
using considerable pressure, they cleaned the
surplus putty from the top and bottom of the

bars. This surplus putty was used on succeed-

ing lights.
The skylight was now slid on to the roof
curb by two men holding the beam and causing
it to move along the roof curb and the other

three men holding back of the skylight curb

Pig. loe. Cap Punching Kmfe ag g hown by Fig. 107. When the skylight
was in place the upper three men came to the bottom and raised the lower part of
the skylight just enough to allow the two men holding beam to remove it. These
three men now lowered the end of skylight they were holding. During this slid-
ing on of the skylight on to the curb extreme care was exercised not to rake sky-
light, as that would disturb the set of the putty and perhaps break some glass.
 8i6 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

The copper cleats to hold the glass were soldered on the bars at a fixed distance,
so when punching the caps it was only necessary to have a gauge and punch all
caps alike and to this gauge. The chisel and hammer were not quick enough for
one of the mechanics, so he devised a scheme of inverted chisel-like knives, Fig.

Fig. 109. Bench to Which Punching Knives are Secured. Also Gauge Block

108, slightly wider than the copper cleats, and nailed them to a plank, Fig. 109,
at a distance and in such a manner that when the cap was placed on these knives
and struck with a mallet the cut would coincide in distance apart and from the ends
with the copper cleats on the bars.
Caps were now put on the skylight bars and the protruding part of cleats folded
over the caps and dressed down to hold the caps snugly to the glass. Inexperi-
enced men The caps were then soldered
always break considerable glass doing this.
to the upper curb caps, which in turn were soldered to upper skylight curb. The
skylights were then securely fastened to the roof curbs with wood screws through
—
the apron of the skylight curbs three screws on the sides and six at the top and
bottom.

RIBS OF GLASS IN OR OUTSIDE IN GLAZING SKYLIGHTS

There being a diversity of opinion in the trade, relative to which side of the
glass should be placed outside, the following from an experienced contractor of
sheet metal work and roofing, is of value, and who writes as follows : Answering
the inquiry in reference to which side of the ribbed skylight glass should be placed
on the outside, I beg to state that I think the ribbed side should be placed upper-
most. When an apprentice I was told that the glass was made with the ribbed sur-
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 817

face so that the ribs would keep the water from spreading underneath the caps and
getting down into the gutters of the skylight. I do not think that the ribs have
any value as diffusers of light, and in reference to this I beg to quote the recognized
inventor of the sheet metal skylight, who states: “We always advise rough plate
glass in preference to fluted ;
it will admit more light, while it is equally translucent.
It is a mistake that the flutes act as prisms, and that they diffuse the light to a
greater degree than the rough plate. In our experiments as to the quality of light
admitted the result was in favor of the rough plate. The experiment consisted of
photographing each piece suspended in space. By this means the degree of trans-
lucency by shadow and light is determined.”
It is my opinion that if the ribs were intended as diffusers of light they would
extend across the glass instead of with it. Some manufacturers have the glass
placed in the skylights with the ribbed side down, claiming that the ribs gather the
dirt unless this is done. It would seem more reasonable to put the smooth side

down, as this will allow the condensation a better chance to follow the glass down
to the gutters without dropping off same than if the ribs were on the underside.
Any one who doubts this can prove the assertion by wetting one side of the

glassand allowing the water to run off while the glass is placed flat, with one end
on a bench or table and the other end slightly elevated. It will be found that the
water spreads over a considerable surface of the glass and runs down to the bottom
without dropping off. By turning this glass up until the water runs to one edge of

same it will be found that the water is much more liable to drop off the sharp edge
of the glass than it would off the wide flat surface. This edge may be compared to
the rib of the skylight glass.

BUILT-IN FLAT SKYLIGHTS

One of the serious faults with the conventional type of flat skylight, which is

set on a raised curb, is that it acts as a dam to the flow of water of that portion of

the roof back of the skylight, for this flow must be diverted to the sides of the roof
curb of the skylight. The greater the length of the skylight the more serious is
this fault, and it is history that many skylights have leaked owing to the snow
or ice and water banking behind the skylight and overflowing between the roof

curb and the apron of skylight curb.

A form of constructionwhich allows the water to run uninterruptedly to the
eaves of the roof, and one which can be built, by reason of this, continuously the
8i8 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

entire length of the roof, is shown in Fig. 110 and is known as a “built-in” type.
The type of roof is the ordinary inclined timber roof of wood trusses the top chord ;

supports heavy purlins, to which are framed the roof rafters that are set at right
angles to the eaves. As is customary, the top and lower curbs of the skylight are
directly over the purlins, the
spacing of which governs the
length of the span of the skylight.
In Fig. Ill is shown a sec-

tion of the lower curb (on the

line C D of Fig. 110). As will

be seen, a roof rafter is set flush

with the upper edge of the pur-
lin, the lower rafters of the roof
finishing against this rafter. On
top of all the usual % sheathing
boards are nailed, diagonally.
This applies to the upper curb,
Fig. 110. Perspective View Showing Constructive Details
excepting that the rafter is set

flush with the lower edge of the purlin, and for the side curbs the regular roof

rafter is the means of support, making in all a sunk roof curb instead of the raised

in the general style of skylight.

The lower curb of the skylight has formed integral to it a pocket, into which
is inserted the last two courses of slate, these slates being laid on roofing felt or
building paper, which should continue under the metal curb. A metal cap, which
is just tacked at intervals to the pockets, covers the nails of the slate. As a pre-
caution it is well to fill the pocket with elastic cement (
paintskins ) before covering
with the cap. As shown in Fig. Ill this pocket raises the curb. Therefore, a furr-
ing strip is first nailed to roof sheathing to carry the weight of the curb.
To prevent sliding of the glass a little edge is bent up, as indicated at a, with
the additional strengthening hem edge, which also precludes the rusting that occurs

when a raw edge of galvanized iron is left exposed. The thrust of the bars and
glass is balanced by the bent part of the metal curb at b ; and although it may
seem an assertion open to debate, it is, nevertheless, true that wind pressure is

more to be reckoned with under a skylight than above, or the outside, especially
as skylights are set long before the complete closing in of the building; for safety,
then, from this under-pressure of the wind, the metal curb is nailed (wood screws,
perhaps, would be best) at b, and a screw placed as shown as c.
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 819

Recent experiments by engineers of authority have brought to light some

interesting facts relative to the phenomena displayed in connection with skylights
and roofing material blown from the lee side roofs of buildings that had no open-
ings to allow wind to enter and create pressure under the roof. From the tests
and observations it was gleaned that the wind sliding,

as it were, up the windward side of the roof, passed

some distance over the lee side of the roof, bringing

about a partial vacuum, or rather, a positive suction

over that area. This force was of sufficient power,
it was determined, to raise heavy skylights and the
like, even though they were fastened to the roof proper.
The sections ( or profiles ) of the side curbs and bars
are shown by Fig. 112, and is a section on the E F of
Fig. 1 10. The bar is of the universal type and may
be reinforced by a core plate and bottom cap for exces-
sive spans. The side curbs consist of a half section of
the bar and a straight side, the comb of the bar of the
curb being doubled on itself to form a pocket b, into
which is slid the cap a after glazing. The side curb is
Fig. 111. Details of Bottom Curb
bent out on the roof about 8 inches with an edge turned
up to attach cleats to hold it to the roof ;
this edge is often intended to act as a

guard against any water which may seep under the slate, it being assumed that
this edge will convey the water down to the apron ( or cap ) of the lower curb and
thence over the slates. That it will do
this is extremely doubtful, inasmuch as
the weight of the slate and many other
causes will crush this edge so tight that it

will not be efficacious for the purpose

outlined. Hence, it is the common prac-
tice to bed the slates in elastic cement at

this junction.
The top curb, Fig. 113, which is a
section on line A B, Fig. 110, is formed
to coincide with the general dimensions
of the bar and side curb with the modi-
fications shown, to allow nailing at a,

Fig. lit Detail* at Side Curbs and the cap b to cover the glass. A roof
 8ao Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

flange extends up thereof for, say, 6 to 8 in. and is nailed. A cant strip (ordinary
plaster lath) is suspended by strips of sheet metal at intervals of about 1 ft., which
SJate, are nailed to the roof above the flange of the curb.
Suspended
Cont Strip ..... Over all of this the slates are laid as if they were for
the eaves.
To facilitate assembling, the comb of the bars is cut
off on a sufficient slant to pass the cap of the upper
curb, as shown by the dotted lines X Y. This in no
wise affects the strength of the bar. The cap of the
bar is soldered water tight to the upper curb at c. This
type of curb has never been known to leak, and con-
densation will flow away from it. Still, it is well to
make the curb at a fairly large to catch and retain
until evaporation any stray drops of water that may find
their way there.
Fig. 118 Details at Top Curb
The general scheme
.

of erection is to set the entire

skylight and then lay the slate, after which skylight is glazed. The men usually
work from a scaffold hung below the skylights, which allows access for clean-

ing surplus putty from under the glass after the skylight has been capped. The
capping is accomplished on scaffolding built up from the eaves or suspended from
the ridge.
Should the span of the skylight be such as to require glass in two lengths,
necessitating a cross clip, two methods are suggested. One, the details of which
are delineated in Fig. 114, has always proved un-
Weep Hole
satisfactory owing to the frequent leaks ascribed to
GtrSS v

them, even though they are the cheapest and

quickest means of supplying a junction for the two
lengths of glass.
Where cost is not paramount to efficiency, ter-

racing is the best method to employ. The advan-

Transverse
tages are many, chief of which is positive impervi-
rbwofVAiter

ii n
m1 nwece^'
pnm 1
aMMi
f\0Tfin
70s
ss
SMS
'

\j
I

rvrry

Connection with Bor. Section of Cross Dip.

1
Fig. 114. Details of Cross dip Fig. 115. Details of a Terraco Curb
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 8a i
ousness to the elements and additional provision for directing the condensation to
the outside. Presuming that the spacing of the purlins is such that a light of glass
will span from the center of one to another, Fig. 115 shows a form of terrace curb
that, with suitable changes to meet requirements of the job at hand, has not been
found defective under trying conditions. As a suggestion it is said that this curb
could be made in two parts, in case in the assembling scheme it is contemplated to
erect each terrace section successively. The terrace sections could then be made in
easily handled lengths, as described in the next article.

From an inspection of Fig. 110 it will be seen that the rise of the lower curb
above the upper curb must be allowed for when designing this type of skylight.
As this slant varies for the different spans, inasmuch as the rise of A, Fig. Ill,
remains the same, no attention was paid to this when drawing the sections, for the
slant of any span taken as an example would be imperceptible in diagrams so small
as these.

A NOVEL METHOD OF BUILDING A DOUBLE PITCH

SKYLIGHT WITH GABLE ENDS
This article will tell how a young man who had just gone into business for him-
self, having previously been employed as foreman for a cornice concern, secured the

contract for a double pitched galvanized iron skylight 10 feet 2 inches by 96 feet

2 inches, to be glazed with 3-16-inch ribbed glass in lights about 18 inches in

width. The ends of the skylight were to be finished in wood gables. Having no
details or patterns it was necessary to make some, the principles of which are so
elementary as to require no elucidation here, inasmuch as design was the essential
for work of this nature. He, therefore, designed the sections, as follows:
shows a section through the eave curb A, ridge B and interior zinc
Fig. 116
gutter C, which the owner of the building insisted upon using to provide for the
possible freezing up of the condensation outlet tubes D. Fig. 117 shows a section

through the gable curb E and bars F. Fig. 118 is a broken plan view of the

complete skylight showing general dimensions, bar spacing and location of joints
in curbs and ridge, as related to the location of the bars on each side of the joints,
which were calculated to come between two bars.

By making ridge, B, in two parts, as shown, each slope of the skylight could
be made in 8-foot sections and then carried to the building and assembled or
 822 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

erected in place. The extent of the young man’s facilities was an 8-foot wood
brake, hammer, snips and soldering kit. He was, therefore, obliged, after laying

out his patterns, to cut out work by hand.

all of the
Altogether, 126 bars were necessary, which required blanks about 65 inches
long. The girth of the bars was 7^ inches. He therefore cut 33 sheets of No.
26 96 X 30-inch iron down to 65 inches ;
then he pricked off two 30-inch strips into

four equal parts and transferred the prick marks to the ends of the 65-inch sheets,

so that a straight edge could be used for marking off the blanks. After cutting the
blanks he cut the pattern of one bar full length with miters, and while his helper
worked at cutting out the other bars from this pattern he cut out the curbs and
ridge and also the gable curbs and the zinc gutters.
When the work was all cut and formed complete he constructed a frame or
form, shown in Figs. 119 and 120, from which to assemble the work in 8-foot
sections. Fig. 120 is an end view of Fig. 119. The frame was constructed of
1 X 3-inch wood strips with galvanized iron forms, a and b, secured to the longi-
tudinal side strips. The profile of form a conformed to that of the curb, and the
profile of b conformed to that of the ridge. The dotted lines, Fig. 120, show a
section of the skylight in position on the form.
The form was supported on trestles, so that the operator could stand erect at
his work. In using the form it was only necessary to lay the sections of the curb
and ridge in place and secure the bars in proper position between them. The
position of the first bar was determined by dimensions taken from Fig. 118, show-
ing the distances of the bars from the joints of the curb and ridge. The spacing of
the other bars in each section was determined by two 1 X 3-inch wood strips,
fashioned as shown by Fig. 121, having notches sawed into their edges about 1%
inches deep and 18 inches apart, the notches having been sawed while the strips
were secured together. In spacing the bars one strip was placed near the curb and
the other near the ridge, so it was only necessary to measure for the location of the
first bar in each section and the wood spacing strips took care of the spacing of all

the other bars.

The condensation outlet tubes D, Fig. 116, were not put in until after the
skylight was assembled in 8-foot sections. The glass was ordered cut to size and
shipped direct to the building. In erecting the skylight the forward ends of each
8-foot section of the metal curb were securely nailed to the wood curb.
The inch
laps, which were, of course, allowed on the curb, covered these nails, and in

addition to this nailing the metal curb was secured to the wood curb by brass
screws, a, Fig. 116, placed about 1 foot apart and the heads soldered over.
 Fig 121

Fig. 118

Drawings to Show a Novel Method of Building a Skylight

 8^4 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

It was, of course, necessary to put up the zinc gutter C before placing curb A
in position. The inner edge of the zinc gutter was supported by straps, h, bolted
to the zinc gutter and passed upward over into and soldered in the gutter of curb A.
The zinc gutter was drained by 2-inch conductors, running downward into
and through the building alongside of the supporting columns and emptying into
drains underneath the floor. The bars F were soldered solid throughout their
entire length at the point i in order to take care of any condensation which might
form inside of the hollow bar and drip off into the building instead of following
down into the curb gutter. It would have been better if a gutter cap, J, had been
provided, as this would not only take care of the condensation, but would allow of
a certain twisting flexibility of the bars in assembling, whereas if the bars should
be slightly twisted when soldered along the line i they would remain rigidly
twisted and result in an uneven surface for the glass to rest on.
Ordinarily such a skylight would have been knocked down in the shop and
put together complete on its curb at the building, but by carefully figuring out the
exact locations of the joints in the curbs and ridge as related to the location of the
bars on each side of the joints and by the use of the wood form and the wood
spacing strips and by making the ridge in two parts it is much quicker, as well as
more accurate, to assemble the work in sections in the shop where everything is
convenient and comfortable in cold weather, leaving the minimum of work to be

done on the outside.

CONSTRUCTION OF METALLIC EXTENSION SKYLIGHTS

In this article it will be endeavored to explain some of the current methods
employed in the construction of extension skylights, such as are used in buildings
of the present day, giving particular attention to methods of obtaining water tight
jointsbetween the wall and girders and skylight. In Fig. 122 is shown a general
view of an extension skylight, in which A indicates the joining of the upper frame
of the skylight against the wall, B B B the flashing between the wall and sky-
light, C the step flashing, D the joining of side bar and wall, E the joint between
lower frame of skylight and gutter, F the condensation tubes, G the ventilator and
X X the cross bars required when glass must be used in two or more lengths.
In Fig. 123 is shown a cross section taken on the line J K of Fig. 122. In
Fig. 123, A shows the iron girders and B the galvanized iron frame resting on the
flange of the beam. C shows the brick wall at the bottom, on to which the gutter
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 82-5

D is hung and the lower frame E soldered to it. In some cases no hanging gutter
is employed, but a cast iron gutter on to the wall, as shown at F.
is set directly

In Fig. 124 is indicated a constructive section showing the method of fastening

the upper part of skylight to the iron girder. A represents the iron girder or

Fig. 122. Perspective View of a Finished Extension Skylight

beam, B the brick wall built on to it. C shows the shape of the upper part of
frame, formed in such a way that the lock or joint comes The entire length
at D.

of the frame C is now blocked out with spruce, as shown at E. The shape of the
opening being obtained, spruce strips are cut at the planing mill by the wood
worker, slipped into the galvanized iron shape and fastened with a few roofing
nails, which hold it in place. F represents a section of the skylight bar, formed
in such a way that the joint occurs at J, and is riv-

eted to the core piece H, as shown. The size of the

core bars should be regulated according to the size
of the skylight. While for a skylight having a span
of 8 ft. bars 2X in. would be required, on a sky-
light of larger span T-iron would be required. To
(OMbCNSATtOH
find the safe uniformly distributed load that the core
bars will carry, consult any engineers’ book, fur-

nished by rolling mills free of charge. When find-

ing the safe load, take into consideration the span

of the skylight, the distance the glass is placed in
lights, the thickness of the glass and the exposure
presented to catch snow, sleet and ice.

The bar or rafter is now mitered against the

upper frame E, the flange C being placed to hide
h n
Fig
plrt ^ky ii^ht
f
to irMi ofrder
Per
the seam between the rafter X X and the frame.
 8a6 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

The glass is then laid in putty, allowing it to rest on the upper frame as far as

shown by K. The glass being placed in position, a combination flashing and cap is

placed over the glass, as shown at L, flanging it into the joint of the brick work at 0,
fastening with wall hooks and paintskin. When doing this work the glass, of

course, is all in place ;

a number of boards are laid across the rafters to avoid the
breakage of glass when working. When the upper flashing is in place caps are
placed over the bars, as shown at R, and are fastened by means of the copper strip

y<± inch wide riveted to the bar by the rivet J, passing through a slit cut
with a chisel into the cap R, as shown by the copper strip S, which is

then hammered over the cap. Where the cap R butts against the upper flash-
ing at T it is mitered and soldered to fit against the flashing at P. In this man-
ner the upper part of the frame is made water tight against the iron girder A
and wall B.
The method of bending the frame and bar in an ordinary cornice brake as
now employed is shown in Fig. 125 of the illustrations. In order to bend the
frame shown by C D of the previous figure commence at A of Fig. 125, turning
it over as far as possible ;
then make the bends at the required angles, as shown by
BCD. At E turn the bend again as far as possible and make the bend F as
required. Now place the bend E in the brake and close, and the result will be

shown by E 1
in diagram M. Close
Cb -« ^ the bend A 1
which will complete

\
i
w ,

if k
v L |L *-Ji V® u Jy.o
the frame ready to the
'i
\c PjJJ'x* 4 ^» n -J»* _Jo?. ill— receive
<
xx* wood blocking. When bending
E
E
the bar or rafter, shown by H in
Fig. 125. Method of Bending Upper Frame and Skylight Bar
Fig. 124, start at the bend 1, dia-
gram N, of Fig. 125, and make the bends 1, 2 and 3 according to the profile of
the bar; bend 4 as far as the brake will bend it; likewise bend 5 in the same man-

ner. Make the bends 6, 7, 8 and 9 according to the profile of the bar. Place
the bend 4 in diagram N into the jaws of the brake, close, and the result will be as

shown at 4 in diagram O. Turn over the bend 10 in diagram 0, as shown at 10,

11. Now place the bend 5 in diagram 0 in the brake, close tight, and the result
will be as shown at 5 in diagram P. At X and X in diagram P make slight

bends, which will form the condensation gutters beneath bar, as shown by X X in
Fig. 124. The bar being completed shown in diagram P in
as far as Fig. 126, the
iron core is now passed in the bar and riveted, as shown by J in Fig. 124. There
are, however, large presses to form bars in two operations, but the expense of these
machines keeps them from all except large skylight manufacturers.
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 827

In Fig. 126 is shown the method of fastening the lower part of skylight frame
to cast iron gutter. A represents the brick wall and B the cast iron gutter fur-
nished by the iron contractor. CDF shows the shape of the lower frame, formed
of sheet metal and riveted together at D ;
the bar E miters against the base, as
shown, and is riveted to the base at F. To make a finish on the inside a wooden
molding, H, is placed in the opening between the cast iron gutter and the flange F.
Should there be any condensation it would follow the gutter under the bars at E
and drip into the gutter of the base at J, and then to the outside gutter by means
of the condensation tubes C. The condensation gutter of the bar is cut as shown
at K so as to allow the water to drip into the gutter.
Sometimes, instead of placing a molding at H of wood, the molding is cast
direct on to the cast iron gutter, the measure of which must first be taken before

Fig. 126.Method of Fasten- Fig. 127. Method Employed Fig. 128. Section Through
ing Lower Part of Skylight When Using Sheet Raising Sash
on Cast Iron Gutter Metal Gutter

forming the sheet metal base. When there is no cast iron gutter furnished on the
wall a gutter of sheet metal is used, one of the methods employed being shown in
Fig. 127, in which A represents the brick wall and B the sheet metal gutter,

flanged back the entire width of the wall and turned up at C, the gutter being
fastened across the top by the brace K. D represents the base or the lower frame
of the skylight, formed in a shape as shown, with the double seam or lock at J.

A fl ang e is bent outward, as shown at E, which is soldered to the galvanised iron

covering on the wall. In the metal shape D wood blocking is placed afi shown,
through which at intervals the condensation tubes are placed, as shown by E.
The bar F is mitered to the base as shown, the condensation dripping into the
gutter of D, as shown by the arrow.
Suppose that A in Fig. 122 is to be made as a raising sash, hinged at the top,

with gearings on the inside to operate from the floor below, the sash to be so con-
structed as to obtain a water tight joint when closed.
828 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

In Fig. 128 isshown a section through the raising sash, showing the method
of construction. Where a raising sash is placed, instead of using a full shaped
rafter a half rafter only is used, with a full condensation gutter, as shown by A A
in Fig. 128. It will be noticed that A and A contain but half a bar, with full

condensation gutter S S and S S, the core bar B B being riveted in place, as

shown. C C shows the style of bars used for raising sash. The bar, including

the cap, is made in one piece with a seam at D I), and the cap at E and E over-
lapping the glass lights adjoining. In the adjoining lights the glass F and F is

Handle Collar Universal Joint Hinge

Fig. 129 . Various Parte of Gearing Used in Raising Sash

laid on the bars, puttied as shown. In the raising sash the glass F is laid as

shown, puttied, and the caps H and H soldered at I and I. The hinge or pivot

being in position, the sash is raised, including the caps E and E, thus ventilating
the space beneath, when closed the caps E E lay on to the glass F F, keeping the

joint storm proof. When raising the sash this can be accomplished by means of

poles, ratchet or gearings, the gearings being the most popular and successful in
use. A band iron 134 % inch is riveted to the flange of the sash, as shown by
K and K. On to this band iron the hinge L is riveted at 0 and O, to which
the strap P is pivoted.
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 829

The various parts of the gearing employed in connection with a skylight of

this kind, together with the name of each part, is illustrated in Fig. 129. The
gearings can be obtained in various sizes, the more usual being for % and 1-inch
pipe. In Fig. 130 is shown the gearing in use. In this figure O represents the
bracket fastened to the wall, P and R the lifting power with worm gear, G the
pipe or rod, arm attached to the strap L at Y, and K the hinge. The
X the
handle bar is represented by T and the handle itself by S, these being kept from
the wall at any distance desired by means of the extension U, into which the rod
V slides, being fastened by the set screw W. The position of the fixtures in the
engraving shows the sash closed. When opening the sash, turn the handle S until
the desired hight is obtained. When the handle S is too far above the floor a pole
is employed, on which the pole hook shown in Fig. 129 is fastened. When a
to

skylight runs around a corner of a building and the sash in the two sides are to
operate with one lifting power, a miter gear is employed, as shown in Fig. 129, two
of which constitute an angle. It is sometimes
the case that the handle rod shown by T in

Fig. 130 cannot run down straight, owing to

some obstruction, and must pass over this

obstruction at an angle. It is then that the

universal joint shown in Fig. 129 is used.
The collar shown in the diagram is used to
keep the center pipe G in Fig. 130 from sliding
back or forth between the brackets. Where a
number of sashes are to be raised at one time
and they can be reached without the use of the

pole hook more power is obtained in using,

instead of the handle S, the hand wheel shown
in Fig. 129.
In Fig. 130 is shown the method of con-

structing the bottom of the raising sash so as

to fit the lower frame of skylight. Let A

represent the lower frame of the skylight and
B one half of regular bar. C shows the sash
bar, mitering against the base of sash, D E,
which in turn fits on to F.The condensation Fig. ISO. Construction of Raising Sash at the,
Bottom
tube is shown at H, and J indicates holes
punched into the angle for the escape of water into the gutter A, thence through
830 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

the tube H. When the sash is lifted the sash frame DE will raise or lower from
and into the frame F.
In Fig. 131 is shown the method of constructing and hinging the raising sash
at the top. A shows the upper frame of the skylight, filled by the wood blocking
D, while B shows the section of a half regular bar. C indicates the sash bar mi-
tering against the upper sash frame E, which in turn fits against the frame D.
By means of the hinge, F F, which is screwed into the wood blocking, the sash can
be raised or lowered. The capping, H H, should extend up above the hinge as
shown, then over this capping the flashing J J is mitered. Sufficient play room
should be allowed, as at K, to permit the sash to raise without tearing up the upper
flashing J J.
In Fig. 132 is shown the method of obtaining water tight cross seams in glass
when the panes are of long length. When the span from wall to gutter is very

Fig. 133. Way in Which Register is Fastened

Fig. 131. Construction of Raising Sash at the Top in Ventilator

long it is usual to use T-iron for core bars and use light truss work under the flat
lights. Assume that long rafters are employed and the glass must be used in two
lights. Thus in shown how a water tight joint is obtained. Let A A
Fig. 132 is

represent the regular bars and B the cross bar, formed so that the bottom will cut
into the corners CC of the regular bars. D D shows the condensation gutters
notched out at EE any leakage the water runs out at E E in the
so that in case of
main bar gutters F F and out at the lower tubes. H shows the flange bent down-
ward to suit the thickness of the glass used. The glass J is slipped under the flange
H and the glass K run flush with L, both bedded well in putty. The water flowing
in the direction of the arrow no leak can result.
In Fig. 133 is shown the method of fastening and controlling the register in
Ventilators. I^et A A represent the half regular bars, over which the ventilator
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 831

is placed as shown at B, while C C show the grooves formed on to the ventilator,

into which the register D is placed. By means of the quadrant E the louvres in
the registers can be opened or closed by means of the cords or chains F H. The
glass J and J is now laid, bedded into putty at I and I, and the caps KK soldered
against the ventilators at L L.

PROFILES OF BARS IN AN IRREGULAR SHAPED SKYLIGHT

In the following will be exemplified the method of how to obtain the shapes
of the different rafters in an extension skylight, such as is shown in Fig. 134.
The bars or rafters rest on an iron beam which is built into the wall at the top, as
shown in section, and there is a channel beam resting on the rear wall, which has
a pitch of 3 inches in 24 feet. The skylight is 3 feet wide at one end and 11

feet at the other. It is desirable to obtain the various shaped rafters, also profile

of the twisted top ridge and bottom curb, so as to bring the glass rests on the curb,
rafterand top ridge in one plane, to receive the sheet of ribbed glass.
The method of obtaining the patterns will not be shown, as this is a simple
matter when the profiles are known. Fig. 134, a reproduction of the job in
 83a Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

question, shows a front elevation of the extension skylight with four lights to
open, while the plan shows the dimensions of the skylight. A section is also
drawn on the widest portion, or A B in plan. D 1
in the section shows the length
of the bar at the smallest projection of the skylight or D in plan. F shows the
bar desired, with iron core in position. Water pitches toward the narrow end of
the skylight and has a fall of 3 inches.
To show the principles employed in obtaining the various profiles of the top
ridge and bottom curb, refer to Fig. 135, which shows a skylight 11 feet at one
end, 3 feet at the other end and 16 feet long, the curb having a pitch of 3 inches,
as shown. Draw, in its proper position, the curb 1 2 3 B and the ridge A 4 5

6, as shown, to which connect the bar X. In a similar manner draw, in its

proper position, or 3 inches below the curb B, the profile 1' 2' 3' B 1
and the
ridge A 4 5' 6',and connect the bar Y.
It will be noticed that the curb and ridge have been drawn at right angles to
the rake of the bars, so that the only change of profiles taking place are the angles
2 3 B and 2' 3' B 1
in the curb and A 4 5 and A 4 5' in the ridge at the wide
and narrow ends respectively. As the length of the skylight is 16 feet, or two
sheets of iron of 8 feet each with one seam in the center, another change of prp-
files must be obtained. To do so proceed as follows: Connect the curb lines 1
 :

Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

to 1', 2 to 2' and 3 to 3'. Bisect all of these lines, obtaining the points 1", 2",
3” and B 8
,
which connect by the dotted lines, as shown. Then will one end of
the first sheet, when forming, have a shown by 1" 2" 3 "
B the one end of the 2
;

second sheet, a shape as shown by 1 2 3 B, and the opposite end as shown by

1' 2' 3' B 1
.

In similar manner obtain the change of profile in the ridge.Then will A 4

5” 6” be the true profile for the end of the first and commencement of the second

sheet, while A 4 5 6 is the profile for the commencement of the first sheet and
A 4 5' 6' the end shape of the second sheet. It will be noticed that the point 4
remains stationary and acts as a pivot which changes all angles, as shown by A 4
5, A 4 5" and A 4 o'. Connect the center profiles by the bar Z.

If the widths of the wide and narrow ends were 11 and 3 feet respectively,
as shown, and the length of the skylight 24 feet, then divide 24 by the length
of the cornice brake in use, in this case 8 feet, which will give three sheets. Then
would the diagram in Fig. 135 be divided into three equal spaces, thus giving two
changes of profiles. As each one of these spaces would represent 8 feet, then for
any fractional part of a foot the following method could be employed
Assuming that the length of the skylight is 25 feet 6 inches, divide the space
shown from 3 to 3’ in curb and 6 to 6' in ridge into 51 equal parts, represent-

ing 51 6-inch spaces. Then would 16 spaces represent 8 feet, 48 spaces 24 feet
and the balance of three spaces 1 foot 6 inches. In this manner the various pro-
files are obtained for curb and ridge.

In Fig. 136 are shown the principles employed for obtaining the profiles of the
rafters. Let D represent the section of the rafter shown in plan in Fig. 134 by
D, and J in Fig. 136 the rafter on J in plan in Fig. 134, both having been
obtained as explained in connection with Fig. 135. As the gutter has a fall of 3

inches in 24 feet, and assuming that the lights are to be 2 feet wide, as shown in
Fig. 134, then will every 2 feet distance have a pitch of inch, which is shown
in Fig. 136, where the curb of the rafter D is % inch below the curb of the rafter
J. As the narrow end of the skylight in Fig. 134 is 3 feet and the wide end 11

feet, deduct 3 from 11, which leaves 8. As there are 12 lights of glass of 2 feet

each, then will the pitch of every light in plan equal 8-12 foot, or 8 inches, which
is shown in Fig. 136 from curb to curb. In this manner the various sections on
the rafter lines in plan in Fig. 134 are obtained.
At right angles to the rafter lines D in Fig. 136, and from the extreme point,

as at q, erect a. line, as shown, intersecting the outer line of the rafter J at d and
crossing the various bends in the bar J at c and g. At right angles to da, and
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

from the intersections just obtained, draw lines as shown. Draw the line a' c d\
and make the glass rests i and j equal to m, and the condensation gutters /
and e equal to n in section m n s r. Then will f d' a e be the profile of the
bar on d a.

When laying out the pattern for the bar D, the upper shape at b is as shown
by m n s r, while the lower half is asshown by e j a with the triangular piece
added, as shown by a b c, and on the line b c of the
triangular piece add the stretchout of the profile r m n
and not of the profile d' i /, as that is a section on the
line d g. Thus it will be seen that the miter cuts will be
square at the curb and ridge, so that a cut for one bar
will answer for all. The only changes taking place are
in the lengths of the triangular pieces for each bar, as

shown in Fig. 135.

When the various bars are soldered in position at
the building it will be necessary to put in wedge shaped
Fig. 137. Wedge Shaped
Glass
Rest Between Rafters sections on the lower curb, as shown in Fig. 137 by B,
on the curb in a horizontal plane to receive the glass.
so as to bring the glass rest
A shows the curb on which the wedge shape B is placed, the hight of a being
obtained from c a' in Fig. 136. On each bar this hight varies, as shown
in Fig. 135.

CONSTRUCTING A SLOPING SKYLIGHT

It is the intention of this article to treat on the method of constructing a sky-

light 8 X 12 feet, the 12-foot measurement being along the slope of the roof. The
rafters are 12 feet long, and it is necessary to provide glass in two or more pieces
for each section. Two openings must be provided in the top of the skylight for

ventilation. The ventilator or hood is to be made so that when it is closed it will

be nearly flush with the rest of the construction.

In Fig. 138 A B shows the side and C D E F the front of the skylight. G
and H represent the cross bars or clips, which are used where more than one
length of glass must be used, while J J show the two ventilators at the top.
These are shown in side view by I. Figs. 139 to 142 show the various cross
sections through K L, M N, O P and R S. A and B in Fig. 139 are the
metal curbs, setting over the wooden curbs after they are flashed with metal. C
is the rafter, reinforced by the lower strip D, locking same as shown. Inside
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

the rafter a core plate, shown by E, is placed, riveted at F. If the skylight be

trussed through the center the core plate E in Fig. 139 will be strong enough if

made of % X 2^ -inch metal. If no truss is to be placed through the center, the

core should be 24 X 4-inch metal, and wooden cores should be placed in the metal

Fig. 188. Front and Side Elevation Fig. 189. Section Through K L in Fig. 188

curbs, shown by A and B in Fig. 140, so that metal core plates will have a solid
bearing when they are cut out at the top and bottom to conform with the metal
curbs, at both top and bottom.
a, a, a in Fig. 139 show the glass resting on the rabbets, which should be
a,

well puttied and capped by the metal caps G and H. When fastening these metal
caps copper cleats, about 34 x 124 inches, are riveted about 24 inches apart along
the curbs and bars. When fastening the cap a slot is cut in the cap in its proper

place, as shown at K in J, and slipped over the copper

cleat L, which is, in turn, turned over the cap, as shown
by M, holding the cap in position. It will be noticed

Fig. 140. Section Through M N in Fig. 188 Fig 142. Section Through R S in Fig. 188

that the rafter C is made so that its bottom will pass above the condensation gutters
of the curbs A and B.
A and B in Fig. 140, the section through MN in Fig. 138 are the metal

curbs resting on and over the wooden curb. Using this construction, it will be
seen that the curbs are similar along the four sides of the skylight, with the excep-
tion that the double edge at 0 is shortened, so that it is equal to the thickness of
 836 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

glass in use, and that a condensation tube passes through the curb A at D, to
carry offany condensation which might gather in the lower gutter F. D shows
the section of the main bar, from which elevation lines are projected, so that the
cross bar or clip E can be properly drawn. The arrow indicates the run of the
water. Notice how the clip is bent, so that the glass a will enter the groove
shown, while the following light, b, runs flush with the top flange E, all to be
well bedded in linseed oil putty. A condensation gutter is added to the clip at c,

so that it will pass above the top of the condensation gutter of the bar D. This
gutter, c, any condensation, or, in case of a leak at b, will catch the
will catch
rain water and empty it into the gutter of the main bar, as shown at b in Fig. 139.
The main bar carries it to the lower gutter, in the curb A in Fig. 140 at e, thence
through the condensation tube D to the roof.
Fig. 141, the section through O P in Fig. 138, shows the construction of a

simple ventilator or hood. A and B represent the 12-foot rafters, on either side
of which a curb is formed as wide as the desired width of the ventilator, as shown
by C D, with a wire edge at the top to stiffen same. The angle formed at a and
a rests on the top of the bar and forms a surface on which to solder the half caps

E and E, covering the glass. The hood F is bent, as shown, with a hem edge
at b and b. The method of operating this hood is shown in Fig. 142, a section
through R S in Fig. 138. A in Fig. 142 shows the top curb of the skylight and
B a profile of the rafter, from which elevation lines are drawn. Knowing the
length of the ventilator, draw the lower part of the curb of the ventilator, bending
it in such a manner that the glass b enters the groove prepared for it at C, and
making the distance from the top of the bar a to the top of the wire edge D equal
to a D in Fig. 141 ;
2 or 3 inches is sufficient for this hight. Then draw the back
of the curb X in Fig. 142, allowing an edge at c for soldering. E F is the hood.
A hinge, constructed as shown by H I J, is riveted to the hood at H and to the
ventilator curb at J, the pivot being at The hood when opened swings clear I.

off the ventilator, as shown by L. These hinges can be made from band iron.
The hood can be operated by cord and pulleys, or by one of the many appliances
upon the market.

REMARKS ON CURBS AND BARS

The curb of Fig. 143 is considered ideal because of its many features essential to
perfect service, chief of which is, that as roof curbs are seldom cut on the slant
necessary to have the part B C pitch to apron A and thereby requiring a shoulder
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 837

or straight bearing part, and as the curb of Fig. 144 retains the water of condensa-
tion in the part B A, whereas C B of Fig. 143 rapidly drains the water to the
outside. The curb shown in Fig. 145 method employed for a combination
is a
concrete and angle iron curb and shows the method of anchoring it, also the tube
A which had the double service to perform, that of directing the condensation to

the roof and as a brace to keep down the apron A A. The idea of having the

Some Features of Skylight Work Fig. 149

glass rest so far back was to save glass, and as a suggestion it is submitted that if

the cement curb was beveled the apron A A could be made on a slant as shown
by the dotted lines, obviating the need of the brace A, though it would be advis-
able to use a small tube. As will be seen this is the same curb as Fig. 143, also by
adjusting the part A B of Fig. 143 the curb can be employed for any size roof

curb, without disturbing the miter cut of the curb, except of course, the part from
A to B of Fig. 143.
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

In Figs. 146 and 147 are shown two methods of setting skylights on brick
wall of considerable thickness, say a 16-in. wall. With the idea of saving glass and
the superstructure of the skylight, Fig. 146 is considered excellent. As will be
seen by an inspection of Fig. 146, the skylight curb is set on a wood plate that is

framed flush with the inside of the wall, all being enclosed as shown. The gutter
is set on the outer edge of the wall and to keep it from raising it is tied down by
sheet metal straps, riveted and soldered to the gutter and nailed in a joint of
the brick work. The flange of the gutter extends back to the plate, up and
over it and down past the bottom of the plate to hide the joint between the plate
and wall. If the wall is of excessive width it is advisable to pitch this part of the
gutter.

As to the custom of bending a stiffening edge on the apron of curb as at C,

Fig. 144, it could be said that the edge is useless, for in the handling of the sky-
light the edge would be considerably bruised and the bevel edge would be a series

of buckles, defeating the purpose of keeping the apron stiff and straight. It would
be best to simply turn a hem edge as in Fig. 143, then after setting, it can be
dressed back to the roof curb as it is customary to do. Few shops turn the flashing
of the roof back on the top of the roof curb ;
preferring to save time and material
they just bring it even with the top of the roof curb as shown at A A of Fig. 145.

This procedure is not objectionable, for is not the flashing and apron of the skylight
curb exactly like the base and cap flashing at a wall in roofing? Surely, no roofer
would turn a base flashing into a wall and then cap it.

If bars are of heavy material, a %-in., or more, shoulder is best, for in bending
heavy stuff all machines make a rather round bend which will take about % of an
inch, thereby making a %-in. glass rest or shoulder when % in. is allowed. Too
much stress cannot be laid on the need of making the condensation gutter of the
bar extend beyond the glass rest, for this is the only guard against leakage of the
skylight. In the mad desire to save material, many designers reduce this gutter to
almost nothing. In Fig. 148 is shown a section of a bar when it abuts a wall, or
can be the profile of the neck part of a ventilator. When the side of a skylight
finishes against a wall, the side bar can be made as per Fig. 149. In the conven-
tional method of designing the profiles of Figs. 148 must be and 149, the flashing
put in after the skylight is glazed and if a light is broken, all the work must be
ripped out to replace the glass whereas, with the profiles of Figs. 148 and 149 the
;

flashing is done before glazing ;

the cap A in Fig. 148 is integral to the bar part as

the glass can be shoved under it; and in Fig. 149 a pocket is formed in the bar
part to allow of slipping the cap in place after glazing. In the matter of riveting,
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 839
it is well to rivet all bars to the curb, but at the ridge the weight of the glass will
jam the bars against the ridge, even holding them without solder, and as long as
the thrust is equalized at the curb the skylight would not collapse in a fire.

DETAILS OF SKYLIGHT WORK

The many requests for information resulted in the answer to one for a skylight
12 ft. 6 in. X 48 ft. in size, with glass at hand of a size of 48X84 in. The reply
stated that the glass be split into i’ghts 24 inches wide, as it is rather risky to use
glass spanning 48 in. in width when the glass is, or nearly, in a horizontal plane,
it being advisable never to have the glass exceeding 24 in. wide, and 18 in., is a
favorite width.

A light of glass % X 24 X84 in. weighs 70 lbs. and as this weight is distributed

7
/
(V*
J
B
V-
.An
ILIIH* —*
A BOOS;
11-10 ^

B roof cons.
U'-ICK :
y
Fig. 152. Sketch of Roof Framing
fUOOC A HIP SIMILAR, SWT TO REQUiREO RROFlVl

Fig. 150. Type of Skylight Bar

the entire length of bar, a bar of the dimensions and
shape of Fig. 150 should be of ample strength for
this load, allowing for possible wind and snow
COMPENSATION stresses, without perceptible deflection. As the sky-
light curb is not only subjected to strain of bearing
the weight of the glass and the like, but also the
outward thrust of the bars and glass, it should be
tied to maintain an assurance that it will not spread.
Fig. 151 illustrates a design of skylight curb, to
be set on a wood roof curb, and calculated to be of
sufficient strength for a skylight of the size under
consideration. By securely anchoring the skylight
curb to the roof curb by means of the wood screws
Fig. 151. Oonatmotion of Skylight
Curb shown, the stresses will be transmitted to the roof
 840 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

curb which should therefore be built in a manner to take care of all strains, and
then instead of tying the skylight curb, and if the roof curb, by reason of its con-
struction relative principally to hight, requires it, the roof curb may be tied by
rods and turnbuckles spaced according to Fig. 152.

A CHART TO FIND THE LENGTH OF BARS

The following is a description with illustrations of a chart that has been used
for obtaining directly the length of bars for a hip skylight.

It will be observed that for convenience in publishing this chart it is drawn on

a %-inch scale, and for the purpose of illustrating its working there was used a
pitch of skylight that is about 7 inches to the foot ;
but any other pitch of skylight is

equally applicable. For practical use in the shop the chart should be drawn full size

in order to secure accuracy in determining the length of the various bars required.
The use of the chart as shown in Fig. 153 presupposes that the ground plan of

the skylight has been properly laid out, as regards spacing off and locating the
position of the bars. As the chart indicates, all measurements are taken from the
curb line of the skylight.
It will be observed that the chart is triangular in form and its base, A B C, a
right angle triangle, and the same as one-half of the ground plan of the end of a
skylight. A B, as the base of this right angle triangle, represents the curb or
measuring line of the skylight. The line A C represents the ground plan of the
side bar C e, drawn at right angles with A C and of sufficient length to give A e

the proper pitch of the skylight. On this line A e is laid off a rule or measuring
oar representing inches and quarter inches, by which to determine almost at a
glance the length of bar required at any given point. In the same or like manner,
B C represents the ground plan of the hip bar. At point 0 draw the line C d
at right angles with B C and of the same length as C e, and this gives B d on
which to lay off the measurements for the hip bar.Draw lines from the measure-
ments laid off on the curb line A B and intersect them with hip line B C at
points 1, 2, 3,and from these various points for the hip bar continue
4, etc.,

these lines at right angles with B C and intersect them with the line B d as points of
measurement. For the side bar draw lines from these same points 1, 2, 3, 4,
etc., on this same line B C and at right angles with A C, intersecting them with

the line A e. Thus is established A B as the measuring line of the curb of sky-
light, A e as the measuring line of the side bar, and B d as the measuring line
for the hip bar.
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 841

MEASUREMENT

CURB

Pig. 158. The Skylight Chart

8^ 2 , Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

A little practice will enable one to read readily the length of any bar required.
While the measurement of the curb is on the line A B, the points 1, 2, 3, 4,

etc. ,
on the line B C represent so many inches respectively of the curb measure-
ment. To illustrate : In Fig. 154 is represented a skylight 2X3 feet. The curb
measurement of this skylight, being one-half of the end of the same, is 12 inches.
Referring to the chart, 12 inches is the curb measurement, or as shown by the
number 12 on the line B C. Follow the dotted line from point 12 on B C to
its intersection with line A e and it gives 13 % inches as the length of side bar,
as shown by A C in Fig. 154. To find the length of the hip bar, as shown by B
C in Fig. 154, follow the dotted lines drawn from the same point 12 on line B 0
of the chart to its intersection with B d, and obtain 18% inches as the length of

the hip bar B C, as shown in Fig. 154.

Let it be supposed now it is required to find the length of bars for a skylight that
is larger than is represented on the chart. For example, in Fig. 155 a skylight 10
feet square. In this skylight it is required to find first the length of the hip bar
K. The distance A B of this skylight represents one-half of the width of the
skylight, or 5 feet, as the curb measurement to be applied to the chart. But it is

found that the chart does not cover 5 feet in length of curb measurement, so take
some number that is represented and that will go into 5 feet, or 60 inches, a given
number of times. The highest number on the chart that will do this is 15 inches.
Fifteen inches will go into 60 inches just four times. It is found by referring to the
chart that 15 inches curb measurement gives 22% inches as the length of the hip
bars, as shown on line B d. Twenty-two and seven-eighths inches multiplied by
four gives 91% inches, the length of hip bar K To get the length of
in Fig. 155.

side center bar D of Fig. 155 it is found that the curb measurement of 15 inches
gives on the side bar measurement on line A e 17% inches. Seventeen and one-
quarter inches multiplied by four gives 69 inches for the length of this center side
bar D.
To get the length of the bars H and E, as shown in Fig. 155, it is first found
that the curb measurement for the H bar is represented by B b. B b is one-
sixth of the distance from B to F, and as B F represents 10 feet, or 120 inches,
B b is one-sixth of 120 inches, or 20 inches. Twenty inches, then, is the curb
measurement from which to determine the length of the bar H. Twenty inches
not being represented on the chart, take the measurement of two numbers that
are its equivalent, Ten inches curb measurement gives on the side bar
two tens.
A e 11% inches, which multiplied by 2 gives us 23 inches as the length of bar
H. To get the length of the bar E, the curb measurement B c, as shown in Fig.
Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 843
 844 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

155, being twice as long as B b, the length of the bar E would be twice as long
as the bar H, or 46 inches.
This same principle applies alike in the development of these bars in all cases
and in hip skylights of any size or dimension, bearing in mind, however, that the
curb measurement of the bar is always the distance from the center of the bar on
the curb line to the corner of the skylight, as shown respectively by c B and b B
in Fig. 155.

Suppose now an odd size skylight is taken, as shown by Fig. 156. This sky-
light is 3 feet 3 inches wide, or 39 inches. This would make the curb measure-
ment As 19% inches is not represented on the chart and is not
1934 inches.
divisible by any number of inches it represents, take the sum of two numbers that

represent 19% inches, and added together will give the length of bar required.
For example: Take any two numbers, as 15 and 4%, which, added together,
will give the length required for the bars D and E, shown in Fig. 156. It is

found that 15 inches curb measurement on the chart gives for the length of the

hip bar on line B d 22 % and 434 inches curb measurement gives on the
inches,
same line B d 6% inches, and these added together give 29% inches as the
length of the hip bar D manner 15 inches curb measure-
in Fig. 156. In like

ment on the chart gives 17J4 inches on side bar measurement A e, and 4 34
inches curb measurement gives on this same line A e 5% inches, which added
together gives 22% inches as the length of the side bar E, Fig. 156.
Thus far it will be observed that the length of bar. developed has been in sky-
lights with no ridge ventilation. For skylights where there is ridge ventila-
tion, in order to secure the proper length of the center end bar and middle side
bars D D D D, as shown in Fig. 157, it is necessary to first deduct the width of
the opening for the ventilator, 6 inches, and then take one-half of the balance as
the curb measurement. Fig. 157 represents a skylight 4 feet wide, or 48 inches;

as the width of the opening for the ventilator is 6 inches, deduct the 6 inches
from the 48, which leaves 42 inches. One-half of 42 inches gives 21 inches as
the length to be applied to the curb measurement of the chart in determining the
length of the bars D D D D. As 21 inches is not represented on the chart, take
any two numbers that are represented and the sum total of which equals the 21
inches. But when there is not too great a fraction involved it is more convenient
to take a number that will go into it an equal number of times. Twice 1034
inches is equal to 21 inches;10% inches curb measurement gives us 12% inches
on the line A e\ 12% inches X 2=24% inches, the length of the side bars D D

D D. To get the length of the hip bar F shown in ground plan, Fig. 157, 10%
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 845

inches curb measurement gives on the line B d 16 inches; 16 inches X 2=32

inches, the length of the hip bar F.
As already stated, all measurements for the length of bars on this chart are at
the curb line of skylight.
It is understood that all skylight makers do not use the same pitch to their
skylights, some preferring one pitch and some another. It is desirable, therefore,

to call attention to the fact that the chart can be readily adjusted to meet all of

these conditions and to suit any pitch of skylight required. This is done by
lengthening or shortening the lines C e and C d, Fig. 153, which represent the
hight of skylight, accordingly as the pitch required is greater or less than repre-
sented on the chart. The lengther ing or shortening of these lines, C e and C d,

in no way affects the measuring bars on line A e and on line B d, except to

increase or diminish their length.
The base line, as shown by A B, and which represents the curb measurement
of the skylight, can be increased to any length desired. But for convenience in
handling as a chart of reference in the workshop it is not desirable to have it too
large. It is considered that a chart with a base line of 2 feet wide is sufficient for

all practical purposes in securing accurate measurements for the length of bars in
any size skylight, as was fully shown and explained in the description above.

COMPUTING THE LENGTHS OF SKYLIGHT BARS

AND RAFTERS
It is the intention of this article to explain the method of computing the length
of bars without using diagrams or charts. The rule used for obtaining the lengths

of bars by computation is based on the geometrical principle, that the hypotenuse

of a right triangle is equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of its base

and altitude.

Fig. 158 shows a right triangle, the bar of which, A B, is 3 inches; altitude,

B C, is 4 inches and hypotenuse, C A, is 5 inches. The square of 3, as shown, is

9; the square of 4 is 16 and the square of 5 is 25; adding 9 to 16 gives 25; thus
demonstrating that the sum of the squares of the base and altitude is equal to the

square of the hypotenuse. Extract the square root of 25 which is 5, because

5X5—25, which proves the above principle.
To show how this principle is applied to skylight work let Fig. 159 represent
a section of a single pitched skylight, butting against the wall A B, and resting on
 :

846 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

the curb C. D shows one of many different shapes of the skylight frame, having
its upper edge, a in a vertical line with the outside of the curb, as shown, thereby
making the distance from a to c the same distance as from b to B. It is important
that one of the intersections of the bar will come in a vertical line with the outer

T 1

v!>

Tr

8 Fig 159. Section of Single Pitched Skylight

curb b as shown in this case at

y
a, for then the
distance from b to B, which in this case is 63
inches, can be used for the base measure in
computing, as shown from a to c ;
then when
the length of the bar is obtained it can be
measured on similar points, as from a to d

a
Fig. 160. Section of Double Pitched Skyiight

to c is 63 inches, the rise or altitude

^
on the hypotenuse or bar.

from
gkyHght
c to d 16 inches, then
Assuming
^^ ^ by the above
in this
from

principle the length a d is equal to ]/ 63* + 16’,' or

1/ 4225,' or 65 inches, and is
figured as follows: The square of 63 is equal to 63X63, or 3969; the square
of 16

equals 16X16, or 256; 256+3969=4225, from which the square root is to be

extracted, or the number which, when multiplied by itself, will give 4225 as the
product. Starting from the right (if no decimal point is used), separate the
number into periods of two figures each, as shown

Trial divisor. Correct divisor. 42'25 (65 ans.

120 125 86
025
625

Find the greatest number the square of which is contained in the first or left hand
number, 42; 7X7=49, and is too large a number; then take 6; 6x6 = 36, there-
fore 6 is the first figure of the root. Subtracting 36 from 42 obtain 6, and bringing
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 847

down the next period ( 25 ) obtain the first partial dividend, 625. Double the part
of the root (6) already found and annex a cipher to it for the trial divisor, as shown
by 120. Divide the trial divisor, 120, into the partial dividend, 625, which sug-
gests 5. Add 5 to the trial divisor, 120, which gives the correct divisor, 125, which
is contained in 625 five times and leaves no remainder. Therefore 65 is the
required square root of 4225, because 65 X 65=4225, and is the length of the bar
from a to d in Fig. 159.
When the same principle is applied to a double pitched skylight it should be
borne in mind that the base measurement is always one-half of the narrow side of
the curb ;
also remembering what was said about the points a and b in Fig. 159.
In Fig. 160 is shown the section of the narrow end of a double pitched skylight
9 feet 6 inches wide, the length being immaterial. It will be assumed in con-
structing this skylight that the patterns which have been cut for one-third pitch
will be used. As one-third pitch equals one-third the span, then one-third of 9
feet 6 inches equals 3 feet 2 inches, or the altitude, while one-half the width equals
half of 9 feet 6 inches, or 4 feet 9 inches, or the base. This gives the right tri-

angle ABC, the base of which C B equals 57 inches, and the altitude, B A,
equals 38 inches. Proceeding as before, 57®=3249; 38®= 1444; 3249 + 1444=
4693, the square of the bar A C. 1/ 4698 -88.5 + ,
as follows:

Trial divisor. Correct divisor. 46'93.00'00 (68.5 + Ans.

36

120 128 1093

1024

1860 1365 6900

6825

18700 7500

Starting from the right of 4693, separate into periods of two figures each, as shown.
Find the greatest number the square of which is contained in 46, which is 6,

and is the first figure of the root. Subtract 36 from 46, which leaves 10 ;
bring down
the next period, 93, and get the first partial dividend, 1093. Double the partial

root 6, which equals 12, and annex a cipher to it for the trial divisor, as shown by
120. Divide the trial divisor, 120, into the partial dividend, 1093, which suggests
9 as the second figure of the root. Adding 9 to the trial divisor, 120, get as the
correct divisor, 129. But 129X9=1161, which is greater than the partial divi-
dend, 1093, showing that 9 is too large a number for the second figure of the root.
Taking 8 in place of 9 for the second figure of the root obtain 128 as the correct
divisor. Subtracting the product of 8 X 128, or 1024, from 1093, get the remainder
 )

848 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

69. Since it is necessary to obtain a decimal in the root annex two ciphers to 4693,
as shown, and bring them down to 69, and obtain the second partial dividend,

6900. Since all the complete periods have been brought down, insert the decimal
point after 8 in the root. Now double the partial root 68 and annex a cipher and
get 1360 as the second trial divisor. Divide the second trial divisor, 1360, into the
second partial dividend, 6900, which suggests 5. Adding 5 to the divisor 1360 get
1365 as the correct divisor, and 5 becomes the third figure in the root. 5X 1365
=6825. Subtract this from 6900 which leaves 75. Annex two more ciphers to
the integer, as shown, and bring them down to 75 and get the third partial divi-
dend, 7500. Double the partial root 685 and annex a cipher and have for the
third trial divisor 13,700. This divisor is not contained in the partial dividend,
7500; therefore, the fourth figure of the root is 0. Hence, correct to three figures,

the square root of 4693 is 68.5, or 6834 inches, for the length of the bar A C in

Fig. 160. The length, 68.5, is the merest trifie short, for 68.5X68.5=4692.25.
Assuming that the frame of the skylight is constructed as shown from a to b in

Fig. 159, the length of the bars for a skylight 9 feet 6 inches wide, as shown in Fig.

160, would be 6834 inches, measured from A to C, using the set of patterns cut
for one-third pitch. The above can be used to find the length of any size hipped
skylight by first finding the rise to a foot for both hip and common ( also jack

bars and then multiplying the base lines in ft. of the bars for a given size skylight by
the figures obtained. The figures for one quarter pitch are 1.5 (or 134) for the
hips and 1.116 for jack and common. In the following will be shown a short rule
for finding the length of bars of hipped skylights. Assuming that the lengths of the
rafters are to be laid out for a skylight curb of which measures 4X6 feet and pitch of

which is to be one-third, a plan of which is shown in Fig. 161, the short rule is applied
as follows: As no ventilator is shown, deduct 48 from 72, which leaves 24 inches,
the length of the ridge bar d. For the length of the common bar a divide 48 by 2,

which gives 24 inches. Now add 3-16 inch for every inch thus found —namely,
24 x3-16=tti or 4)4 inches, making the length of the common bar equal to 2834
inches. For the hip bar c add 9-16 for every inch, thus 24X9-1S=-Y/, or 12)£,
making the length of the hip 37)4 inches. It will be seen that the jack bars b are
spaced 16 inches. To this add the same distance as in the common bar, 16 X 3-16
=44 or 3, making the length of the jack bar 19 inches. It is necessary to bear in
mind in using this rule that one of the bends of the bar should meet the line of the
curb, and on that line lay off the length obtained.
It may be naturally asked, if 3-16 and 9-16 inch are added for every inch in
plan for the common, jack and hip bars, respectively, on one-third pitch, what would
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 849
be the amount to be added on one-quarter or one-fifth pitch ? To answer this the
diagram, Fig. 162, has been prepared, and which is drawn full size for a skylight

having one-third pitch. As the FULL SIZE

term one-third pitch is taken

from carpentry and
practice
means that the hight to the comb
of a roof is one-third the length

of the span, the altitude of a

skylight of one-third pitch will
be one-third of the width of the
skylight. Draw A B equal to
1 inch, or half the width, and
erect A C, which will be 2-3

inch, according to the explana-

tion just made, and draw C B, g. 161 . Plan of Skylight
which will be found to measure
approximately 1 3-16 inches, or
3-16 inch more than the hori- Fig. 162. Finding the Length
of Skylight Rafters
zontal line A B. Therefore,
3-16 inch is added to every inch in plan for the common and jack bars. For the
length of the hip draw D E F G, 1 inch square, and the diagonal D F, at right

angles to which draw the line D H equal to 2-3 inch, and draw the line H F,
which will measure 1 9-16 inches, from which ascertain that 9-16 inch is added
for every inch in plan. This method is followed in getting the measurements
for one-quarter and one-fifth pitch. For instance, with one-quarter pitch A C
will equal 34 inch instead of 2-3 inch, and the other dimensions will change
accordingly.
Referring to Fig. 161, if a ventilator 6 inches wide was used, then 48 — 6=42
-*-2=21, to which the additions for the one-third pitch are made for every inch for
common, jack and hip bar, respectively.

A PUTTYLESS SKYLIGHT
A method shown by the accompanying
of constructing a puttyless skylight is

drawings. Such a skylight has been designed to meet the demand for a cheap but
absolutely strong and weather tight light and can be made advantageously in sizes
 8 5° Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

up to 3 X 3 ft. Being of simple construction, it can be made complete in three

hours by a competent mechanic, including the work of laying in the glass and
finishing the caps, as shown in Fig. 163.
If there is likely to be considerable call for these lights in various sizes, sheet
metal stub patterns should be made for preservation, as per the accompanying
sketches. The length of the bars is computed by
the usual methods, except that as they do not come
down on the glass rest of the curb the common
bars are cut Y% in. and the hip bars % in. less

than measurements.
The vent neck is made in one piece, as shown
Fig. iea. a Puttyiess skylight j n th e isometric drawing. In bending this sheet
it should be creased along the lines G H before being formed into the required
shape. The corners should then be cut out at M, M, M, on all the three
corners, and the sides of the neck pulled around until the comer A B meets
the solder lap C.
The development of the patterns is the same as for any hipped skylight, an
oblique section being necessary for the ascertaining of the true section of the bar
and of the pattern. The principles
of this method of developing are ex-
plained in the problem on page 67.

The procedure of assembling is to

form the cut material to the required
profiles; solder the two ends into the
hood. The two supports, A, Fig. 165,
are now soldered in position and the
hood laid aside until the vent neck is

soldered along lap C, Fig. 164, and

kept square by soldering a small brace,
bent similar to A of Fig. 165, corner-
Fig. 164. The Vent Neck, Made in One Piece
wise from one side to another, after
which the hood is set on by soldering the neck to supports A, Fig. 164, with the
hood on the bench and neck resting upside down on the supports.
The
four sides of the curb are soldered together, being sure they axe square;
then the four common bars are soldered to the vent at T, Fig. 165, and set on the
curb and the bars soldered to glass rest of curb R, Fig. 165. Next the hip bars
are put in and tacked at R
and S. The skylight is now turned upside down and
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 851

the common bars soldered at L and the hip bars at T. It is then ready to turn
back and the glass laid on. The caps can now be set on and held by the copper
cleat at the bottom and by soldering to the vent at S, thus completing the skylight.

Pattern of Hood Ends Pattern of Vent Neck Fattern of Hood

Fig. 165. Section of Skylight and Patterns

PATTERN FOR HIP BAR

The following deals with the easiest method of finding true profile and inter-
secting miter points, with curb and ventilator, of hip bar of a skylight, and also the
method of obtaining the pattern for hip bar. In the accompanying illustration,

Fig. 166, is shown a reduced reproduction of a hipped skylight. In this A B

represents the center line, C the section of the curb and D the section of the ven-
tilator and hood, the pitch of the skylight being one-third. In the section D of

the ventilator the cap flange covering the glass was omitted, and it is suggested
in constructing the skylight that a cap be formed on the ventilator to protect the
joint between the ventilator and glass, as indicated in diagram X.
85a Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

Place the profile of the common bar E in its proper position, as shown, and
number each of the bends, as indicated from 1 to 6, on both sides. Where this
bar E intersects the curb and ventilator, mark the intersections by similar num-
bers, as shown from 1 to 6 on the curb C ;
also from 1 to 6 on the ventilator D.
At pleasure from any point P on the center line A B draw a line at an angle
of 45° (being the bisection of a right angle) and intersect it by a vertical line

dropped from point 1 in the curb C at 1 in plan. Then P 1 represents the hip
line in plan. Now, parallel to the pitch of the skylight in the sectional view draw
any line, as a b, perpendicular to which project the widths of the various parts of
\

the bar, as shown by similar numbers on a b. Take these projections on a b and

place them in plan, at right angles to the hip line, being careful to have the points
1, 2, 4 come directly on the hip line P 1. Parallel to P 1 from the various num-

bers on a b draw lines until they intersect lines dropped from similar numbers in
the curb C and ventilator D in the sectional view. A line traced through points
thus obtained in plan, as shown from 1 to 6 in the curb and 1 to 6 in the ventilator

will represent the intersections in plan between the hip bar and curb and ventilator.
Before the profile and pattern for the hip bar can be obtained, a true elevation
of the hip bar must be constructed. Parallel to the hip line P 1 in plan draw any
line, as F G
1 1
. From the intersections 1 to 6 in both curb and ventilator in plan
erect lines indefinitely, perpendicular to P 1. Then, measuring from the line
F G in the sectional view, take the vertical hights to points 1 to 6 in the curb C,
as well as to points 1 to 6 in the ventilator D, and place them on similar lines
erected from the plan, measuring in each instance from the line F 1 G Draw 1
.

lines between the curb and ventilator, as shown from 1 to 1, 2 to 2, etc., and it

the miter lines at the curb and ventilator are true, the lines will all be parallel.
This, then, completes the true elevation of the hip bar, showing the intersecting
miter points between the hip bar and the curb and ventilator.
The profile of the hip bar is obtained by taking the projections on a b in
plan and placing them at pleasure parallel to the hip bar in the true elevation, as
shown by a' b'. Perpendicular to this lines are erected intersecting similar lines
and resulting in the profile of the hip bar H.
For the pattern for the hip bar take the girth of the bar H and place it on the
line J K, drawn at right angles to the line of the hip bar. Through these small
figures lines are drawn at right angles to J K and arq intersected by lines drawn
parallel to J K from similar numbered intersections in the miter lines of the curb
and ventilator. A line traced through points thus obtained, as shown by L N M
O, will be the pattern for the hip bar. If it is desired to notch out the bar so that
Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts
856 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

T V
various hights to points 1 to 6 at the top of the bar and place them on similar
numbered lines, erected from the plan, in the true elevation of the hip bar, measur-
ing in each instance from the line C° D°, thus obtaining the points of inter-
T T
sections 1 to 6 . In similar manner obtain the vertical distances from the line 0
D in the sectional view to points 1 to 6 in the curb, measuring above and below
the line C D as required and place them on similar lines erected from the plan in

the true elevation measuring above and below the line C° D°, and obtaining the
points 1 to 6. Connect lines between the points 1 to 6 and 1
T
to 6T ,
which
gives the true elevation of the hip bar on 1 K in plan.
The profile of the hip bar is obtained by taking the projections of the bar E
in the sectional view on the line a h and placing them on the line a b drawn
parallel to the line of the hip in the true elevation. From the small figures on a
b and perpendicular to same, erect lines intersecting similar lines in the true eleva-

tion from 6 to 1 to 6. Connect the lines and then will E° be the true profile 01

the hip bar.

For the pattern for the hip bar take the girth of the profile E° and place it on
the line N O drawn at right angles to the lines of the hip bar as shown by similar
figures. Through these small figures at right angles to N 0 draw lines, which
intersect by others at right angles to the lines of the hip from similar numbered
T
intersections 1 to 6
T
at the top and 1 to 6 at the bottom. A line traced through
points thus obtained will be the pattern for the hip bar.
Before the pattern for the jack bar can be formed the miter line between the
jack and hip must be obtained both in elevation and plan as follows : Take the
projections of the bar E in the sectional view on the line a b and place it at right
angles to the jack bar M in the plan as shown by similar numbers on a b, being
careful that the distance from the corner of the curb line h to the center of the jack
bar M has the required dimension. Then parallel to the jack bar M, through the
small figures on a b lines are drawn until they intersect similar numbered lines on
one side of the hip bar J, thus forming the miter line of the short cut from 1 to 6,
also the miter line of the long cut from 1 to 6°. From the intersections on this
long and short miter cut at right angles to the lines of the jack bar M, lines are
erected to the sectional view intersecting similar numbered lines from the profile of
the common and jack bar E, obtaining respectively the miter line of the short cut
shown by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, and of the long cut shown by 1, 2, 3°, 4, 5° and 6°.

For the pattern for the jack bar take the girth of the E
and place it on
profile
the line R S drawn at right angles to 1 1
T
. Through the small figures on R S
T
parallel to 1 1 draw lines, which intersect by others drawn parallel to R S from
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 857

similar numbered intersections on the curb, and the miter lines 1 to 4 and 1 to
6°. A line traced through points thus obtained will be the pattern for the jack bar.
T U will be the cut against the curb, P V the short cut against the hip and V W
the long cut. The jack bars must be formed right and left. The pattern for the
curb is obtained from the plan in the usual manner.

VALLEYS IN SKYLIGHT CONSTRUCTION

A Metal Worker took exception to the demonstration, or rather
the design, of the method of obtaining the pattern for a valley, which is presented
elsewhere in the book. The remarks coming from an experienced man and well
taken, are here reprinted:
Some time ago you explained how to lay out a skylight with a valley bar as
shown in Fig. 109. In my opinion a bar is impractical. Even with extraordinary

Fig. 170
Suggestion for a Skylight Valley.

care in glazing it is apt to leak, for it is self-evident that the valley carries off the

water from part of the skylight within the dotted lines of Fig. 169. No experi-
enced roofer would finish his standing seams in this manner. He would put a flat
strip, G, Fig. 168, in the valley, thereby giving the water a smooth and water-
tight path. Now why not do this in constructing a skylight with a valley?
 :

858 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

Fig. 170 shows what making a valley bar, or

I consider a practical method of

more correctly a valley curb. This is just a suggestion, and is, no doubt, suscept-
ible of modification, retaining though, the essential feature a smooth path for the —
flow of the water.

PATTERN FOR A VALLEY BAR

To obtain the pattern for a valley bar in a skylight having one-third pitch as
shown in Fig. 171, the following rule is applicable to any case, regardless of the
pitch used
Therefore, in Fig. 171 assume that A 11 C represent a section of one-half
of a skylight having one-third pitch. Complete the section of the curb, as shown
by a b c and the ridge bar d e. In its proper position place the profile of the
common bar, as shown by D. Number the corners of the profile, as shown by the
small figures 1 to 6 on both sides, through which, parallel to A B, draw lines
intersecting the curb a h c at points from 1 to G (the points 4, 5, 6 represent-
ing the outlet of the condensation gutter) and the ridge bar d e from 1 to 6. In
its proper position, in line with the section, draw the part plan E F G J H and
the valley line 1 1 at an angle of 45 degrees.
Take a tracing of the profile D in section and place it in a position shown by
D 1
. Through the various bends on one side of the profile D l
,
as from 1
T
to 6
T
,

draw lines parallel to the valley line 1 1, which intersect by lines drawn at right
angles to C B in section from similar numbered points of intersections in the curb
a b and the ridge d e. Through points thus obtained trace a line in plan, as
shown from 1 to 6, at bottom and top, which represent respectively the miter line
in plan between the half bar and the curb and ridge. Trace the miter lines
opposite the line 1 1 at both ends, as shown, which completes the plan view
between the valley bar and curb and ridge. It should be understood that the pro-
file D 1
in plan is not the true profile, but is only placed in that position to give the
horizontal distances.
The next step is to construct a diagonal section, from which the true profile
and pattern are obtained. Parallel to 1 4 in plan, draw C B
1 1
. At right angles
to C B
l 1
,
and from the various intersections 1 to G on the ridge and curb lines in
plan, erect lines crossing it. Now, measuring in each instance from C B in sec-
tion, take the various vertical distances to points 1 to 6, both in the curb a b and
ridge d and place them on similar vertical lines in the diagonal
e, section, measur-
ing in each case from C 1 B Through these intersections draw 1
. lines, as shown
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 859

from 1° to 6 at both top and bottom, which represent respectively the miter lines

of the bar between the ridge and curb.

For the true profile of the valley bar take a tracing of the profile D or D 1
and
place it at right angles to 4 4 in diagonal section, as shown by I)*. At right
angles to 4 4 from the various intersections in D 2
draw lines, intersecting similar

numbered lines previously drawn. Connect the various points as shown by 6' to

1' to 6' or D 8
,
which is the true profile of the valley bar. Take the stretchout
of I) 8
and place it on the line L M drawn at right angles to 1° 1°. At right
angles to L M
and through the small figures draw lines, which intersect with lines
drawn at right angles to 1° 1° from similar numbered intersections in the miter
lines at top and bottom. A line drawn through points thus obtained, as shown by
N 0 PR 8 T, will be the pattern for the valley bar.
86o Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

A FEW POINTS ON SKYLIGHTS

Next to keeping out rain, the most important feature of skylight construction

is the provision for taking care of the condensation, which it is impossible to

prevent whenever the temperature outside of the building is relatively low and
inside comparatively high. While practically all skylight makers provide conden-
sation gutters on all bars and curbs, many often neglect, or overlook, certain

details in making connections that resuit in condensation leaks.

When a skylight with the tubeless closed curb formation, indicated in Fig.
172, is so large as to require assembling on its curb at the building, it often hap-

pens that seams or miters are left unsoldered, from a to b on the under surface of
the curb, owing to their apparent inaccessibility. This allows the condensation or

A Few Points on Skylights

leakage delivered from the bar gutter into the curb gutter to flow through this
unsoldered portion down behind the flashing into the building. This is especially

so when the curb is partly filled with ice, or is coated with ice on the outside, as
the water thus dammed inside the curb is forced to find and flow through any
possible outlet. The best way to avoid this imperfection is to conduct the water
through the curb by means of tubes, as indicated by the dotted lines, instead of
depending upon holes punched in the curb and when access to the under surface
;

of the curb cannot be otherwise had, to expose the seam a b by bending back the
portion c d on each side of the seam or miter, leaving the interior of the curb open
for access with the soldering copper. After a b has been soldered, c d is bent
back into its proper place and soldered.
 1

Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 86

A curb of the open formation, shown in Fig. 173, is superior in every way to
the closed formation, shown in Fig. 172, as the liability to leakage from unsoldered
seams, as well as from filling, freezing and bursting, is avoided. It is also cheaper
to make. In large and comparatively flat skylights, the open curb can be strength-
ened by soldering a clip, e, edgewise under the end of each bar, the shape of the
clip c, being shown in Fig. 174.
In Fig. 172 / represents a cross bar, used to join the ends of two lights of
glass when the distance from the curb to the ridge is too great to admit of the use
of a single light. A common fault is shown in Fig. 175 —namely, the failure of the
condensation gutters of the cross bar to overlap the edge, or flow into the conden-
sation gutter of the main bars, which, of course, causes a leak. This fault is

avoided by making the depth of the cross bar such that its gutter will rest on the
edge of the main bar gutter, as shown in Fig. 176, thus making it possible to over-
lap into the same, which is not possible when the cross bar is made too shallow, as
shown in Fig. 175. The ends of the cross bar gutter should be turned slightly
downward with a pair of pliers, so that the water will be sure to drop off into the
main bar gutter, as otherwise it would sometimes follow back under the cross bar
and drip off into the building. This edge, of course, should not be bent down so
far as to interfere with the flow of the water from above the cross bar.
The bottomless bar section, shown in Fig. 175, serves very well for pitches of,

say, 5 in 12 inches and steeper, but for flatter pitches an extra bottom or gutter-
piece, <
7 ,
should be used, as shown in the bar section of Fig. 176, in order to pre-
vent the dripping of the condensation which forms inside of the hollow bar, which
would give the impression that the skylight itself leaked.
It is a common practice in getting out skylights to simply shear out, measure
the lengths, cut the miters and form up the curb, hip and ridge, leaving the work-
man who assembles the skylight to measure off and mark the bar spacing on the
same. But it was found that it pays, after cutting the members ready for forming,

to strike the glass line of each with the straight edge, and measure and prick the
bar spacing thereon. This measuring can be done much quicker by the cutter
while the work is on his bench in the flat than by the section workman after the

work has been formed and transferred to his bench. The curb, hips and ridge of a
skylight are shown in Fig. 177, assembled and ready for the bars, the spacing of
the same having been pricked in before forming. This is not only cheaper but
more accurate than after measuring. This method is especially advantageous when
making a number of similar skylights, as the spacing is simply pricked from the
patterns during the cutting operation.
 86a Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

HIP SKY Lights WITH DIFFERENT PITCHES

A request was received from a correspondent ,

for the exemplifi-

cation of the method of obtaining the patterns of a skylight, with ends having a
pitch of 8 in. to 1 ft. and the sides having a pitch of 6 in. to 1 ft. A solution
of the problem is given in the following:
Many types of bars, curbs and ventilators abound in the sheet metal industry,
and as the sections as here shown are extensively employed, they are selected for
this exposition ;
that is, the bar in elevation on line of arrow N curb E, ventila-;

tor neck B, and ventilator hood Q are assumed as being standard, or the given
profiles of the correspondent. Draw a horizontal line 12 in. long, Fig. 178, and
erect a vertical line 6 in. long and complete the triangle by drawing the hypote-
nuse. This triangle 7 a 15 represents the pitch of the sides, and as it is customary,
to facilitate measuring, to use the glass line, the hypotenuse will be such. Like-
wise, the apron of the curb lies in the same vertical plane, for it gives the same
curb measurement for the glass measurement. (See Fig. 180).
Construct the given profile of the bar with its glass rests or shoulders, on the
pitch line as indicated by 0 to 10. Cause lines to pass through these points par-
allel to the pitch line. On the altitude of the triangle place the given profile of the
neck B with its glass rest on the pitch line, also the hood with the sheet metal
support T of elevation M. At the intersection of the base line and hypotenuse
place the given profile of the curb E, with its glass line also on the pitch line. To
the right draw another horizontal 12-in. line coincident with the base of the first

triangle and erect an 8-in. altitude. Complete the triangle. Project a line from
the joining point of the altitude and hypotenuse of the first triangle, and where
it cuts the hypotenuse of the second triangle drop a vertical line as shown by 7,

15 a of elevation M, giving the pitch triangles of the ends.

Lines 200 201 and 203 204 are adjuncts in the scheme of projection as here
used. Drop a line from the point 7 of elevation N, profile E, indefinitely and
continue the altitude line downwards. In elevation M these lines terminate on line
200 201 and are swung around to line >203 204 from point 203, thence are drawn
horizontally, realizing a rectangular figure in a b 7 d in the plan, a b being the
pitch triangle of elevation M, and a d the pitch triangle of elevation N.
A diagonal line of this rectangle from a to 7 will be the plan of the
pitch triangle of the hip bar and one of the lines of the hip bar.
Incidentally this is the miter line of the curbs and necks. Drop lines from the
curb and neck of elevation N to this miter line and continue them across it for a
 864 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

short distance to delineate a plan view of these profiles. At the crossings of these

lines with the miter line, lines are drawn to line 203 204, thence around to line
200 201 and upwards in the elevation M, intersecting them with like numbered
lines from elevation N ;
as 8 of curb E is dropped to 8' and carried to 8° to line
200 201 8” and then upwards until it meets the horizontal line projected from 8
in elevation N, thus establishing point 8 in elevation M. This process of pro-
jection modifies the profiles of the curb and neck in elevation M as indicated by
C and A. The ascertaining of the changed profile of the bar for elevation M is

held in abeyance for the completion of the plan view of the jack bars.
Transfer the widths of the profile of the bar on line s t of elevation N and
place it asshown by s' and t' in the
plan. Through these points parallel
to a 7 draw lines, stopping where
these lines meet the curb and neck
lines; like the line passing through
7 9 of s' i (representing two lines
of the hip bar) will terminate at k k'

and /'
l, etc., etc.

For the plan view of the jack bars

transfer s t to one of the lines of

curb as s" t" and draw horizontal
lines through the points meeting the
hip bar at to and the curb at n as
shown. From m erect a vertical
line, also from 0 , p, q, r, which will
be the jack bar for the 8-in. pitch;
and line s* will be the width. Carry
s
1
t
K
to elevation M or s
IX
t
xx
,
and
project lines to their respective lines
parallel to the pitch
r line, acquiring
n e >
Fig. 180. Scale Lay-out of Skylight
the changed profile of the jacks and
common bars of the 8-in. pitch. For the elevations of the jack bars necessary to

obtain the patterns, lines are projected upward to the elevation N from the points
0 , p, to, q, r, and to line 203 204 to line 200 201 and upward of elevation M.
Then will the dotted lines and points indicate the intersection of the jacks with the
hips in elevation.
Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 865
 866 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

For the acquisition of the patterns of the hip bar and its true profile a view is

requisite, in which the true lengths of the hip bar are shown. Such a view will be
oblique and will be one of the plan seen on the line of the arrow K; in other
words, the pitch triangle of the hip bar is to be found. Therefore, project lines

Fig. 180

Patterns for Hip Bars, Jack Bars and Common Bars

indefinitely from a and 7 and parallel to a and 7 draw a line, stopping at 7 X ,

'

but crossing for a short distance at a*. This will be the base line of the triangle.
x N, as
To one side of a a draw a parallel line with the various hights of elevation

a" to 13’ 14' 15' 5. At right angle to this line project lines towards a* 5*. From
15 x
to 7
X
draw the hypotenuse, thereby establishing the pitch triangle of the hip

bar, all as shown in the illustrations.

Where similarly marked lines from a" to 5' intersect those projected from the
plan, as, for instance, a line from k (representing point 9 of s' t'), crossing 13
x X
locates point 9
X
,
etc., etc. From the points thus located, and parallel to 15 7 ,

draw lines terminating where they meet the lines from the plan, as a line from l

( representing 9 of s' t' ) meeting a line from 9 X establishes point 9°.

For the true profile of the hip bar place s t, elevation N, at s° t°. Projectors
X Be careful here to keep the
to correct lines, as 9 to line 9 9°, locates point 9.

numbers on the right side.

The development of the pattern is by the parallel method. Owing to the

restriction of space they are drawn separately, just as would be done in shop prac-
tice, and the stub patterns like these preserved for future use, inasmuch as they can
be applied to various sizes of skylights with these pitches. These patterns are cut by
tacking a piece of drawing paper near to views which give true lengths, as shown
by pattern for curb C of Fig. 178. An inspection of Fig. 179 should show the

process, for with the developing of the caps there are more room and less lines to
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 867

confuse. Therefore, on the piece of drawing paper, Fig. 181, and at right angles to
line 15
x
7X draw line Y Z, Fig. 181. (All stretchout lines will be so designated. )

On this line prick off the stretchout of profile D and from points in the oblique
elevation to similarly numbered lines in the stretchout locate the points for the

Y_ j

J 2t
an
1

Menu

W~
«/
-

a* TT~
#_
A
— L '
Z5__

M .

\ A5_
/.
\ l!

Fig. 185. Pattern of Fig. 186. Pattern of Fig. 187. One- Half Fig. 188. Pattern of
Common Bar G, Fig. 180 Curb E, Fig. 178 Pattern of Vent Neck B, Fig. 178
Neck A, Fig. 178
Pattern for Common Bar, Curb and Vent Neck

pattern — to wit, a projector from 7

1
defines point 7
X
in the pattern. Repeat this

procedure for the patterns of the common and jack bars, Figs. 182, 183, 184 and
185. Attention is called to the cutting of the vertical members of the common bars

at g 15, Fig. 178. This in no way lessens the strength of the bar and saves a lot
of notching. For by doing this, the glass rests of both the neck and the hip bar are

accessible for the point of the soldering copper.

For the patterns of the curb E and C, Fig. 178, and necks B and A one
could develop parallel from the plan views. The procedure here used and identical
to this and recommended, is to place the stretchout line Y Z with the girth of
curb c at right angle to a of elevation N, and project lines from the points of
curb E. For curb E the points are projected from curb C to the stretchout of curb
E. Repeat this for the necks. Note how the glass cover is cut away at a of

pattern for B, Fig. 188. This will be covered by the caps and is done to facilitate

assembling.
A skylight with two pitches will always have a ventilator with two sides longer
than the ends, and it is assumed that the vent will be 10 in. wide. Therefore
pattern of neck A is one-half, Fig. 187, the other pattern being of a size as called
for by Fig. 180. This holds true for the hood, the end P remaining as it is for all
868 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

10-in. vents. Fig. 190, and the pattern of Q, Fig. 189,

being of a length as required. For the hood pattern place
the stretchout of P under Q, and for Q under P. That is,

the cut of pattern of Q as shown by a b a, is as deep at

2. b of elevation M. The sheet metal support T is made
of heavy gauge and the pattern is as shown. This is first

soldered to the hood, then to the neck. The number of

these depends on the size of the vent. Band iron braees
bolted to the hood and vent would make a good substitute.
If the vent is long it is well to stiffen with suitable braces
at the point of thrust of the bars, as g of Fig. 180. These
braces are indicated by dotted lines.

Laps are allowed on all patterns, as per instructions

of dotted lines. Though here shown in their exact place,

for sheet metal stub patterns for preservation the stubs

would be cut net and the laps indicated by the acid-

marking fluid on the inside of the pattern cut.
For the patterns of the caps redraw the three eleva-
tions and the plan of the pitch triangles, Fig. 179. Place
the profile in elevation N of the cap and in the true position
Fig. 18V*. Pattern of Hood relative to the profile of the bar in elevation N of Fig. 178.
Q, Fig. 178
Complete the views and develop the pattern as per former
instructions. Attention is called to the notching of the caps at h to fit over the
glass cover of the necks.

The layout of a 10 X 10-ft. skylight is shown in Fig. 180 and is as follows : To any
convenient scale draw a plan of the skylight. Continue the center line of any two
sides; and as one-half of 10 ft. is 5 ft. and two sides have a pitch of 8 in. to 1 ft.,

place a point 40 in. on the center line from the side as shown. As the other two
sides have a 6-in. pitch, place a point 30 in. from the side. Draw lines to the
corner. Then will these two lines indicate the pitches. Without going into a
geometrical explanation of why, it is stated that a line parallel to the base line of
these triangles is projected from b to the hypotenuse of the 8-in. pitch, as b x then ,

dropped to the center line of the other two sides, determining the location of the
apex of the hips, D. Since the ventilator is 10 in. wide, lines parallel to b c and
on both sides 5 in. away are drawn to the hips. Scaling this it is found that the
sides of the ventilator neck will be 37^ in. ;
hence as the hood is 6 in. larger it
will be as stated on the layout.
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 869
The maximum width of glass that ought to be used is 24 in. ,
and though some
prefer a width of 18 in. the choice is here for 20 in. ,
necessitating the spacing of
bars 20J4 in. By a little experimenting with this layout it was learned that by
having the 20-in. glass on the ends (6-in. pitch) a layout for the bars, such as

Fig. 1H1. Hood Support T, Fig. 178

Fig. 190. Full Pattern of Hood Ends P, Fig. 178

shown resulted. It is to be understood that appearance rather than exact glass

sizes influenced this layout.

The length of the bars was found by scaling ;

which was nothing more or less

than placing the pitch triangles on the bars, knowing that they were the bases and
that the scaling of the hypotenuses would give the lengths of the bars.
The profiles of the bars are of ample strength for a skylight of this size if, say,

24-gauge of galvanized sheet steel is used ;

still, it would not be a waste of material

to reinforce the hips with a core plate of about 18-gauge material.

In conclusion, it is desired to say that if the development of the patterns is for

a shop equipped with multiple dies and a drop brake, the standard type of bar
should be used, as required by the dies, throughout. This could only be accom-
plished by an empirical manipulation of the pre-stated process, resulting in
discrepancies in the pattern cuts, in no way serious, inasmuch as an error of 1-16 in.
is allowable in skylight work. There would be little or no trouble assembling, and
about the only serious fault would be the appearance of the jack bars. They would
be of the same width, and would present a ragged appearance where joined to
the hips.

ERECTING LARGE HIPPED SKYLIGHTS

The interesting feature of the work on a large reinforced concrete warehouse is
the way the large skylights were set on the elevator towers. Owing to their size,
 870 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

13 X 15 ft. for the larger one, they could not be assembled in the shop and hoisted
to the roof. They were therefore shipped to the building as they came from the
brake, excepting that the seams of the gutters were made in the shop and the vents
were assembled.
As it was easier to assemble these lights on the large flat main roof, where
they could be turned about at pleasure, rather than when they were in place on the
towers, the skylights were built by the usual mode of procedure, as indicated in
Figs. 192 and 193. Fig. 192 shows the skylights in the relative position they will

Fig. 192. Skylights for the Towers Fig. 198. Skylights Placed for Soldering Bars

occupy on the towers. As the curb of the smaller light was integral to that of the
larger one and as it was desirable to raise each one separately to the towers, the bars
of the smaller one were left out of the side adjoining the larger one. These bars
will, of course, be soldered in when the skylights are on the towers. The work-
man in this picture was not working on the skylight, but had just come out of the

temporary shop inside, where he had made the leader he is carrying to place on the
roof. This picture also shows how the hollow galvanized sheet steel windows pivot.
Fig. 193 shows one of the positions the men placed the skylight in to permit
them to solder with facility the laps on the bars. In some of the positions of the
skylight it was away from the wall and held by means of long pieces of handy
sticks of wood. In raising the skylight it is placed against the tower, but turned
with the bars out instead of in, as it now is, and the curb which will go to the
farther side of the tower will be on top, so that the skylight will need no turning
after it is on top of the tower.
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 871

To raise the skylight a rope will be tied to each side and two men standing on
the scaffolding, four men in all, will pull it up, exercising due care in the landing
of it to guard against collapse, for at one time all the weight will be on the center
of the skylight. From the scaffolding the men will glaze and cap the two sky-
lights, and it is to be understood that the smaller light which goes to the tower on
the other side will be raised first.

The glass for the skylight over the elevators, three in all, will be of plain
glass, protected by wire screens conforming to the fire underwriters’ rules.

A REINFORCED HIP TURRET SKYLIGHT

In the following description of the typical construction of a hip turret skylight
no dimensions are given, as the members must necessarily vary according to the
areas covered and the lengths of span in different skylights.
In the accompanying sketches, Fig. 194 is a vertical cross section; Fig. 195 a
vertical section of turret, showing stationary glass in ends; Fig. 196 a horizontal
section on A A of Fig. 194, and Fig. 197 a plan view of the structural skylight roof
framing. Referring to Fig. 194, a is the terra cotta filled angle iron roof curb, upon
which the turret of the skylight rests, the typical construction of which is too well
known to require description.

the nature of the area lighted, wood construction, naturally not entering this
discussion of a type of skylight, which is entirely for fireproof buildings where wood
is but little used.
8ya, Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

The angle iron framing of the turret consists of horizontal angles b and b'

around all four sides of the opening, joined by the uprights c. The corner
uprights are made of angle shape, so as to also act as knees for securing the miter

connections of the horizontal angles b and b\ while the other uprights are made
of T-shape in order to allow of a small and symmetrical section in the sheet metal

posts in which they are incased. In Figs. 194 and 196 d indicates pivoted sashes,
in Fig. 196 c the stationary glass, in Figs. 194 and 196 f the movable louvres, g
the lower operating arms and h the bar con-
necting those arms for operating all louvres
simultaneously. i in Fig. 194 is a spring
which keeps the louvres closed and J a cord
for pulling them open.

Fig. 190. Horizontal Section on A A Fig. 197. Plan View of Skylight

It is to be understood that, the conventional operating devises of gearing for

turret sashes, illustrated on page 44, can be employed to open and close these
louvres.
The lower sheet metal curb k and the upper curb l of the turret run continu-
ously around all four sides, without change of profile, unless it is desired to use
stationary glass in the ends, in which case the glass groove m in Fig. 195 is

formed in the end pieces of curb l.

The small piece n is planted on curb h to receive the lower edge of the lower
louvre. Curb k is wider than curb l, the surplus projecting inward and being
formed with a wash, so as to catch and conduct to the outside any leakage or con-
densation occurring inside of the skylight or tuiret not otherwise taken care of.

Referring to Fig. 196, it will be seen that the upright sheet metal posts in con-
nection with the pivoted sashes, as well as the side rails of the sashes, are provided
with inwardly projecting flanges, for connection by and through which the pivot
pin passes. These flanges also permit the use of a very efficient form of weather
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 873
stop, 0 ,
which is made in two pieces, the lower piece extending from the pivot
down and attached to the post, and the upper piece extending from the pivot up
and attached to the sash or sashes.

The upright sheet metal posts in connection with the stationary glass are
formed with the pockets p for receiving the detachable glass caps <j.
slip joints or

These caps are held in place at their top ends by the overhanging member of curb
l, and at their bottom ends by clips secured in pockets p and bent over the caps.
The pockets or channels r in the posts, in connection with the movable
louvres, take care of any water that may find its way around past the ends of the
louvres, conducting same down to the lower curb, from which it runs off. The
member n, as shown in Fig. 194, should not extend over across the bottom of

channels r, as this would dam the outlet from the channels and defeat the object
for which they are provided.
The structural roof framing of the skylight consists of the curb angle s shown
in Fig. 197, the T-shaped bars t and T-shaped hips and ridge. If the size is too
great to allow of assembling in the shop the hips and ridge can be made of two
angles, thus permitting shipment in four sections, which are easily riveted or
bolted together on the building. The T-bars are secured to the angle curb, as well

as the hips andby knees, and the junction of the hips, ridge and bars is
ridge,

effected by means of a gusset plate, to which all are riveted. It will be noted that

no forging or fitting is called for on any of the structural work of either turret or
roof, as it is cheaper to make connections by means of knees i and gusset plates,

as shown at 4. This method of constructing the angle frame permits the use of the
continuous sheet metal curb and ridge u without cutting. Ordinary sheet metal
bar construction is slipped over the upturned web of the T-angle bars, hips and
ridge, the condensation gutter members of the sheet metal bars resting on the

flanges of the T-angles. All sheet metal connections should be riveted, laps

being provided for this purpose. The condensation tubes 3 can also be made to

answer as gutter dogs or braces.

If the skylight be a long one the knees 1 in Fig. 194 can be extended down,
as indicated by dotted lines, to form a guide for holding the turret and roof curbs
in proper relative position, and the upper end of the knee can be extended horizon-
tally to form a connection for the cross tie 2. Curb l should be made in two

pieces, with slip lock seams at the points 5 and 6, for which see Fig. 195.
Assuming the roof curb to be complete, the order or method of getting out and
putting up the work is as follows, assuming the light to be too large to complete in
the shop After all the work is in knocked down form, put the turret together in
:
 874 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

sections, leaving the corner seams open, of course, and leaving off the top of curb
l. Then go to the building and set the angle curb b and erect the uprights c.

Now slip the sheet metal turret sections over the structural work, and make the
corner and other seams. Next bolt or rivet the curb angle b' in place and put the
top on sheet metal curb l. Now all is ready for the erection of the structural roof
frame, after which sheet metal curb v is set. Next in order is the setting of the
sheet metal hips and ridge, and, lastly, the sheet metal bars, when the glazing can
be done.
It will, of course, be understood that the section shapes of the sheet metal
members throughout can be modified to suit any standard constructions in regard
to connections between sashes and posts, louvres and stationary glass, etc. without ,

interfering with the general construction shown. A skylight of structural iron con-
struction thus incased in and protected by hollow sheet metal construction is far
more fire resisting than when the structural work is not so protected. Better
weather proof qualities are also obtained.

THE TURRET PART OF A SKYLIGHT

The accompanying diagrams are details of the turret part of a skylight designed
to meet sharp competition by its simplicity. That it has strength, durability, and
the like, is attested by the manufacture of hundreds of the type. Fig. 198 being a
view of the sash part.

Fig. 199 is a vertical section of C D of Fig. 200. Part E is the gutter and
the curb of the skylight and is made to answer
for the usual top rail of a turret. Part F,
Fig. 200, is soldered direct to this. If it is

desired to keep the turret separate from the

skylight, a rail of Simple design can be used.
Fig. 200 shows a horizontal section on A
B of Fig. 199, which is the pivot line. The
pivot is merely a wood screw. Part F is bent
Pig. les. Elevation of a Closed Sash. as shown and soldered where the edges meet
at a corner.
Weather strips are made with a lip G, Fig. 199, and nailed with slate nails and
also soldered at H, Fig. 199. From the comer of turret they extend down to the
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

bottom rail of the turret at 1, Fig. 200, formed so as to pass around the corner of the
turret and form the cap for the stationary light, as J, Fig. 200. Part K, Fig. 200, is

shoulder soldered to the post for the glass rest of the stationary light.

Fig. 199. Vertical Section on O D, Fig. 200 Fig. 200. Horizontal Section on A B, Fig. 199

A TURRET SKYLIGHT
In the presentation of methods of constructing and the designs of the many
things to be made of sheet metal, the reader is to be cautioned that designs vary
with the taste of their creators and what may appear suitable to one is wanting in
many features to another. Cognizant of the above this exposition is presented
with the remark that it is the embodiment of what is considered the good features
of numerous individual designs.
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

The perspective Fig. 201 is a broken corner view of a turret with two stationary
lights on one side and two sashes,
one closed the other open, on the
other side. It is understood, of
course, that an ordinary hipped sky-
light is set on this turret, and that
it is customary to attach a gutter to

the skylight curb to prevent the

drippings from the skylight from
being blown into the sashes. The
water in this gutter is conveyed to
Fig. 201, Broken Corner View of Turret Skylight
the roof by small leaders placed at
the corners of the skylight ;
the leaders can be square or round and usually have
a spout, or shoe, finish at the bottom.
A vertical section through the center of the sash is shown by Fig. 202. In
this, attention is called to where the gearing hinge is bolted to the sash ;
this hinge

should not be fastened to the part A, as the gearing exerts a tremendous pressure
when closing a long line of sashes and would pull A away from the glass. To
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 877

allow of setting the upright posts in position, part B of the upper rail of the turret
is notched and part B B of the lower rail, or curb, is cut away.
A horizontal section below the pivot line is shown by Fig. 203. As will be
seen, a weather strip forms part of the sash from the pivot line down, engaging the
outward flanges of the posts, insuring imperviousness to the weather. From the
pivot line up the weather strip is separate from the sash, and both sides are made

in one piece, held in place by soldering to part B of the vertical section, Fig. 202,

and at the pivot by a wood screw as shown in Fig. 204. For the end post, or a
post adjoining a stationary light, ono side of the weather strip is omitted and an
edge bent inward. In the choice of weather strips it may be said that many
designers prefer making the strip as indicated by Fig. 205, that is, each side sep-
arate, contending that accurate spacing of the posts is requisite to obtain the best

results; while the scheme in Fig. 205 lends itself to easy adjustment, if space from
post to post is not exactly as required by Fig. 204 relative to the distance sash side

is to have from the post. It is, however, not neat in appearance and leaves the
pivot exposed. Figs. 206 and 207 are other posts needed for the turret —Fig. 206
in case a stationary light is next to a sash and Fig. 207 for post between two sta-

tionary lights.
The attractive feature of this design is the weather strip. By this arrange-

ment of the pivot, and the notching of

the posts, as per Fig. 209, the upper strip

overlaps the lower one of the sash about

34 of an inch, which is ample to prevent

Fig. 211 Fig. 212

Fig. 209 Fig. 210

Suggestions for Posts Next Swinging Sash

Details of Posts Next Swinging Saab

the entrance of snow or rain. This as Fig. 201 shows, presents a very neat appear-
ance, there being no need of the unsightly lip of Fig. 210, which is not
weather tight.
8y8 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

Should it be desired, however, to place the pivot as per Fig. 208, then as the
weather strip of the sashmust be cut quite some distance below the pivot line, like
Fig. 211, leaving an opening between the upper and lower weather strips, a lip as
indicated in Fig. 210 is soldered to the upper strip. As stated, this is ugly and not
stormproof, so the ingenious contrivance employed by a clever designer is sub-
mitted as an alternative ;
and is shown by Fig. 212. When the sash opens and
closes this travels up and down within the upper strip.

The assembling procedure of the turret is to make the sides complete in the
shop, the sashes placed in position and also the weather strips and the like ;
sashes
are moved to see that they work easily and then kept closed, either by wiring or

Fig, 213. An Ojierating Gearing Methods of Tying Upper Rail

by tacking the apron of the sash to the lower rail. On the job, if the skylight is
a small one and for convenience, the four sides are brought together and soldered
and nailed and circular corner cap placed in. It is then set on the roof curb. If
the skylight is large the four sides are built directly on the roof curb. The hipped
skylight is now mounted and securely anchored to the turret and the entire job
glazed and capped and the gearing, for the operation of the sashes, attached either
to the turret posts or the roof curb, the posts being preferable.
There are many excellent types of gearing
on the market a popular
;
style is illustrated by
Fig. 213. By the use of bevel gears at the
corners all four sides can be operated simulta-
neously by the one lifting power and drop A.
It is not good practice though, to operate too
many sashes with one lifting power, for it will

be found that those sashes farthest from the

power will not work in unison with the others,

Fig. 210. Arrangement of Lights due perhaps, to lost motion, slipping of the
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 879
setting screw and the elastic resistance to torsion in the rods. Seemingly there is no
rule to fix the amount of load ;
experimenting only can determine it.

A hipped skylight has the same stresses as a pitched roof, but as it has no
bottom chord, like a roof truss, to resist the thrust of the
bars, glass, etc., on its
curb, this stressmust be taken care of. In small turrets the lateral stiffness of
the skylight curb and the top rail of the turret is sufficient to overcome this out-
ward pressure. In a large light it is not so much the length as the width of the
skylight that governs in the need of balancing the thrust; as for instance a
6 ft. X8 ft. needs no tying, whereas a 6 X 15
ft. ft. would ;
hence the upper rail of
the turret should be tied Some use common gas pipe as shown in Fig. 214, but
the rod and turnbuekle, as per Fig. 215, looks well, and is more scientific, as it were.
Usually the skylight mounted on the turret is what is known in trade parlance as
a hipped ridge light, i. e., a skylight without a ventilator — just a ridge bar. This
is not approvable, and a vent should
be placed in the skylight not neces- ;

sarily a large one, but of ample size to

allow the escape of foul air when the
sashes are closed. Even when sashes
are open it will help, materially, to

circulate the air above the sashes.

When laying out a turret for the
sash opening and the like, and sashes
are wanted on all four sides, a station-
ary light is provided at all four corners,
as shown in Fig. 216. This allows
the two sashes at the corner and in
the adjacent sides to open without
striking each other. Although this

is quite obvious, it is well to remember

it. Generally the width of this station-
ary light is half the hight of the sash.

SCREEN PROTECTION FOR

SKYLIGHTS

Jt VERTICAL 86CTION "LAN In the matter of screen protection

pig. 2i7. a Method of Protecting Glass for skylights, it is the consensus of
88o Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

opinion that it is useless to place the screen directly on the caps of the skylights.
Screens naturally give somewhat when subjected to shock, and if laid on the caps
the consequent concussion will be transmitted to the skylight itself and result in a
breakage of the glass. To be
any value screens must be, say a distance of 1 ft.
of

above and independent of the skylight. The accompanying sketch Fig. 217, shows
a method of construction that will give adequate protection for skylights up to say
10 ft. in width. For larger skylights conditions will govern the construction of the

supports for the screens, and if one is conversant with structural steel design a method
of making the supports of light steel shapes will suggest itself. Screens are generally
bought from concerns making a specialty of their manufacture. An excellent style
is that with diagonal mesh commonly used for show window protection. In the
diagram, D shows the screen proper, which is wired at the ridge, as indicated by C,
also the hips, and at the angle iron supports B. The spacing of the band supports
depends on the size of the screen and an idea as to how the screens are made is
;

shown by the plan, A being the wires called C in the vertical section.

A REINFORCED LOUVRE TOP OF A VENTILATING CHIMNEY

A certain class of buildings such as hospitals, etc. ,
require to be especially well
ventilated, and the system often in-

cludes a brick stack or chimney for

inspiration or aspiration, according to
whether the air is taken in near the
ground and discharged through the
chimney, or taken in from the top of

the chimney and discharged near the

ground. In any event a covering for
the stack is necessary, and this covering
must keep out the weather and allow for
free passage of air to the extent of the

capacity of the stack and protect the

brick work of the top of the stack from
rain and sun
Fig. 218 shows the top of a stack
Fig. 2i8. Perspective View of Ventilator
provided with a typical form of louvred
cover. There are several methods of constructing these covers and they vary in
accordance with the size of the stack. A large stack requires a structural iron frame
 1

Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 88

work for supporting the sheet metal work against wind pressure, snow, ice, etc., no
dependence being placed on the sheet metal for strength. A small chimney can be
adequately covered by a top constructed of sheet metal work alone, without being

strengthened by structural iron work. Fig. 218 represents a stack, say 6 feet

square, which may be considered large enough to require structural iron framing.

Fig. 219 is a vertical section on a, <z, of Fig. 218, and Fig. 220 a horizontal
section on b b, of Fig. 218; Fig. 221 a plan looking down on top, and all show the
structural iron framing. Fig. 222 is a detail showing how the hip and roof angles
are connected at a, Figs. 219 and 221. Fig. 223 shows the octagonally notched
connecting piece, made of iron inch thick, and which it will be seen forms the
882 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

integral connection between all of the angles. Fig. 224 is a detail showing how
the hip angles are connected to the horizontal purlin angles /at b, Fig. 221. Fig.
1
225 shows the connection at d, and Fig. 226 the connection at c and c ,
in Fig. 219.
The horizontal angle e, which rests on top of the brick work, should on a stack
of this size be not less than 3 X 3 X The upright angles and tees
34 inches in size.
should be not less than 3X3 <34 inches the purlin angle / not less than 2 X 2 X 3-16
;

inches, and the rafter and hip angles not less than 134 x 1/4 x 3-16 inches. It will

be noted that all angles are cut and connected in such a manner that no forging is

Fig. 227 Other Details of Louvre Ventilator Fig. 229.

necessary It is always cheaper to connect the members of structural work by

means of dips and knees than to cut off one of the webs or flanges, and forge and
punch the other web or flange.
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 883
It will be seen that the wall angle e, Fig. 219, is secured to the brick work by
means of long bolts,- g, built into the masonry. These bolts should be )4 inch in
diameter and not less than 3 feet long. It is of course necessary to see that these
bolts are provided and properly built in by the masons. There should be eight in
a stack of this size, and a sketch showing their location and the hight they must
project above the finished masonry, as in Fig. 227, should be furnished the
masons, so that they will get them somewhere near the right place. It is seldom
that a mason will get them near enough to the dimensions shown to justify punch-
ing the holes for the bolts in the angle e without taking special measurements

Fig. 230

Vertical Section of the Sheet Metal Work and Other Details

after the masonry is complete and the bolts permanently fixed. In measuring the
top of the stack before starting the metal work (and this should not be started
until after these measures have been obtained, as the masons cannot be depended
upon to conform to the architect’s drawings to within an inch), not only the out-
side dimensions of the stack, as indicated at a, Fig. 228, should be taken, but the
1
bolts should be located as related to the measurements, as indicated at b, b ,
and
6*, and also as related to the face of the stack, as indicated at c and c\ Fig. 228.
 :

884 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

Fig. 229 is a horizontal section on b b, Fig. 218, and Fig. 230 a vertical sec-
tion on a a, showing the sheet metal work, as related to the structural work. It

will be seen that the horizontal sheet metal member a, Fig. 230, entirely covers
the brick work, acting as a wall cap. The top horizontal member b, covering the
angle purlin /, should be made with a separate cap, c, to be placed on afterward,
as described later.

The roof e locks over the edge of b and c, as shown, and is stiffened by
standing seams. Fig. 231 is a section of ff of Fig. 230, showing how the roof is

provided with a standing seam over the centers of hip and roof angles and are
secured thereto by clips a. The roof should also be provided with stiffening ribs,
as in Fig. 232, about 12 inches apart and about 1 inch high.
By the use of lock seams a and b, Fig. work can be put
229, the louvre
together in the shop in four sections, leaving the caps c, Fig. 230, loose. The
roof should be made in eight sections, leaving the seams over the rafter and hip
angles to be made on the outside. The structural iron work should be prepared
complete, ready for assembling. The erection is accomplished in the following
order
First place angles e in place, secure by the
masonry and set bolts built in the

up the corner angles a, and intermediate tees b, Fig. 220, bolting them to angles
e. Next set the sheet metal louvre sections down over these angles. Then place
purlin angle /, bolting it to the uprights a and b. Purlin angles / should have
the knees to which the rafter and hip angles are bolted riveted on at the shop.
After f has been bolted in place, place cap c in position. The lock edges of cap
c should be left standing square, as indicated at Fig. 233, and after it is placed in
position the edges folded around as indicated. It is, of course, necessary to punch

holes in c for the knees to project through.

Next, the rafter and hip angles are bolted in place, and lastly the roof is put
on. Clips a, Fig. 231, should be at least 2 inches wide, and not over 12 inches
apart, and after the roof is placed on over them, and seamed, rivets 6 should pass

through the clip, seeming all together. The eaves of the roof and the edges of b
and c, Fig. 230, are riveted about 12 inches apart, the rivets passing through b and
c, securing all three together.
In order to prevent the building of birds’ nests in the ventilator top, a wire
netting of sufficiently small mesh should be secured to the inside of the louvres to
prevent the entrance of birds. It is, of course, necessary to put in the netting
either at the shop or before the roof is put on. In the shop is preferable, for then
the louvre side can be laid flat and the netting tacked on.
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 885

If such a top is to be placed on an old stack, or in cases where the masons

have not built in bolts for securing the top, angle e can be secured by straps hooked
over its top edge and extending down on the face of the chimney three or four feet,
and bolted with at least two 34 X 4-inch expansion bolts, placed near the lower end,
as in Fig. 234. It is useless to bolt such a strap near the top of the brick work, as
such bolts only get the benefit of the weight of the masonry above them and are
likely to disrupt the masonry, so as to be of no benefit whatever. These straps
should be 134 x 34 inches in size.

If appearances should forbid the use of such straps on the outside, heavier
material can be used and the strap piaced on the inside of the stack, as indicated
by the dotted lines a, Fig 234. If in the latter case the thickness of the wall is

such as to make the distance b too great, holes can be punched

in the roof and hip angles and stout wires connected from it to

strap a at the point c, which will hold the top down, while
strap a and the flange of the sheet metal work which projects
down around the brick work will hold it laterally.

Similar tops for stacks of smaller size can have the sheet
metal work constructed in substantially the same manner as
shown, except that the horizontal members a and b and the
upright posts h, Fig. 230, should be made of a heavier gauge of
metal, and all connections be securely riveted, ample laps being
allowed for the purpose.
In similar tops of large size, or even in the size shown,
when located in sections where the wind often attains hurricane

velocity the roof should be sheathed over with 1-inch boards securely fastened to
the roof and hip angles. The latter should be punched at frequent intervals to
accommodate screws for this purpose. Without the sheathing, the roofs are almost
certain to blow off. The size of the angles and tees comprising the structural work
should also be proportionately increased in larger tops.

A LOUVRE VENTILATOR
page 880 is shown the method of constructing a louvre ventilator reinforced
On
by wrought steel structural shapes. Herewith is exemplified the method of making
this ventilator by a scheme that eliminates preliminary wrought iron work
and allows the use of shop, or standard design of louvre frame and skylight.
886 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

A design is shown by Fig. 239, which being susceptible to modification should

suggest a way for the reader to use his own standard skylight patterns and pro-
files, for it is practically an ordinary skylight job, except that instead of glass, sheet

metal is used to make the roof; a popular practice and

employed on many large jobs. Fig. 235 is a perspective view
of the complete ventilator. A condensed vertical section on
line A B of Fig. 236 is shown by Fig. 239, and is a plan of
a job, the outside wall or curb measurement of which is 6X6.
By this method the limitation of size is about that of a turret
skylight. In fact, by enlarging sections and properly bracing
Fig 235 . Perspective
an(j ^ e j n g p art Fig. 239, there is no limit. For an extra large
ventilator and owing to the thrust of the roof which tends to spread the ventilator,
a good scheme for tieing this part A is by a rod and turnbuckle, secured to the
top rail by a piece of band iron held by wood screws. And as the ventilators
are usually ten or twelve louvres high it is well to have a gutter, as shown by Fig.

237, to catch the water from the roof part.

Fig. 237. Scheme to Prevent Skylight Spreading

Fig. 280 Plan of Louvre Ventilator Fig. 288. Plan of Forming Hoof Sheets

The manner of assembling these ventilators is to have corner post of similar

section to the section shown in Fig. 239, excepting that the shoulders would be on
one corner only at the back, instead of opposite corners, and it would be in two parts.
The curb would be soldered together on the four corners, then each side of the
louvre frame assembled with the top rail ( under part A) and all the louvres and
the center post, after which all four sides are brought together and the locks of the
corner post clinched, also the posts soldered to the curb. It would make it easier
to cart to the building and hoist to the roof, if the four sides were shipped before
joining the corners.
 ,

Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 88 7

The upper or roof part is laid out, formed up and assembled just as if it was an
ordinary 6 ft. X 6 ft. skylight and was glazed with the customary ribbed or wire
mesh glass. Naturally, if light was desired in the ventilating stack, glass could be

used . As a suggestion
it is stated that it would
facilitate shipping i f

this top part was left

off and mounted on the

louvre part, after set-
ting this part on the
stack.

The roof sheets are

cut to the same shape
as the glass would be.
Edges are allowed to
the sheets and are
formed as shown b y
Fig. 238. After which
they are set in between
the bars (resting o n
the glass rests of the
bars) and riveted to the
comb part of the bars
and the lower edge
clinched and riveted to
the skylight curb, all

as shown in Fig. 239.

Ordinary skylight caps,

secured to the bars in
the same manner as if

glass was used instead

of sheet metal, make
watertight joint, the joint of the sheet metal roof piece with the bars. These roof
sheets should be heavily crimped crosswise, inasmuch as they have no support
between the bars and would sag. In view of this, it is well to make the spacing
of the bars as small as consistent with the cost of the article and its appearance.
For it is self-evident that, the closer bars are, the more would be necessary.
888 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

DETAILS OF A LIFTING SASH

In this article details are shown for a lifting sash and referring to Fig. 240, A
B C D is a reproduction of the sketch made to give a general idea of the formation

of the wrought iron construction, with opening in which the sash are to be oper-
ated. Fig. 241 is a general view of the finished sash, and measures, it is assumed,

A
* F

4X8 feet, and is fastened to the frame work by means of the bolts X X, etc., in
the manner indicated at X, in Fig. 243. When making a constructive drawing
for a skylight sash, as shown in Fig. 241, always take into consideration the size

of the opening and the span of the bar. A bar of 4 feet in length, as shown
would require no further strengthening than the bent sheet metal, while a bar, say,
8 feet long would have to be reinforced by core plates 3-16 inch by 1 )4 or 2 .

inches, as in diagram F, which shows a half sash bar, reinforced by the core I
and riveted at J. Assume however, the length of the bar as 4 feet and make con-
structive drawings accordingly.
In Fig. 242 is a detailed section through A B of Fig. 241, in which A and
B of Fig. 242 show angle irons, and C the copper flashings extending up from the
roof and flanging around the inner side of the angle at D, while E shows the
back covering of the bulkhead, with a double standing seam at F, covering the

top of the angle iron and turning down so as to come about % inch below the sky-
light rafters or bars with a double edge at G. The double seam at F is there
placed, so that the top cap Y or guard can be fastened to it. In line with the
angle iron construct the half sash bar H, bending manner shown with the
it in the
seam at the top. This half bar should extend up on the top angle as far as I, and
on the lower angle as far as J, and fit well against the copper flashing at K at the
bottom and L at the top.
 890 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

The spacing of the bars being determined, obtain wood furring about 1 %
inches wide and of the depth of the sash bar, and incase it with metal, as shown at
M, at the top. This is soldered firmly on each side of the half bar. At the bottom
construct a curb or wash, as shown at N, bent in the manner indicated, giving the
wash N sufficient pitch to throw the water to the outside. This is also firmly
soldered to each side of the half bar. Then the two half bars H, the top curb M
and bottom curb N will be the frame into which the sash must fit and operate
without leakage.
On the inside of the half bar H construct the inner bar O, on to which form
the cap P, having the seam above the putty line, as shown, which should be well
soldered. At the top, to conform to the width of the frame, construct the bar R,
and the bottom, to fit into the curb N, construct the shape S, turning up at the

front, to keep the glass from sliding down, as shown. This constitutes the inner
sash and is hinged at the top to the frame by the hinge T, screwing it into the
wooden frame M at U and riveting the top bar R at V. At W at the bottom
3^-inch condensation holes are placed in every sash, which allows the condensation,
if any, to run to the outside. When operating the sash the usual skylight gearings
are employed and the hinge X is used in connection with a band iron strap.

When the glass is in position and puttied, a top hood or cap must be placed
over the hinged joint, as at Y, lapping to the glass at Z and double seaming to the
standing seam F, as shown. A half cap <fc formed as shown, is placed over the
puttied joint of the inner sash, tacking same with solder about every 12 inches.
The cap Y runs along the entire length of the skylight, and is carefully notched

out where required for the bars.

In Fig. 243 is a detailed section through C D of Fig. 241, which also shows
how the end bar is formed. As must run in
in Fig. 242, the line of the glass rest

line with the angle, as shown in Fig. 243, in which A is the angle iron and B the
copper covering on the side of the bulkhead, flashing over and around the angle
iron at C. Over this flashing the cap D is placed, which is formed direct to the
end bar E, the joint being at F, which can be soldered or riveted. G shows the
half bar, which is the same as H in Fig. 242, while H and I of Fig. 243 show
the raising sash bar, similar to 0 of Fig. 242. It will be noticed that the bars H
and I in Fig. 243 have the caps J and K attached, while the inside caps L and
M are separate, as before explained. N represents the cross brace, bolted at O and
P, on to which the hinge R is riveted and pivoted to the strap S.
In making operating sashes of this kind it is sometimes necessary to gain as
much air as possible ; then instead of raising each alternate sash, the half bars G
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 891

are placed as close as possible together, as shown in Fig. 244. Then the valley A
is placed between the locks C and B, which allows for the expansion and con-
traction of the copper, the caps of the sash bars I) and E overlapping, as shown.

REPLACING AND CLEANING SKYLIGHT GLASS

When repairing sk Alights and replacing broken glass the workmen should be
instructed to remove the broken lights with the maximum care possible with a job
that at best is not relished by workmen. Although the glass may be so dirty as to
be really opaque it can be cleaned and stored for use for some other skylight re-
quiring a light which may be cut from this broken one. A careful foreman will

see to it that, when a collection of broken lights becomes too much for the storage

allowed, the skylights to be made are so designed as to use up this collection.

To clean the glass it should be laid on a smooth bench and all the hard putty
adhering scraped off. A red-hot piece of iron held on the putty has been found of
considerable assistance to the scraping. Then with a solution of muriatic ( sulphuric
would do ) acid and water, in which the acid predominates, in a suitable earthen-
ware receptacle and a box of sharp sand, the glass is washed off on both sides by
wetting a rag in the liquid and briskly scouring the glass, sprinkling a handful of
sand on the glass now and then, watching carefully, though, to see to it that the

sand does not scratch the glass. If spots of dirt are obstinate it is well to leave some
very wet sand on each spot, and if this is not efficacious in a few moments pour
some pure acid on the part. When all the dirt has been removed, the glass should
be rinsed with clear water, to which a little ammonia may be added to advantage.

It has been said that if the glass is polished with a soft woolen rag dirt will not
readily adhere again. This work can be done by unskilled labor and should prove
profitable, in comparison with the initial cost of the glass.

A caution may not be out of place relative to the above remark in stating that
glass should never, if it can be avoided, be cleaned while in the skylight, because
of the danger of greater breakage, the inaccessibility of the under surface of the glass,

which usually is the dirtiest, and the danger of the acid corroding the metal work
of the skylight. The removal of the glass and reglazing are beneficial for the sky-
light, inasmuch as the new putty will give additional assurance against leaks.

While doing this work the building should be protected over night by placing a
tarpaulin over the skylight.
 892. Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

EXPANSION PROVISIONS IN SKYLIGHTS AND GUTTERS

Inasmuch as considerable provision is made these days for the expansion and
contraction of building, the following explanation of how allowance was made for

this movement in the skylights and the like, should be of interest.

The building is a package or freight station of some 400 x 80 ft. ,
with a double
pitch skylight at the center of roof and running its entire length. Midway from the
eaves and this skylight, on both sides, is a row of small double pitch skylights
set on concrete curbs. It has corrugated siding, eave molding and hanging gutter.
There are two expansion joints cutting the long side of the building, making it

really three separate buildings. As sheet metal only enters in this explanation, it

will not be shown how the joints were made in the structural steel work.
Fig. 245 is a hall section of the skylight. The bars are, if memory serves cor-
rectly, 103 in. long. While sketches are rather crude, still one can get an idea of

the construction of the skylight. Fig. 246 is a horizontal section through the
cement curb at about A A shows how the joint was made in
in Fig. 245. It
flashing B, Fig. 246. Fig. 247 is a section at the expansion joint, through the
skylight looking along line B, Fig. 245. It is simply two half bars and the gap
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 893
bridged over and made weather tight by lead cap A. This lead cap is mitered at
the ridge, also at curb, and carried down to the roof A, Fig. 246, and soldered to
flashing B at C C, Fig. 246.
Fig. 248 is typical section at the eaves of the roof. There are no expansion
joints in the siding, it being presumed that corrugations will take care of the expan-
sion and contraction. The gutters, as shown by Fig. 249, are kept 3 in. apart,

Fig. 248 Fig. 252 Fig. 258

The Gutter and Eaves Moldings and Expansion Provisions

with heads, C, having an edge, D, the heads being soldered to the gutters. Then
a cap with edges bent, as shown by E, Fig. 249, but sharp on roof flanges, is sol-

dered to the gutter roof flange at A, but left loose at B. Of course, the cap could
not be nailed to the roof at B, and trouble was experienced in keeping it from
sticking up like in Fig. 260. This was remedied by clinching a small piece of iron,
F, around it and the gutter flange, as in Fig. 251. Fig. 249 is a section on A B,

Fig. 248.
Atthe expansion joints the eave molding C, Fig. 248, is just bolted together
with 3-16-in. seam bolts. The molding is lapped 4 in. The section lapping on the
inside has slots cut 3 in. long, these allowing the desired movement, as illustrated
by Fig. 252. Fig. 253 is full size and shows more clearly the slot, washer and nut.
It will be noted that the gravel guard or stop D in Fig. 248 is not integral to
the gutter, but made separate and soldered to the roof flange after the gutter is set.

At the joint this guard is lapped, but not soldered, and is a characteristic method

of this shop. All sheet metal on this job was genuine iron, as specified by the
engineer in charge.
 ;

894 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

CONDENSATION GUTTERS ON THE INSIDE OF WINDOWS

In furnishing the roofing and cornice work for churches the specifications
usually call for condensation gutters on all chapel and dormer windows. For the
benefit of sheet metal workers who may be called upon to do this class of work the
following should prove interesting:
It is a well-known fact that warm air will rise upward, and when coming in
contact with a cold surface, such as glass, for instance, the glass begins to sweat on

Fig. 254. Front Elevation of a Dormer Window on a Fig. 256. Enlarged View, Showing Fasten-
Pitrhed Roof ing of Gutter in Fig. 255

the side having the warm air, thereby causing not a little moisture to accumulate
an example of which can be seen in our dwellings during the winter months.
Such was the case with a church in mind, the church being heated day and night,
and windows and ventilators tightly closed in cold weather. The chapel and
all

dormer windows began to sweat continually, thereby causing the moisture to run
down the wooden sill on the inside and ruin the frescoed walls. To overcome this
a sheet metal gutter was placed on the inside of each window, connected to a metal
tube, which conveyed the condensed moisture to the outside. The descriptions
and the diagrams herewith will show how the work was done. In Fig. 254 is
shown the front elevation of a metal dormer window on a pitched roof, the roof
covering being slate. A and B represent the flashing around the sill of the

dormer, which is soldered and riveted water tight to the dormer in the shop, and
is slated in with the courses. X represents the outlet of the tube, which is con-
nected to the gutter on the inside. The glass in the wooden sash isshown in Fig.
254. Fig. 255 represents a sectional view on line C D in Fig. 254, and shows
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 895
the rafter, Y Y, on which the roof boards, X X, are nailed, the slates being
shown by H H. The dormer was made of sheet metal, as stated, and the wooden
sash, shown by K K in Fig. 255, was placed in last, or after the dormer was set.

The moisture dripping from the glass in the sash K K would follow the arrow J
and drip inside of the building. A gutter was placed as shown at A, being nailed

against the sash K. A tube in the center of the gutter was placed as shown at X
in Fig. 254, and passing through the sill B projected over the cove molding C,
as shown in Fig. 255. Fig. 256 is an enlarged view of part of Fig. 255, showing
the manner of fastening the condensation gutter. Y Y represent the rafter, X X
the roof planks and S S the slates. D is a wooden bracket nailed to the roof
planks, on top of which the wooden sill C is placed.
After slating up to N, the metal dormer, with the flashing attached around and
water tight to the sill, as shown by A B in Fig. 254, is placed over the wooden
sill C and over the slates, as shown in Fig. 256. After the dormer is framed on

the inside by the carpenter the wooden sash shown in Fig. 256 is placed into the
metal dormer from the outside, against the flange bent up on the metal sill, and
nailed as shown at B. This flange prevents the rain, when striking against the
dormer, from running or soaking to the inside, as was first supposed to be the case,
before the condensed moisture was thought of. The sash being fastened, the con-

densation gutter formed corresponding to the shape of the inside sill, as shown
is

by F J in Fig. 256. The length being obtained, a head is soldered at each end
and a hole punched in the center of the gutter, and at its deepest point, correspond-
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

ing in size to the tube used, which is usually %-inch diameter. A wired edge is

shown at F. The gutter is placed temporarily

placed at the top of the gutter, as
in its proper position and a mark made where the tube will pass through the
wooden sill C. Then, taking away the gutter, bore a hole through the wooden
sill C with an auger, and, using a small sharp chisel and hammer, cut a round hole

through the metal sill, as shown at H. Set the gutter again in its proper position,
placing a bedding of white lead between the upper flange J of the gutter and the
bottom of the sash. The flange J is nailed every % inch with small tinned
tacks, thereby making a good water-tight joint. The metal tube is now placed
through the hole in the metal sill H and through the wooden sill C, from the
outside, until it projects about % inch over the inside of the gutter ;
then with a
small hammer a flange is turned on the tube and against the gutter, and soldered
water-tight, which completes the job.

The same method, shown in Fig. 256, would be employed on the chapel
windows, with the exception that the latter are usually all made of wood. A
case in mind is a condensation gutter which was made for a circular window, 8
feet in diameter, over a choir in a church. The gutter was made to correspond to

one-third of the circle, as shown by the heavy lines in Fig. 257, and nailed along
the edge of the sash, as shown, using white lead, as before explained, to obtain a
water-tight joint. G G G, etc., in Fig. 257, The methodindicate the glass.
used to fasten the gutter and to connect the tube is the same as shown and
described in connection with Fig. 256. Fig. 258 is a sectional view, taken on the
line A B in Fig. 257, and shows the method of flanging the bottom of the gutter

at A. The tube is shown at B. Care should be taken to solder water-tight and

heavily the two upright strips of the gutter to the bottom, shown at A in Fig. 258.

A GLASS CORNICB
A residence of unusually attractive architecture, with a detail of interest in the

use of plate glass at the eaves, was recently erected. In order to obtain the effect

ofan overhanging roof as a conspicuous feature of the exterior design of the house
and yet not obstruct the light desired for the second floor rooms, it was arranged to
use glass all around the eaves. As the owner resolutely demanded ma.-rirrmm
light for the second floor rooms and as compliance with this desire would require
either that the roof be raised or the cornice be narrowed, the use of glass was
decided on, as stated, without departing from the original design.
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 897
On account of the unusual character of the structure the accompanying draw-
ings, Fig. 259, have accordingly been prepared. It will be noted that the glass is

carried on extended or false rafters, which are 4 X 7-in. timbers spaced 20 in. on
centers. The glass covers about the last 2 ft. of the roof, which is otherwise covered

Fig. 260. Details of the Glass Comioe and the Copper Work

with wood shingles. The glass is provided in plates about % in. thick, 2 ft
in the direction of the rafters and about 18 in. wide. This size glass plates was felt

fully strong enough for such loads as they would have to carry, and being polished
 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

plate glass, the highly polished surface was counted on to keep the glass free from
accumulations of dirt. The use of the glass has made the cornice one of the unusu-
ally striking features of the house. Instead of detracting from the appearance the
cornice has given it an individuality at a relatively small additional cost.

The drawings show the copper work at the head of each glass plate formed in
the usual way to hold the inclined glass plates with a putty filling as shown. The
copper is nailed to furring strips underneath the three courses of shingles forming
the base of the shingle roof. The glass is supported at the outer end of the false
rafters by a copper curb formed and nailed to a % X 1%-in. stringer as indicated.

The joint over each of the false rafters is also shown. A wood strip % X in. is

fastened to the top of the false rafter. Between this and the glass plate on each
side is allowed space for the putty joint. This whole construction over the center
of each false rafter is protected by the copper rib or cap extending the length of the

overhanging cornice and adding to the architectural effect of the whole construction.
This copper cap is provided with slits at suitable intervals, and the copper fastening
strip, nailed to the % X l^-in. wood strip, extends through the top of the cap, this
strip being slit in a usual way, so that it can be pulled over in opposite directions
on the cap as the drawings indicate.

A SHEET METAL CONSERVATORY FRONT

In Fig. 260 is shown the elevation, section and plan of a sheet metal conserva-
tory front, constructed on wood framing, between the sill and cornice. The
paneled base and main cornice are fastened to the brick walls as indicated in the
section, the piers H and J in plan and H 1
and J 1 in elevation also being brick.

The aim show how the water-tight joints are made between
of this article is to

the metal sills and mullions and the wooden window sashes. The details showing
the constructions of the various parts are drawn to a scale of 1 in. to the foot in
Figs. 261 and 263, inclusive.
The section through A B in Fig. 260 is shown in Fig. 261 in which A is the
metal sill upon the rough blocking B, with a flange turned upward at a.
set
Before the wooden sill D is set in position a grove is cut into the bottom of the
sill at a, after which the sill is then set over the metal flange a, making a tight

joint and preventing water from backing up on the inside.

Provisions are made on the sill D to receive the copper gutter 6, which is

nailed in white lead, using brass or copper nails along the top of the sill at e. This
Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts 899
900 Skylights and Louvres Pattern Layouts

gutter b is placed to catch the condensation which forms on the inside of the glass

f when the warm air comes in contact with the surface of the cold glass in winter,

and it is carried outside by means of copper tubing c placed at intervals along the
gutter. It will be noticed that the windows are hinged at c in Fig. 263, and for
this reason the sill E in Fig. 261 has a drip as indicated at i to prevent the water

from following the bottom of the sill to the inside.

The section through C D in Fig. 260 is shown in Fig. 262, in which the
mullion A flanges up behind the sill at a, over which the wooden sill of the tran-

som is set, and prevents the water from backing up on the inside. A flange is also
turned up on the bottom of the mullion at b, against which the top of the window
frame c closes.

A section through E F in Fig. 260 is given in Fig. 263. This shows the
vertical mullion flanged inward at a and h. The window frames being hinged at

c, close against the metal work at e and e, and lock together at the center, as
shown by a and b. In doing work of this kind it is important that the carpenter
and sheet metal worker work hand in hand, each having similar details, which
arrangement insures a first-class job.
 SECTION VIII

(Pages 901-1,012)

CORNICE PATTERN
LAYOUTS
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 901

Practical Sheet Metal Work and

Demonstrated Patterns

KINDS OF PROJECTIONS
As the principles of pattern cutting are based on geometry and projection and
as there are several kinds of projections, and as these are mentioned but not ex-
plained, the explanations are here given .
It has been said that the diff-
erence between orthographic and perspective projections is that the former dhows
an object as it is, while the latter presents it as it looks. In the orthographic pro-

Fig. 1. Orthographic Fig. 2. Perspective View Fig. 3. Isometric Pro- Fi^. 4. Cavalier Pro-
Projection of a Cube of a Cube jection of a Cube jection of a Cube

jection the eye is placed at an infinite distance from the object, and the points on
the object are projected on a horizontal and also on a vertical plane, the horizontal
projection being commonly called the plan, and the vertical the elevation. Fig. 1

is an orthographic drawing of a cube.

In perspective the eye is brought within visible distance of the object, and the
object is reproduced as it appears to the eye from that viewpoint. The best ex-

ample of perspective is a photograph. Fig. 2 shows the cube put into perspective.
The word means equal measures. In an isometric projection three
isometric
directions, or axes, are first drawn from a common center or origin, as it is called.
One of these is drawn vertically, and the other two are separated from it 120 degrees,
902 Cornice Pattern Layouts

one to the right and the other to the left. All vertical lines are drawn vertically,
horizontal lines parallel to the picture plane are drawn parallel to one of the other

axes, while lines perpendicular to the picture plane are drawn parallel to the re-
maining axis. All lines that are in reality vertical, horizontal and parallel to the
picture plane, or perpendicular to it, are measured or scaled their full length. There
is no foreshortening, as in perspective. Positions of other lines can he found by
locating points on the lines by means of triangles. Circles are generally projected

as ellipses. Isometric drawings have an advantage over orthographic in that they

present a picture resembling a perspective view from which measurements may be
directly made from the principal lines, thus being very useful as working drawings.
Fig. 3 shows the isometric projection of a cube. On this it will be noticed that
each of the lines is of the same length.
Cavalier projections are not extensively used. They answer much the same
purpose as the isometric. Fig. 4 illustrates the cube in cavalier projection. From
this it will be seen that lines parallel to the picture plane are represented in their
true length. Lines perpendicular to the picture plane are represented in their true
length, and are all shown at the same angle in the same drawing, although a differ-

ent angle may be used in every drawing. The theory of this is that these lines
vanish at a point infinitely distant from the object, and the direction of this point
may be located at the will of the draftsman, provided he keeps it back of the picture

plane.
In a cavalier projection circles parallel to the picture plane are projected as
circles.

o
PATTERN FOR A SIX POINTED STAR
In Fig. 5 is shown the elevation and sections of the
star, in which ABCDEFG A

is the elevation and NOP the

true section on the bne L I in

the elevation. A true section

will also be necessary on the
line MA in elevation. Take
the distanceM A and place it

as shown from M to A and

1 1
,

draw a line from A 1

to 0,
which is the true length on M
 :

Cornice Pattern Layouts 9°3

A in elevation. For the pattern proceed as follows: Draw any line on Fig. 6, as
A M, equal to A 0 1
in Fig. 5. Now with radii equal to AG or AH and with A
in Fig. 6 as a center describe the arcs G and H. Then with O P in Fig. 5 as radius
and M in Fig. 6 as center intersect the arcs G and H at G and H. Draw lines
from M to G to A to H to M, which will be the pattern for one point of the star.
If the pattern is desired in one piece join six of these points, as shown by DEFA
B C, and bend on the lines shown to fit the outline in elevation.

PATTERN FOR BRACKET FACE

To obtain the pattern for the face of the bracket shown in Fig. 7, in which A
BCD shows the front o f the bracket and EFG the side, the portion for which
the pattern is required being indicated by H 1 J K L in front and MNO P in side

view. In Fig. 8 H I J KL is an enlarged reproduction of similar letters in Fig. 7

and is called the plan in Fig. 8, and M N O P is the side-elevation, being an

enlarged reproduction of similar letters in Fig. 7. The problem is a tapering

Fig. 7 . Front and Sid© View of Bracket Fig. 8. Obtaining Measurements for Triangles

article the base being indicated by the half plan H I J in Fig. 8 and top by the
semicircle K L, the side view or hight being indicated by M N O P.
The problem will be solved by triangulation and the first step
will be to

obtain a diagram of triangles, as shown in Fig. 9, for which proceed as follows

Divide one-half of the plan H I in Fig. 8, as shown by the small figures 1 to 4.

In similar manner divide one-half of the semicircle K L into the same number of

spaces, as shown from 5 to 8. Now connect solid lines from 1 to 8, 2 to 7, 3 to 6

and 4 to 5, and dotted lines from 2 to 8, 3 to 7 and 4 to 6. Then will these solid

and dotted lines represent the bases of the triangles, while M N in side elevation
will represent the altitude or hight.

In Fig. 9 draw any horizontal line, as C D, equal in length to N in Fig. 8. M

At right angles to C D in Fig. 9 and through D draw the line D 1 and D 8 indefi-
 9°4 Cornice Pattern Layouts

nitely, as shown. Now take the various lengths of the solid lines 8 1,7 2, 6 3
and 5 4 in plan in Fig. 8 and place them on the line D 1 in Fig. 9, measuring in
each instance from D, thus obtaining the points 1, 2, 3 and 4. From these points
draw lines to the apex C. Then will these solid lines represent the actual distances
on similar lines in plan in Fig. 8 when measured on the finished article. Proceed
in similar manner for the triangles on dotted lines; take the various distances
of the lines 2 8, 3 7 and 4 6 and place them on the line D 8 in Fig. 9, measur-
ing in every instance from the point 1) ;
then draw lines from 6, 7 and 8 to the

apex C. Then will these dotted lines represent actual lengths on dotted lines of
similar numbers in plan in Fig. 8.

For the pattern shape proceed as is shown in Fig. 10. Draw any vertical line,

as 1 8, equal in length to PO in Fig. 8 or C 1 in Fig. 9. With 1 2 in plan, Fig.

8, as radius and 1 in Fig. 10 as center describe the arc 2. Then with C 8 in Fig.

9 as radius and 8 in Fig. 10 as center describe an arc intersecting the arc as shown.

Fig. 9. Triangles for Pattern Fig. 10. The Pattern Shape

With 8 7 in plan as radius and 8 in Fig. 10 as center describe the arc 7, and
with C 2, Fig. 9, as radius and 2 in Fig. 10 as center describe an arc intersecting
arc 7. Proceed in this manner, using alternately as radii the divisions on the plan
H I in Fig. 8, the length of the dotted lines in Fig. 9, the divisions in the semi-
circle in plan K L in Fig. 8 and the length of the solid lines in Fig. 9, until

the line 4 5 in pattern has been obtained. Trace a line through intersections thus
obtained and then will 1 4 5 8 be the pattern. Trace the other half opposite the
line 1 8, as shown by 4' 5'. Then will 1 4 5 8 5' 4' 1 be the desired pattern.
Referring to the front and side views in Fig. 7, it will be noticed that incised

work is cut into the pattern. This is accomplished by drawing the opening on
the pattern, in Fig. 10, and cutting out the incisions, then stripping to the
required depth and soldering the portion cut out to the back of the sink strip.
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 9°5

OBLIQUE INTERSECTION OF HORIZONTAL MOLDING

WITH ROOF
In the accompanying diagram, Fig. 11, ABCD represents the elevation of
molding, the profile of which is shown at S, and A E the pitch of the roof against

which the molding is required to miter; while FG H J, the plan of the molding,
shows that it is placed at an angle of 45 degrees with K L, representing the eaves
of the roof or any horizontal line drawn upon the roof surface.
 Cornice Pattern Layouts

Before the pattern can be developed a plan of the intersection of the mold
with the roof surface must be obtained. Therefore, first draw a duplicate of the

profile S in the plan, as shown at T, placing its vertical lines at the required angle

with K L and its face toward the front of the plan corresponding with the eleva-
tion, and divide the curved portions of both profiles into the same number of equal
parts respectively, as shown by the small figures. From the several points and
angles in profile T carry lines at the required angle with K L indefinitely, as shown,
and from the points in profile S carry lines horizontally, intersecting the roof line,
as shown between A and D. Finally, from the several points of intersection just

obtained drop lines vertically into the plan, cutting lines of corresponding number.
Lines connecting the adjacent points of intersection, as shown from F to P, will

give the required plan of tire intersection or miter.

To obtain the pattern a stretchout of the profile may now be set off on any
line, as M N, drawn at right angles to the lines of the molding in plan, as shown
by the small figures on M N. From the points so obtained on M N draw the
usual measuring lines parallel to F J indefinitely, and from the several points in
the plan of the miter FG P project lines at right angles to F J, cutting measuring
lines of corresponding number, as shown between U and V. A line traced through
the several points of intersection will give the required miter. The complete
pattern is shown by U V W X, which may be extended beyond W X to suit

convenience.

PATTERN FOR A HEAD TO FILL THE END OF A CORNICE

CUT OFF OBLIQUELY
In the accompanying shown a problem presented for
illustration, Fig. 12, is

solution together with the method of laying out the required end piece. In the
sketch the profile of the cornice is drawn in the manner shown at B, which position
would be correct were the view an elevation instead of a plan. As the profile
shown is that usually employed in a crown mold, it is clear that it should occupy
the position shown at A, since the points 1 and 2, being its points of extreme pro-
jection, should be on the line F G, which is the line of extreme projection from the

wall in plan. Attention is called to this because a correct drawing is the first essen-
tial to a correct result. Failure or inability to develop the pattern results in many
instances from the fact that a drawing has not been first made in which the required
conditions are correctly shown.
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 9°7

There is also some doubt implied in the sketch as to whether the angle in the
wall at which the cornice ends is an interior or an exterior angle. It would seem
rather to show an interior angle, but since if it were an interior angle the end of
the cornice would come against the wall on the other side of the angle, and would
therefore scarcely require a full end or “head,” therefore, it is assumed, and a
drawing made showing a cornice at the end of a wall terminating with an exterior
angle. In either case the method employed is the same. Care must be taken,
however, to see that the profile is correctly placed — that is, with the points 0 and
14 at the wall line, and the points 1 and 2 at the line of extreme projection. There-
fore, if CFG were the wall line instead of C D E, as shown, and D E were the
line of extreme projection, instead of F G, the profile should be turned over so that
the points 0 and 1 would change position with each other.

Considering, then, that C D E is a plan of the wall, and that FG is the line of
extreme projection of the cornice, first extend the line C D, as shown, by D F,

‘ ’

this line showing the position in plan of the end or ‘

head ’
required to fill the
opening produced by the oblique termination of the cornice. Divide the curved
portions of the profile into any convenient number of spaces and number all points
and angles of the profile, as shown by the small figures on profile A. From each
of the points project lines parallel to D E, cutting the line D F, as shown, and from
the several points of intersection on D F carry lines at right angles to the same in-
definitely, as shown at the left. From the several points in profile A also carry

lines at right angles to D E, cutting the same as shown by the small figures be-

tween M and N; corresponding with those of the profile. Now transfer the points

in M N to the line D H, seeing that each point maintains the same relative dis-
tance from all of the other points, as on MN ;
and from each of the points on DH
908 Cornice Pattern Layouts

project lines at right angles to the same cutting lines of corresponding number pre-
viously drawn from D F. A line traced through the points of intersection, as

shown by O P R S, will be the shape of the required end piece.

The miter of the cornice moldings to fit against the end piece is an ordinary
butt miter, of which DE is the miter line, and the same set of points may be used
with convenience in cutting both pieces.

LAYING OUT PATTERNS DIRECT ON THE METAL

When it is desired to carry the miter patterns direct on to the metal from the
drawings, the short rule employed in shops is as follows: Let E, Fig. 13, the given
profile, be divided into equal spaces, as shown by the small figures from 1 to 8.

WMMMM. NMH
'

8 J r '.1

BMSMi
r 1
A T
B 1
EWflKM
r~z_
r,
/
7
T

L
j

it *
H
n
*

«'
-J

I
8 a d' a'
THE PATTERN G SHAPES
Fig. 18 . Elevation, Profile and Patterns

Through these small figures and parallel to C B draw lines intersecting the miter
lines B B and C C. From the intersections on C C and parallel to C D draw lines
intersecting the miter line D D. In similar manner from the intersections on the
miter line BB draw lines parallel to B A, intersecting the gable miter line A A.
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 909

Now, at right angles to AB and from point a draw the line a b, and from the point
c draw the line c d. In the same manner at right angles to B C and from point e

draw the line ef.

Let L M N 0 represent a sheet of metal of the required width, upon which erect
the vertical line F G, upon which place the stretchout of the mold E, as shown by
the small figures 1 to 8 on F G. Through these figures draw lines parallel to L M
or N 0 on the sheet of metal. At right angles to NO draw the line a b'. Now,
measuring with the dividers in every instance, from the line a b in elevation take
the lengths of the various lines intersecting the miter line AA and place them in
the pattern, measuring in each instance from the line a b' on lines having similar
numbers; trace a line through points thus obtained, resulting in the miter cut A 1
,

which will be the miter pattern on the line AA in elevation. In similar manner
at right angles to N 0 erect the vertical line c d' . Now take the various lengths
from the line c d to the miter line BB in elevation and place them on lines having
similar numbers in the pattern, measuring from the lines c d’. Trace a line through
points thus obtained, resulting in the pattern B 1
,
which will be the miter pattern
on the miter line BB in elevation. Finally at right angles to NO erect the line

e /', from which place the various distances on the various numbered lines ob-

tained by measuring from the line ef in elevation to the miter line C C on similar

numbered lines. Trace a line through points thus obtained in the pattern ;
then
will C 1
be the miter pattern on the miter line C C in elevation, while the reverse

cut, or the shaded part D 1

in pattern, is the miter pattern on the miter line D D in
elevation. This completes the entire set of patterns for A, B, C and D. In prac-
tice these miter patterns are cut out of metal seperately about 8 inches long. Thus
the pattern A 1
and B 1
would be on one piece of metal, while C and D would
1 1
be
separate.

When laying out the length of the gable molding A B measure from H to I
metal the miter cut A then moving the pat-
1
in the patterns, first marking on the ,

tern to the desired length from H to I, equal to A B in elevation, and marking the

pattern B 1
. When getting out the horizontal molding B C in elevation measure
from J to I in the patterns, first marking the miter pattern C on 1
the sheet, then

reverse the pattern B\ making the distance from J to I equal to BC in elevation,

then marking the pattern C D measure from J to K

B 1
. For the vertical molding
the length of C D; in other words, first mark the miter pattern C on the metal,
1

then reverse D making the distance from J to K equal to C D. For the lower
1
,

horizontal molding use the pattern D\ measuring from the point K.

 :

910 Cornice Pattern Layouts

PATTERNS FOR REDUCED MITER

This article treats on the method how to get the patterns for a return miter
of

for a bay window, or the best way to make a finish at the point B in plan in accom-
panying illustration, Fig. 14. The distance from B to C on the finished wall is 8J4

Fig. 14. Elevation, Plan, Profile and Pattern

inches, while the projection of the molding from G to E is 18 inches, and would
naturally bring the return miter 9^4 inches outside of the wall line A B.
In a case of this kind a reduced miter is used, which is obtained as follows
Let ABCD represent the part plan of the bay window. In its proper position
draw the profile of the mold, no matter what its shape may be, as shown by E F G,
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 9 11

which divide into equal spaces,shown by 1 to 10. Bisect the angle B C D in plan.
Where the bisecting line meets the line drawn from 2 in the profile X parallel to C
D, call the point H. From H draw a line parallel to C B, meeting the wall line A
B, extended at I. If desired, the projection of the reduced return miter could be
made equal to B C, but this would not make a neat appearance. Therefore, make
the distance C e in plan equal to 2 inches, and draw a line from e to I. Then will
e B I be the plan view of the reduced return miter.
From the numbers in X draw lines parallel to C D, cutting the miter line C H,
as shown, from which points parallel to B C draw lines intersecting I e, as shown.
Take a tracing of the profile X and place it in the position shown by X From 1
.

the various numbers in X 1

draw horizontal lines, which intersect by lines drawn
from similar intersections on e 1 in plan, at right angles to B C, resulting in the
intersections 1’ to 10' in elevation. Through these trace a line as shown. Then
will 1' 10' in elevation represent the true profile of the reduced return on Be in
plan and to n in elevation the miter line C H in plan. To obtain this miter line
on
to n project from the various intersections on C H in plan vertical lines cutting simi-
lar horizontal lines in elevation, the lines being omitted in the illustration to avoid
a confusion of lines.
For the pattern for «CHI in plan draw any line, as J K, at right angles to I

H, upon which place the stretchout of X, as shown by similar numbers. Through

these small figures draw lines at right angles to J K, which intersect bylines drawn
from similar numbered intersections on the miter lines e I and H C at right angles
to I H, thus obtaining the intersections e° to 1° and H° to C° respectively. Trace a
line through points thus obtained, then will e C° H° 1° be the pattern for that part
shown by similar letters in plan. The reverse of the cut C° H° will also answer for
C H on the piece H C D in plan. For the pattern for the reduced return draw any
x x
line as L M, parallel to B C, and proceed in a similar way, obtaining 1 B e
st
the ,

pattern for the portion shown by I B e in plan.

PATTERN FOR GABLE AND HORIZONTAL MOLDINGS

HAVING DIFFERENT PROFILES
To obtain the patterns for two moldings of different profiles forming a miter,
as a gable molding meeting a horizontal molding as shown in Fig. 15, in which A
BCD represents the part elevation of the gable, E being the given profile of the
gable mold and F the desired profile of the horizontal mold.
 91a Cornice Pattern Layouts

The first step is to divide either profile (in this case E) into equal spaces, as
shown by the small figures 1 to 12 in E. Take a tracing of E with the various

Fig. 15. Obtaining Points of Intersections and Pattern for Horizontal Molding

points of intersections and place the tracing with its bottom line on the vertical
dotted line extended through 12' in F, the position of the tracing being marked E 1
.

From the points 1 to 12 erect vertical lines cutting the pro-

file F from T to 12'. Establish at pleasure the point a', and
from this point and also from b', d! and c' drop lines inter-
secting E 1
at a, b, d and c. Now, from the various points of
intersections in the profile F, parallel to the lines of the hori-
zontal molding, draw lines as shown, which intersect with lines
drawn parallel to the gable molding, from similar intersections
in the profile E, and resulting in the points of intersections
shown from 1° to 12°.
j
For the pattern for the horizontal mold take the stretchout
Fig. 16 . Pattern for
Gable Molding of F and place it on the vertical line L M, as Bhown. Draw
 .

Cornice Pattern Layouts 9I3

the usual measuring lines, which intersect by lines drawn from similar intersections
1° to 12° at right angles to 1° Then will N 1
B. 12 0 be the desired pattern.
For the pattern for the gable mold take the stretchout of E or E 1
and place it

on the vertical line FI J in Fig. 16, and draw the usual measuring lines.
At right angles to the gable mold in Fig. 15 draw any line, as H J. Measur-
ing from this line, take the various distances to points 1° to 12° and place them on
similar lines in Fig. 16, also measuring from the line H J. A line traced through
points thus obtained, as TU 12 1, will be the desired pattern.

PATTERN FOR DISSIMILAR MOLDING

This problem treats
1-2

on how to obtain the

ELEVATION
pattern for a horizon-
tal molding intersect-
ing a dissimilar mold-
ing at an exterior

10 n 1 • 1 l|
1
1 10 -11
7 right angle, the hori-
;
1 1 ' 1 •» 1
1
12
M 12 |
13 ;
i
|
*!

II
•

N [l3
/
zontal molding being
'
1
i, II !

!
i II placed at an angle of
45 degrees in plan.
Plan. Elevation and
Miter Line
In Fig. 17 let A rep-
resent the profile of
the horizontal mold-
ing LO N M in eleva-
tion, shown in plan
at an angle of 45 de-
grees by R P T S. B
represents the profile
of the molded corner
shown in plan atright
angle, FGH. Against
this exterior angle the horizontal molding is to miter.
Before the pattern can be obtained the miter line
showing the various intersections between the two
moldings must be found, and is done as follows:
Divide the profile A into equal spaces, as shown by
 :

914 Cornice Pattern Layouts

the small figures 1 to 13. From those intersections, parallel to M N, draw lines
intersecting the profile B from 1' to 13'. At pleasure locate two points between 9'
and 10', as indicated by a' and b', and from these points draw lines parallel to

M N, intersecting 9 10 in A at a and b.

From the various intersections in B drop vertical lines, intersecting the miter
line G J in plan, as shown, from which
parallel to G H draw lines indefinitely.
Take a tracing of A with the various divis-
ions on it and place this in its proper
position in plan, as shown by A Through 1
.

the various intersections in A 1

,
parallel to S
T, draw lines intersecting similar lines in F
GH as shown by the points of intersections
1" to 13''. As the plane 8 9 in A 1
cuts the

angle in plan shown by 8" 9", the corner X

must be projected to the plane 8 9 in A 1
,

as shown by X°. A line traced through

points 1''
to 13" would be the miter line

(but is here omitted ).

For the pattern for the horizontal mold
A, or A 1
,
take the stretch-out of A 1
and place it on the vertical line e d in Fig. 18,

as shown, through which draw horizontal lines indefinitely. From any point as d,

at right angles to R P in Fig. 17, draw the line d e. Measuring in each instance
from the line d e, take the various distances to points 1" to 13" and place them on
similar lines in Fig. 18, also measuring in each instance from the line d e resulting
in the points of intersections shown. A line traced through these intersections,
shown from T to P, will be the desired pattern.

PATTERNS FOR A SQUARE SHAFT MITERING ON A CONE

When a square shaft, the longitudinal axis of which, coincides with the axis
of a right cone and miters with that cone, to find the patterns for the shaft and for
the cone, proceed in this manner
In Fig. 19 A B C represent the elevation of the cone, corresponding
let to L
M N O of the plan, and D E G F the elevation of the shaft, corresponding to P R
TS of the plan. Space the plan L M N 0 into a number of equal parts, as shown
by the small figures. Before being able to obtain the patterns the miter line shown
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 9*5
in elevation by F G, forming the intersection between the shaft and cone, must
first be established. To do so proceed as follows: From the spaces obtained on M
LO in the plan view draw lines to the center point, U, as shown, intersecting one
of the sides, P 11, of the shaft. Now parallel to the axis A L of the cone draw
lines from the intersection in the half plan, M L O, intersecting the base of the
cone B C. From these points draw lines to the apex A, as shown. Now
from the intersections on the side of the shaft P R in plan draw lines upward par-
allel to the axis of the cone, each intersecting the radial lines of corresponding
numbers that have just been drawn. To obtain the point of intersection on the

center line 3 in elevation, proceed as follows : From where the line of the shaft D
F intersects the side of the cone A B, as indicated at H, draw a line at right angles

to D H, intersecting the center line 3, as shown at 3. Trace a line through these

intersections, as shown. Then will F 2 3 2 G represent the miter line in elevation
between the intersection of the shaft and the cone, and will at the same time give
the pattern for one side of the shaft.
To obtain the pattern of the shaft in one piece, draw at right angles to the line
EG of the shaft the stretchout line P P upon which
1 1
,
place the stretchout of the

square shaft shown in plan by PST R, and as indicated on the stretchout line by P1
gi -pi pi P P draw
1 1
the usual measuring lines, as shown,
r» At right angles to
 916 Cornice Pattern Layouts

which intersect with line drawn at right angles to E G from G. Now trace the
miter line F 2 3 2 G shown in elevation upon each side of the shaft, as shown in
pattern by F G F2 G2 F8
1 1
Then will P F F8 P be the required pattern for the
.
1 l 1

square shaft mitering upon the cone.

At right angles to the axis of the cone draw lines from the intersections 3, 2
and G in the miter line, cutting the line A C of the cone, as indicated by 3 2 1.

For the pattern of the cone proceed as follows: Set the compasses to the space A
C, or the slant hight of the cone, and from any convenient point as center, as A 1

in Fig. 20, strike an arc indefinitely. Connect one end of the arc to the center
shown by the line B A
point, as From the point of the arc B step off the divis-
1 1
.
1

ions shown in the plan L M N O in Fig. 19, as indicated by the small figures
shown in the pattern in Fig. 20, making them of corresponding numbers to those
in the plan in Fig. 19, and draw radial lines to the center A 1
of the pattern in Fig.
20 in like manner, with the radii A 3, A 2 and A 1 of the elevation in Fig. 19,

and with the A 1

of the pattern as center in Fig. 20, describe arcs indicated by 3, 2
and 1, intersecting radial lines of corresponding numbers as shown. Trace a line
through these intersections, as shown by F, G, F 1
,
G 1
and F 2
. Then will B' C l
B*
F G F GF
2 1 1
represent the desired pattern of the cone.

PATTERN FOR TAPERING PANEL

To cut the pattern for a tapering panel, a sketch of which is shown in Fig. 21,

let ABCD be the plan of the panel and E F

ELEVATION
G a section on the line B D, the elevation being
shown by H I J. The central lines in elevation,
plan and section are indicated by the dotted line
K M L. As each quarter plan is uniform it will

will only be necessary to obtain the pattern for

one quarter. The pattern will be developed by
triangulation ;
therefore divide the quarter plan
D C into equal spaces, as shown by the small
figures 1 to 9, and draw lines as shown to the
center of the plan M. These lines will repre-
sent the bases of the triangles, the altitudes of
which are equal to K I in elevation or F L in
section. Now measure each and every line, in
1*3 4 3 C ? 89 L
plan from M 1 to M 9 and place the lengths as Fig. 91. Plan, Elevation and Triangles
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 9I 7
shown in section from L 1 to L 9 measuring in each and every instance from the
point L. From the small figures 1 to 9 draw lines to the apex F. Then will these
lines F 1 to F 9, represent the true distances on the finished article on lines of
similar numbers in plan.
For the pattern proceed as follows: With any point, as A in Fig. 22, as center
and with radii equal to F 1 to F 9 in section in Fig. 21 describe arcs as shown in
Fig, 22 by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. From
any point on the arc 9 draw the line 9 A.
Now set the dividers equal to the divisions

in 9 0 in plan. Fig. 2J, and setting one leg

of the compasses in the point 9 of Fig. 22
step from one arc to the other of correspond-
ing numbers until the point 6' on the arc 6
has been obtained. Now take the distance
6 5 in plan, Fig. 21, and step from 6’ of

Fig. 22 to the arc 5, as shown by 5'. Now

set the dividers equal to the divisions in 5 1 in plan, Fig. 21, and starting from the
point 5 on the arc 5 of Fig. 22 step from one arc to another having corresponding
numbers until the point 1 on the arc 1 is obtained. Draw a line from
’
1
’
to A
and trace a line through intersections on the various arcs, as shown from 1' to 5' to
6' to 9. Then will A9 1' be one quarter of the pattern. If the pattern is desired

in one piece trace the quarter pattern opposite the lines A 1

' and A 9, as shown.

Then will 9' 1' 9 1" 9” be the full pattern.

A SHORT RULE FOR OBTAINING THE PATTERN OF A SUN

PANEL OF ANY SHAPE
Let CDEF in Fig. 23 represent the front elevation of a square molded panel,
into which the sun panel shown by YJKLAMNOZistobe placed. G Z H
I in section represents the section A B in front elevation, and YZHH
through 1

in section represents the section through A A in elevation, and also gives the flare
1

of the flute through A A in front elevation. B Y A Z in front elevation gives

1 1 1 1

the outline of the half circle against which the bottom of the flutes miter. The rule
to be observed in using this short method is that the lines of the sun panel shown
by YY 1
,
J J1 ,
K K L L\ etc., all meet in one center point, as shown at B.
1
,
After
the lines of the flute have been drawn to the center point B draw the curves, as
shown from Y to J, J to K, K to L, etc.
 ,

918 Cornice Pattern Layouts

With B as center and B A as radius, strike an arc from A, cutting the line LL 1

at P. Now bisect the arc A P by the dotted line shown by X B. Draw a straight
line from A to P, upon which place the section which the flute is to have at that
point, as shown by AT 1
P. The
bight of the section in the center,
as shown by O T corresponds 1
,
to
the projection of the flute YZ in
section. Divide the section V
into an equal number of spaces,
as shown by the small figures.
The same method is followed
for obtaining the section for flute

3 . With B as center and B L as

SECTION
THROUGH A-B radius strike the arc L S R, cut-
Fig. 23. Front Elevation and Section
ting the line KK 1
at R. Bisect
L R by the dotted line W B, Draw a line from L to R, upon which
as shown.
make O2 S 1
equal to YZ in section. Then draw the section L S R, as shown by 1

U, and divide into spaces as shown by the small figures. As the flute 4 is the same
as 5 ,
1 and 8 and the ,
flute 3 the same as 2 6 and 7 , ,
it is only necessary to obtain
the sections of these two flutes 3 and 4 as shown. ,

To obtain the pattern proceed as follows : Draw any perpendicular line, as A 2

B 2
in Fig. 24,making it in length equal to AB in Fig. 23. Now with B 2 as center
in the pattern and B2 A 2
as radius strike the arc A T
2 2 2
P making
,
it in length equal
to the stretchout of the section V in Fig.
23, as shown by the small figures A 1 2
,

2, T2
,
3 4 and P2 in Fig. 24. Draw a
line from B 2
to P 2
,
extending it indefi-

nitely, as shown. With B L in Fig. 23

as radius and with B 2
in Fig. 24 as cen-
ter strike the arc L2 S2 R 2
,
as shown,
cutting the line B P
2 2
at L 2
. Upon the
arc L 2
S2
R 2
place the stretchout of the
Fig. 24. The Pattern Shape
section U, shown in Fig. 23, as shown
by the small figures L2 , 1, 2, S2 , 3, 4, R 2
in Fig. 24. Draw a line from the
center point B 2
to R 2
,
extending it indefinitely. Take the distance from R to
K in Fig. 23 and place it on the line B R 2 2
extended in Fig. 24, as shown from
R 2
to K 2
.
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 9*9
Bisect the two arcs A 2 T2 P2 and L 2
S2 R 2
in pattern by dotted lines shown by
S B and T B corresponding
2 2 2 2
to the dotted lines X 13 and W B in Fig. 23. Now
take the distance from the center point B in front elevation to where the outline L
A of the flute 4 intersects the dotted line X B at O
and place it in the pattern in Fig. 24, as shown from
B2 to O 1
on the dotted T2 B
line 2
in the flute 4 '.

Trace a line, as shown by L2 O A 2 1

. Now take the
distance from the center point B in front elevation in

Fig. 23 to where the outline K L of the flute 3 in-

tersects the dotted line
. .
W B, as shown at O and 2
,

Fig.25. Sun Panel in Pediment to

pi«lC6 it ill tllG pattern in jh if^. 24, as shown from I3 2 Which the Principles Can be Applied
to O on the dotted line S2 B2 in the flute 3 '. Trace a line, as shown by K O L
2 2
.

Now with B 2
of the pattern as center and BY 1
in Fig. 23 as radius strike the
arc Y A 3 8
Z3 ,
as shown in Fig. 24. Then will K K L L 2 3 3 2
be the pattern for flute 3
in the elevation in Fig. 23, and L L
2 3
A A 3 2
in Fig. 24 be the pattern for the flute

4 in the elevation in Fig. 23. If the pattern is desired in one piece, as shown in

Fig. 24, the portion of pattern 4 '

3 can be turned over on the line
‘
K K2 3
,
resulting
in a duplicate, shown by 2 '
V, having then the half of pattern. It can be turned
over on the center line A A
2 3
and traced, thus giving the other half, indicated by
5 ', 6 ', 7 and 8
'
', the figures in the pattern representing similar figures in the eleva-
tion in Fig. 23.
If the outline of the panel were the same as shown by A B C D E O in Fig.

25 the same method would be used. No matter what shape or outline the panel
has the above rule holds good. Although not geometrically correct, it is accurate

enough for all practical purposes. By referring to the front elevation in Fig. 23 it

will be seen that the sections of the sun panel V and U are convex. The same
method is employed if the sections are concave, it being only necessary to reverse
the sun panel when soldering in position.

PATTERN FOR SUNBURST

To obtain the pattern for an article, which is called a triangular sunburst, and
which is reproduced in Fig. 26, ABC being the plan view of the sunburst and D

EF the elevation on the line BC in plan. It is required that the distance N I in

plan be greater than I H, and that J KL represent the section on I H, showing

the pitch of the flutes. The problem gives an interesting study in raking profiles

and pattern drafting.

 9^o Cornice Pattern Layouts

In Fig. 27 shown an enlarged half plan, showing the sections and profiles
is

and points of intersections on the pitched lines, Let represent the one-half ABC
plan of sunburst and D E F the half plan of the cylinder, against which the flutes
are to miter. Draw the true profile on A B in
plan at pleasure, which will at once be the pat-
tern for the closed end, as shown by H I J K.
Number each bend as shown from 1 to 8.
From A in plan draw the miter line A G, inter-
secting the half circle D E F at E, G represent-
ing the center point from which the semicircle is

struck. At right angles to A B and from the

intersections 1 to 8 in the true profile draw lines,

as shown, intersecting the miter line A E from 1

to 8. Draw a line from H to 3 in the true pro-

file on A B and extend the line 2 2, intersect-

ing the base line K J at a and H 3 at b, and call the point 2 c. Then will a b c
represent the vertical hights of the flutes on the line A B in plan, which will be
used in constructing a section on BG in plan, as follows:

Draw any line, as L M, parallel to B G. At right angles to B G and from B

and G draw the lines L R and M P indefinitely. Take the hights a, b, c in the true
profile and place them, starting from M, as shown by a', b ' ,
c\ thus obtaining the
pointsM, O, P, in section. Now establish at pleasure the point R on the line L R
and draw a line from R to P, and from O draw a line parallel to R P, as shown by
O N. At right angles to R P draw any line, as ef which will represent the depth
of the flutes at right angles to the rake. Then N O P R be the true section on
will

BG in plan, and N R R X the section

2
of the cylinder on G F in plan. It will now

be necessary to obtain a true section on the line ef in section, as follows: Take

the distance ef and place it on the line A K, extended, as shown, from e to/’.
Parallel to KJ and from e and/' draw the lines e l and/' m. ' At right angles to
KJ and from points 2, 4, 6 and 8 in the true profile drop lines, intersecting the

line e l at 2', 4', 6' and 8', and at right angles to K J and from points 1, 3, 5 and
7 drop lines, intersecting the line/' m at 1', 3', 5' and 7'. Nowconnectthe points,
as shown by the lines 1' to 2' to 3' to 4' to 5' to 6' to 7' to 8', which will represent

the true profile on the line ef in section.

As the line R P in section represents the points shown in the profile having
even numbers, as 2', 4', 6', 8', and the line N O in section represents the points
shown in profile having uneven numebrs, as 1', 3', 5' and 7', then, at right angles
 .

Cornice Pattern Layouts 921

to GB in plan and from points 2, 4, G and 8 on the miter line in plan, erect lines,
intersecting the line li P in section, as shown by points 2, 4, 6 and 8. In similar
manner, at right angles to GB and from points 1 ,
3. on the miter
5 and 7 line in
plan erect lines, intersecting the line NO in section at points 1, 3. 5 and 7. Now,
at pleasure, between the arc EF in plan, establish the point 9, and parallel to FB
drop a line, intersecting the true profiles at i and d and the line/' m at b" Take
the distance from b" to d and place it at right angles to NO in section, as shown by
K d . From d ,
parallel to N O, draw a short line, as shown by </' d ,
which inter-

Fig. 27. Enlarged Half Plan, Sections and Profiles

sect by adrawn from the point 9 in plan at

line right angles to G B, thus obtaining
d"
the point 9 on the line d' in section. As P 0 in section represents the vertical

cut through the flutes, then will represent the even numbers in profile, as shown
P
by 2", 4", 6" and 8", and O the uneven numbers, as 1", 3", 5" and 7". Having ob-
tained the points of intersections on the section, the pattern is developed as shown
in Fig. 28, in which RPON, with the various points of intersection on same, is a
reproduction of RPON in section in Fig. 27 with the various intersections.
At right angles to R P in Fig. 28 draw the line J K, upon which place the
stretchout of the true profile on ef in section in Fig. 27, as shown by the small
 !

9 22 Cornice Pattern Layouts

figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 8 on the line J K in Fig. 28. At right angles to J K

and through these small figures draw lines indefinitely, as shown, which intersect
with lines drawn at right angles to R P from intersections having similar numbers,
as R P O N. A line traced through points of intersections thus obtained,
shown in
as shown by A B F E, will be the pattern for A B F E in plan in Fig. 27, formed
after the profile/' while the true profile on A B will l,

be the pattern for the vertical face of the flutes shown «_ M— 4

^
by P O in the section. _jj

As the distance 8 G at right angles to AC in plan

j
j
|
j |
j
jj'j

is less than G B, it will be necessary to construct a true !

j |
!
j
j jj \/f\
section on 8 G in plan from which to obtain the true jj! ]
j
1 }
j
/J j

profiles necessary to form a miter with the opposite-. |j| jj j

i\i
j

flutes on the line AE in plan. Therefore, parallel to |j j ! jj

3
J ! \ i

8 G draw the line M 1

L and at right angles to 8 G and
1
/\
—
i
, j j !
j j j

from points 8 and G erect the lines G R' and 8 P 1

in
jjj ‘K i

definitely, as shown, intersecting the line M 1

L 1
at M 1
j!|
j

ij
j
\ |

and L 1
. Now take the hights from L to N to R in the J
! 1
|
/ j
— vi

section on B G and place them, as shown, from I/to

lilt \/ I

N R 1 1
in the section on 8 G. In similar manner take nTl A |

the hights from M to O to P in the section on B G and | j

J ? j
\1
E
place them in the section on 8 G, as shown, from M 1
i Ni 9 ! /
to O 1
to P 1
. Now draw a line from R 1
to P and from
1

J. e !/
N*to O 1
. Then will N'O P R 1 1 1
be the true section on
8 G in plan and N R R X
1 1 8 1
the section of the cylinder
J
Fi s- Pattern for AEFB of the
Plan, Fig. 26
on 8
,

G in plan.

From the point P 1

,
at right angles to P 1
R‘, draw the lineP X, which gives1

the depths of the flutes at right angles to the rake. At right angles to A C in plan
and from the various intersections from 1 to 7 on the miter line draw lines, inter-
secting the line A C from 1 to 7. Set the dividers equal to one of these spaces and
step off on A C, 7 to 8, 8 to 9, and let 9 to 10 be as it may. Then, at right angles
to A C and from the intersections 1 to 10 on AC draw dotted lines indefinitely, as
shown.
At pleasure draw any line, as S T, parallel to C A. Now take the hights from
M 1
to O 1
to P 1
in the section and place them at right angles to S T, as shown by S
b c. From 6 and c, parallel to S T, draw the lines b U and c V, letting b U, which
represents the bottom line of the flutes, intersect the lines drawn from uneven num-
bers, as 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9, and the line c V intersect lines drawn from even numbers,
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 9*3

as shown by 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10. Trace a line through points thus obtained; then will
T UV c b S be the true profile on the line AC in plan, shown in section by O 1 P\
and will at once be the pattern for the vertical bottom or head to close the ends of
the flutes on the line AC in plan.

For the true X in section draw any line parallel

profile on P 1
to CA in plan,
as X Z. Take the distance from X to P in the section and place
2 1
it, as shown, from
X to P at right angles to Z X From P draw a line
2 1
,
2
.
1

parallel to X Z, as shown by P Y. 2
As X Z represents 1 2

the bottom of the flutes, then must this line intersect un-
even numbered lines, as 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9, and the line P 1

Y intersect even numbered lines, as 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10.

Draw lines connecting these numbers, as shown by the

shaded lines 1 to 10 ;
then will Z P be1
the true profile on
P 1
X in section. As the line P 1
R 1
in section represents the
points shown in the profile Z P having even numbers,
1
as

2, 4, 6, 8 and 10, and the line N O 1 1

in section represents
points shown in profile Z P having uneven numbers,
1
as

1, 3, 5, 7 and 9, then, at right angles to 8 G in plan and

from points 2, 4, 6 and 8 on the miter line erect lines,

intersecting the line R P l 1

in section, as shown by points
2, 4, 6 and 8. In similar manner, at right angles to 8 G
in plan and from points 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 on the miter line

in plan erect lines, intersecting the line N O

1 l
in section

at points 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9. Now, at pleasure, on the arc

E D establish any point, as 11, and call the point D 12.

From the points 1 1 and 12 and parallel to 8 G draw lines,

intersecting the true profile Z P 1
at 11 and 12 and the
base line X 2
Take the distance n 11 and o
Z at n and o.
of the Plan Fig. 26
12, which in this case are equal, and place them at

right angles to N O in section, as shown by o t. l

Through t, parallel to N O
l l 1
,

draw a short line, as shown by SS, which intersect by lines drawn from points 11
and 12 in plan at right angles to 8 G, thus obtaining the points 11 and 12 on the
line S S in the As P O
in the section represents the vertical cut through
section.
1 1

the flutes, then will P represent the even numbers in the profile, as shown by 2"
1

to 10", and O the uneven numbers, as 1" to 9".

1

Having all the points of intersections on the section, the pattern is obtained as
shown in Fig. 29, in which R P O N 1 with the various points of intersection on l 1 1
,
9M Cornice Pattern Layouts

same, is a reproduction of R
P O N in section in Fig. 27 having similar intersec-
1 1 l 1

tions. At right angles to R

P in Fig. 29 draw the line J K, upon which place the
1 1

stretchout of the true profile on P 1 X in section in Fig. 27, as shown by the small
figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 8, 12, 9, 10 on the line J K in Fig. 29. At right
angles to J K
and through these small figures draw lines indefinitely, as shown,
which intersect with lines drawn at right angles to R P from intersections having 1 1

similar numbers in R P 0 N
1
A line traced through points of intersections thus
l 1 1
.

obtained, as shown by A C D E, will be the pattern for A C D E in plan in Fig. 27,

formed after the profile Z P 1 It should be understood that the two patterns in Figs.
.

28 and 29 represent the hah panel or sunburst, therefore there must be two of each
pattern cut, one formed right and the other left. The pattern for the cylinder is not
necessary, as that is made the same as a tube and slipped inside the circular open-
ing of the sunburst.

PATTERNS FOR SUN PANELS

The triangular sections of pediments usually have some sort of ornamentation,
and this article treats of the exact method of developing the patterns for a sun
panel ornamentation ;
which can be either of a semi-circular section as at A Fig.

30, or triangular as at B.
As each flute in both sides of the pediment are different in length, a separate
pattern must be obtained for each one, it will be explained how to obtain the pat-
’

tern for the semi-circular flute 1 and

the triangular flute 2 the same princi-
,

ples being applied when developing the

other flutes. In Fig. 31 let A B C repre-
sent a half elevation of the background
of the pediment, in which the elevation
of four flutes have been drawn, two "* ** FtaUwd Ornamentottan.

semi-circular and two triangular, all radiating to the center B. Using B as a cen-
ter, draw the quarter circle D. Draw a graceful sweep to the end of flute 1, as shown
by 1", 3”, 5''
;
also draw the outline to the end of flute 2, as shown by 6, 7, 8.
Flute 1 will be developed first, the principles of which can be applied to any
size semi-circular flute. Extend the sides of flute 1 indefinitely, as shown, and
with any radius as B 5, using B as center, draw the arc a 1 intersecting the opposite
side of the flute at 1. Draw a line from 1 to 5, which bisect, obtaining the point
3'. Now using 3' as center and 3', 5 as radius, describe the semi-circle 5, 3, 1,
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 9*5
which represents the profile of the flute on the line 1 5. Divide this semi-circle
in equal spaces in this case four —as shown from 1 to 5, and from these divisions
at right angles to 1 5 draw lines intersecting the line J 5 at 2’, 3' and 4\ From
these points draw radial lines to the apex B, cutting the curve at the end of the
flute at 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 and 5 ,
also cutting part of the quarter-circle D as shown.
"
Now at right angles to the center line 3 B from the intersections 1” to 4 draw lines
intersecting the side of the flute 5 x
T3 at l to 4*.
For the pattern proceed as follows: With B as center and B 5 as radius,

describe the arc 5 5, upon which place the girth of the profile on 1 5, as shown by
the small figures 1on the curve 5 5. From
to 5 these small figures 1 to 5 draw
radial lines to the center B and intersect them by arcs struck from B as center with
x
radii equal to the various intersections l , 2
X
,
3X, 4X and 5" on the side of the flute
°
5 B, thus obtaining the intersections 1° to 5 in the pattern. In similar manner
using B as center and Bl° as radius, draw the arc 1 5 in the pattern. Then 1 , 1°,
9^6 Cornice Pattern Layouts

2°, 3°, 4°, 5°, 5, with laps allowed, will be the pattern for flute 1. This flute can
be used right and left.

Another pattern will be required for the end strip shown from 1" to 5", which
closes th > end of flute 1, and is obtained as follows: From the various intersec-
tions 1 to 5 in the profile of flute, draw radial lines to the center 3' as shown, and
intersect these lines by liner: dropped from similar numbered intersections 1" to 5"

in flute 1, parallel to the center line 3 B. Thus a line drawn from 1" in elevation,

intersects the radial line drawn from 1 in the profile at 1\ A line drawn from 2"
in elevation intersects similar numbered radial lines in profile 2 a while lines drawn ,

"
from 4 to 5" in elevation intersect similar radial lines in profile at 4 a and 5 a ,

respectively.
To obtain the point 3 a in profile, a line is drawn from point 3" in elevation, at
T
right angles to 3 B, until it meets the side of the flute at 3 or 3*. Now take this
T X a
distance, 3" 3 or 3" 3 and place it from 3' to 3 on the line 3' 3 in the profile.
a
These points, l to 5“ in the profile, will be used in obtaining the various
hights for the end strip. Now take the girth of the various spaces along the curve
1" to 5" in elevation, measuring each one separately, as they are all unequal, and
place them on any horizontal line in E, as shown by similar numbers 1" to 5".

From these small figures erect perpendicular lines indefinitely as shown. Now
measuring from the line 1 5 in the profile of flute, take the various hights to points
a a a
2 ,
3 and 4 and place them in the pattern E on similar numbered lines, measur-
1" 5", resulting in the intersections a
ing in each instance from the line 2 ,
3a 4B
,
.

A line traced through points thus obtained as shown, will be the pattern for the
end strip for the semi-circular flute 1. In this manner must the balance of the
end strips be obtained for the various flutes.
Let 6 7 8 9 10 11 be the outline of the triangular flute shown by 2 . The
first step in developing this flute is to know the hight that the flute will have
at 7. Assume that the hight at 7 should be as high as from 7 to 7' then at right ;

angles to 7 B draw the perpendicular 7 7 of the desired hight, and draw a line from
7' to B, intersecting the line drawn from 10 at right angles to 7 10 at 10'. This
hight 10 10' then represents the hight of the flute on point 10. 7', 10', then shows
the true length of the line 7 10; 8 9 and 6 11 also show their true lengths.
The must now be obtained on the dotted lines 8 10 and 10 6 as
true lengths
follows: Take the lengths of 8 10 and 6 10 and place them on any vertical line,
as shown by similar numbers in diagram H. As the hight at 10 in elevation is
equal to 10 10’, take this distance and place it as shown from 10 to 10' in H at right
angles to 6 10, and draw a line from 10' to 8 and 10' to 6, which show respectively
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 9*7

the true lengths of the dotted lines 10 8 and 10 6 in elevation. Now take the
girth of the end 6 7 8 in flute 2, and place it asshown by 6 7 8 in F. From
point 7 erect the perpendicular 7 7', equal to 7 7' in elevation, and draw a line in
F from 6 to 7' to 8, which represents the pattern for the end strip for flute 2 and
gives the true lengths for the end when developing the triangular flute 2. In
similarmanner take the girth of 9 10 11 in flute 2, and place it as shown by similar
numbers in L; from 10 erect the perpendicular line 10 10', equal to 10 10' in flute
2, and draw a line in L from 9 to 10' to 11, which represents the developed section

on 9 10 11 in elevation.
The pattern for flute 2 can now be developed as shown in diagram J. Draw
any line 7' 10' equal in length to 7' 10' in elevation. Now with the radius equal to
6 7' in F, and 7' in J as center, draw an arc, which intersect by an arc struck from
10' as center and 10' 7 in H as radius. Now with 10' 11 in L as radius and 10' in

J as center, draw the arc 11, which intersect by an arc struck from 6 as center and
6 11 in flute 2 as radius.
In similar manner complete the opposite side of the pattern J. 7' 8 and 10' 9
are obtained from 7' 8 in F and 10' 9 in L respectively, while the true lengths 10'

8 and 9 8 in the pattern J, are obtained from 10' 8 in H and 9 8 in flute 2 respec-

tively. Connect intersections thus obtained in J by straight lines, to which allow

laps as shown, which will then be the pattern for the triangular flute 2 .

It will be noticed that the lines 8 10' 11 in pattern J are straight lines, but

they intersect against a curved surface shown by 9 10 11 in the quarter-circle D in

elevation, which, however, will hardly be noticeable in practical work.
Using the principles employed for developing the flute 2, all other flutes
having different lengths must be laid out the same way.

PATTERN FOR HORIZONTAL MOLDING INTERSECTING A

TAPERING POST
This article exemplifies the method of obtaining the pattern for a horizontal
molding intersecting a tapering post, as shown in Fig. 32. A and B represent the
base and rail of a balustrade intersecting the tapering post C, b being the profile of
the rail.

In Fig. 33 and 34 is shown the method of obtaining the pattern for the rail B
in Fig. 32, which is also applicable to the base A. First, in Fig. 33 draw the
center line AB and construct the part elevation of the post shown by C DE F.
928 Cornice Pattern Layouts

In its proper position draw the section of the rail H . Divide this into any
convenient number of spaces, being careful to place a few divisions in the vertical
lines 1 11 and 8 10, as shown by 12, 13

and 9. Through these intersections draw

horizontal lines through the elevation, as
shown, which will represent the planes

in elevation.
On the center line A' B establish the
point J, through which draw the line K
L. From the various intersections of the
horizontal planes with the line 1) E in

elevation drop vertical lines intersecting

the line K L in plan, as shown.
Using J as center, with the various
Fig. 32. Balustrade with Tapering Post
radii describe circles, which will represent

ihe various horizontal planes when viewed in plan. Take a tracing of section H
in elevation and place it in its proper position in plan, as shown by H 1
.

Through the various intersections in plan draw horizontal lines intersecting

similar circles or planes, as shown from Y to 13’. If desired to show the miter line
in elevation vertical lines can be erected from T to 13’ in plan to similar lines in
elevation, as shown from 1° to 13°, although this is not necessary in developing
the pattern.
For the pattern shape for the horizontal molding take the girth of the section

H or H 1
and place it on the line L M in Fig. 34, at right angles to which, from the
various points, draw lines as shown. Erect at pleasure any vertical line, as L M
in Fig. 33, from which take the various distances to points Y to 13’, and place
them on similar lines in Fig. 34, measuring in each instance from the line L M and
obtaining the intersections shown from 1" to Y".

As the horizontal planes 1 2, 3 4, 7 8 and 10 11 in section H in Fig. 33 are

represented by similar arcs of circles in plan, these arcs can be transferred to the
pattern, as follows: With radius equal to J 1’ in plan, and 1”
and 2’, in Fig. 34 as
centers, describe arcs intersecting each other at a; then using a as center describe
the arc 1" 2'. Using 3' and 4' as centers, and with radius equal to J 4' in plan
Fig. 33, describe arcs intersecting at b in Fig. 34 ;
with b as center, using the same
radius, describe the arc 3' 4'.

Using radius J 7' in plan in Fig. 33 and with 7' and 8' in Fig. 34 as centers
describe the arcs c; with the same radius, and c as center, draw the arc 7' 8'.
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 919

Using 10' and 11’ as centers, and .1 10 in plan in Fig. 33 as radius, describe

10' 11' in Fig. 34. Connect the various points as shown, which completes
the arc
the pattern.

CORNICE RETURN CONFORMING TO ROOF PITCH

arises in the sheet metal cornice trade
A vexing problem that frequently
to the cornice conform to the pitch of the roof.
relates to making the crown return
In the majority hack from the cornice and the eminently
of cases the roof pitches
return and crown mold of cornice level
practical method would be to make the
throughout. Then, after the cornice is set
and wall is built up, the framer should
pitch back from the crown mold, or front
lay the roof boards so that the roof will
also at the return of cornice, he
and should build a saddle, creat-
of the building;
to the inside line of the wall. It is then
ing a valley from the miter of the cornice
all as indicated in Fig. 35.
an easy matter to lay the roofing,
 93 ° Cornice Pattern Layouts

It ia a fact, though, that the framer often neglects to provide this saddle, and
the roofer, finding that the crown return sticks up at the wall above the roof sheath-
ing and caring little for the appearance of the cornice, squeezes the return out of
shape until its flange lies on the roof
boards throughout; for his only interest
in the matter is to make + he connection
of his roofing with the cornice. Although
itwould be possible to guard against this
by strict superintendence, occasions arise
when, by reason of the design of the
building and its structural formation in
regard to the steel lookouts and the like,
it is necessary to have the return pitch
Fig. 85. Hoof Pitch and Return of Cornice
with the roof.
In Fig. 36 is shown a method of pitching this return by allowing for a
difference in hight of the return at the miter and at the wall line, in the facia
members 5 4 J K. The problem is now similar to a raking pediment
molding necessitating the ascertaining of the raked profile of the return.
This is accomplished by dividing the profile of the crown molding as shown
and placing its horizontal distance on any line as A B. This line, with
the spaces numbered to correspond with tjhose of the profile, is drawn parallel
with the raking lines of the return, as A B 1 1
,
and the lines dropped to the raking
lines of the same numbers drawn from the profile of the crown O results in the
modified profile P.
For the pattern, the stretchout of this profile P is placed on a line M N, which
is at a right angle to the lines of the return ;
the usual parallel lines are drawn
through the stretchout points on the line MN and are intersected by lines parallel
to M N from the wall line KT and the profile O, which gives the pattern for the
part of the return above the fascia member K ,T 4 5.
"
Add the fascia member to the pattern by scribing arcs from points 5’ and 5
equal K J and 5 4 of the fascia. These arcs are intersected by lines drawn parallel
to M N from points J and 4. A line joining these points of intersection on the
arcs, as R 8 and from R to 5'and S to 5” is the pattern of the fascia member.
The pattern for the drip and planceer of the crown molding 4 to O is not raked
and will be an ordinary square miter; hence, for the pattern of that part of the re-
turn, draw any line as X Y at right angles to line R S with the spaces 4 to 1 of the
molding. Through these points on line X Y and parallel to R 8 draw lines. At
 Cornice Pattern Layouts
93 1
right angles to line AB draw any line as H G and at a distance equal to G 5 on
line AB draw a line at right angles to

R S indicated by H' G'. From this line

and on lines 3, 2 and 1, place the dist-
ance corresponding to G 1, etc., on A B.
A line traced through these points
realizes the pattern for the drip of the
return.
In most cases the planceer of the
return is eliminated for the sake of appear
ance, obviating a conspicuous overhang
for the return. In consequence the plan-
ceer of the crown molding from point 1

to 0 is a straight cut and on the return a

lap is necessary as shown by the line R
G' in the pattern of the return. The pat-
tern of the crown molding is simply a,

square return, with the exception of the

above mentioned planceer part, and
would be obtained by placing the stretch-

out of profile O on any lines ( as H G

continued ) and dropping lines from
points in profile O to similar numbered
lines on HG extended. It should be

understood that the rest of the cornice,

the bed mold, frieze and foot mold, do
Fig. 36. Pattern for Return of Crown Molding
not enter in this discussion.
Should objections be raised to this manner of compensating in one member
only and it is still essential to have the return
conform to the pitch of the roof, each mem-
ber of the return may bear the difference propor-
tionally (in the hight of the crown return at
the wall and outer edge as 19 of the profile 0)
by drawing the lines of all the members to a

common center. This method was pursued in

Fig. 37; and though it must be said that this

scheme balances as it were, the evil, it

93 * Cornice Pattern Layouts

involves an intricate pattern, which apparently must be developed by the triangu-

lation process. The question then comes to mind, would it pay when, as is often
the case, the cornice is so high that the mode of compensating would be imper-
ceptible to one on the ground?

PATTERNS FOR AN OCTAGONAL CORNUCOPIA

An exemplification of the methods of obtaining the patterns for an octagonal
cornucopia, as shown in elevation and plan in Fig. 38. In working out the pattern
in Fig. 39, the plan view will be omitted and the problem solved by a short method,
the elevation, a sectional view, and a series of planes taken through the side eleva-
tion of the cornucopia only being used.
The first step is to draw a correct side view of the cornucopia, as indicated by
I 11 34 44 and then add the profile of the ornamental finish at the top from 1 to 4°
and 44 to 4°. Directly above the side elevation draw the half plan elevation

of the ornamental finish, asshown by E F Gr H 1 J’, which equal

1 1 1

one-half of a true octagon. In a similar manner below the line

II 34 in the side elevation draw the plan of the true opening shown
by E. Take a tracing of the half section E and place it on the
center line A° B° in the half plan, as shown by the smallest semi-
octagon. The from the corners of the largest semioctagon draw
lines to the center C.
The next draw a sectional view through the center
step is to
Fig. 88.
of the cornucopia when viewed from the front, and this is done as The Octagonal Cor-
nucopia
follows: Extend the upper and lower lines of the cornucopia, as
shown by 44 a and 34 k at right angles to which draw the vertical line A B. As
,

the top and bottom of the cornucopia are true octagons the widths through the
front view will be similar to the widths in the side elevation. Therefore, measur-
ing from the point C C to k and C to a,
in the half plan, take the distance from
and place them, measuring from the center line A B, from B to k and k°, and from
A to a and a, respectively, and then draw graceful curves from atok and a° to k°.
In practice it is necessary to draw only one-half sectional view. Next establish a
through the side elevation by dividing the outline 1 to 11 into any
series of planes
desired number of spaces, and in a similar manner divide the outline from 34 to
44 into the same number of spaces. Connect opposite points as from 2 to 43, 3 to
42, 4 to 41, etc., down to 10 to 35.
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 933
On these planes true sections must be found, as shown in the half plan, which
are obtained as follows: by the points
Bisect each plane in the side elevation as
a, b, c, d, e, /, g, h, i, j and k, from which horizontal lines are drawn through the

sectional view cutting the curve a k, as shown by similar letters. For example, to
obtain the true section on the line 5 40 in the side elevation take the distances from
e, which is the bisecting point of 5 40, to 5 and 40, and place it on the line A° B°

in the half plan, as shown from C to 5' and C to 40'. From 5' and 40' at right
angles to A° B°, erect lines cutting the miter lines at 5 and 40 respectively. Measur-
ing from the center line A B in the sectional view, take the distance to joint e, which
represents the half depth through c in lie side elevation, and place it as shown from
C to e, on the center line, erected from C in the half plan, and through e parallel to

A° B° draw a line intersecting the miter line at 18 and 27. l>raw lines from 18 to
5 and 27 to 40. Then will 5' 5 18 27 40 40' be the true half section on the plane
5 40 in side elevation. In this manner are all of the semisections obtained on the
various planes in the side elevation, as shown by similar numbers in the half plan.

All of the true sections having been obtained, the miter lines 12 22 and 23 33
in the side elevation must be found as follows: Measuring from tbe center line
erected from C in the half plan bike the distance from a to 22 and a to 23 and place
it in the side elevation, measuring from the point a and obtain points 22 and 23.
In a similar manner measuring from b in the half plan take the distances to points

21 and 24 and place them in the side elevation from b to 21 and b 24. In this
manner all of the points from 21 to 12 and 24 to 33 are obtained, after which aline
is traced through points thus found as shown from 12 to 22 and 23 to 33, which
represents the miter line or line of joint. Connect opposite points by means of

dotted lines as shown from 2 to 22 to 24 to 42, etc. The semisections in the half
plan show the true lengths of similar numbered solid lines in the side elevation, but
the true lengths of the dotted lines in the side elevation must first be found. For
example, there will be shown how to obtain the true length of the dotted line 27 39
in the side elevations, and when this is understood the balance of the dotted lines

can be easily obtained. Take the length of 27 39 in F in the side elevation, and
place it in diagram K on the line
T
A B from T 27' to 39'. At right angles to A Bv
T

from points 27' and 39' erect lines, making 27' 27 and 39' 39 equal respectively to
the vertical distances obtained in the half plan, measuring from the line A° B° to
points 27 and 39. A line drawn from 27 to 39 in diagram K will be the true length
of the line 27 39 in the side elevation. In this manner all of the true lengths on
dotted lines in F in elevation are obtained, as shown in diagram K.
The true
lengths of the dotted lines in G and H, are obtained in a similar manner, as shown
in diagram N, the various sections being erected from the line Ap B p .
934 Cornice Pattern Layouts
HALF PLAN. SHOWING TRUE LENGTHS pF
8EMI-8ECTIONS, WHICVl
SHOW TRUE LENGTHS OF DOTTED LINES IN F
80LID LINES IN ELEVATION

2/* 28 28' 38' »•' 3 1' 3. 3l'J2'j«' 35'

PATTERN FOR
ORNAMENTAL
AT*TOP
FINISH

Hi SB

amm
60 a SIDE ELEVATION

pattern
ii
FOR SIDE E
n FOR blor J- :*• •
T»»

SECTIONAL VIEW THROUGH

<t~h IN SIDE ELEVATION

TRUE LENGTH OF MITER LINEN**

12 TO 22 IN ELEVATION
/ TRUE LENGTH OF MITER LINE
23 TO 33 IN ELEVATION

TRUE LENGTHS OF COTTED

LINES IN G AND H

trf.
1*1
1
-
> wpfo wKW"!' tr
** tv
-

3**27'
.m#* -
tA* *

i? ig. 89. Side Elevation, True Sections, True Lengths and Patterns for Parallel Sides
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 935
When the pattern for the lower piece of the cornucopia E in the side elevation
is developed, as shown by P, the miter cut from 34 to 44 will give the true edge
line for the lower part of the piece F in the side elevation. In a similar manner,
when the upper part J in the side elevation is developed as shown by R, the miter
cut from 1 to 11 will give the true edge line for the upper part of the piece H in the
side elevation. It now becomes necessary to find the true lengths on the miter lines
12 22 and 23 33 in the side elevation as follows: Take the distances from 12 to
13, 13 to 14, 14 to 15 to 16 to 17 to 18 to 19 to 20 to 21 to 22 and place on the line
A B 1 1
in diagram M, as shown by similar numbers 12’ to 13’, to 14’ to 15’, etc.,
placing one over another so as to save space. At right angles to A B
1 1
from the
various small figures vertical lines are erected, equal to the various vertical hights
of similar numbered points in the semisections in the half plan. For example, the
hights, 12' 12, 13' 13, 14' 14 in diagram M, are equal to the vertical distances,
measured from the line A° B° in the half plan to points 12, 13 and 14. Lines
drawn from points 12 to 13 to 14 in M give the true length of part of the miter
line 12, 13 and 14 in the side elevation. The true length of the miter line from 23
to 33 in the side elevation, is obtained in a similar manner as shown in diagram L
by similar numbers.

The necessary true lengths having been obtained, the patterns are now in order.

The first pattern to be developed is that of the ornamental finish at the top. Di-
vide the profile of the finish from 1 to 4° in the side elevation into equal spaces,

and erect perpendicular lines until they cut the miter line 1 D. Extend the center
line A° B° as B° C°, upon which place the girth of 1 4° in the side elevation, from
1° to 4° on the line B° C°. At right angles to 1° 4° through the small figures draw
perpendicular lines and intersect them by lines drawn parallel to B° C° from similar
intersections on the miter line ID. A line traced through points thus obtained
will be the miter cut for an octagon bevel. Reverse this cut m n opposite the center
line B° C° and obtain m’ n. Then mm' n n will be the pattern for the upper finish,
which will be added to all patterns. At pleasure between the points m and m
draw any ornamental design such as the one shown.
For the pattern for the top J in the side elevation, take the girth from 1 to 11

shown by similar numbers l°to 11° on any vertical line A B at

f f
and place it as ,

right angles to which through the small figures draw lines indefinitely. Measuring
from the center line A° B° in the half plan, take the various distances to points 1

to 11 on the miter line C D and place them on similar numbered line in the pattern

for the side J, measuring in each instance from and on either side of the line A B
f f
.

Trace a line through points thus obtained. Then will 1 11 11* 1* be the pattern
93 6 Cornice Pattern Layouts

for the upper side J in the side elevation or J in the half plan.l
Take a tracing of

the ornamental finish S and place it to the pattern R as shown. In a similar man-
ner obtain the pattern for the lower side E in the side elevation. Take the girth
of all the spacesbetween 34 and 44, and place them on any vertical line A B x as x

shown by similar numbers from 34° to 44°, through which points at right angles to
A* B x draw
,
lines indefinitely. Measuring from the line A° B° in the half plan,
take the various distances to similar numbers 34 to 44 on the miter line, and place
them on either side of A x Bx on similar numbered lines as shown. A line traced

through points thus obtained as shown by 34, 44, 44*, 34* will be the desired

pattern, to which the ornamental finish is added.

As before mentioned, the miter cuts on both patterns P and R are used in de-
veloping, by triangulation, the patterns for the sides F and H, respectively, in
the side elevation. The shown by F, G and H in the
patterns for the three sides
side elevation, or F G and H in the half plan, are shown in Fig. 40. The
1
,
1 1

method of developing the pattern F will be explained, then the same method can
be applied to the patterns G and H. In developing the pattern for side F in side
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 937
elevation in Fig. 39 it should be remembered that the true lengths of the solid lines
in elevation are given in the half plan ;
the true lengths of the dotted lines in F are
shown in the diagram K ;
the true length of the miter line 23 33 in the side eleva-
tion is shown in diagram L, and the true edge line along 34 44 in the side elevation
is found along the miter cut 34 44 in the pattern P. Proceed with the pattern for
side F as follows: Take the distance of 23 44 in the half plan and place it as
shown by 23 44 in F in Fig. 40. With a radius equal to the distance 44 43 in the
miter cut in the pattern P and 44 in the pattern F in Fig. 40 as center, describe
the arc 43, which intersect by another arc struck from 23 as center and 23 43 in
diagram K in Fig. 39 as radius. Then with 23 24 in diagram L as radius and 23
in F in Fig 40 as center, describe the arc 24, which intersect by an arc struck from
43 as center and 43 24 in the half plan in Fig 39 as radius. Proceed in this man-
ner, using alternately first the proper division on the miter cut in pattern P, then
the proper numbered slant line in diagram K, the proper numbered slant line in

diagram L, then the proper numbered line in the half plan, until the line 33 34
in F in Fig. 40 has been obtained. A line traced through points thus obtained,
with the ornamental finish added, will be the pattern for the side F in Fig. 39.

In obtaining the pattern G in Fig 40, the divisions from 23 to 33 are obtained
from the miter cut 23 to 33 in pattern F. The length of the solid lines in pattern

G are obtained from the half plan in Fig 39, and the lengths of the dotted lines for
pattern G in Fig. 40 are obtained from diagram N in Fig. 39; the outer edge line

from 12 to 22 in the pattern G in Fig. 40 is obtained from diagram M in Fig. 39.

When developing the pattern II in Fig. 40, the edge line from 12 to 22 is obtained
from 12 to 22 in pattern G, while the true lengths of the solid and dotted lines in

pattern H are obtained from diagram N in Fig. 39 for the dotted lines and from
the half plan for the solid lines. The edge line from 1 to 11 in the pattern H in

Fig. 40 is obtained from the miter cut from 1 to 11 in R in Fig 39. Edges must
be allowed on all patterns for soldering purpose.
The small octagonal acorn shown at the bottom of the cornucopia at a in Fig.
38 is developed the same as an ordinary octagon miter.

PATTERN FOR MULLION INTERSECTING GABLE MOLD

An interesting problem in projection and development is given in the accom-
panying illustration, that of a mullion intersecting a gable mold. In Fig. 41 let A
BC represent the angle of the gable mold, D being the profile at right angles to
the rake. In its proper position place the profile of the mullion mold E, the lower
93 ® Cornice Pattern Layouts

Fig. 41. Elevation, Profile, Miter Lines and Patterns

angle, being careful, however, that the point 8° is vertically above the point 8 as
shown.
Divide the profiles D and E into similar number of parts as shown from 2 to 8.
Through the points in the profile D, draw lines parallel to the gable mold indefinite-
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 939

ly as shown. Through the points in the profile E erect vertical lines from 4 to 8
until they intersect the wash from 4° to 8°. Then from the various intersections in
the profile E draw horizontal lines until they intersect the lines drawn from the
profile D in the gable mold, thus obtaining the points of intersections from 8 to 2
to 3 to 8, the miter line being shown traced by F G H. While both miter lines
are here shown, it is only necessary to draw one-half in practice.
Having obtained the miter line, the pattern for the mullion is obtained as
follows: Extend the center line of the gable as M L, upon which place the girth of
the profile E from 8° to 2 to 8, being careful to measure each space separately, as
they are all unequal as shown by similar numbers on M L. Through these points
at right angles to M L draw lines, which intersect by lines drawn from similar
numbers on the miter line F GH at right angles to H H. Trace a line through
points thus obtained, then will 11° F° F° H °
be the full pattern for the mullion.
If it is desired to add the triangular face to the pattern shown by F J F in eleva-
tion, then use as radius the distance F J and
,
with F° and F° in the pattern as centers,
describe arcs intersecting each other at J°. Draw lines from F° to J° to F°, which
completes the pattern.

INTERSECTION OF HORIZONTAL WITH INCLINED

DISSIMILAR MOLDING
This is the solution of the above problem which in Fig. 42 is represented the
elevation of the moldings and indicating the inclined or gable molding by A' BC
D E F and the horizontal
molding by G H J K. The
profile of the gable molding is

shown at X, and of the hori-

zontal molding at Z. The pat-
tern required is for the miter
at GJ or H K. In Fig. 43,
part of the elevation in Fig.
42 is shown and enlarged. In
this figure A B F E represents
Elevation of Inclined and Horizontal Moldings the inclined molding, the pro-

file of whichshown at X. G H K J represents the horizontal molding and Z is

is

the profile. To obtain the pattern G H J K where joints A B F E at G J, it is

only necessary to acquire the miter line G J, when the pattern can be described in
the usual manner.
 \ .

Cornice Pattern Layouts

In Fig. 43, 2 to 5 of the profile X miters with 2 to 5 of profile Z, and these two
shapes are alike. From 5 to 9 of profile X miters with 5 to 9 of profile Z, and these
two shapes are different. To obtain the miter line G .1, proceed as follows: On the

m!
/X / 44-4 M L
—
I
I I

--44 -4 ----4-=r±
yy
/ uO
I -I 1
I-

1
j-f -b

4 — .

-\4 Z

Am ,A\ ii L
'
i i 1 1

//'A/
/y//
m Ii

!
!
I

HORIZONTAL MOLDING

//// / / / // /
S'
//A
V
//// yy
SAv///
z< /y// s

MTORLI
X*
•v.X
\V \A
///
//
m\y
fVjA
/X X\X>\<» X XX X
Nn
v

Fig 13. The Intersection and Pattern

 Cornice Pattern Layouts 941
wall line AE extended, as M N, draw a duplicate of profile Z as shown. Divide
the profiles Y and Z into the same number of parts, as indicated by small figures
in each. From the divisions in profile Y carry lines parallel with the wall line A
T
> ,
cutting the face of the profile X, and also carry the lines through profile Y, cut-
ting L N, as shown by the small figures 1' to 11'. With the T-square parallel with
the lines of the inclined molding, as A B, carry lines from the points in profile X,
extending them in the direction of B F. Also draw lines from the points in profile
Z, cutting lines of similar numbers drawn from profile X. A line traced through
these points of intersection, as shown by G J, will be the miter line.
For the pattern of the horizontal molding proceed as follows: At right angles
to the horizontal molding, as on HK extended lay off a stretchout of N L M of
profile Y, as shown by the points in N 1 M 1, in which N 1 to L 1 are the points
in N L of the profile. Thus the distance L 1 3" of stretchout is equal to L 3' of

profile. L 1 of 4" of stretchout is equal to L 4' of profile, etc. With the T-square
at right angles to the stretchout line N 1 M 1 draw the measuring lines, in this case

extending them to the left indefinitely. With the T-square parallel with the stretch-

out line MINI, drop lines from the points in GH of horizontal molding to lines

of similar numbers drawn at right angles to N 1 L 1. A line traced through these

points of intersections, as shown from O to R of pattern, will give the shape of pattern
for the top of molding.

In a similar manner drop lines from the points in G J to lines of corresponding

number drawn at right angles to L 1 M 1 ,
when a line drawn through the points of

intersection, as shown by RPQ, will form the remaining part of pattern.

PATTERN FOR A BROKEN SHAFT

The following will describe how to cut the pattern for a monu-
ment of sheet metal representing a broken shaft, a sketch of which is

presented in Fig. 44, A being the shaft resting upon a square base.

In Fig. 45 let A B C D be the elevation of the broken shaft and E

the plan. Divide the half plan into equal parts, as shown on the
small figures 1 to 7. Through these divisions and parallel to the

shaft A D drop lines until they intersect the center line in plan and
erect perpendiculars intersecting the break A B, as shown by the
small figures on A B.
For the pattern proceed as follows: In the line with D C draw
Fig. 44. View of 1* A~ XT' tT . . -»-s T*.Vv » n *%! fi 4-V, A a 1.4- a t 4.1s A —. 1 A — TjI —_
94 * Cornice Pattern Layouts

shown by the small figures 1 to 1. At right angles to F H and from the small
figures erect perpendiculars, which intersect with lines of corresponding number
drawn from AB of the elevation. Trace a line through the points thus obtained,
as K J and FHJ K will be the pattern
for the broken shaft.

For the pattern for the cover to

close the broken part of shaft draw any PA’TTdRM

line, as A B in Fig. 46, upon which

place the stretchout of the break AB
in Fig. 45. When taking the stretchout 4 0 054 821
1 2 8 5 7
of the curve in A B

in Fig. 45, and of

the space from 3 to
4, it will be seen
PUN
Fig. 46. Pattern of Head that the latter does Fig. 45. Plan, Elevation and Pattern
not run in a straight more or less curved therefore make two divisions
line but is ;

of this space and them to 3 to 4 on A B of Fig. 46, as shown, the subdi-

transfer
vision not being indicated on the stretchout line. Through these small figures and
at right angles to A B draw vertical lines, as shown. Now, measuring in each in-
stance from the line 1 to 7 in the plan E of Fig. 45, take the various distances to
the small figures 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 on the semicircle and place these distances on lines
of similar numbers in Fig. 46, measuring in each instance above and below the
line A B. Trace a line through the points thus obtained and C D will be the de-
sired pattern.

PATTERN FOR HALF ROUND BRACKET STAND

To draw a pattern for the half round stand which is to be made in six pieces
and to be set at an angle, as indicated by ABC in Fig. 47, proceed as follows: As
the article is to be made in six pieces, placed in a half circle, draw any horizontal
line, as DO 1
,
as the center line of the plan. Drop lines from the extreme points
of the profile, as X
and B, intersecting the horizontal line at D and O 1 Now .

with O as center and O D as radius draw a quarter circle (shown dotted)

1 1

intersecting a line dropped from O1 at P Divide the quarter circle, P 1 D into

1
.

three equal parts, as shown by Hand G. Draw the lines D H, H G and G P1 form-
ing the sides of the bracket in plan. At right angles to A B in profile and from
the point C drop a line, intersecting D O at E. Then will E be the point to which
1

all miter lines in plan will be drawn. Thus from the point E draw lines to H and
 Comice Pattern Layouts 943
G. As the side of the stand shown in plan by G P butts against a plain surface
1

oblique in elevation, the miter line shown by F X E in plan must first be found
from which to obtain the pattern.
To do this proceed as follows: It should be understood that the profile shown
by A B C is a profile on the miter line D E in plan and is not a profile at right

Fig. 47. Plan, Profiles and Pattern

angles to the line of the molding. If, however, a profile was given at right angles
to the line of molding, the same principles would be employed. Divide the profile
shown from A to C into any number of spaces, as shown by the small figures 1 to
944 Cornice Pattern Layouts

9. At right angles to AB and from these points draw lines, with which intersect
the line 1) E, as shown. From the intersections on the line I) E draw lines parallel
to DH intersecting the miter line 11 E, as shown. In the same manner, from the
intersections on II E draw lines parallel to II G intersecting the miter line G E.
Now parallel to A B in profile and from the intersections in A C draw lines,

as shown, intersecting the slant line B C, as shown by l

1
,
2 1
,
3', etc. At right
angles to A B
and from the intersections on B C drop lines intersecting those of
similar numbers drawn from the intersections on the miter line G E parallel to G
P 1
. A line traced through the points thus obtained, as F 1 2 3 X 5 6 7 8 9, will

represent the miter line in plan, showing the intersection between the side GP 1
and
the slant line BC in elevation. It will now be necessary to obtain true profiles
at right angles to the lines of the moldings, to be used for obtaining the stretchouts
in the development of the several patterns. At right angles to G P 1
and from the
point E draw a line, which in this case happens to coincide with the miter line G
E. In the same manner, at right angles to II G and from the point E draw the line
N E. Now through the small figures in the profile A C draw lines right and left

indefinitely parallel to Take a duplicate of A B. the the line N E in plan, with

various intersections numbered to correspond to the various intersections on the
profile A C, and place it, as shown by N E parallel to the lines previously drawn. 1 1

At right angles to N E and

1 1

,
from intersections on it draw lines intersecting those
of similar numbers drawn from the profile A C. Trace a line through the points
thus obtained, as shown. Then will l
2
X 2 2
9 represent the profile on the line NE
in plan. In the same manner take a tracing of GE in plan with the various inter-
sections on it as before described and place it as shown by G E 1 1
. At right angles
to G E and
1 l
through the figures draw lines intersecting 'those of similar numbers
drawn from the profile A C. Trace a line through the intersections thus obtained
and I
3
X 3
9 3 will be the profile on the line G E. For the pattern for that part of the
stand shown in plan H E G proceed as follows: At right angles to G H in plan
draw the line N
upon which place the stretchout of the profile
O, on N E, trans-
ferring each and every space separately, as shown by the small figures on the line
N O. At right angles to N O and through the small figures draw lines which inter-
sect with lines not shown of similar numbers drawn from the miter lines H E and

G E. Lines traced through these points, as shown by P N and II N, will represent

the pattern of the part H E G. For the pattern for the part shown in plan GEX
F proceed in the manner as before described. At right angles to GX draw the
stretchout line U V, upon which place the stretchout of the profile on G E. At
right angles to U V and through the small figures draw lines, which intersect with
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 945

linesnot shown of similar numbers drawn at right angles to G X from the intersec-
tions on the miter line E X F. Trace a line through the points thus obtained
and W ZY will be the pattern for G E X F. It will be noticed that one side of WZ
of the pattern is straight, because the miter line G E in plan is at right angles
to X G.
For the profile and pattern for I) E H in plan proceed in the manner described
in connection with the piece H G E. For the pattern for the back, shown in pro-

file by B C, proceed as follows: Draw any horizontal line, I .1, at right angles to

0 P\ upon which
1
place a tracing of B C and the various intersections on it, as
shown by M K. At right angles to 1 .1 and through the small figures draw lines,

which intersect with lines of similar numbers drawn from the miter line EX F at
right angles to O' P 1
. A line traced through the points of intersection thus obtain-

ed, as shown by ML K, will be one-half the pattern for the back. The other half

can be traced opposite the line M K.

MITERS OF MOLDINGS OF DIFFERENT PROJECTION

When a molding of given profile is to miter, at any angle, to a similar mold-
ing that has a different projection the method of procedure is as follows: Assum-
ing that M is the given profile as indicated by Fig. 48, and that the wall line has

the angles as shown by the cross hatched line ;

also that the given projections of
the two arms of the molding are as shown by the outer line. By drawing a line
through the points of intersection of the outer lines and the wall lines the miter
line is obtained. To these miter lines, lines are drawn from the profile and M
94 6 Cornice Pattern Layouts

from the points of intersection on the miter lines and parallel to the wall lines con-

tinued for the two arms of the molding.

The hights 0 12 3, etc., of profile M are placed on a line as A B, inasmuch as
only the projections vary and not the hights. Place duplicate of line AB At the

two arms as A B
1 1
and A* B 2
. Projecting these hights to the correct lines in both
arms and tracing a line through the points of intersection gives the modified pro-
files of the arms, as L N.
For the patterns, the stretchouts of L M N would be stepped off on a line

drawn at right angles to the wall lines for their respective moldings. The usual lines
are drawn through the points on these lines which are intersected by lines drawn
parallel to the stretchout lines from the points on the miter lines.

THE PATTERN CUT OF THE WASH OF A PEDIMENT

Though there are many demonstrations of the problems of pediments on a

wash, all, apparently, neglect to give the miter cut of the wash. It would im-
 Cornice Pat tern Layouts 947
measure ably facilitate the assembling of the pediment and be truer to profile, for

it is an easy matter wash up to the pediment if the pediment was out

to dress the
of shape ;
whereas, by soldering to the line or cut on the wash it must come to
shape accurately. It does not, therefore, seem out of place to exemplify the pro-
cedure for acquiring aforesaid cut, even though the principles are explained in
many of the problems.

Fig. 49 indicates a pediment cf the profile A mitering on a wash the pitch of

which is pronounced to better illustrate the problem. The miter line in the front
elevation having been obtained by usual process ;
draw a line BC at right angles
to the horizontal lines of the wash, upon which place the distances 15 16 17 18,
etc., of the wash in the side elevation. Draw the usual parallel lines through
these points which intersect by lines drawn from the front elevation of similar num-
bers. A line drawn through these points of intersection will give the miter cut of
the wash. It is customary to place laps on the wash cut leaving the cut on the
pediment sharp.

PATTERN FOR DROP ON FACE OF SPHERE

The following is an exemplification of the method of obtaining the pattern for
the drop A in the accompanying illustration, Fig. 50, and the return strip mitering

against the sphere. ABC represents the half sphere, a half plan of which is

shown by DE F, H I J shows the projection of the drop around the sphere in

plan. by the points K and L and draw lines from
Bisect the arcs J I and I H
these points to the center X, as shown then will L K represent one-quarter of
2 2
;

the sphere in plan, against which the drop is to miter. From the points L and K
in plan and H J draw the lines upward intersecting the line A B
at right angles to
in elevation at M and N then within the points M and N construct the drop, as
;

shown by M N 0 P R. From the points H and J, representing the projection of

the drop in plan, and at right angles to H J draw lines intersecting the line A C
extended in elevation at U and U 1
. Now draw the side view of drop, UTS
and U T
1 1
S 1
,
the miter line showing the intersection between drop and sphere
being omitted in elevation. Having obtained the face of the drop in elevation, the
next step is to obtain the line of intersection, or miter line in plan, between the
return strip and sphere, which proceed as follows: Divide one-half the drop
for

shown from 0 to P into equal spaces, as shown by the small figures 1 to 7 from ;

these points and at right angles to AC drop lines intersecting the arc K 1 in plan
at 1, 2, 8, 4, 5, 6, 7, as shown. Now parallel to A C in elevation and from the
94 8 Cornice Pattern Layouts

small figures on the half drop OP draw lines intersecting the curve of the sphere,

as shown by the small dots. From these dots on the curve of the sphere and at

right angles to A C drop lines intersecting the center line F D in plan at points 1
to 7. Now with X in plan as center and with radii equal to X 1, X 2, X, 3, etc.,
describe arcs intersecting vertical lines of similar numbers drawn from the divisions
in O P. A line traced through the intersections thus obtained, as shown by X
1
W
YZK, will be miter line between the half drop and sphere. To complete the
drop in plan duplicate the line X 1
W K on the opposite side of the center line X 1
1.

For the pattern for the face of the drop proceed as follows: In line with AG
draw the line A B
1 1

,
upon which place the stretchout of the arc K 1 in plan, meas-

uring each space separate, as shown, from 7 to 1 each way from the center line.

Now at right angles to A B

1 1
and from the small figures draw lines, which intersect

with those of similar numbers drawn from the points on 0P at right angles to U 1

T1
A line traced through the points of intersections thus obtained, as shown by
.

C D E will be the pattern for the face of the drop, of which four will be required
1 1 1
,

to inclose the sphere.

For the pattern for the return strip for one of the drops draw any horizontal
line, as F l
H 1
,
upon which place the stretchout of the half drop 1 to 7 in elevation,
measuring on either side of the point 7 on the line F 1
H 1
. Now at right angles from
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 949
1'
1
H 1
and from the small figures draw lines, which intersect with those of similar
numbers drawn from the intersections on the line K I and the miter line X WK
at right angles to X 1. Lines traced through the points of intersection, as shown
by 1 YL 1
1 and 1 2 J 2 1

1, will complete the pattern.

PATTERN FOR A MITER AT DIFFERENT ANGLES

The following deals with the method of developing the pattern of the adjacent
miters to the triangle H N G in
A B 0 D is the elevation of
the plan of Fig. 51.
the article, E F G H J the plan of the base, and K L M N the plan of the top, the
miter line in elevation, corresponding with the line N G in plan, being omitted, as

2 2
N P A B

Fig. 51. Plan, Elevation, Profiles and Patterns

unnecessary on the development of the patterns. As every side has a different

projection in plan, it will be necessary to obtain profiles for the various sides from
which to obtain the stretchout for the developement of the patterns. Divide the
profile AC in elevation, which represents the section on the line Z K in plan, into
 ;

95 ° Cornice Pattern Layouts

a number of equal spaces, as shown by the small figures 1 to 8. From these small
figures and at right angles to C D draw lines passing through the miter line J K in
plan and intersecting the miter line H N. From the points of intersections on the
miter line H N and parallel to H G draw lines intersecting the miter line G N
then from these intersections and parallel to G F draw lines intersecting the miter
line M F, as shown. Now at right angles to F G and G H draw the lines P R and
N O respectively, intersecting the lines drawn from the profile A C. On the line
D C in elevation, extended as D S, place a duplicate on the lines P R and N O,
including the several points in each, as shown by P 1
R 1
and N O
1 1
respectively.
At right angles to C S and from the various intersections on the lines P 1
R 1
and N 1

O 1
draw lines intersecting those of similar numbers drawn from the profile AC
parallel toC D. Trace a line through points of intersections thus obtained, as
shown by P 2 R and O N 2 respectively. Then will R P2 be the section on the line
1 1 1

R P in plan and O N 2 be the section on the line 0 N in plan.

1

For the pattern for J KNH in plan proceed as follows: At right angle to J
H draw the line T U, upon which place the stretchout of the profile A C, as shown
by the small figures. At right angles to T U, and through the small figures draw
lines, which intersect with those of corresponding numbers drawn at right angles

to J H from intersections on the miter lines J K and N H of the plan. Lines

traced through intersections thus obtained, as shown by A D and B C will be
1 1 1 1
,

the pattern for that part shown by J K N H in plan. For the pattern for the tri-
angular part shown by H N G in plan draw at right angles to H G the line X Y,
upon which place the stretchout of the profile O N
1 2
shown by the small figures.
,
as

At right angles to X Y and through the small figures draw lines, which intersect
with those of similar numbers drawn from the intersections on the miter lines H N
and N G of the plan at right angles to H G. Lines traced through the points thus
obtained, as shown by K L
1 1
and K M
1 1
,
will be the required pattern.

For the pattern for that part shown by NMFG draw Y W at right angles to
G F, upon which shown by the small
place the stretchout of the profile R P 1 2
,
as
figures. At right angles to V W
and through the small figures draw lines, which
intersect with those of similar numbers drawn from the miter lines G N and M F
at right angles to G F. Lines traced through points thus obtained, as shown by
E 1
J1 and F1 H 1
,
will be the required pattern.
For the pattern for that part shown by MLE F proceed in similar manner,
obtaining the stretchout of the profile B D, which is the same as A C, and for the

pattern for the part LK J E obtain the stretchout for R 1

P* because the projection
LZ 1
is equal to P R.
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 95 1

PEDIMENT CHART
The accompanying diagrams and descriptions show a method of laying out
pediments of any size, without going to the trouble of drawing full size details.
They also show a method of laying out pediments of different lengths, having the
same rake and profile, using hut one pattern, as indicated in Fig. 53, and the pedi-
ment chart shown in Fig.
54. Referring to the dia-
grams, let Fig. 52 represent
a front elevation of a cornice
drawn to a scale of % inch
to the foot, the bight of the
cornice being 4 feet, and in-

cluding the pediment 0

feet 8 inches. There is also
shown in Fig. 52 the meas-
urements of the brick piers

and window openings, be-

sides the brackets spaced to set over the brick piers, the correct lengths of the pedi-

ment and crown moldings returns being given. In this connection it may not be
out of place to show how the divisions between the brackets and the lengths of the
pediment and crown moldings are determined.
As shown in Fig. 52, the width of the window openings is 3 feet, the end piers
2 feet 6 inches and the middle piers 3 feet, thus making the total width of the build-
ing 20 feet. The width of each of the brackets is 9 inches, and the projection of the
cap and crown moldings over the sides of the end brackets on each side is 12 inches.
As shown on the elevation, Fig. 52, the three center brackets are to set over
the center of the brick piers, and the two end brackets are to set 12 inches from
the line of the wall on each side.
To figure these divisions proceed as follows: Referring to Fig. 52, add the
width of the end pier, 2 feet 0 inches, the width of the window opening, and
3 feet,
one-half of the second brick pier, which is 1 foot 0 inches, the total of which amounts
to 7 feet. Now
add the distance that the end brackets sets from the wall line,
which is 12 inches, the width of the bracket, 9 inches, and one-half width of the
second bracket, which is 4^ inches, and amounts to 2 feet inches; deduct the
2 feet 34 inches from the 7 feet before obtained, and there remains 4 feet 10J4
1

inches, which is the distance between the brackets for the two ends of the cornice,
 95 * Cornice Pattern Layouts

as shown. For the two center spaces, add the one-half of the second pier, which
is 1 foot G inches, the width of the window opening, which is 3 feet, and one-half
of the center pier, which is 1 foot 6 inches, the total of which amounts to 6 feet.
Now add one-half of the second bracket, which is 4)4 inches, the one-half of the
center brackets, which is
E
4 34 inches, and amounts to
9 inches; deduct the 9 inch-
es from the G feet before
obtained, there and remains
5 feet 3 inches, which is the
length for the two divisions
in the center of the cornice,
as shown.
If these divisions are
figured correctly, the total
should amount to 26 feet.

Now, to obtain the lengths

of the pediment and crown
moldings, proceed as fol-

lows : Referring to Fig. 53

note the intersection K. This intersection K should come plum!) over the
outside line of the two brackets, as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 52.

Now, by adding the widths of the three center brackets*, which amount to 2 feet
3 inches, and the two center divisions, which amount to 10 feet 6 inches,
there will be 12 feet 9 inches, which gives the length of the pediment from inter-
shown by tho dotted lines in Fig. 52. For the length of the
section to intersection,
two end crown moldings add the end space, 4 feet 10)4 inches, the width of the
bracket, 9 inches, and the space of 12 inches, the total of which amounts to 6 feet

7J4 inches, as shown.

Now, if these lengths have been correctly figured the amount should be 26 feet.
The panels are usually given 3 inches margin from the side of the brackets; then is

each panel 6 inches shorter than the spaces shown between the brackets; the
modillions are easily spaced after the brackets are in position. To illustrate the use
of the pediment chart shown in Fig. 54, suppose thfit Fig. 52 is an architect’s draw-
ing, from which drawn a full size detail, omitting the full
is to be size detail of the
pediment and using instead the pediment chart, which is drawn to one-third full
size, the chart being drawn full size in practice.
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 953
First obtain the bevel of the pediment shown in Fig. 52, as shown by A in
Fig. 53, and make the base or horizontal line J L in Fig. 53 12 inches;
draw the bevel or slant line J I indefinitely until it intersects the perpen-
dicular line I L, drawn at right angles to J L, as shown. The diagram in
Fig. 53 is drawn to a

scale of % inch to the

foot, and shows the
flight of the perpendic-
ular line I L to be 5

inches, or in other
words, that the one-
half pediment shown
in Fig. 52 has a rise of
Fif? 54 Pediment Chart
5 inches to every 12
inches of base. Fig. 54 represents the pediment chart and is an enlarged view of the
triangle A in Fig. 53, and shows how the base line J L in Fig. 53 should be divided
into quarters, halves and inches. In practice it is not necessary to draw an extra
chart as shown in Fig. 54, but make the divisions of inches direct upon the chart, as

indicated by A in Fig. 53. The bevel I J L in Fig. 53 being correct, the pattern for
the pediment is obtained direct from this bevel in the usual manner, as shown in

Fig. 53, and needs no further explanation. In this case the hight of the miter cut
H I in Fig. 53 will be 1 foot 6 inches, and the length of the miter cut on the hori-
zontal line K J will be 2 feet 2 inches. Having obtained these measurements in
practice, it is now in order to figure out the backgrounds and pediment moldings of

any length pediment having the same rake and profile without making any further
details, but simply using the chart shown in Fig. 54 and the pattern shown in Fig.
53. The chart, as before explained, should be at A in Fig. 53. Thus, to obtain
the sizes of the background and moldings for the pediment shown in Fig. 52, with
but 12 inches of detail, proceed as follows: The length of the pediment in Fig. 52
from intersection to intersection is 12 feet 9 inches; the miter cut on the horizontal
line from intersection K to J in Fig. 53 is 2 feet 2 inches ;
twice 2 feet 2 inches is

4 feet 4 inches. Deducting 4 feet 4 inches from 12 feet 9 inches leaves 8 feet 5

inches. One-half of 8 feet 5 inches equal 4 feet 2 % inches, as shown in Fig. 55,
and gives the length of one-half of the base of background. The rise of one-half of
the pediment is 5 inches to the foot, as shown on the chart in Fig. 54. If 1 foot

rises 5 inches, 4 feet will rise 20 inches, and 2/4 inches will rise as much as is

shown in Fig. 54 where the dotted line intersects the hypotenuse at S, which is
954 Cornice Pattern Layouts

1 1-24 inches (in practice the 1-24 inch can be omitted, which has been done in
this case ), thus making the total rise 1 foot 9 inches for 4 feet 2}^ inches of the
base, as shown in Fig. 55. Then will Fig. 55 represent one-half of the background
of apediment having the length and bevel shown in Fig. 52. For the length and
miter cuts of the pediment moldings use the pattern shown in Fig. 53, and measur-
ing on the line G F make G F in length equal to the slant line or hypotenuse of the
background shown in making similar miter cuts at each end of the mold-
Fig. 55,
ing, as shown oh pattern in Fig. 53.
The hight of the background in Fig. 55 is 1 foot 9 inches, and the hight of the
miter cut H I in Fig. 53 is 1 foot 6 inches, the total of which amounts to 3 feet 3
inches ;
deduct the 7 inches, being the amount of the molding M in Fig. 53, giving
2 feet 8 inches as required for the entire hight of the pediment as shown in Fig. 52.
By saving for future use the pattern and any length pediment can be quickly
chart,
laid out ;
and if a different design of cornice is used, the same pediment can be em-
ployed. By using the same rake, the bevel on the ornaments shown in Fig. 52

need not be changed. For example, if the length of the pediment was 16 feet 4
inches, instead of 12 feet 9 inches, as shown in Fig. 52, deduct twice the length of
K J in Fig. which
4 feet 4 inches, from 16 feet 4 inches, which leaves 12 feet
53, is

or the base length of the background. One half of 12 feet equals 6 feet; 1 foot rising
5 inches, 6 feet would 30 inches, or 2 feet 6 inches, or the center hight of the
rise

background. The length of the moldings would be obtained from the hypotenuse
or slant line of the background, using the pattern and miter cuts shown in Fig. 53,
measuring on the line G F for the length of the moldings. After once having the
chart and patterns the measurements are quickly obtained.
It may be required to know what the hight of a pediment of this length would
be above the top of the crown molding of a cornice. Thie procedure being: The
center of the background rises 2 feet 6 inches, as before explained, and the miter
cut H I in Fig. 53 is 1 foot 6 inches, making the total hight 4 feet ; deduct the 7
inches, being the hight of the molding M in Fig. which leaves the hight of the
53,
pediment 3 feet 5 inches from the top of the crown molding to the apex. In Fig.
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 955
52 a pediment is shown which intersects with the horizontal crown molding, while
in Fig. 56 is shown a pediment entirely above a horizontal molding. The chart
shown in Fig. 54 is applicable for both forms of pediment, it only being necessary
to know the length of A B in Fig. 56, and from this length to deduct twice the
width of the miter cut C on the horizontal molding,
following the rules as before explained, or as ex-
plained further on.
To illustrate the time and labor saved by using
the pediment chart, as shown in Fig. 54, it is cited
that a cornice similar to Fig. 52, having a pediment
22 feet 4 inches in length, and having a rise of 434
inches to the foot, was made in accordance with
this method. To draw to full size one-half of this length pediment, so as to
get the correct dimensions of the background, it would have required 11 feet

2 inches of space or drawing paper; whereas as shown in Fig. 54 a triangle only

was required 12 inches in length, having the correct bevel, from which the pattern,
base and rise of the pediment background was obtained as before explained, and

o
from the hypotenuse or slant line of the
background the length of the pediment
molding was obtained.
Fig. 57 represents the elevation of a
raking pediment or gable on a horizontal
cornice. It is now desired to find the size

of the flat triangle a h c without drawing

the full size pediment. The method usu-
ally employed is to strike a chalk line, A c,

equal to 7 feet, and another from c to b,

at right angles to A c, equal to 4 feet, and

draw a line from the apex 6 to A. Then
deduct the width of the mold and draw a b.

The short method is shown in Fig. 58.

Fig. 58. Obtaining the Patterns
After the detail of the horizontal mold
e in Fig. 57 has been drawn, as shown by B in Fig. 58, simply take a tracing of the

triangle a b c in Fig. 57, no matter to what scale it has been drawn, and place it on
its proper line, as shown by a b c in Fig. 58, and extend the lines c b and c a until
they intersect the top line of the mold at d and e, respectively, a b has been placed
on the line 9 because the pediment mold in Fig. 58 is similar to the part of the
95 6 Cornice Pattern Layouts

horizontal mold e. Then assuming that the distances e a and b d were 2 feet 10
inches and 1 foot 7 inches, respectively, on the full size, then simply deduct these
amounts from 7 feet and 4 feet in Fig. 57, leaving the base of the triangle 4 feet 2
inches and the altitude 2 feet 5 inches, which is laid out directly on a 30-inch sheet,
thereby obtaining the two triangles from one rectangular sheet. Having the miter
lines in position in Fig. 57, obtain three miter cuts on one drawing by dividing the
profile B and drawing lines as shown. Place the stretchout of B on C D, and
obtain the miter patterns in the usual manner. Then E F is the pattern for the
returns at A and B in Fig. 57, GH in Fig. 58 the cut for the miter b in Fig. 57,

and J I in Fig. 58 the cut for the miter A a in Fig. 57. Then, knowing the length
from a to b, which is obtained by measuring that line on the metal, lay out the
pediment mold of similar length, measuring from I to H in Fig. 58.

INSIDE MITER OF A RAKING MOLDING

Although the principles for a problem of this nature are elucidated in Raking
Moldings II and IV, the demonstration of the method of procedure, for acquiring

the miter line in elevation and

• the raked profile, is here pre-
sented as an additional aid in the
study of the principles. Assume

~~?CT
---JfcbFT
lXI^L
1
761 1
'
— rr
Air
III*'
that the angle in plan
by Fig. 58a,
slant is as
normal profile
and that the gable
shown
is as
;
is as shown

also that the

shown by R.
- ->J u l /z

a
LL+aL J2D
1 1 MiP vb i
_izd r Ifthe normal
for the gable,
profile
the
was given
procedure
would be identical that is, the ;

normal profile would be placed

in the gable and the process
reversed, as it were. The normal
profile was placed in the hori-
zontal molding inasmuch as in
the majority of cases, the hori-

Fig. S6a. A Method of Procedure

m ° Win 8 haS lhe
profile.
Divide and number profile R as shown, and draw lines through the points
toward the miter. In the raking of the profile for the gable the projections or
 I

Cornice Pattern Layouts

957
widths of the profile do not change, the hights only; hence drop lines from the
points in the profile R to any line as A R. Place this line in the plan as indicated
by A B being careful to have the front of the profile, which is A, to the front of
,

the plan. Draw lines to the miter line in plan from this line and where they inter-
sect it, project lines upward until they intersect like numbered lines from profile R
in the elevation. A line traced through these points of intersect ion will give the

miter line in elevation.

From these points in the miter line draw' lines parallel with the slant of the
gable. Place the line A B parallel with the gable as shown by A 2 B 2 and drop
lines to intersect lines of similar numbers in the gable; a line traced through
these points of intersection will be the raked profile of the gable as indicated by S.
The patterns would be developed precisely as for Problem IV on page 9G5.

RAKING MOLDINGS—
In these twelve articles will be described the method of developing the various
raking moldings arising in practical work. Twelve developments are to be given

to cover any problem which may be encountered in the shop. The text covering
these twelve problems will be as brief as possible, but the drawings will be arranged
so that the various parts will be easily understood by referring to similar reference
letters or figures. The principles will be explained so that they are applicable to
any form, whether the molding runs straight or circular or whether the plan has a
square or other return.
Fig. 59, of Problem I, shows the development of raking molding, with right
angle horizontal returns at top and bottom, when the normal or given profile is in
the rake. Having established the proper angle of the rake, as shown by 7 7° T in
the half elevation, place the normal profile (A ) in its proper position as shown,
and divide the profile into an equal number of spaces as shown from 1 to 10.

Through the points in (A) draw lines indefinitely parallel to the raking molding.
Upon the line X Y, which is drawn parallel to the rake, place the various projec-

tions of the profile (A) as shown. Having established the point 7° in elevation,

place the various projections on XY in a horizontal position as shown by X Y1 1

,
 95 ® Cornice Pattern Layouts

being careful that the point 7 on X Y 1 1

comes directly on a vertical line below the
point 7° in elevation as shown.
In similar manner, having established the point 7 in the upper return in ele-

vation, place the projections on X Y, as shown by X Y

2 2
,
being careful to have the
point 7 on X Y 2 2
come directly in a vertical line above 7 in elevation as shown.
Now from the various points in X Y 1 1
and X Y 2 2
draw perpendicular lines which
intersect with sjmilar numbered lines drawn through the profile ( A ). Trace lines
through points thus obtained. Then will ( B) be the modified profile for the lower
return and (C) the modified profile of the upper return.
In its proper position below the elevation is shown a half inverted plan N O
1 1

M K 1 1
which, however, is not necessary in the development of the patterns, but is

only shown to make clear the principles which must be followed when the returns
are other than right angles. Thus it will be seen that ( A ) in plan is a reproduction
of (A) in elevation. From the intersections in (A) in plan horizontal lines are
drawn, cutting the miter lines O V 1
and M 1
U. Lines are then erected, cutting
similar lines drawn parallel to the rake in elevation, and resulting in similar modi-
fied profiles (B) and (C).
For the three patterns proceed as follows: For the lower return pattern take
the girth of the profile (B) and place it on the horizontal line N P 2 2
as shown.
Draw the usual measuring lines which intersect by lines drawn from similar inter-
sections on the miter line O 1
V. Trace a line through points thus obtained when
N O R P
2 2 2 2
will be the lower return pattern. This same pattern could be ob-
tained without the use of the plan by placing the girth of B on the vertical line
N P, drawing the usual measuring lines and intersecting them by lines drawn ver-
tically from similar numbers in the profile (B) and making the distance O N equal
to O N
1 1
in plan. Then O N P R would also be the pattern for the lower return.

The pattern for the upper return is also obtained by the short method, that is,

by placing the girth of ( C ) upon the vertical line K L, drawing the usual measur-
ing lines and intersecting them by lines drawn from similar numbers in the profile
(C), and making K M equal to K 1 M1 in plan. K M L is then the pattern for the
upper return.
For the pattern for the rake on the
molding take the girth of (A) and place it

line D E, which is drawn at right angles to the raking molding. Through D E

draw the usual measuring lines which intersect by perpendicular lines drawn from
similar numbers in the modified profiles B and C and resulting, when a line is
traced through points thus obtained, in the pattern shape F G H J. No matter
what profile or angle the rake may have, these principles are applicable to any case.
960 Cornice Pattern Layouts

RAKING MOLDINGS— II
Problem II shows the development of a raking molding, with the normal pro-
file placed in the rake, with a lower horizontal return at other than a right angle.
Tn this case a plan must be used when developing the horizontal return. In this
case the \ipper return would be a right angle, and as this pattern was developed in
in Problem I, it is omitted here.
In Fig. 00 first establish the angle 8 7' T, and from 7' drop a vertical line, inter-

secting any horizontal line drawn below the elevation, as shown by T. Draw the
angle as desired, as shown by bTa. Bisect this angle as follows: With 7° as

center, draw any desired arc as ab. Using the same radius, with a and b as centers,
intersect arcs at c. Now draw the miter line c7°K l . Place the normal profile A in

elevation as shown, which space in equal parts. Through this division parallel to

7 S draw lines indefinitely, as shown.

Take a duplicate of A and place it in its proper position in plan, being careful
that point 7 in the profile in plan comes upon the line drawn from 7°. Through A
in plan draw lines parallel to 7° 7 until they intersect the miter line eK\ as shown
from which lines are erected intersecting similar lines drawn through A in elevation

and resulting in the miter line shown from T to 10'. From the intersections T to
10' draw horizontal lines, which intersect by vertical lines dropped from the pro-
jections on X Y which
1 1

,
were obtained from XY in the normal profile A. A line

traced through the intersections 1 to 10 in B is the modified profile for the hori-
zontal return. Complete the part inverted plan by making KhJ the desired length. 1

For the pattern for the lower cut of the raking molding, take the girth of the
normal profile A and place it on the line CD drawn at right angles to the rake,

through which parallel lines are drawn, as shown, and intersected by lines drawn
from similar numbers in the miter line T 10" at right angles 7 S. A line traced

through points thus obtained, as shown by EF, will be the desired cut.
For the pattern for the horizontal return, take the girth of the modified pro-

file B and place it on the line HJ drawn at right angles to J x K l in plan. Through
the divisions on JH lines are drawn parallel to 1
.FK and intersected by lines drawn
at right angles to TK 1
from similar intersections on the miter line cK 1 Trace a .

line through points thus obtained; then JKLH is the pattern desired.
 PATTERN
FOR
HORIZONTAL
rui

B
962 Cornice Pattern Layouts

RAKING MOLDINGS—III
Problem III shows how the various patterns are obtained, when the normal
or given profile is placed in the lower return A, and it becomes necessary to
find the modified profile for the raking molding B and upper return C as shown by
Fig. 61. Should, however, the normal profile be given in the upper return C, the
modified profiles for the inclined and lower moldings would be found in precisely
the same manner as that which will follow.
Having drawn the normal profile A, complete the half elevation, drawing the
horizontal and inclined lines indefinitely, as shown. Divide the profile A into
equal spaces, as shown, from which erect vertical lines on a b, as shown by similar
numbers. Take a tracing of a b and place it parallel to the raking molding, as
shown by a b'. At right angles to a and from the various numbers draw lines,
b'

which intersect by lines parallel to the raking molding from similar numbered in-
tersections in the normal profile A. Trace a line through points thus obtained;
then will B be the modified profile for the raking molding.
Establish at will the point 1 of the upper part of the raking molding and place
a duplicate of the projections on a b, as shown by a" b", being careful that the
point 1 on a" b" comes directly over 1. Now drop vertical lines from a" b", inter-

secting similar numbered lines in elevation and resulting in the modified profile C.
The patterns for the raking and upper and lower returns are obtained as
shown. As A is placed upon the ver-
the returns run at right angles, the girth of
tical line D E and the girth of C upon the vertical line A B. Measuring lines are
drawn and intersected by lines drawn from similar figures in the profiles A and
C, respectively. Then A B C is the pattern for the upper return and D E F G
the pattern for the lower return.
The girth of B is now placed on the line H J, drawn at right angles to the in-
clined molding, measuring lines drawn, and intersected by lines drawn from sim-
ilar intersections in A and C. L M N O is then the pattern for the raking molding.
In obtaining the length of the upper and lower returns measurements are taken
from the plan in Problem I, or they can be made any length required.

RAKING MOLDINGS—IV
In this problem is shown how the patterns are obtained when the normal pro-
file is in the lower return, the latter forming an angle other than a right angle,
while the upper return is a right angle. First draw the plan in Fig. 62 showing
Fig. 61. Problem III on Raking Moldings
 964 Cornice Pattern Layouts

the proper angle of the lower and upper returns, and place in its proper position, in
plan, a profile of the normal or given profile as shown by A. Obtain the miter line
by bisecting the angle as shown by a, b, c and draw the miter line c D 1
.

Divide the profile A in plan into a number of equal spaces, as shown from 1

to 10, through which draw lines parallel to the lower return A D 1 1

until they
intersect the miter line c D 1
,
as shown. From 6° erect the vertical line intersect-
ing any horizontal line in elevation at 6T From the joint 6T draw the angle of
.

the rake as shown. Now place a duplicate of the profile A in plan as shown by A
in elevation, being careful that the point 6 in the profile comes on the horizontal
line drawn from 6
T .

From the various intersections in A of the elevation, draw horizontal lines

which intersect by vertical ones erected from similar intersections on the miter line
c D 1
,
resulting in the miter line in elevation shown from H to J. From the var-
ious intersections in HJ draw lines parallel to the rake indifinitely. Now draw
any horizontal upon which obtain the projections of the various points
line, d e,

in the profile A, as shown, and place them parallel to the rake, as shown by d' e ,

at right angles to which draw lines intersecting similar numbered lines and result-
ing in the modified profile for the rake B. In similar manner take a tracing of d
e and place it on a horizontal line, as shown by d" e", being careful that 1-2 comes

directly over the desired position in elevation of 1-2 of the upper return. Drop
vertical lines from the various points on d” e" until they intersect similar numbered
lines drawn parallel to the rake. Trace a line through points thus obtained result-
ing in the profile C. '

For the pattern for the upper return take the stretchout of the profile C and
place it on the vertical line G F, from which draw the usual measuring lines, which
intersect by vertical lines dropped from similar points in (C). Make the distance
EG in the pattern equal to the return E G 1 1
in the plan. Then E G F is the
pattern for the return (C). For the pattern for the lower return take the stretch-
out of either profile ( A ) and place it on the line A A 1 drawn at right angles to A 1 D 1
.

Draw the usual measuring lines which intersect by lines drawn from similar
numbers on the miter line c D and resulting in the pattern shown by A B C D.
1
,

The pattern for the raking molding is obtained by placing the girth of B on
any line drawn at right angles to H 1, drawing the usual measuring lines, and
intersecting same by lines drawn at right angles to H 1 from the intersections on
the miter line H 9-10 and the profile 0, thus resulting in the pattern L M N O.
 V

966 Cornice Pattern Layouts

RAKING MOLDINGS—
Problem V shows how the pattern for the lower right angle return is obtained
when it miters with a curved molding with the normal profile in the horizontal
return, as shown by D F in Fig. 63. Place the normal profile in its proper position

'I

from the center line in elevation, and with the required radii and C on the center
line as center draw the arcs shown and complete the one-half front elevation.
 .

Cornice Pattern Layouts 967

Divide the ogee between 2 and 5 in DE into equal spaces, as shown, and with C
as center draw the dotted arcs shown. Below the normal draw any horizontal
profile
line, as a b, upon which drop the projections of the various points in the profile and
place these projections in a horizontal position shown by a b' At right angles to a b'
from the various projections, drop vertical lines, wiiich intersect by lines drawn at right
angles to A B from previously intersected arcs drawn from the center C. Trace a line
through points thus obtained, resulting in the modified profile for the curved molding,
shown by d Between these two profiles, namely, the normal and modified, a miter
e.

joint can be effected. For the pattern for the lower return take the stretchout of D E
and place it on any vertical lines, as F G. Draw the usual measuring lines, which
intersect by vertical lines dropped from the divisions in the profile D E, as in a
square miter. Then F G H J represents the pattern for the lower return. The
distance from F to J is made as long as required.
Assuming that the curved molding is to be made by machine, and the blank
is to be developed, which will be accomplished as follows: Draw a line through
the extreme points of the modified profile, as shown by 2 6 and 1 7. Bisect the
distance 1 2 and 6 7 and draw the averaged line d e, extending it until it meets the
line drawn from the center point C, at right angles to A C, at L. Then L is the
center with which to strike the pattern. Obtain the girth of the profile from 5 to
1 and place it on the line d e above 5, and also the girth from 5 to 7 and place it

below 5, as shown. Using L as center with radii equal to L e and L d, draw the
arcs d i and e h, making the blank as long as required, or twice the girth of the arc
DA in elevation.
The miter cuts are not placed upon the blanks for circular moldings, but are
trimmed after they are hammered up. So that this cut may have the proper pro-
jection, a small template is used to mark the miter on the curved mold, the pattern

for which is obtained by placing the girth of that portion shown from 1 to 5 in the
modified profile, at right angle to a line drawn tangent at D in elevation as D D°,
as shown by D 5°. Through the small figures 1° to 5° at right angles to D 5° draw
measuring lines, which intersect by lines drawn at right angles to D D° from the
intersections 1 to 5 in the normal profile thus obtaining the cut 1° 5X . Trace this
T X T
cut, 1° 5*, opposite the line 1° 5°, and obtain 1° 5 . Then 5 1° 5 is and
the right
left miter cut formed to correspond to the modified profile and is used in trimming
the miters in the curved molding.
When the curved molding must be made by hand the various faces are stripped
as shown in the diagram X Y and the ogee Y developed the same as explained in
connection with d e in the modified profile, and soldered in position at n and 0 in
the diagram X Y.
968 Cornice Pattern Layouts

RAKING MOLDINGS—VI
When a curved molding is to miter with a horizontal molding at other than a
Y

right angle in plan, the normal being placed in the horizontal molding, then
profile
the method to be employed is shown in Problem VI.
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 969

In Fig. 64 first draw the center line Y Z, and establish the width of the front
elevation of the curved molding as shown by
and 5°. Drop the vertical line 5° 5*,
establish the desired anglebetween the curved and horizontal mold as shown by V
5 X
Win the half plan. From 5° in elevation, draw the horizontal line 5° 5, upon y

which place the normal profile of the horizontal return as shown by A.

Divide the profile A into equal spaces, and draw horizontal lines as shown.
Now take a tracing of the normal profile A, and place it in its proper position in
plan as shown by A 1 Divide into similar divisions as in A. Through the divis-
.

ions in A draw lines parallel to 5* W, and complete the half plan shown.
1
,

Bisect the angle OP by the miter line R S T. From the intersections on the
miter line S T, erect vertical lines intersecting horizontal lines drawn from A in
elevation, resulting in the miter line 1° to 9". Establish the center point E on the
center line Y Z, and describe arcs from the various divisions in the miter line in
elevation 1° to 5°, intersecting the center line as shown, and complete the rest of
the half elevation.
Obtain the projections of the normal profile A on the horizontal line a b, and
place a duplicate of it in the position shown by a b Drop vertical lines from the
1 1
.

various divisions on a b 1 1
,
which intersect by lines drawn at right angles to Y Zfrom
similar intersections obtained from the miter line 1° 5°. Trace a line through points
thus obtained, and B will be the profile of the curved molding. Obtain the blank
for the curved molding by drawing 2 6 and 1 7 in B. Then bisect 1 2 and 6 7 and
average a line until it intersects the horizontal line from E at F. Then F is the
center with which to strike the blank, partly shown by C D H J, CD being the
girth of the molding 1 to 7 in B.
The pattern for the horizontal molding is obtained by placing the girth of A1 in
plan on L N drawn at right angles to S T, drawing the usual measuring lines at 1

right angles to L N, and intersecting them by lines drawn parallel to L N from

similar numbered intersections on the miter line S T. Then B C D is the pattern 1 1 1

required.
For the pattern for the miter with which to trim the ends of the curved mold-
ing to miter with the horizontal returns, proceed as follows : Draw the tangent line
1° X in elevation. At right angles to it upon which place the girth of
draw 1° Y°,

the modified profile from 1 to 5. Draw the usual measuring lines, which intersect
by lines drawn parallel to 1° Y° from similar intersections in the miter line 1° to 5°,

resulting in the cut, shown by B C a

,
2
. Trace the cut opposite the line T Y°, which
completes the right and left miter cut for the curved molding.
97 ° Cornice Pattern Layouts

RAKING MOLDINGS—VII
When a circular molding is and the normal or
to have a right angle return
given profile is placed to the curved molding, then the method to be employed is
shown in the drawing herewith, Fig. 65. In this the one-half front elevation is

shown.
In its propor position place the normal profile of the curved molding A. Divide
this into equal spaces, and from the points determined draw lines at right angles to
the center line in elevation, intersecting it as shown. With B as center draw the
various arcs shown. Intersect the arcs by vertical lines drawn from the projections
on a b' placed in its proper position, and which had previously been obtained from
the normal profile A on ah. Trace a line through points thus obtained, and then
will D be the modified profile for the horizontal return.
The girth of D is now taken and placed on the vertical line 1" 10", the usual
measuring lines drawn and intersected by vertical lines dropped from similar num-
bered intersections in D, resulting in the miter cut or pattern for the horizontal
return, shown by C D°. The depth from C to 1" can be made the length desired.
Thus it will be seen that the principle in this case is similar to that given in Prob-
lem V, with the exception that the normal or given profile is placed in the curved
molding in Problem VII.
The blank for the curved molding made by machine is obtained by averaging
a line through the profile A, between the two lines drawn from 1 to 8 and from 2
to 7, extending the averaged line until it meets the horizontal line drawn from the
center point B at C°. The girth of the profile A from 1 to 8 is then obtained, and
using C° as center the blank is struck as partly shown.

To obtain the miter cut with which to trim the ends of the curved molding,
take the girth from .1 to 8 in A and place it at right angles to the tangent line 1
' X,
as shown by 1' Y. Draw the usual measuring lines parallel to 1' X, and intersect
them by lines drawn parallel to 1 Y from similar numbered intersections in the
'

profile D, resulting in the miter cut shown. Trace opposite the line 1' Y and com-
plete the pattern for a right and left cut.
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 971

Fig 65 Drawing for Problem VII on Raking Moldings

97 * Cornice Pattern Layouts

RAKING MOLDINGS—VIII
In this problem it is shown how the patterns are obtained when the given pro-
file is placed in the curved molding, which miters with a horizontal return at other
than a right angle in plan. First, draw the half plan and elevation in their proper
positions and place the normal or given profile A with its various divisions at right
angles to the center line, as shown in Fig. 66. In its proper position in plan,
place a tracing of the profile A with its shown by A1 Com-
various divisions as .

plete the plan J H G F E D and draw the miter line E H. With B as center, and
radii equal to the divisions on the center line, obtained from the profile A, draw

the various arcs, which intersect by vertical lines, erected from the points on the
miter line H E in plan, and resulting in the miter line 1° to 10° in elevation. From
the various points, 1° to 10°, draw horizontal lines as shown. Obtain the projections
from A onto a b, and place on the horizontal line a b\ from 1
which drop vertical
lines intersecting those obtained from V to 10°, and resulting in the modified pro-
file for the horizontal return indicated by B from l to 101
1
Obtain the girth of B
.

and place it on a line drawn at right angles to F E in plan, as M L. Draw the

usual measuring lines, which intersect by lines drawn parallel to M L from the vari-
ous intersections on the miter line H E. Then R S T represents the pattern for
the horizontal return.
The miter cut for trimming the curved molding is shown at Y, which is obtain-
ed by taking the girth of A from 1 to 6 and placing it on the line 1° drawn at W
right angles to 1° X and the pattern obtained in the usual manner. The center for
obtaining the pattern for the curved molding is shown at C, the averaged line be-
ing drawn between 3 8 and 2 7.
In this problem the principle is similar to that shown in Problem VI, except
that in Problem VIII the given profile is placed in the circular molding.
974 Cornice Pattern Layouts
 : X

Cornice Pattern Layouts 975

RAKING MOLDINGS—IX

When four gables are to be joined together at right angles in plan, each side
being similar in width, then the method to be employed is shown in Problem IX.
A part front elevation is shown by ADEG H, Fig. 67. The one-half elevation
only is required. After the rake N F has been established place the normal or
given profile J in its proper position, as shown, and divide it into equal spaces, as
from 1 to 7. Parallel to the rake >T F draw any line, as a upon which obtain
b,

the projections of the various points in the profile J. Take a tracing of a b and
place it in a horizontal position, as shown by a b’, being careful to have the point
7 come in line with F G. From the various projections on a b' erect vertical
lines, which intersect by lines drawn parallel to the rake from the various intersec-
tions in the profile J, resulting in the miter line LE F.
Having established the miter line L E F and knowing the line of joint, N B,
the pattern is developed as follows : At right angles to B L draw any line, as D
O, upon which place the stretchout of the profile J, as shown. At right angles to
D O through the various points on same, draw lines which intersect by lines drawn
at right angles to B L from similar points in the miter line L E F and line of joint

N B, resulting in the pattern for the gable molding, PTS R. If the roof shown
by B D L in elevation is to be joined to the molding in one piece, then, at right

angles to R P in the pattern, draw the line P U, equal in length to B D in eleva-

tion, and draw a line from U to R in the pattern. UPT S RU is then the full

pattern, of which eight are required. The above principle is applicable to any
shaped mold.

RAKING MOLDINGS—

When four gables are to be joined together with alternate wide and narrow
sides, asshown by Fig. 68 in the reduced plan by A and B, then the principle to
be employed is shown in Problem X. In this case the normal or given profile will
be placed in the wide side and the modification made in the narrow side. Should,
however, the given profile be placed in the narrow side, the modified profile in the
wide side would then be obtained in precisely the same manner as that which will
follow
 976 Cornice Pattern Layouts

First, draw the center line 1 F of the wide side, and draw the one-half eleva-
tion of the shaft with its proper rake as shown by C D E F. Place the normal pro-
file G in its proper position, which divided into equal spaces, as shown, from 1 to
7. Through these draw lines parallel to C D indefinitely. Obtain the projections
of the profile G upon the line a b, drawn parallel to I H, and transfer these projec-

tions upon the horizontal line a b', as shown, being careful that the point 7 will be
in line with D E. From the various projections on a b' erect the vertical lines in-
tersecting those previously drawn parallel to I H, giving the miter line H, 2, 6, D.
Take a tracing of H, 2, 6, D and place it, as shown, from T to 7', on hori-

zontal lines drawn from H D, as shown. From T place the half horizontal distance
of the narrow side of shaft 7'
/ and draw the vertical center line through/, as shown
by L K. From I, in the wide side, draw the horizontal line I K, intersecting the
center line LK at K. Draw a line from K to T, and parallel to this line, from the
various intersections T to 7', draw lines intersecting the center line K L, as shown.
Take a tracing of the projections on a & and place them parallel to 1' K as shown
by o" b". From the points on a" b", at right angles to T K, draw lines intersecting
lines previously drawn, as shown by the intersections 1 to 7 on R S through ;

these points at right angles to narrow side. Complete the ridge lines I J H in the
elevation of the wide side and KP T in the elevation in the elevation of the nar-
row side as shown.
For the pattern for the wide side proceed as follows : At right angles to I H
draw any line as R S, upon which place the girth of the normal profile G, as shown
from 1 on 7 on R S. Through these points at right angles to R S draw the usual
measuring lines, which intersect by lines drawn from similar numbers on the miter
line I C and H 2 D, at right angles to I H, and resulting in the pattern VUTP 1
.

If the roof is to be added to the pattern, then take the distance from PK in the
to
T P as shown by P K
1
narrow side and place it at right angles to in the pattern, 1 1
,

and draw a line from K 1

to T. Then K V U T is
1
the full pattern, of which four
will be required.
For the pattern for the narrow side, take the girth of the modified profile O
and place it on the line X Y, drawn at right angles to K, as shown from 1
'
1° to 7°

on X Y. Draw the usual measuring lines, which intersect by lines drawn at right
angles to 1' K from similar intersections on the miter line K N and 1' 7' and re-
sulting in the pattern Y Z and J Then will l‘YZ and J1 1 1 be the full pattern
1
.

for the narrow side, of which four will be required. Where the roofs are of such
size that they can not be joined direct to the molding, then laps must be allowed

to the patterns for the moldings, so that the roofs can be locked to them.
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 9

Fig. 68. Drawings for Problem X on Baking Moldings

 1 /
\

rC*

Cornice Pattern Layouts

RAKING MOLDING—XI
In Problem XI is shown how the patterns are devel-
oped when eight gables are to be joined together at the
angles of an octagon or 13*5 degrees. The princi-
ples here shown are applicable to any /
angle, providing, however, that the / P ATT CRN FOR
MOLDING
moli AND ROOF PIECE

angles are equal and that each side has

the same width. /
In Fig. 69 draw the center
first /
A B, and with C on that \\ X x
line
line as center

ius equal to the half

and with rad-
width
/ /XXX
/ y// /
X/// /
//''// Wvk
S'?/ /1\
/
/'/,

X' AV'\
\y
\

'
,

of the shaft as C D, draw /y'/yy y

the quadrant D E. Now 'xx// \\^0\Nn ^X
complete the one-quarter jy
\
\
plan of the shaft as shown x^ V \
>(\X
\ n\V \ xw
w
i

\ n.

by DGF 7' E, as shown by

<]^\^ n
1

//y/ Xp/
!
\^0^n. n \
/
y
/ //X V /
the dotted line. Place the !

//
y Sy / /
normal profile H on the line !
6
\
x\\\\ XX /
X/
\\N. \\x \ \X //./ 1
/'r/
S
\\X ’//
the shaft as shown, and
VX
^N. I
of
j

'X 'X 2^ /
divide same into equal
j
\ £$[.' fi*
Fig. 6ft. Drawings for Problem XI
spaces shown from 1 to 7. I
I
ONE-HALF
one-half ELEVATION
elevation
7
Jjji
on Raking Moldings
I
OF j

Draw the valley or miter |

I
ONE
one side OF
SIDE of SHAFT
shaft Ijjj

lines C T, C G, also the

K
f
"—- Jl|||
I
11} I |

ridge line C F, extending j

j
l 1

same meet the projection

to
of the molding H. Through

the various divisions in H

draw the lines parallel to E
7', intersecting the miter
line from 1' to 7' as shown.
From 7', in plan, erect the
vertical line 7' 7°, and draw
the desired rake 7° J. Then
J K L 7° will represent the
one-half elevation of one
side of shaft, all that is

necessary in the develop-

ment of the pattern.
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 979
Take a tracing of the normal profile H with the various intersections on same,
and place shown by H’. Through the points in H parallel to J 7° draw lines,
it as 1

which intersect by vertical lines drawn from similar numbered points on the miter
line in plan, parallel to the center line B A, and resulting in the miter line in
elevation shown from 1° to 7°.

Having obtained this miter line, the pattern is obtained as follows: At right
angles to A 1° draw the line M N,
upon which place the girth of the profile H or
H 1
as shown from 1 to 7 on M N.
Draw the usual measuring lines, which inter-
sect by lines drawn at right angles to A 1° from similar points on the miter lines
A J and 1° to 7°. Trace a line through points thus obtained, then will OPRB°
be the pattern for the molding. If the roof piece is to be attached to same, then
take the length of the ridge line BC in plan, and lay it off at right angles to B° O
in the pattern as shown from B° to C°, and draw the valley line C° O. Then C° R
P C° is the full pattern, of which 16 will be required.

RAKING MOLDINGS—XII
When gables are to be joined together having alternate wide and narrow sides,
and the angles are not right angles, then the principles shown in problem XII are
applicable to any angle or width of alternate sides. Let ABC D E, in Fig. 70,
represent the one-quarter plan of shaft having alternate wide and narrow sides.
Place the normal profile F in its proper position and complete the plan view of the
molding, as shown by GH I J K. Draw the miter or joint lines of the molding,
as shown by D H and J C, and the valley lines of the roof H A and J A, and the
ridge lines A K, A I and A G.
Divide the normal profile F into equal spaces and draw lines parallel to ED
until they intersect the miter line D H, as shown. From D erect the vertical line
D 7°, and draw the desired pitch 7° M. Then M N 0 7° represents the one-half
elevation of wide side of shaft.
Place the normal profile F in the position shown by F 1
,
and divide F into the 1

same number of spaces as F. It should be understood that, while the normal pro-
file is placed in the wide side, it could just as well be placed in the narrow side, and
then proceed as follows : From the various intersections in F 1
parallel to L 1° draw
lines, which intersect by vertical lines erected from intersections on the miter line
D H in plan, and resulting in the miter line shown from 1° to 7° in elevation for
wide side.
 1

Comice Pattern Layouts

For the one-half elevation of the narrow side draw any
vertical line, as P R, and from R set off the horizontal distance

R S equal to one- x >

half of the narrow \\ / PATTERN TOR MOLDING. AND

side, C D, in plan. \ n. or m
ROOF PIECE POR WIDE SIDE

From S draw the \ X. / I \

vertical line \ n.
X.
/
shown, which in- \\ PATTERN /
yy/
tersect by a horiz- \ /V/
FOR MOLDING ANoX.

/y/y
/Jv \ \
,

ontal line drawn \ / /// A.\\V

from 7° in wide \ / ,/'/'//' / V\X\
side at V in the y' /\//' / \ XNS / /
narrow side. Take y' jf///' ////'LX^X
X N
a tracing of the
//
miter lihe 1° 7°
and ////\ ///V/A Nv
i
place
by r
..
it as shown
7 T, being ‘‘5^/
/ /'// /
////
/ s'// /
\
\ ///// / //yh
/ / 7K&
X
/y ///,
6\/'X// /'
careful that 7° is XrOv \ // /
placed directly on OA'X X.X,
,.i'\
Yx _/X // \
v / /X/
x (/¥/:
/xv.
7 T
and that T
2T x^'x^X
1 is
W/WaA*
:X /nX X v\ i 1

/XXX
, - ;
in a vertical posi-
• i .

// /
/V\\
\ \ \
b
v
/ \\\
'
i

'
tion, as shown by
j L\\xY--//--
\\\ V \ 'A
./ XC-xX,..':
XN.N
the dotted lines ‘v^Xj A/ /
x'v'^bv^
drawn from
*7°
1° to !
j

I
\w' TVfcfL
X
''Z<y\/z
7 ifilt
. j

From Lin the

N
! jmrKSr
ONK HALF ELEVATION
OP WIDE MOB OP AHAFT
ill;
ONE HALF ELEVATION
OF NARROW EMM
OFEHAFT
'
elevation of the !

i'll
>

•
g
K
wide side draw a i
j j [
horizontal line, j
j, 8|

intersecting R P in \\ si
narrow side at P.
Draw a
P to 1 T ,
line
and
from
paral-
\
\
X. j j
XJ/Xv *j

\jj
4^
//
J
lei to this line, \\ i

I
|j\\
/ >
/
I
I
Fig. 70
from the various \ j! \/ Drawings
E for Problem XII
intersections in
T
1
T
\
j

J
j
/ on Baking Moldings

7 ,
draw lines in- XjVfj jr

ONE QUARTER FLA*

 Cornice Pattern Layouts 981
tersecting the center line P R, as shown. Now obtain the projections of the
normal profile F on
1
the line a b, drawn parallel to L 1°, as shown from 1 to 7 on
a b. Take a tracing of a b and place it parallel to P 1
T
as shown by a} b
1
,
from
which points at right angle to b
1
a 1
draw lines intersecting lines previously drawn
v
from the miter line l 7T . Trace a line through points thus obtained, then will T
be the modified profile for the molding on the narrow side.
For the pattern for the narrow side take the stretchout of the modified profile
T and on the line V W, drawn at right angles to 1 T P draw the usual
place it
;

measuring lines, which intersect by lines drawn at right angles to P 1 T from inter- ,

sections on the miter lines 1 T 7 T and P U, and resulting in the pattern for the mold-
0
ing shown by Z 1 d c.
If the roof is to be attached to this mold, then take the distance of the ridge
line A I in the narrow side in plan and place it at right angles to Z 1°, as shown
from 1° to A°, and draw a line from A° to Z. Then A° c d is the full pattern, of
which eight will be required.
For the pattern for the wide side take the girth of the normal profile F and 1

place it at right angles to L 1°, as shown by X Y. Draw the usual measuring lines
at right angles to X Y, which intersect by lines drawn at right angles to L 1°, from
intersections on L M and 1° 7°. Then e f h G° is the desired pattern. At right
angles to e G° draw the line G° A* equal in length to the ridge line G A in the wide
A will A h f be the
x x
side in plan. Draw a line from to e in the pattern. Then
complete pattern for the roof and molding for the wide side, of which eight will be

required.

RAKING INSIDE MITER BETWEEN INCLINED ARMS

The method of obtaining the patterns for raking moldings, such as the ones
shown at A and B of the plan and elevation, in Fig. 71, is as follows: From this

it appears that portions of the front wall of a building, as seen at BB of the plan,

are placed obliquely to the main front A A, both portions of either half of the front
terminating at the eaves of a roof of uniform pitch throughout, as shown by AA
and B B of the elevation. The difficult part of the problem is to cut the miter be-

tween the two arms A and B of the cornice as well as the miter at its upper end,
that at the lower end being a simple butt miter.
In Fig. 72 is shown an enlarged plan and elevation giving all the details of the
molding, in which the profile and the several miter lines have been brought dose
together for convenience in performing the work. The elevation of both arms of
98a Cornice Pattern Layouts

the molding is shown by A B C I), the portion EBCF of the elevation of which
I K L J is the plan only appearing in true elevation ;
while AEF 1) is an oblique
elevation of the upper arm, as shown by G
The normal profile
I J II of the plan.
of the cornice is shown at M of the elevation, from the points of which lines are
draw n parallel to the pitch of the roof A B, and terminated at the top and ends by
r

the sides of the piers against which the cornice abuts. At N of the plan the nor-
mal profile is also shown correctly placed
with reference to the lines of that view.
Through the point of extreme projection
of the profile in plan draw' the line .1 L;
also draw H J parallel to G I at a distance
from it equal to K L, the projection of
the molding. From the intersection J of
these two lines draw J I ;
then will J I he
the correct miter line in plan between the
two arms of the molding; or, in other
words, the position of a vertical plane
Fig. 71. Raking Inside Miter Between Inclined Arm
against the opposite sides of which the
two arms of the molding must meet at different angles, forming the miter at EF of
the elevation.

As the miter cannot be cut from the plan for the reason that the arms are in-
clined, the first requisite is to obtain a correct elevation of the miter at E F. To
accomplish this first divide the curved portions of the two profiles M and N into
the same number of equal spaces, as shown by the small figures, and from all the
points of the profile N carry lines parallel to I K, cutting the miter line I J. From
the several points in the profile M carry lines parallel to EB to the right, cutting
B C, the side of the pier against which the cornice is required to miter at its lower
end; also carry them toward EF indefinitely and intersect them with lines drawn
vertically from points of corresponding number previously obtained on I J. A line
traced through the points of intersection between E and F will give the required
miter line in elevation, as shown.
To lay out the pattern for this arm first set off the stretchout of M upon any
line, as O P, drawn at right angles to E B, as shown by the small figures 1 to 10.
Through the several points on O P draw the measuring lines, as shown, parallel to
E B, which intersect at the right by lines drawn parallel to OP from the points of

corresponding number on B C. A line traced through the points of intersection,

as shown from B 1
to C 1
,
will give the required miter at B <J. Now from the points
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 983
of intersection previously obtained between E and F carry lines parallel to O P,
cutting measuring lines of corresponding number at their left, when a line traced
through the points of intersection, as shown from E to F will give the required
1 1
,

miter cut at EF of the elevation.

bince that portion of the wall between the lines E S and A T of the elevation

stands obliquely to the other portion, as shown by G I of the plan, it is evident, as

intimated above, that the angle DA E does not give the correct pitch or rake of
this arm of the molding, for the reason that while A V gives the correct hight of

the point A above the point E, the correct horizontal distance between those points
is not V E, but is equal to G I. It will be necessary, therefore, to construct a Iri-
 :

984 Comice Pattern Layouts

angle the equivalent of AE The best method

V, but correct in all its dimensions.
of procedure then is to project an oblique elevation of the wall and cornice H G I

J of the plan, as shown at the left in Fig. 72. Therefore from points G and I first
erect the two lines I E and G A at right angles to G I, representing the perpendic-
1 1

ular lines of the wall. Upon I E 1

assume any point, as E 1
,
the equivalent of the
point E of the normal elevation, and from E 1
draw the horizontal line E V
l 1
,
giving
the true length of E V. Make V 1
A 1
equal to V A, and draw A E 1 1
;
then will A 1

E 1
be the correct pitch of the arm shown by GH J I of the plan.

Since the miter line at EF of the elevation has been established, and since
the arm at its left lies at a different angle to the perpendicular E S than the arm at

the right, it is arm of the miter must be so

evident that the profile of the left

changed or raked that lines from all of its points shall meet lines from correspond-
ing points of the normal profile M upon E F. To accomplish this it will first be
necessary to place the miter line E F in its correct position in the oblique elevation.
From an inspection of the plan it is evident that when the miter at I J is viewed
at right angles to GI it will appear turned as much to the left as it appears turned
to the right in the normal elevation, or when viewed at right angles to I K. There-
fore the miter line as it appears at E F may be traced and transferred in a reversed
position to the oblique elevation ;
or it may be obtained in the following manner
Carry short lines from each of the points by which it was originally obtained hori-
zontally to the vertical line E F, and transfer the points thus found to E F 1 1
of the
oblique elevation, and draw horizontal lines from each to the left, which intersect
by lines drawn perpendicular to G I from points of corresponding number on I J,
all as shown. Now from each of the points in the miter line E F
1 1
,
just obtain ed,
draw lines parallel to the line of rake E A
and continue them indefinitely beyond
1 1

A V 1 1
. To obtain the profile of the raked molding draw any line, as X Y, at right
angles across those just drawn, and upon each line set off from XY the projection
ot the corresponding points in the normal profile M, as measured from P Q on lines
parallel to EB ;
then will the profile W thus obtained be the correct profile of the
left arm of the miter. To obtain the miter at the left or upper end of this arm,
first carry lines from each of the points on I J of the plan parallel to I G till they
intersect the side of the center pier at G H, and from the points thus obtained
erect lines at right angles to G I, intersecting those of corresponding number pre-
viously drawn from E F A line traced through the points of intersection, as
1 1
.

shown from A to D will give the required miter line.

1 1
,

To lay out the pattern of this arm of the molding, first set off the stretchout of
the profile W
on any line, as Y Z, drawn at right angles to A E 1 1
,
and through the
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 985
points of the same draw the usual measuring lines parallel to It may be A E 1 1
.

here noted that the spaces upon the curved portion of the profile must be meas- W
ured from point to point as they exist, as by the process of raking they are neces-
sarily unequal, krom each of the points in the two miter lines A D and E 1 F 1 1 1

carry lines parallel to YZ till they intersect with measuring lines of corresponding
number. Lines traced through the points of intersection, as shown at A* D* and
8
E F 8
,
will complete this pattern.

It will be understood that the correct lengths of A E

1 1
and EB of Fig. 72 and
their respective patterns are not given in the diagram, and that in practice the
miter cuts at the two ends of either of ihe patterns given must be separated to the
required dimensions or perhaps made into separate patterns.
If it is immaterial just what appearance the miter has, then the molding pro-
file need not be raked, inasmuch as the two arms A and B of Fig. 72 lie in one
plane ;
that is, the roof being of uniform pitch. In this case the miter E F will be
perpendicular to the line of the roof A E B, of Fig. 72; requiring no change of

profile for either arm. Then too, the miter cut will be the same for both arms.

PATTERN FOR RETURN IN GABLE MOLDING

Undoubtedly there was need for a solution of this decidedly interesting problem,

the following was prepared and here reprinted. Therefore to cut the patterns for

the moldings from R to S shown in Fig. 73, where R S S R 1 1

is a reduced repro-

duction of the sketch, X showing the section on the lines A B. While all patterns

are asked for, from R to S, the patterns are only shown for those pieces adjacent

to the miters C, E and F of Fig. 74. The miter A is obtained the same as any ordi-

nary gable miter, the miter B is a square outside miter, and the miter C is an
inside face miter. The pattern for the miter T of Fig. 73 is obtained the same as

in a raking molding with a square horizontal return. The method of obtaining the

patterns for the cuts F and E of Fig. 74 are shown in Fig. 75, where DEFGH
I J KLM a reproduction of the front elevation of similar parts in Fig. 73, the
is

cut against the leader head being omitted in Fig. 75, and Qis the PRSTUVW
side elevation of the same. As A in the front elevation is the given profile for
 ;

986 Cornice Pattern Layouts

the raking molding throughout, also for the horizontal molding FE in front view
and the return and vertical molding P R S in side view, it follows that a change of

profile must be obtained for the horizontal return S T NV in side view to permit
of perfect miters at F and E of Fig. 74.

To obtain the change of profile shown B in front view, Fig. 75, proceed as
at
follows : Divide the curved portion of the profile A into equal spaces, as shown by the
small figures 1 to 8. Construct a duplicate of the true profile at A 1
,
which also divide
into similar spaces as profile A. Now,
parallel to H G and from the small fig-

ures in the profile A 1

,
draw lines, which
intersect with those of similar numbers
drawn from the small figures in the pro-
file A at right angles to F E. A line
traced through the points of intersection
thus obtained, as shown by the small
1 1
figures l to 8 ,
will be the profile for the

horizontal molding shown in side view by

TS VN.
Before obtaining the patterns for the
vertical and horizontal moldings shown
by RSTN V W it will be necessary to
obtain the miter lines 0 and N in side
view, for which proceed as follows : From
the intersections in the profile B in front
draw lines indefinitely at right angles to
F G, as shown. Now take a tracing of the
profile A and place
shown in its it as
proper position in side view by A*. From
the intersections on same and parallel to
Fig. 78. Outline of Problem the lines of the molding draw lines, which
intersect with the horizontal lines of similar numbers previously drawn from the
profile B. A line traced through the intersections thus obtained, as shown from 1
N, will be the desired miter line
to 8 in miter line between the raking and hori-
zontal moldings. As the angle V WQin
-side view is a right angle, then from
the profileA carry lines parallel to P R until they intersect the miter line R W
then from the intersections on R W and parallel to R S drop lines intersecting the
horizontal lines of similar numbers drawn from the profile B. A line traced through
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 987
intersections thus obtained, as shown at O, will be the miter line between the hori-
zontal and vertical moldings of different profiles.
Having thus obtained the miter lines for the patterns proceed as follows: As
the space does not allow obtaining the patterns direct from
the views, each pattern
is developed, as shown in figs. 70, 77 and
78, by measurements instead of by pro-
jection, as usual. For the pattern for the vertical molding shown by S V in R W
side view, Fig. 75, draw any horizontal line, as S' W ]
in Fig. 76, upon which place
the stretchout of the profile A of Fig. 75, as shown by the small figures 1 to 8.
At right angles to S 1
W draw lines through the small figures indefinitely. Now,
measuring in every instance from the line S W in side view, Fig. 75, take the

distances on each of the lines to points in the miter line O from 1 to 8 and transfer
them to lines of similar numbers in Fig. 70, measuring from S 1
W 1
. In the same
manner measure in every instance from S W in Fig. 75 to the miter line R W and
carry these distances to lines of similar numbers in Fig. 76, measuring from S1 W 1
.

Then a line traced through points thus obtained, as shown by RW and S V, will
be the pattern for the vertical molding shown by R S V of Fig. 75. W
For the pattern for the horizontal molding shown by T S V N proceed in the
same manner. Draw any vertical line, as B C in Fig.- 77, upon which place the
988 Cornice Pattern Layouts

stretchout of the profile B in shown by the small figures 1

front view, Fig. 75, as
to 8. At right angles to B C and through the small figures draw lines indefinitely,
as shown. Now, measuring in every instance from the line B 1 C in 1
Fig. 75 right and

left to points of intersectfon in the miter lines O and N, carry these distances to lines
8

of similar numbers in Fig. 77, measuring right and left from the line B C. A line
traced through points thus obtained, asshown by T S V N, will be the pattern for
the horizontal molding shown in side view, Fig. 75, by T S V N. In similar man-
ner obtain the pattern for the raking molding in front view, Fig. 75. Draw any
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 989

vertical line as DE in Fig. 78, upon which place the stretchout of the profile A or
A 1
shown by spaces 1 to 8. At right angles to D E draw
of Fig. 75, as lines indefi-
nitely, as shown. Now, measuring in every instance from the line D 1
E 1
in Fig.
75 to points of intersection in the profile B, carry these distances on lines of similar
number in Fig. 78, measuring from the line I) E. Trace a line through intersec-
tions, as shown, when DGKE will be the pattern for the raking molding shown
by D'GK E 1
of Fig. 75.

PATTERN FOR A RAKING BRACKET

This Problem has one or two different features, and as it is a design of bracket
of frequent occurrence, it is here presented.
99° Cornice Pattern Layouts

This method of obtaining the pattern for a raking bracket and molding,
is a
as shown in the accompanying illustration, Fig. 79, in which A B C T) E F shows
the part elevation of the cornice, 1' 8' 17 9 1 the normal side of cap and bracket,
8° 8 X 17* 17 ’
the face of the raking bracket and G H 1 J K L the face of the
center bracket.
The first step is to obtain the modified profiles of the returns of the cap shown
by O and M, for which proceed as follows: Divide the normal profile N into equal
spaces, as shown from 1 to 8, through which extend lines indefinitely parallel to

the lines of the cornice, as shown.

Take a tracing of N with the various points of intersections and place it in the

position shown by N and N and from the various intersections erect vertical lines
l 2
,

intersecting similar lines drawn from N. Trace a line through points thus
obtained, resulting in O and M. Take a tracing of the profile 0 arid place it upon
the center bracket, as shown by O and O which completes the elevation of that
2 l
,

view.
For tlm pattern for the face of the cap, draw the line P R at right angles to A
B, upon wdiich place the stretchout of the profile N, as shown from 1 to 8 on P R.
Draw the usual measaring lines, which intersect by lines drawn from similar points
of intersections in 0 and M, at right angles to A B, and resulting in the miter cuts
a b and d c. Then abed is the pattern for the front of cap.

For the pattern for the front of the cap of the center bracket, take the distance

from G to H and place it, as shown, from b to H 1

. Erect the perpendicular H H
1 2
,

and also the perpendicular H H° in the center bracket. Then measuring from this
line, take the various distances to the miter line B H and transfer them to similar
lines in the pattern for front, measuring from the line H H1 2
. Trace a line through
points thus obtained, then will H B
1 1
a b be the pattern for the face of the center
bracket.

For the pattern for the return caps O and M, take the stretchouts of O and M
and place them on the line S U
and E T drawn at right angles to A B. Draw the
usual measuring lines, which intersect by lines drawn from similar points of inter-
sections in the normal return Z N. Trace a line through points thus obtained, then
ef hi is the return cap for O and j k l m, the return cap for M.
The pattern for the face of the bracket is obtained by dividing the normal side
8 17 into convenient spaces, as shown, from which lines are drawn parallel to AB
until they intersect the side of the bracket in elevation, 8° 17° and 8 X 17*. A
stretchout of the normal side 8 17 is now placed upon the line V W, drawn at right
angles to A B, as shown, from which the usual measuring lines are drawn and in-
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 991
tersected by lines drawn parallel to V W from similar points on 8° 17°, resulting in
the miter cut n 0 .

Now take the distance of 8 8 X and set it off on similar lines in the pattern for
face and obtain the cut s r Then n 0 r s is the full pattern
.
for the face of the
bracket. Take the distance G H in the center bracket, and set it off, as shown in
the pattern, by the dotted line t u. Then n 0 u is the pattern t for the half face G
HKL of the center bracket.

The last pattern is that for the side of the bracket, and is obtained by taking
the various intersection- on 8° 17° and placing them on the line 8' 17 extended as
X Y. Perpendiculars are drawn to X Y from the various points and intersected by
lines drawn from similar points of intersections in the normal side at right angles
to A B. Then 8° v w 17° is the pattern for the side.

PATTERN FOR A RAKING BALUSTER

To develop the pattern for an octagonal baluster in a raking balustrade, a
general view of which is shown in Fig. 80, in which A shows a vertical baluster

in a raking balustrade, B showing the cap and C the The problem gives
base.
an interesting study in drawing and projections, which, when accomplished, is
more than half the battle in the developments
of the patterns. The method for obtaining the

patterns for the cap B will only be shown ;

as the

same principles can be applied when laying out

the patterns for base C.
In Fig. 81 let D E F G H I J K represent
the plan view of the shaft of the baluster, and

^LMNOPQRS the elevation of same placed

in line above the plan, as shown. Let C in

elevation represent the desired profile at right

angles to O P, which will be called the given
profile. Now divide this profile C into equal
spaces, as shown by the small figures 1 to 8, and
to O P or L S draw
Fig. 80 .

parallel lines indefinitely

A Raking Baluster
through these small figures, as shown. Take a
tracing of the profile C and place it at right angles to D K in plan, as shown by C 1
.

Draw the outer plan of the cap, as shown byTtJVWXYZ<fe. Then draw the
miter lines in plan, & V, T D, U E, V F, W G, X H, etc., as shown. Divide
 * Y

Fig. 81 . Plan, Elevation, Miter Lines and Patterns

 Cornice Pattern Layouts 993

the profile C 1
in plan into the same number of equal spaces as the given profile
C in elevationwas divided, as shown from 1 to 8 in the profile C in plan. 1

Through these small figures and parallel to K D draw lines intersecting the
miter lines K & and T D. From the intersection on T D and parallel to D E draw
lines intersecting the miter line E U. In similar manner from intersections on the
miter lines E U, F V, G W, etc., and parallel to E F, F G, G H, etc., respectively,
draw lines, as shown. Now par- j

allel to K D and from intersec-

tions on the miter Une T D carry

lines upward, intersecting lines

having similar numbers drawn

through the profile C in elevation

parallel to L S.

Trace a line through points

thus obtained, as shown by 1 to 8
in profile A. Then will the profile

A represent the true section or

flue
profile taken through that part of *

the cap shown by 1 in plan. In

similar manner, parallel to H G
and from the intersections on the
miter line G W draw lines up-
ward, intersecting lines of similar
numbers drawn through the profile

C in elevation parallel to L S.

Trace a line thus obtained, as

shown from 1 to 8 in profile B.
Then will the profile B represent
., ,
. , , Fig. 82. Plan, True Elevation and Pattern tor No. 8
the true section or profile, taken
through that part of the cap shown by 5 in plan. Now at right angles to U V in
plan, and from intersections on the miter line U E, draw lines upward, inter-
secting lines of similar numbers in elevation, as shown. Trace a line through
points from 1 to 8, then will A 0
1
be the miter line in elevation, on U E in
plan. In similar manner at right angles to U V and from intersections on V F
carry lines upward, intersecting lines of similar numbers in elevation, as shown.
Trace a line from 1 to 8, then will B P
1
be the miter line in elevation on F V
in plan.
994 Cornice Pattern Layouts

The plan and elevation of the baluster is now completed and from which the
patterns for parts 1, 3 and 5 shown in plan can be obtained. For the pattern for
part 1 proceed as follows: At right angles to T & in plan draw the line D E 1 1
,

upon which place the stretchout of profile A in elevation, being careful to carry
each space separately onto the line l)
1
E 1
,
as shown by the small figures 1 to 8. At
right angles to D E 1 1
and through the small figures draw lines, which intersect

with lines having similar numbers drawn from the intersections on the miter lines
T D and K& at right angles to T &. Trace a line through points thus ob-
tained, then will F 1
G H 1 1
J
1
be the pattern for part 1 in plan, formed after the pro-

file A in elevation.

Now at right angles to W X in plan draw the line K l

L upon which place the
1
,

stretchout of the profile B in elevation, being careful to carry each space separately
onto the line K 1
L\ as shown by the small figures. At right angles to K L 1 1
and
through the small figures draw lines, which intersect with lines having similar num-
bers drawn from the intersections on the miter lines G W and X H at right angles
to W X. Trace a line through points thus obtained, then will M N O1 1 1
P be
1
the
pattern for part 5 in plan, and is to be bent after the profile B in elevation.

For the pattern for part 3 and 3' in plan proceed as follows : At right angles
to A B 1 1
in elevation draw the line R 1
S\ upon which place the stretchout of the
given profile C, as shown by the small figures 1 to 8 on the line S 1
R 1
. At right
angles to R 1
S and through the small
1
figures draw lines, which intersect with lines
having similar numbers drawn at right angles to A B 1 1
from the intersections on
the miter lines A 0 1
and B 1
P. A line traced through points thus obtained, as
shown by T V* 1
W 1
U\ will be the pattern for the parts 3 and 3 in plan, formed
after the profile C in elevation, one right and one left.

For the patterns for parts 2 and 4 true elevations must be constructed, but
before doing so the vertical hight of the intersections on the miter lines A O and B 1 l

P must be obtained as follows shown as : Draw any vertical lines in the positions

X Y and Z <feb At
1 1 l
X Y and Z l and
right angles to these two vertical lines 1
.
l

from the intersections 1 to 8 on both miter lines A 0 and B P, draw lines inter- 1 1

secting the lines X Y* and Z <fc\ respectively, as shown by small figures 1 to 8 on

1 1

both. Now take a tracing of T .U E D or part 2 (all eight parts being alike), and
place it as shown by T U E D or part 2 in Fig. 82, being careful to have the
various intersecting lines and numbers as shown. Draw any horizontal line, as
A 8, in length equalto DE in plan, as shown. At right angles to A 8 draw the
line A 8', equal in hight to A* 8 in elevation in Fig. 81. Then draw a line from 8
to 8' in Fig. 82. Take the various hights on the line X Y 1 l
in Fig. 81 and place as
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 995
shown by X Y in Fig. 82, being careful that the point 8 is placed so that it will meet
the line A 8 extended, as shown. right angles to X Y and from the points 1
At
to 8 on same draw lines which intersect with lines drawn from intersections having
similar numbers on U E in plan at right angles to D E. Through the points of
intersections thus obtained trace a line, as shown by the small figures, or from 8 to
M. Now and from intersections on the miter line
parallel to 8 8 8 draw lines M
shown, which intersect with lines drawn from intersections on T D
indefinitely, as

in plan having similar numbers at right angles to D E. Trace a line through

4
PART OF PLAN
Fig. 88. Plan, True Elevation and Pattern for No. 4

intersections thus obtained, as shown by the small figures, and from N to 8'. Then
will N M 8 8' be the true elevation for part 2 and 2' of the baluster in plan in
Fig. 81.
Before obtaining the pattern for part 2 a true profile must be obtained at right
angles to N M in Fig. 82, for which proceed as follows : Take a tracing of the

given profile C in elevation in Fig. 81 and place it, as shown, at right angles to

MN extended in elevation in Fig. 82, asshown by C. At right angles to N M

and from the various points 1 to 8 in the profile C draw lines, as shown, intersect-
ing lines of similar numbers drawn from the intersections in the miter line M 8.
99 6 Cornice Pattern Layouts

Trace a line through points thus obtained, as shown, then will B be the true pro-
file. For the pattern proceed as follows : At right angles to MN draw the line

H F, upon which place the stretchout of profile B, being careful to carry each space
separately onto the line H F, as the divisions are unequal, as shown by the small
figures 1 to 8 on H F. Now at right angles to H F and through the small figures
draw lines which intersect with lines drawn from intersections in N 8' and M 8
having similar numbers at right angles to N M. Trace a line through points
thus obtained, then will L I J K be the pattern for part 2 and 2' formed after the
profile B, one right and one left.

For the pattern for part 4 and 4' in plan in Fig. 81 proceed as shown in Fig.

83, in which F G WV is a reproduction of F G W V in plan in Fig. 81. Draw

any horizontal line, as B 8, in Fig. 83, equal in length to F G in plan, as shown.
At right angles to 8 B draw B 8' equal to B 2
8 in elevation in Fig. 81, and draw a
l
line from 8 to 8' in Fig. 83. Take the various hights on the line Z l
<fe in Fig. 81
and place as shown by Z <fc in Fig. 83, being careful that the point 8 is placed so
that it will meet the line drawn at right angles to B 8' from the point 8', as shown.
Referring to Fig. 82, it will be noticed that the vertical hights on X Y are placed
to the right of the triangle A 8 8', because the hights are taken from the miter line
A1 O in elevation in Fig. 81, which is to the right of the triangle L A* O; while in
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 997
Fig. 83 the vertical hights on Z & are placed to the left of the triangle 8 B 8'

because the hights are taken from the miter line B P

1
in elevation in Fig. 81, which
is to the left of the triangle PB 2
S. Bearing this in mind, now at right angles to
Z & in Fig. 83, and from points 1 to 8 on same, draw lines which intersect with
lines drawn from intersections having similar numbers on V F at right angles to
F G. Through points shown by the
of intersections thus obtained trace a line, as

small figures, or from to O. 8’

Parallel to 8 S' and from intersections on the miter
line O 8 draw lines indefinitely, as shown, which intersect with lines drawn from

intersections on C W
in plan having similar numbers at right angles to F G.
Trace a line through intersections thus obtained, as shown by the small figures,
and from P to 8. Then w ill OP 8 8 be the true elevation for part 4 and 4
’

of the
baluster shown in plan in Fig. 81. For the true profile, at right angles to 0P in
Fig. 83 take a tracing of the given profile C in elevation in Fig. 81 and place it as
shown at right angles to 0 P extended in Fig. 83 by C. At right angles to O P
and from the various points 1 to 8 in the profile C draw lines, as shown, intersect-
ing lines of similar numbers drawn from the intersections in the miter line O 8'.
Trace a line through points thus obtained, as shown, then will A be the true profile.
At right angles to O P draw the line J H, upon which place the stretchout
of the profile A, as shown by the small figures on the line H J. Now at right

angles to H J and through the small figures draw lines which intersect with lines

drawn from intersections having similar numbers inO 8' and P 8 at right angles to
O P. Trace a line through points thus obtained, then will K L N M be the pat-
tern for part 4 and 4’ formed after the profile A, one right, the other left.

This completes the entire patterns for the cap of the baluster. For the cut of

the baluster shaft at the top proceed as shown in Fig. 84, in which 1 2 3 4 5 6 rep-
resents the half plan of the baluster shaft reproduced from the plan in Fig. 81, and
A B C D in Fig. 84 shows the elevation of the shaft similar to L M R S in Fig. 81.
For the pattern draw the line E F in Fig. 84 at right angles to C D, and upon it

place the stretchout of the half plan, as shown by similar figures 1 to 6. At right

angles to E F and through the small figures draw lines, which intersect with lines
drawn from intersections having similar numbers on A D at right angles to C D.
Trace a line through points thus obtained, then will GHIJKLMNbe the
half pattern for the shaft of the baluster. The reverse cut of this pattern will
answer for the pattern for the shaft, butting against the base of the baluster as at

C in Fig. 80.
 :

998 Cornice Pattern Layouts

PATTERNS FOR COMPLICATED RAKING MOLDINGS

In the accompanying illustration, Fig. 85, is shown the plan and elevation of
a gable molding with horizontal returns at either end, at an acute and obtuse angle,
respectively. Owing to the different angles in plan, it will require four different
profiles and patterns to miter the various molds. If the miter line of the gable were
allowed to run at right angles to G F shown by J x, it would only be
in plan, as
necessary to obtain one profile for the gable mold but as it is desired that the ;

miter line of the gable shall be a continuation of the ridge line I J, as J K, makes
it necessary to obtain two profiles.
Let E F G H represent the plan of the wall of the building and I J the line
of the ridge parallel to G H. Bisect the angles G and F as indicated by uv w and
and r s t, respectively. Draw the miter lines t F and w G, extending them indefi-
nitely. In its proper position above the plan draw the gable F° J° G°, making the
rise N J°, as desired. In this case it is desired that the normal or given profile be
placed on the horizontal return F E in plan, as shown by the profile A.
The first step is to divide this profile into an equal number of spaces, as shown
from 1 to 11, through which points, parallel to E F, lines are drawn until they
intersect the miter line F M from 1 to 11. From these intersections lines are
drawn parallel to F G, crossing the miter line J K as shown, and intersecting
the miter line G L, also from 1 to 77, from which intersections lines are carried
parallel to G H, if desired.
Now take a tracing of the given profile A in plan and place it in the position
shown by A 1
in elevation, being careful that points 10-11 are in line with G° F°,
extended as shown. From the various intersections in A 1
horizontal lines are drawn
and intersect vertical lines erected from similar numbered intersections on the miter
line F M in plan, resulting in the miter line M° to F° in elevation, when a
line is traced through points thus obtained.
From the intersections 1 to 11 in M° F° lines are drawn parallel to F° J°
and intersected by drawn from similar numbered intersections on the
vertical lines

miter line J K in plan, partly shown by 2, 3 and 11. A line traced through points
thus obtained, as shown from K° to J°, will be the miter line at the gable juncture.
From the intersections 1 to 1 1 in the miter line J° K° lines are drawn parallel to
J° G° and intersected by lines erected from the intersections on G L in plan, result-
ing in the miter line L° G° in elevation. This completes the miter lines in eleva-
tion, from which patterns are obtained, but to obtain the girths of these patterns
modified profiles must be obtained, as follows
Cornice Pattern Layouts
1,000 Cornice Pattern Layouts

Obtain the projections of the various points in the given profile A 1

, on the
horizontal line a and place it in the positions shown by a b', a" b" and a b°, the
b,

line in each case being drawn parallel to the line of the molding, as shown. Per-
pendiculars are now drawn intersecting similar numbered lines in the molding
Trace lines through points thus obtained ;
then B is the modified profile for the left

gable mold, C the modified profile for the right gable mold and D the modified
profile for the right horizontal return.

Having obtained the miter lines and profiles, the patterns are developed as
follows On the line O P, drawn at right angles to F E in plan, place the girth
:

of the profile A, or A as shown from 1 to 11 on O P. Through these points draw

1
,

lines parallel to F E and intersect same by lines drawn at right angles to F E

from similar numbered intersections on the miter line F M. Trace a line through
points thus obtained ;
then will PO S R be the pattern for the side F E in plan.
In similar manner on the line R 1
S 1
,
drawn perpendicular to G H in plan, place
the girth of the third modified profile D, as shown, from 1 to 11 on R 1
S 1
,
through
which draw lines parallel to G H, intersecting same by lines drawn from similar
intersections on the miter lineG L in plan, at right angles to G H, and resulting
in the pattern R T U
1 1 1
S 1
for the side G H in plan.
The horizontal return patterns were obtained from the plan, while the gable
patterns will be obtained from the elevation. At right angles to F° J° draw the
line T U, upon which place the girth of the modified profile B. Through the
points draw the usual measuring lines, which intersect drawn at right by lines
angles to F° J°, from similar intersections on the miter lines M° F° and K° J° in
elevation. A line traced through points thus obtained, as shown by V Y X, W
will be the pattern for the left gable mold. The pattern for the right gable mold is
obtained similarly, as indicated.

MITERING A DORMER AGAINST A DOME

For an accurate solution of this problem —that is, the miter of a molding
against a spherical surface —the following demonstration and diagrams are
appended : Let A B C, in Fig. 86, be one-quarter of the plan of a round dome,
and D E a H represent the profile of the return mold-
profile of the same. Let F
ing placed in its proper position, as shown, and H J part of the line of the dormer
window. Draw a soffit plan of the molding, as shown by K L M N. Now
divide curved portion of the profile F H into an equal number of spaces, as
shown, and drop perpendicular lines from the spaces in F H until they intersect
 2

Cornice Pattern Layouts 1,001

the miter line M O in plan. Then from the intersections on the miter line M O,
and parallel to M N, draw lines until they intersect the plan of the round dome C
A, as shown from K to N. At right
angles to B A in plan, and from
intersections on the curve K N, draw
lines until they intersect the base of
the dome P D. Place one point of
the dividers at P, the center from
which the dome is struck and bring-
ing the pencil points successively to
the several points of intersection just
obtained on the base line P D,
draw arcs from each intersecting
horizontal line of corresponding
number drawn on the profile F H,
as shown by the intersections l 3 1
,
1
,
1
,

etc. The line R S T, traced through

points of intersection thus obtained,
will represent the miter line in ele-
vation from which the pattern is

obtained. For the pattern proceed

as follows : At right angles to R F
in elevation draw the stretchout line
V W, upon which place the stretch-
out of the profile of the molding F
H, as shown by the small figures 1,
2, 3, 4, etc. At right angles to W
V, and through the small figures,
draw the measuring lines, which
intersect with lines of similar num-
bers drawn from the intersections in

the miter line in elevation R S T

and the profile F H at right angles

toR F. Trace a fine as shown from

X to Y in pattern, which will be the
Fig. 86. Plan, Elevation and Pat-
square miter cut for the dormer re- tern of Dormer Mitering
Against Dome
turn. It will be noticed that the pat-
 1,002 Cornice Pattern Layouts

tern for the miter cut at the other end of the molding will require arcs, which are
struck from centers corresponding to the arcs shown in the miter line in elevation.
To strike these arcs, proceed as follows : Extend the center line, above the eleva-
tion, as shown now, with P
;
R or P S in elevation as radius, and with A 1 in pattern
as center, strike an arc intersecting the center line at F 1
. Then with F1 as center,
and using the same radius, draw an arc shown from A 1
to C1
As that part of the
.

profile shown from 2 to 3 in the profile

F H meets the dome on a horizontal
plane, the arc shown from C 1 to B 1
in
pattern will be struck with a radius
equal to J 1
P 1
in elevation. Then with
C 1
or B 1
in pattern as center, and a
radius equal to J 1 P draw an arc inter-
1
,

secting the center line at H 1

. Then
with H 1
as center, and with the same
radius, strike arc shown from C1 to B 1
.

Now trace a line from B 1

to line 6
in pattern. The arc shown between
lines 6 7 in pattern will be struck with
a radius equal to P 6 1
or P 7
1
in ele-
vation, while the arc shown between
lines 7 8 in pattern will be struck with
a radius equal to O P in elevation. 1 1

Then will A C B D Y X be the

1 1 1 1

pattern for the return of the

dormer
molding against the dome. The arc
shown from D1 to E 1 in pattern is
struck, as previously explained, with the radius shown in elevation by P T or P U.
In Fig. 87 is shown a dome of similar construction, and the principles
employed in obtaining the pattern in Fig. 86 can also be applied to Fig. 87.
ABC represents the plan, D E F the elevation, and H the side of the dormer.
The method shown in Fig. 86 should be applied in the same manner for Fig. 87,
with the exception that the center point with which the dome is struck in Fig. 86
lies in the center line, while in Fig. 87 the center point lies outside of the center
line, as shown at J. After the intersections are obtained on the base line of dome
I) E, Fig. 87, J would he struck to intersect with horizontal lines, as explained in
connection with Fig. 86.
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 1,003

PATTERN FOR MOLDINGS MITERING AGAINST CONCAVE

CONICAL TOWER
This problem deals with the method of
how to cut the pattern for the moldings
on the dormer window mitering against a concave conical tower, shown
sides of a
in the accompanying illustration, Fig. 88, in which E F G H represents a partial
elevation of the tower, and I J K the side of the dormer window which is to miter
against the tower. In this connection it may be proper to remark that it is not
necessary when obtah mg the pattern to draw a full elevation of the tower; all that
is required being the center line of the tower and as much of the curve of the
tower as will be ne-’essary to receive the side of the dormer. Draw any vertical
line, as A B, which represents the center line ;
let E F and H G represent the
half diameters of the tower at these points respectively, then draw the desired curve
or sweep F G. In its proper position draw the profile or side of dormer indi-
catedby J K. Divide the curved portion of the profile into equal spaces, as

shown by the small figures 1 to 8, introducing two extra points, X and Y, as

shown. Now at A B and through the various points
right angles to the center line
draw lines intersecting the curve of the tower F G between I and K.
From any convenient point, as C on the center line, and at right angles to A
B, draw the line C I). At right angles to C D and from the various intersec-
tions on the curve I K draw lines intersecting C D at points 1, Y, X, 2, 3, etc.,
corresponding to lines of similar numbers in the profile J K. Now with C as

center, and with radii equal to the distances to the various points shown by the
small figures on the line C D, draw arcs as shown. At right angles to the center

line C D in plan, set off half the width of the dormer window, as at Z. Now take
a tracing of the side of the dormer J K in elevation and place it as shown by J 1

K 1
in plan, placing the line 1 2 parallel to the center line in plan, as shown.
Space the profile into the same number of parts as shown in elevation, then parallel
to 0 P and from the various points in the profile J K draw lines intersecting
1 1

arcs of similar numbers, as shown by points 1 to 8 in plan. A line traced

through points of intersections thus obtained will show the line of intersection
between the side of the dormer and the' roof of the tower. Now at right angles to
C D and from the various points of intersection in the miter line in plan 1 to 8

draw lines upward intersecting lines of similar numbers in elevation drawn from the
profile J K parallel to I J. A line traced through points of intersection thus
1
obtained, as shown from l
1
to 8 ,
will be the miter line in elevation, showing the
 ;

1,004 Cornice Pattern Layouts

joint or intersection between the dormer

side and tower, but is not necessary in the
development of the pattern.

For the pattern proceed as follows:

Upon the center line A B place the
stretchout of the molding 8 J K, as
shown by the small figures on A B. At
right angles to A B and through the
small figures draw lines intersecting those
of similar numbers drawn from the miter
line in plan or elevation parallel to A B,
also from the various points to the profile
J K in elevation. Trace lines through
points of intersections thus obtained
then will MNOPRSLbe the pat-
ELEVATION tern required. As the distances from 7
to 8 and 2 to 3 in profile in elevation lie
in a horizontal plane, the shape of that
• +i part in the pattern is obtained from the
plan as follows: With C 7 or C 8 in
-f fix plan as radius and points S and L on
lines 7’ and 8' in pattern as centers, de-
scribe arcs intersecting each other at T.
Then with T as center, and using the
same radius, describe the arc L S. In
the same manner with C 2 or C 3 in
plan as radius, and points R and P on
u»» lines 2' and 3’ in pattern
I
as centers, describe arcs

x y f k’
intersecting each other at

.J* i V ;
then with V as center,
*
using the same radius,
0
; describe the arc RP.

Fig. 88. Plan, Elevation

and Pattern
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 1,005

HORIZONTAL MOLDING AND CURVED WASH

To lay out the patterns for the intersection of a horizontal molding, A, with
the curved wash D of the accompanying illustration, Fig. 89, in which J K L
shows half the elevation of the curved molding, struck from the center C, and MN
O P the elevation of the horizontal molding; let R 1
S* S be the true section
of the curved molding taken on the line K L in elevation and T 1 be the true

profile of the horizontal molding, as shown. Before obtaining the pattern it will

be necessary to obtain the miter line of the horizontal molding against the curved
wash, as shown by M P in elevation, for Take a
which proceed as follows:
duplicate of the profile T of the horizontal molding and place it, as shown by T,
1

in the section over the wash S S Now divide the profile T into any number of
1
.
 i, 006 Cornice Pattern Layouts

equal spaces, as shown by the small figures 1 to 10; then from these divisions
and parallel to 1 to 10 draw lines intersecting the wash S S 1
,
as shown. At
right angles to K L in elevation and from the intersections on the wash S S draw 1

lines intersecting the base line K L. Then using 0 as the center, and with radii

equal to the distances from C to the several intersections, draw arcs, which inter-
sect with lines of similar numbers drawn parallel to M N from the divisions in the
profile T which
1
is spaced similar to the profile T. A line traced through inter-
sections thus obtained, as shown by T to 10', will be the miter line.

F or the pattern proceed as follows : At right angles to M N draw the line U

V, upon which place the stretchout of the profile T
shown by the small1
,
as
figures. At right angles to U V and through the small figures draw lines, which
intersect with lines drawn at right angles to M N from intersections of similar
"
numbers in the miter line M P. Trace a line from 2" to 3", from 4 to 8" and 9" to

the line 10 in pattern. The balance of the spaces are arcs of circles, and are
obtained as follows: With C 1” as radius and 1" in pattern as center describe an
arc intersecting at E the line C H, which is erected from C at right angles to C
L. Then with E as center and using the same radius draw the arc 1" 2" in
pattern, which is the same as 1' 2' in elevation. Now with C 3' in elevation
as radius and 3” in pattern as center describe an arc intersecting the line C H
at B. Then with B as center and using the same radius describe the arc 3 " 4 ".
Finally with C 8' in elevation as radius and 8" in pattern as center describe an

arc intersecting the line C H at F. Then with F as center and with similar
radius describe the arc 8" 9" in pattern. Then will WX Y Z be the pattern for
the miter cut against the required curved wash.

OCTAGON BASE OVER CIRCULAR WINDOWS

To obtain the patterns for an octagon base to fit over two circular windows,
similar to the diagram Fig. 90 in which A and B represent the circular windows
over which the octagon base D C E is to fit, F H I J K being plan view. At
right angles to E D, and from the point of the base C erect a line, intersecting
the line J F in plan of K ;
then from the corners H and I draw the miter lines
H K and K I. As the given profile of the octagon base D C E in elevation is

a true section on the line J F in plan, it will be necessary to obtain true sections
at right angles to the lines J I and I H in plan before the patterns can be
obtained. To do this, proceed as follows:
 Cornice Pattern Layouts 1,007

Divide the half profile of the base C D into equal spaces, as shown by the
small figures 1 to 9 ;
then at right angles to E D, and from the small intersec-
tions, draw lines intersecting the line J F in plan, as shown. Now from the
intersections on J K, and parallel to J I, draw lines intersecting the miter line I

K; then parallel to H I, and from the intersections on I K, draw lines inter-

secting the miter line H K. From these intersections and parallel to H F, draw

lines intersecting F K. Through the intersections 1 to 9 in the profile C D in

elevation draw line indefinitely, parallel to E D right and left. Now, at right
 ;

i,oo8 Cornice Pattern Layouts

angles to H I in plan, and from the point K, erect the line K L, as shown.
Take the distance K L, with the various intersections on same, and place it on
the horizontal line 9, drawn from 9 in elevation, as shown by K 1
L 1
. At right
angles to K L 1 1
and from the small figures, draw lines, intersecting horizontal lines

of similar numbers, as shown, from T to 9'. From K 1

,
and at right angles to K 1

L 1
erect the line K 1
M. Trace a line from l
1
to 9
1
;
then will MN K 1
be the
true section on the line L K in plan.

For the section at right angles to F H or T J in plan proceed as follows: In

this case it happens that the miter line H K in plan is at right angles to H F
therefore take the distance H K, with the various intersections on same, and
place it on the horizontal line drawn from the point 9 in elevation, as shown by
H K 1 1
. At right angles to K H and through the small figures, erect lines inter-
1 1

secting lines of similar numbers drawn from the points in profile D C. Trace a
line through points thus obtained as shown from 1' to 9'. From K\ at right
angles to K H 1 1
erect the line K 1
P. Then will O P K 1
be the true section on
H K in plan.

For the pattern for the front H I K proceed as follows: At right angles to
H I erect any line, as U V, upon which place the stretchout of the section M N
K 1
,
being careful to transfer each and every space separately, as shown by the
small figures 1' to 9’ on the line U V. At right angles to U V, and through
the small figures, draw lines, which intersect with the line drawn from the inter-
sections of similar numbers on the miter line I K at right angles to H I. Trace
a line thus obtained, as shown by W Y. Trace the miter cut opposite the line U
Y, as shown by W X. Then will W X Y be the pattern for front. Proceed in
similar manner for patterns for side. In line with H K in plan, or at right angles
to H F, draw the line R S, upon which place the stretchout of the section O P
K 1
,
transferring each and every space
shown by the small figures, 1 separate, as
to on the line R S. At
9' R S and from the small figures, draw
right angles to
lines, which intersect with lines drawn from the intersections on F K, having

similar numbers at right angles to F H. As the miter line H K is at right

angles to H F I the pattern cut for that mitre will result in a straight line, as
shown by R S. Trace a line from R to T, and R S T will be the pattern for
the two sides, one formed right, the other left. If for any reason it is desired to
show the miter line in elevation on the line H K in plan, it can be done as
follows: At right angles to F J, and from intersections on H K, drop solid
lines, as shown, intersecting lines of similar numbers in elevation. Trace a line
through points thus obtained, as shown by Z 9.
 Comice Pattern Layouts 1,009

PATTERN FOR BOTTOM ON BAY WINDOW

This is an exemplification of the method of cutting the pattern of the bottom
of a bay window when the miter lines A B, C D, E F, and G H must be made
as drawn in elevation, so as to conform with the architecture of the bay. A section
through I shown at K L M, the miter lines in the plan being curved.
J is

The plan and elevation, Fig. 91, are an illustration of the bay window in

which A B C D represent the true profile of the outline of the bay against the
wall O S in plan, while E F G H represents the given miter lines in elevation.

K L M the true given section on I J in elevation, and

is the plan OPRS
view on the line D in elevation, while T U V
A W
is the plan view on B C in

elevation. With the elevation, section and plan in their relative positions, the
1,010 Cornice Pattern Layouts

first step is to obtain the miter lines in plan, for which proceed as follows: Divide
the section K L M into equal spaces, as shown by the small figures 1 to 6. At
right angles from L M and from these intersections draw lines intersecting the
given miter lines E F and G H in elevation, as shown by the points 1 to 6 on
the miter line G H. Now take a duplicate of the section K L M, and placing
the lines L M of the section to correspond with O S of the plan, divide the pro-
1 1

file K M
1 1
into the same number of divisions as are contained in K M of the

elevation. Now parallel to K M

1 1
and through the small figures draw lines into

the plan, which intersect with lines of similar numbers drawn from the intersec-

Fig. 92 Fig. 98 Fig. 94

Diagram of Triangles and Pattern of Sides

tions on the miter lines H G and F E in elevation at right angles to O S in

plan. Lines traced through the point just obtained will give P U and V R as
the miter lines in plan.
Having obtained the miter lines in plan, the pattern for the front of the bay
can be developed as follows : Upon the center line I J, extended as X Y, place
a stretchout of the section K M, as shown by the small figures 1 to 6. At right
angles to X Y and through the small figures draw lines, which intersect with those
drawn from intersections having corresponding numbers on the miter lines in plan
T U and V R at right angles to P R. Trace a line through the points thus
obtained and A 1 B 1 C1 D1 will be the pattern for the front of the bay, shown in
plan by P U V R and in elevation by E F G H.
As it will be impossible to obtain the patterns for the sides of the bay by
means of parallel lines the triangulation method will be employed. As all sides

are the same only one will be developed. As the miter line H G in elevation is

divided into five equal spaces, divide the profile A B into five equal spaces. The
miter line HG being numbered 1 to 6 continue the numbers on the profile BA
 Cornice Pattern Layouts i, on
from 7 to 12, as shown. Now connect solid lines from 2 to 11, 3 to 10, 4 to 9
and 5 to 8, and dotted lines from 1 to 11, 2 to 10, 3 to 9, 4 to 8 and 5 to 7.

Project the intersections 7 to 12 onto plan on the line O S, as shown by the

dotted lines and from 7' to 12'. Number the intersections on the miter line P U
in plan to correspond with those on the miter line G H in the elevation, as shown
by 1' to 6' in plan. Now draw solid lines in plan from 2' to 11', 3' to 10', 4'
to 9', 5' to 8' and dotted lines from 1' to 11', 2' 3' 4' to 8' and 5'
to 10', to 9',

to 7'. Extend the line C D in elevation, as shown by C Z. Now from the

various intersections 1 to 12 in elevation draw vertical lines intersecting the line

C Z at a, b, c, d, f, g, h, i, k. Then will the solid and dotted lines in plan

represent the bast s ou the vertical lines just drawn in elevation the altitudes for
the sections, which are constructed as follows: In Fig. 92 draw any horizontal
line, as A B, upon which place the various lengths of the solid lines shown in
plan, Fig. 91, as indicated by similar numbers in Fig. 92. At right angles to AB
and through the small figures draw lines equal to hights of similar numbers in
as shown in Fig. 92. For example, take the distance 2'
elevation, Fig. 91, all is

11' in plan, Fig. 91, and place shown by 2' 11' of Fig. 92.
it on the line A B, as
At right angles to A B and from points 2' and 11' draw lines, making 11’ 11
and 2' 2 equal respectively to i 11 and b 2 in elevation, Fig. 91. Draw a line
from 2 to 11 in Fig. 92. Then will 2 11 be the actual distance on the finished
article on the line 2' 11' in plan, Fig. 91. Proceed in precisely the same manner
for the sections on dotted lines shown in Fig. 93. For example, take the distance 3'
9' in plan in Fig. 91 and place it in Fig. 93 on the line A B, as shown from 3' to

9'. At right angles to A B from points 3' and 9' draw lines making 3' 3 and 9'
9 equal to c 3 and g 9 in elevation, Fig. 91. Then draw a line from 3 to 9 in
Fig. 93, which will represent the true distance on the finished article on the lines
3' 9' in plan for 3 9 in elevation, Fig. 91.
For the pattern proceed as follows: Draw any horizontal line, as 1 12 in
Fig. 94, equal to 1' 12' in plan, Fig. 91. Now with 12 11 in elevation as radius
and 12 in Fig. 94 as center, describe the arc 11. Now with 1 as center and 1

11 of Fig. 93 as radius describe an arc in Fig. 94 intersecting the arc 11. Then
with 1" 2" in the pattern, Fig. 91, as radius and 1 of Fig. 94 as center, describe
the arc 2. Then with 11 as center and 11 2 of Fig. 92 as radius describe an arc
in Fig. 94 intersecting the arc 2. Proceed in this manner, using alternately as
radii first the divisions in the profile A B in elevation, Fig. 91, then the lengths
of the dotted lines in Fig. 93, the intersected divisions in the pattern, Fig. 91,

then the length of the solid lines in Fig. 92, the last division, 6 7 in pattern, Fig.
i,oia Cornice Pattern Layouts

94, being obtained from 7' 6' or T U in plan Fig. 91. Trace a line through
points thus obtained in Fig. 94. Then will 1 6 7 12 be the pattern for the sides
of the bay, the miter cut 1 6 mitering with the cut A P
1 1
in pattern, Fig. 91,
while the cut 7 12 in Fig. 94 butts against the wall, indicated in elevation, Fig.
91, by A B.
 SECTION IX

(Pages 1,013-1,038)

SHEET METAL BOAT

PATTERNS
 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns 1,013

BOAT PATTERNS
TWO-PIECE SHEET METAL PRACTICE BOAT
It is not a very difficult job to make a boat shown in Fig. 1 and others can,

readily follow or modify this plan. To aid them the following description of the
methods used for making a small boat of metal, without the use of patterns, and
with no special machinery or models is presented for a light, fast boat —a little

Fig. 1. General View of Boat

cranky, it is true — easily and cheaply made and adapted to either paddle or oars.

This boat has proved perfectly safe in use, no defect in construction has appeared.

The present description will have nothing to do with pattern cutting, but will
be the method followed in evolving the boat. To begin with, two sheets of No.
27 galvanized iron or steel, 30 inches
wide and 96 inches long, should be
marked and turned up in the cornice
brake, as shown in Fig. 2. This
forms the keel and at the same time
provides the requisite stiffness for
the bottom. Both sheets should
now be formed up in the brake or over a large size pipe, to present the appearance

of a trough, as shown in Fig. 3. In one end of each trough should be nailed a

temporary wood brace about 1x4 inches, and of a length corresponding to the

beam of the boat, which in this case is 19 inches.

At the end opposite the brace the curve of the trough should be straightened

out, and the two sides brought to-

gether to form the prows. Each
piece will then look like one-half of Fig. 8. Forming the Hull
the boat, but with an exaggerated
sheer, and will present the appearance shown by Fig. In this operation care
4.

should be taken that the work be done a little at a time on each side, so that the
 1,014 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns

keel may not be unduly strained, as it is very important that it should remain per-
fectly straight. At the end of the prow the V-shaped keel should also be drawn
together, and both it and the curved sides gradually tapered out to the required
size at the middle. The two ends of
" ~~
v^> ,
A the prows may now be temporarily
V— . ... J fastened together by means of X 3-16
Fig. 4. Forming the Prow
inch stove bolts, and the corner at the
bottom cut on a curve, as shown by dotted lines in Fig. 4.

Having determined the amount of sheer desired in the finished boat, the sur-
plus metal should be cut away on a line marked for it. It should be remembered

that the amount of sheer may be governed somewhat by the bevel of the sides of
the boat at the top of the middle section. If the sides are perpendicular at the
point marked A in Fig. 4 there would be no sheer in the
finished boat, while the more the sides at that point are
inclined outward the more sheer will be produced. In the |T|

present boat the sheer is only 2 inches —that is, the depth \A_
at the prow is but 2 inches more than the depth at the
FlK ’ The Pr°w Piece
middle section. The sides of the boat may, therefore, be
practically perpendicular.
prow should now have all the buckles hammered out, which
The metal at the

may be done by using a smooth faced hammer on the inside and holding the
square head on the outside, thereby stretching the metal. The prow ends may then
be riveted together permanently. A piece of sheet iron should be cut the shape of
the prow, as shown in Fig. 5, about 1 34 inches wide, and so placed that the outer
edge should project about 34 inch beyond the metal of the sides at the prow.
Removing the temporary stove bolts, this piece should be riveted, together with
the two thicknesses of the metal at the prow, with rivets % inch apart, and the
projecting edge of the separate piece clinched over the raw edges of the prow. The
seam should then be thoroughly sweated with solder.
The air chambers should extend about 28 inches back
C from the points of the prows, and should be air tight
They are to prevent sinking should the boat fill with

Fig. 6. The Top of the Air Chamber

water. A piece cut the required size with 1-inch
flanges, and extended as shown at C in Fig. 6 should
be bent down at the dotted line A B. This forms the top and one end of the
air chamber, and should be riveted to the sides of the boat, so that the top of the
air chamber will be 134 inches below the top of the boat. The extension C, Fig. 6,
 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns 1,015

should be long enough so that it fits snugly in place, inclined at an angle, and
should be carefully soldered to the sides of the boat, instead of being riveted.
When this is done, the two parts of the boat (which should be alike) may be fitted
together at the middle.
Two boards with straight edges 1 inch apart should be nailed to a level floor.
The keel may be set down in the groove thus formed and a level used on the wood
braces. A few blocks nailed to the floor and marked at the hight of the sides will
enable the boat to be removed from these primitive stocks and replaced exactly as
before, without frequent recourse to the level and square. The two ends should
be accurately fitted ^igeiher with a lap of 1 inch and lightly tacked together with
solder. The boat should then be turned over and a chalk line stretched along the

keel. Any inaccuracies should be corrected, and the middle connecting seam
securely riveted with rivets % inch apart and soaked with solder inside and out-
side. The boat will then present the appearance shown in Fig. 7, which gives
both the plan and side elevation with dimensions.
The topsides, or gunwale, is composed of two strips of white pine with the
sheet iron between, and screwed together, with screws about 4 inches apart. The
inner strip which is % X 1)^ inches, receives
the heads of the screws. The outer strip is
% X inches and is made thicker in order
to more securely hold the tails of the screws,
Fig. s. Cross Section, showing Gunwale strip, as shown at A in Fig. 8.
The wood at the
Bottom Board and Oarlock Outriggers
extreme end of the prows should be rounded
at the points and bound with sheet copper fastened with small brass nails. To this
copper may be soldered a small tube, in which may be inserted the staff of a
small flag.
i,oi6 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns

The boat, or canoe, at this point weighs 35 pounds, and with a double bladed
paddle forms a very satisfactory fast canoe for use in comparitively quiet waters.
It may be painted to suit the individual taste. To transform it into a practice boat
the seat and oars may be added. These are entirely separate from the shell. A
white pine bottom board 1 foot wide, 4 feet long and 1 % inches thick is shaved to
fit the bottom of the shell near the middle section.
A pair of irons should be prepared by the blacksmith to fit loosely inside the
shell at that point, and extend out over the sides 12 inches, joining together at the
ends to receive the swivel oar locks, as shown in Figs. 8 and 9. These irons are
% inch round where they overhang the water and are flattened on the inside of
the boat. The under side of the bottom board is gouged out, so that the irons set
in the wood, and the irons are securely bolted to the board, taking care that the
bolts are countersunk, so that they do not scratch the shell of the boat. A foot
rest with braces and toe straps should be securely
screwed to one end of the board, and guiding
strips for the seat rollers fastened in about the
position shown in Fig. 8. Inside the guide
pieces, where the wheels are to run, two strips

of hard wood are inlaid to take the wear.

The roller seat should be gouged out of a
piece of white pine about 7 inches square, and
provided with rollers, which may be procured
at any hardware store. It should be borne in
mind that the lower the seat and rollers are
placed the steadier the boat will be. With such
a removable seat the position in the boat may
be varied to suit, and as both ends of the boat
are alike, the bottom board and seat may be
Fig, 9. Plan and Sid© Elevation of Seat reversed without necessitating the turning of the
and Outriggers
boat. Feathering spoon oars should preferably be
used, although it takes a little practice to become accustomed to the proper turning

of the wrist.
The cost of the material for the shell alone, including paint, should not be
more than $2.50. The time and trouble will be more than repaid by the pleasure
of one season’s use. The keel, as shown, would be insufficient for an ordinary
boat, but for such a boat it is ample, because the boat, when loaded, acts as a keel
for itself. It may be added that on one occasion a man weighing 150 pounds
 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns 1,017

shipped so much sank to a point where the water was

water into the boat that it

half way between hip and shoulders, and the boat was then rowed ashore in the
usual way, except that the boat itself was entirely under water.

CONSTRUCTING SHEET METAL BOATS ON SKELETON FRAMES

In shops doing this kind of work sheet metal boats are made in various sizes,
for which there are kept on hand skeleton frames of wood, giving the length and
beam of the boat and the various profiles throughout its entire length. These
frames are used over and over again if a boat is required of that particular size, or,

Fig. 4. Section of Skeleton Frame Made of Wood

B

PATTERNS FOR SHEET METAL BOATS

if a special size is needed, a new frame is made, and used as often as required.
In this way the various shapes accumulate and are kept in stock.
If, however, it is desired to make but one boat for pleasure use,
a skeleton

frame work of metal stays is built up full size. First draw the plan view of the

boat, as shown in Fig. 2 then draw and cut out of sheet metal the various shapes
;

or sections, full size, as shown in the end views in Fig. 3. These stays should be
 1,018 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns

soldered in their proper positions on the plan of the boat as in Fig. 2, and braces
placed between the stays to hold them in a vertical position. Now, whether the
skeleton frame is made of wood, as shown by the section in Fig. 4, or of metal, as
shown in Fig. 5, a notch must be cut at the top, as at A and A in Figs. 4 and 5,

to receive the keel of the boat, B.

This keel is made

hardwood and covered with No. 22 galvanized iron,
of

nailed with galvanized iron or brass nails, and the seams and nail heads thoroughly
soaked with half and half solder, using 10-pound soldering coppers for same. The
keel is then scraped well to obtain a smooth surface, when it is laid into the notches,
as shown in Figs. 4 and 5
The keel being in position, the skeleton of the boat is
.

placed upon a number of wooden horses or brackets, and the patterns for the gores
are obtained. Space off on the stays of the frame the number of gores required ;

in this case six, as shown in Figs. 1 and 4. In other words, as each profile or stay
varies in girth, each one must be divided into six equal spaces. From these spaces
run a chalk line or soft, thin copper wire from stem to stern, being careful that the
line touches each division on the stays. Then take some manila paper or very
thin tin foil and place it over the lines drawn, when an accurate pattern is the
result. These six gores, each being a different shape, are cut from No. 22 galvan-
ized iron, allowing laps for riveting.
The metal work is now constructed over the skeleton frame, starting on the
bottom at the keel, as shown by the gore piece 1 in Fig. 4. This gore piece is
flanged out 1 inch against the keel, as shown in Fig. 6 from A to B, and nailed with
galvanized iron or brass nails 1 inch long, and then thoroughly soaked with solder,
using heavy roofing coppers. The first gore piece will require some stretching with
the hammer to make it conform to shape desired, while the following gores 2 to 6
in Fig. 4, are formed up on a small roller similar to that shown in Fig. 7, C
showing the section. When a large number of various size boats are made, various
size male and female rollers are kept in stock, and placed in the standards A and
B and by means
;
of the handle shown, the gores are fed through the rolls until the
desired shape and radius are obtained. If a smaller or larger boat is being built,

the rolls are taken out of the standards and the required rolls replaced. Where,
however, but one boat is required the gores would have to be hammered up by
hand, by using the required size raising hammer and a block of wood or part of
the trunk of a tree about 12 inches diameter and 3 feet high, or on a block of
lead. Assuming that this has been done, gores Nos. 2 and 3 in Fig. 4 are then
placed in position, as shown in Fig. 8. By using a hand clamp the gore is tightly
fastened against gore No. 2. But before putting gore 3 over gore 2 take a brush
 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns 1,019

with thick metallic paint and paint the entire seam of inches on gore 2 or any
other number. On top of the painted seam put a strip of asbestos paper about as
thick as ordinary blotting paper, on top of which place gore 3. When riveting
use 2-pound rivets, tinned, and be sure that the holes punched will be no smaller
or larger than to just allow the rivet to fit snugly. Then rivet in a manner as
shown in Fig. 9, always placing the top and bottom rivets between each other so
close as to insure a tight joint. In this way all of the gores from 2 to 6 are
fastened.
Where the gores are placed over sheet metal sections as in Fig. 5 some pro-
vision must be made f
or fastening the reams, as they cannot be fastened with the
hand clamp. The seams can either be tacked temporarily with solder or wooden

A
V ~ V -

c
j
hVo
|
:r

BENCH

Fig. 7. Side View of Small Rollers Fig. J). Showing Manner of Riveting
Fig. 8. Showing Howthe Gores
Are Fastened in Position

PATTERNS FOR SHEET METAL BOATS

lookouts put in place. After the gores are riveted water tight, then where each
gore meets the stem and stern, as in Fig. 6, they are flanged so as to be nailed
with galvanized or brass nails, and thoroughly soldered with heavy coppers, as at
A and B. The stern of the boat at B is made of hard wood entirely covered on
both sides with galvanized iron nailed and soldered in the same manner as
described in connection with the keel. This, of course, is done before the gores

are put in position.

1,020 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns

The boat being finished thus far, the seams are set down so as to have a
smooth surface on the outside, as shown at A 1 in Fig. 4, then the hardwood rail
is placed at the top, as shown at I and J in Fig. 10, flanging the metal over the

top as shown, over which a half bead is placed to make a smooth finish, allowing
spaces for the row locks, as shown in K. In the bottom of the boat a tapped fer-
rule L, made of brass, is soldered, into which a threaded socket fits; then when
the boat is in use and some water should accumulate in the bottom, it can be easily
drained when the boat is not in use by unscrewing the socket, as is shown at L in
Fig. 10. When the keel projects on the inner side of the boat, as at A, this forms
the rest for the platform or foot rest B. C shows the seat resting upon the brackets
D and D. Band iron braces E and F, galvanized and made of 3-16 X 1 inch band
iron, are fastened to the rail and seat by means of wood screws as shown.

If desired, two air chambers can be put in the boat, one at the stem, the
other at the stern as shown by A and B in Fig. 11, which will at the same time form
a seat. These air chambers should be made of No. 20 galvanized iron, well riveted
and soldered. A rudder can be placed at the stern by placing two eyes in the stern,

onto which the rudder is hung by means of the two pins in same. In this connec-
tion it may be proper to say that if our correspondent desires the boat for his own
use, and he can obtain a wooden boat which has passed its usefulness, he can strip
off the outer covering, thus leaving the frame, which will be an excellent model

on which to construct the metal boat.

BUILDING METAL BOATS BY MEANS OF MODELS

The first thing to do in the building of boats is to make a small model on a
scale of 1 inch to the foot, of plaster of paris. To prepare this model, take a box of

dbdlii the size of the proposed model and fill it with plaster of paris, mixed quite
thin with water and stirred
well. After it has settled take
the box apart, dry the plaster
thoroughly and carve out the
model.
The next step is to cut the model into sections. This is done with a saw by
cutting perpendicularly through the center from end to end and on a line with the
keel. Take each half of the model and cut it across in sections 1 % inches long.
Fig. 1 shows a sketch of a model cut up in this way. The next Step is to take
 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns 1,0:21

each slice of the model and section it, as shown in Fig. 2 in reduced size, laying
out the lines equal distances apart and at right angles to one another, making
the squares about inch on a side. %
Now lay out the section full size, as shown
reduced in Fig. 3, to correspond with the
model. If the largest cross section in the

\
\
——— —-J "I

\
—
4
Pig, 2. Cross lioncd T.todol. Reduced

model is 4 inches, the p’au should be laid out 4 feet, since the scale, as stated
above, is 1 inch to the foot.

In the diagram, Fig. 3, the same number of spaces is lajd off as on the
model. Next trace the section line or profile through the spaces, which can be
done by transferring the points where the profile of the model cuts the sections in

Fig. 2 to corresponding points in Fig. 3. Repeat this operation with each of the

sections shown in Fig. 1. After having a full sized profile of each section, cut them
out of l-inch boards. Set the boards
or profiles 18 inches apart, or whatever
distance is right to correspond with the
scale of the model, and fasten these
profiles firmly together. If the boat is

a keel or round bottom boat, fit and

fasten the keel at the proper place to
thewooden stays. The keel can be
made of iron or hardwood. Now draw
horizontal lines on the edges of the
stays or frames and these lines will be a gauge to which to cut the strips for the

body of the boat.

The easiest way to cut the stripe is to lay the iron on the stays and mark out
the strips to correspond with the lines. The width of the strips depends on the
shape of the boat, and the builder must use his judgment in deciding what width
to cut them to. them together between the
Nail the strips to the stays and rivet
stays. If the ends of the boat are pointed and it is impossible to get between the

sides to rivet properly, take out the keel and cut the stays or frame in two from
end to end and then rivet the ends. Then fasten the stays together again and
1,022 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns

nail or rivet the keel to the iron. Take a strip of hardwood about 2X3 inches, or
angle iron and fasten it around the top edge, and then put in the ribs, which can
be of wood or light angle or tee iron, as preferred. The next operation is to take
out the stays and solder the boat on the outside. A cross section through the boat
is shown in Fig. 4. Make each end of the boat air tight and put water tight boxes
under the seats, which will make a life boat of it, as the air compartments will
prevent it sinking in case of idling with water. The first two coats of paint should
be of red lead.

SHEET METAL CANOE

The following is a description of a sheet metal canoe To begin with, it is :

made of six sections of No. 27 galvanized iron, 20 in. wide, straight and level on
the bottom It was made bottom side up, and was molded after the following
:

Fig. 5. Mold or Frame for Forming Canoe

fashion : A board 14 in. wide was taken of the desired length, in this case about
12 ft. long. This was fastened to the floor, and the shape resembled the sketch
presented in Fig 5, in which A A., etc., shows the length and depth of board.
The width of this board governs the depth of the boat, but the length can be
varied to suit the material and desire of the maker. At the center of this long
piece is connected two short pieces, B B, each half the width of the boat, and of
the shape indicated, with one corner rounded to whatever circle best suits the
ideas of the builder. For the outside edge of the bottom of the boat a 3-in. circle was
used. After these pieces were nailed to the centerpiece, thin, narrow strips of elm,
D D, were taken about % in. thick and 1 % in. wide, long enough to spring
around the short cross pieces B B, and were attached to the long centerpiece A A
at eacsh end. These pieces were bent so as to give the desired shape to the gun-
wale of the boat. The distance between the four other short cross pieces C C, on
which and over which the sheet iron is formed, is governed by the width of the

sheet iron used.

 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns i,°*3

In this boat, 26-inch iron was used. When the pieces C C are securely

fastened to A A and D D the mold for the canoe is ready for forming the sheet
iron sections and riveting them together. If 26-inch iron is used it will allow for

sections 25 in. long, after the laps are made. The shape of the finished canoe will
be governed by the shape of the frame or mold. The bow and stern sections
will have to be made in two pieces, with slits, as indicated at E, and made as
designated in Fig. 6, to be covered by
laps or patches to be riveted on and
soldered. These slits aid in forming

the bow and stern. The ends are

also slitted or notched to aid in form-

ing a strong, water tight joint at the
bow and stern. When the mold is

securely fastened together there is

Fig. 6. Pattern of Bow and Stern Pieces
some advantage in having it so it can

be lifted up and set on boxes, so as to avoid stooping to work on the floor

Itwould be necessary to set the mold up if a canoe was being made with some shear.
The work can best be started at one end, preferably the stern, to which the
skeg is attached in the center and in line with the bow. The stern
and stem pieces

shown in Fig. 6 should be notched about 1 in. apart. The other side should be
to break
notched in the same way, but the two parts should be connected, so as
the joints and alternate the notched parts turned
;
down so as to come even with
can lap over on the section
the extending piece on the other sections, so that they
proper and be riveted in place, and finally soldered heavily
by soaking. In order
greater carrying capacity these end pieces
to give a little fullness to the canoe and a
so that one edge of the cut can
should have a slit cut about midway of the section,
the straight line overlaps the
be lapped over the other, and the part drawn until
should be riveted in place. This will
oblique line shown at E, in Fig. 6, where it
make a hole at the top of the gore,
over which a patch must be riveted
and soldered, as shown by the
dotted lines. This will naturally
throw the bottom line of the bow
up a little, or out of a straight line
with the bottom, and will necessitate its being trimmed so as to be on a straight

line with the keel. A three-cornered bottom piece will be needed to connect

with the side pieces, as the practical man will learn and supply.
i,oa4 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns

l-lb. tinned rivets are used, placed % in. apart, putting the heads on the out-
side always, and soldering all over the rivets well on both sides ;
also the seam.
When the stern section has been snugly fitted temporarily to the first mold
board C C, then the next section of sheet iron can be fitted, which is compa-
ratively easy. When it is snugly fitted the next section is made, and finally the
bow section completed. Care must be taken to fit each section snugly and true,
and if this has been done all should be marked and the sections riveted together
and soldered. When this is done the shell of the canoe is ready for reinforcement
and the necessary fittings.

Good strips of elm or any other strong wood that will bend readily should be
used for the gunwale to stiffen the canoe, and they should be made 2 in. wide and
from % to 1 in. thick. Fit these on the inside and nail into position with clout
nails and clinch them on the inside. At the bow and stern fit in a piece or two of

wood of proper shape to which fasten chest handles for carrying the canoe, hanging
it up when not in use, and for attaching a line for mooring it. One can carry this
canoe easily Indian fashion, up with the gunwales resting on his
bottom side
shoulders. After these end pieces have been put in, a brace should be put across
the canoe about one-third the distance from each end, using i n iron pipe with
-

a blank flange on each end drilled with screw holes for fastening to the gunwales.
These braces, with the gunwales, keep the canoe from collapsing, the sheet iron
being strong enough otherwise to hold the shape of the canoe without the need
of ribs. This canoe is provided with outriggers for the purpose of rowing. For out-
riggers, 12-in. T hinges are used fastening the T part to the gunwale with stove bolts.
The long or strap part of the hinge will then fold into the canoe out of the way
when not in use. On the outer end of the strap are bolted U shaped pieces of iron
strong enough for row-locks.
On the outside of the canoe at the stern, and in line with the keel and bow,
a skeg should be fastened. The shape will be something like Fig. 7 before it is

formed into a sharp V on the line E F, and the edges turned on the lines G G
after holes are punched for riveting to the bottom of the stern piece. The skeg
will be stronger if the V is not too close at the point of connection with the canoe
bottom. The holes in the canoe bottom for the rivets are easiest made with a twist
drill of the proper size, using the skeg for a template to insure the holes being in
exactly the right place and to avoid forcing the skeg out of line. The rivets should

be put in the holes H I J K and the others

first afterward. It is easier to solder

the skeg to the bottom in proper alignment and drill the holes afterward. The
rivet heads should be on the outside of the canoe, thoroughly and smoothly
 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns 1,025

soldered. The skeg is about 30 in. long and 234 in- deep at the wide end. It should
be made smooth at the point where it is attached to the canoe so as to avoid catching
grass or anything to cause trouble. If attached on the proper line and made cor-
rectly it will greatly aid in keeping the canoe on a straight course when in motion.
Two cypress hoards are fastened together and fitted to the bottom to support
the seat box. There are no nails in these boards where they can scratch the metal
or possibly wear a hole. The seat box is 26 in. long, 12 in. wide and -8 in. deep.
It is covered with tin and soldered air-tight. This has two wire rings soldered on
each side and is fastened by means of cord to staples in the wooden bottom. Although
none were used it wo-..'d pernaps be better to place air chambers in the ends.

BUILDING SHEET METAL BOATS FROM GORES OR STRIPS

AV ith the constantly increasing scarcity of wood and the consequent advance
in the price of lumber, there has been a growing tendency for a number of years to
substitute other materials where formerly no one ever considered the use of any-
thing but wood. The principal of these displacing materials are the iron and steel

products, and accordingly sheet metal is used at the present time for a greater
variety of purposes than ever before. One line in which its economy and
practicability has been demonstrated for a number of years, and one in which it

might be used to a greater extent, is in the building of small boats. As far back as
1850 a sheet metal boat known as the Francis Patent Metallic Life Car was used in
life saving work off Squam Beach, N. J.

The accompanying illustrations will give an idea of the plans of constructing

two sheet metal boats followed by two men after regular shop hours, one doing the
metal work and his friend attending to the wood work. Each thus became the
possessor of a boat at but a slight cost in cash paid out over the actual cost of the
materials used.
As soon as the patterns were completed from sketches, work on the boats proper
was They are 15 ft. long, 42 in. broad, 15 in. high in the center and 22 in.
started.

at the bow and stern. Each boat as shown has a sharp bow and the stern is pointed
below the water line, flaring out as the top is approached until it is practically

square. The keel is made of white oak 134 in. thick and 134 in- deep, and dressed.
A triangular piece of wood 134 in- thick and about 3 ft. long was nailed on top of
the keel at the stern to form the skeg, and also a support for the board which was
used to form and reinforce the stern. The stem post was then fitted on to strengthen
the bow. It is made of hardwood and forms an extension to the keel. Both the
i,oa6 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns

bow post and the stern board are covered with metal of the same weight as the
shell of the boat.
The shell is made from five pairs of gores or strips of metal cut from 8 ft. stock,

with joints broken amidships. The first two gores, marked 5 in the drawings, one
on each side of the keel, were flanged, so that they formed up against the side of

the keel and lapped across the lower edge as shown in the cut. At the stern these
strips were drawn up from the keel, leaving it bare and forming a covering for a
portion of the skeg. Two sheets were then cut to extend from these strips down

1K"oaiV. 8AN0 IRON

Fig. 1. A Sheet Metal Boat and its Various Parts

and lap under the keel. These sheets were then riveted through the skeg. A band
of iron % X V/± in. was laid on the under edge of the keel, lapping on to the rear
of the by brass screws \]/^ in. long, spaced a few inches apart
skeg and fastened to it

and countersunk. At the bow this band is rounded and curves up to the bow post
as a support. The seams between the metal strips and the iron band were soldered
to make a water tight joint.
The keel was marked off into 5-in. spaces for the location of the ribs. The next
pair of gores, 4, were cut and placed in position with practically no forming. Each
strip was fastened to the lower one by tinned rivets, there being three in the space
 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns 1,027

between each pair of ribs. The next two pairs of strips had to be raised on a block
with a raising hammer, on the first pair, the raising being commenced about 3 ft.

from either end and on the next about 2 ft. from either end. The amount
of the boat

of the raising was determined by the eye and by trying, and did not take over two
hours’ labor for each boat. The fifth and last sections, No. 1, were then cut, and
as in the previous cases riveted to the lower gores. As the different sections were
put in place they were lapped around the bow post and riveted through and also
through the stern board. Special care was taken to have the rivets neither too large
nor too small for the holej and they were staggered with the row on the gore below.
Ribs of elm % in. wide and 5-16 :
n. thick were placed in position on 5-in.
centers and were fastened to each gore by a copper rivet and washer and nailed to
the keel. These served to give ample stiffness to the boat. A strip of wood
% X 4 in. was placed around the boat flush with the top ou the outside, and a metal
strip 34 x2 in. on the inside to form the gunwale. A 34 i n bead was then placed
-

around the upper edge, leaving spaces for the oar locks. A metal air chamber was
constructed in each end, and afterward all seams soldered on the outside of the

boat. A removable board was placed in the bottom to protect it and held in place
by small clips on two longitudinal stays. Another longitudinal stay was next
placed in position on each side to form a support for the seats, which were made
from 1-in. lumber and braced by light iron strips. The ends of the boat were
decked in and the stern seat put in place. By way of giving the boat a finished
appearance, brass rails were put on the decks, and for convenience in hitching the
boat a ring was attached to the bow. The boats were now ready to be painted.

The first two coats consisted of red lead and the finishing coats to suit the taste of

the owner. In constructing such boats, patterns may be dispensed with if the sheet

metal worker can obtain some discarded wooden boat of the desired shape, or if
such is not available and he does not desire to make his own patterns from scale
drawings they can be purchased from companies in that line of business.

PATTERNS FOR A SHEET METAL BOAT DEVELOPED

BY TRIANGULATION
To develop the patterns for the various gores in a sheet metal boat, when the
seams run longitudinally proceed as follows: In laying out the patterns in Figs. 1
and 2, five gores have been used in the construction of the boat, so as to avoid a
confusion of lines in so small a drawing. In practice, however, any number of
gores can be used, applying the principles which will follow.
1,028 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns

Let ABC D, Fig. 1, represent the side elevation of the boat. Establish
where the extreme width of the boat shall be, in this case on the vertical line 1) 57,
and parallel to this line draw the center line E F at the left and E° F° at the right.
Set off from these two center lines the half width of the keel, as shown at the left
and right by v 57° and v° 57° respectively. In line with 9 57 in the side elevation
draw the normal or given profile 9° a 57°, or as shown by P at the left and P° at

the right. This given profile forms the basis, from which the various proportional
vertical sections will be obtained. From a the widest part of the profile P, draw a
horizontal line intersecting the line 9 57 in side elevation at a. From A through
a' to D draw the dotted curved line, which will represent the extreme outer edge
of the boat in elevation.

The drawing of the plan is now in order. Draw any horizontal line as G H,
on either side of which place a duplicate of the half section P, as shown in plan by
9 a 57 on both sides. Project the line 9 57 in elevation and intersect it by hori-
zontal lines drawn from a and a in the true section, thus obtaining a and a" in
plan. Extend the keel lines from 57 in the true sections and intersect them by
lines projected from A, b and D in elevation as shown by b b', A A and D D in 1 1

plan respectively. From

9 and 9 in the true section, draw horizontal lines inter-
secting the line a a' at 9 and 9 respectively. Draw a graceful curve from
' to 9 A
to D in plan, which will be the plan view of the boat when looking down on the
line A D in elevation.
In a similar manner draw a graceful curve b a D in plan, which represents a
horizontal view on the line b a I) in elevation. Continue a graceful curve from
D a in plan to A as shown by the dotted curved linfe a A. Then A a D shows
a horizontal view of the extreme outline of the boat when viewed from the top, on
the line A a D in elevation.
These lines A a D in elevation and A a D in plan are used for obtaining
the extreme widths of the proportional sections. If desired, the lower half plan
shown by b' a" D 1
and D 1
9" A 1
can be duplicated from the upper half, although
this is not necessary in the developments of the patterns. In this case we will
assume that the boat is to be made
shown by the profile P at the
in five gores, as

left, which has been divided into five parts as indicated by the heavy dots. Establish
at pleasure where the gores are to turn upward and place this point in its proper

position as indicated by 6 in the side elevation in Fig. 1, from which drop a vertical
line intersecting the top edge of the boat in plan, also at 6. Divide the curve 6 A
into as many spaces as the boat is to contain gores, five in this case, as shown by
the heavy dots G to 1. At pleasure locate a series of planes through the left half
 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns 1,029

of the boat in the side elevation as

shown by the planes 8 58, 7 59, 6 60, 6 61,
6 62 and 6 63, which will intersect the dotted curved line A a in elevation at
c d e f i and k respectively.

From these small letters c to k in elevation, project perpendicular lines into

the plan, cutting the dotted curved line A a, also at c d e f i and k respectively.
In a similar manner project 7 and 8 in elevation into the plan, and obtain the
points 7 and 8 as shown.
The next step is to obtain the proportional vertical views on the various planes
9 to A in elevation. A* the planes 8 58, 7 59, and 6 60 in side elevation stand
in a vertical position, tne sections which will be obtained on these planes will show
their true shape.
From the points 8, 7 and 6; c, d and e\ 58, 59 and 60, draw horizontal lines
to the left until they meet the center line E F as shown. Measuring from the
MDPOUTIONAL sections

Fig. 1 Plan, Elevation and Method of Finding Proportional Vertical Section of Sheet Metal Boat

center line G H in plan take the projections to 8, and 6 to c d and e, and

7 ;

place them on drawn from similar letters

lines just and numbers in the Bide eleva-
tion, measuring in each instance from the line E F, thus obtaining the points of

intersections 8°, 7° and 6°; c cf and e respectively. Through the points 8°, c°,
1,030 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns

58° draw the profile O, giving it a proportional taper to the profile P. Through
points 7°, <2°, 59°, draw the profile N in proportion to the profile O. In a similar
manner through the points 6°, e°, 60° draw the profile M, giving it a proportional
taper to the profile N. These four profiles M, N, 0, P, then represent the true
sections on the planes drawn from 6, 7, 8 and 9 in the side elevation.
From the lower part of the planes at 61, 62 and 63 in the side elevation draw
horizontal lines to the left until they intersect the keel line drawn from v, at 61°,
62° and 63°. From points /, i and k in the side elevation, draw horizontal lines
to the left until they intersect the center line E F as shown. Measuring from the
center line GH and k and place them on
in plan take the distances to points /, i

similar lettered lines just drawn from the side elevation, measuring from the line
E F and obtaining the points f°, i° and k°. Through the points 6°, f°, and 61°
draw a profile in proportion to the profile M, which will represent a vertical view
on the plane 6 61 in the side elevation. In a similar manner through the points
6°, 1 62° and 6°, k°, 63° draw graceful profiles in proportion to one another as
,

shown. These last two profiles 6°, 62° and 6°, 63° represent the vertical views on
the planes 6 62 and 6 63 in the side elevation.
The next step is to find the true sections on the planes 6 61, 6 62 and 6 63
in the side elevation, as follows: At pleasure establish any point as l on the plane
6 63; another at to on the plane 6 62, and two more at n and 0 on the plane 6 61.
From these points l, to, n and 0 draw horizontal lines to the left until they inter-
,

sect the proper view, as indicated by f, to’, ri and o'. Take the various divisions
on the planes in side elevation, as 6 k l 63, 6 i to 62, 6fn 0 61, and place them as
shown by similar letters and numbers on the vertical lines to the right of the plan
view, in the diagrams J, K and L respectively.
From the divisions on the vertical lines in J, K and L draw perpendicular
lines indefinitely as shown. Measuring from the keel line v 57° in the sections to

the elevation, take the various distances to points 6°/“

>

the left of ri 0 and place

them on similar lines in diagram L measuring from the line 6 61, thus obtaining
the points 6 f° ri o’. Through the points trace a graceful profile as shown, which
will represent the true section on 6 61 in the side elevation.
In a similar manner, measuring from the keel line v 57°, take the distances
to points 6° 1 m', also to 6° k° 1 , and place them on similar lettered and numbered
lines in the diagrams K and J respectively, thus obtaining the points of intersection
shown by similar letters and numbers. Draw the profile from 6“ to 62 and from
6° to 63, which will represent respectively the true sections on the planes 6 62 and
6 63 in the side elevation.
 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns I/03 1

These planes which are shown drawn through points 10, 11, 12 and 13 in the
side elevation cannot be drawn at pleasure, but must be located in a manner which

will be described as we proceed. To avoid a confusion of lines which would other-

wise take place in so small a space, take a tracing of the side elevation of the boat
ABCD, with the various planes 9 57, 8 58, 7 59, 6 60, 6 61, 6 62 and 6 63,
and place it as shown by A B C D 1 x x x
in the side elevation in Fig. 2, also repro-
ducing the planes just mentioned as shown by similar numbers.
In a similar manner reproduce the half plan b a shown by D A in Fig. 1 as
x x
b a 14' T in Fig. 9, placing it in line with the elevation as shown. Take a
tracing of the divisions from 1 to 9 in the plan in Fig. 1 and place them in a
similar position in the half plan in Fig. 2, as shown from T to 9'. Take tracings
of the true profiles .1, K, I., M, N, O, P, in Fig. 1, and place them as shown by

J° K° L° M° N° 0° and P° in Fig. 2.

As the boat in this case is to contain five gores, divide the sections J°, K° and L°
each into five equal spaces, as shown from 6° to 63, 6° to 62 and 6° to 61 respectively.
From these points perpendicular to the vertical lines, draw lines intersecting the
vertical line at 25, 26, 46, 47 in J°; at 24, 27, 45, 48 in K°, and at 23, 28, 44 and
49 in Take the various divisions on 6 63 in J°, 6 62 in K° and 6 61 in L° and
L°.

place them on similar numbered planes in the side elevation, thus obtaining similar
numbered intersections as shown by the heavy dots. From the intersections 1' to 6'
in the half plan, project lines into the elevation, cutting the top line of the boat
from 1 to 6 as shown.
8
In the true sections, P represents the given profile, which is also divided into

five equal spaces as shown, from which points lines are drawn perpendicular to
9 57, intersecting this line at 19, 32, 40 and 53. Take these divisions on 9 57 in
P° and place them as shown by similar numbers on the plane 9 57 in the side
elevation.
Through the various intersections on the planes 6 1,6 63, 6 62, 6 61 and
9 57 in the side elevation, draw graceful free-hand curves, representing the longi-
tudinal joints as follows: From 5 through 25, 24, 23, 19 to 14, which gives the
elevation of A or the first gore ;
from 2 through 47, 48, 49, 53, then continue with
a graceful curve until meets the bow at 55, which gives the elevation of the fifth
it

gore E. Divide this distance between 55 and 14 into as many parts as the boat is
to have gores, minus the first and last gore. As the boat in this case is to have
five gores, then the space between 55 and 14 is divided into three parts as shown
by 36 and 37.

Complete the other two longitudinal joint lines by drawing graceful sweeps
1,032 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns

from 4 through 26, 27, 28, 32 to 36 ;

from 3 through 46, 45, 44, 40 to 37. Thus
the drawing of these last two joint lines gives the elevation of the second gore B,
the third gore C and the fourth gore D. Where these joint lines intersect the bow
of the boat at 36, 37 and 55, this gives the location from which the vertical planes
are erected as 36 13, 37 12 and 55 11.

Establish another point between 1 1 and 9 as 10, and draw the vertical plane
10 56. By following the points of intersections in the side elevation, it will be
found that they have been numbered starting at 1 to 14, to 25, to 26, to 36, to 37,
to 46, to 47, to 55, to 56, to 63.

Where the longitudinal joint lines cut the planes 6 60, 7 59 and 8 58 at from
22 to 50, 21 to 51, and 20 to 52 respectively, take the various divisions on 6 60,
TRUE SECTIONS ON THE VARIOUS PLANES IN 8TDE ELEVATION
 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns *<°33

7 59and 8 58 and place them on similar numbered lines in the true sections as
shown by similar numbered intersections on the vertical lines 6 60, 7 59 and
8 58 in the profiles M°, N° and 0°. From these intersections on the vertical lines
draw lines at right angles to 6 60, intersecting the profile M° at 22°, 29°, 43°

and 50°, which divisions will give the proper girth when laying out the patterns.

In a similar manner at right angles to the vertical lines in N° and 0° from

the various intersections on same, lines are erected until they cut the profiles
as shown.
It now becomes necessary to find the true sections on the planes 10 56,

11 55, 12 37 and 13 36 in the side elevation as follows : Take a tracing of these

I >°34 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns

various planes in 9 I) x 57 in the side elevation and place them as shown by

similar numbers in the half elevation 9 D 57 in Fig. 1, noting where the planes
cross the extreme outer edge of the boat at r, $ and t. Extend the planes into the
plan, so as to obtain similar intersections 10, 11, 12 and 13 for the top edge of
the boat, and r, s and t for the outer extreme edge of the boat. The various inter-
sections in elevation give the hights of the profiles to be found, while the various
intersections in plan will give the projections.
To find the proportional true sections on the planes 10 50, 11 55, 12 37 and
13 36 proceed as follows : From the intersections 36, 37, 55 and 56 in the side
elevation draw horizontal lines to the right, intersecting the keel line v° 57° at
36°, 37°, 55° and 56° respectively. In a similar manner from the intersections
10, r, 11, s, 12, t and 13 in the side elevation, draw horizontal lines until they
intersect the center line E° F° as shown by similar numbers. Measuring from the
line G H in plan take the various projections to points 10, r, 11, s, 12, t and 13
and place them on lines drawn from similar numbers in the elevation, measuring
in each instance from the center line E° F°, and obtaining the points of inter-

sections 10°, r°, 11°, s°, 12°, f and 13°.

Through the intersections 10°, r°, 56° draw the profile R in tapering propor-
tion to the profile P°. Through the points 11°, s°, 55° draw the profile S in pro-
portion to the profile R. In a similar manner through points 12°, t°, 37° draw the
profile T in proportion to S, and through points 13° 36° the profile U in propor-

tion to T. Then will the profiles R, S, T and U represent the true sections
through the planes 10 56, 11 55, 12 37 and 13 36 respectively in the side
elevation.
Take a duplicate of the profile R, S, T and U and place them in Fig. 2 as
shown by R°, S°, T° and U°. Now take the various intersections on the plane
10 56 in the side elevation and place* them on the vertical line 10 56 in the true
section R°. At right angles to 10 56 from the intersections 18, 33, 39, 54 draw
lines cutting the profile as shown by similar numbers. In a similar manner trans-
fer the intersections from the planes 11 55, 12 37 and 13 36 in the side eleva-
tion, on numbered vertical lines in the true sections S°, T° and U° and
to similar
obtain the intersections on the outlines of the profiles as stfiown.
Thus it will be noted that only the true sections J°, K°, L° and the given
section or profile P° have been equally spaced ;
all the spaces on the balance of the
true sections are unequal. This becomes necessary, so that graceful sweeps can be
obtained along the longitudinal joints in the side elevation. Thus if all the true
sections were divided into equal spaces, and these divisions projected to the vertical
 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns J >°35

line in the section, thence to the corresponding plane in elevation, the joint line
would become zig-zag, owing to the changing of each profile on the planes in
elevation.
Connect by dotted lines the shortest opposite points in the side elevation as
from 22 to 7, 21 to 8, 20 to 9, etc., as shown. These solid and dotted lines in
elevation then represent the bases of sections which must now be constructed,
whose altitudes are equal to the various hights shown by similar numbers in the
various true sections. The true lengths on the various planes in elevation are
shown by similar numbers in the true sections.
To find the true length of the shown from 1 to 6
upp^r edge line of the boat
in the elevation, take the girth from 1 to fi and place it as shown on the vertical
line in H°. Through these small figures perpendicular to 6 1 draw lines making
them equal in length to the distances measured from the line b* 6* in plan to
points T to 6'. A line traced through points thus obtained in H° as shown from
2° to 6° will be the true length of the upper line of the boat from 1 to 6 in
elevation.
Next, to find the true length of the upper line 6 14, take this girth and place
T
it on the horizontal line 6 14 below the plan as shown by similar numbers,
T
through which at right angles to 6 14, draw lines indefinitely as shown. Measur-
ing from the line 6* 14' in plan take the various divisions to points 6' to 13' and
place them on similar numbered lines in A 2
,
measuring in each instance from
T
6 14, thus obtaining the points of intersections 6° to 13°. A line traced through
these points will give the true lengths along the upper edge of the boat 6 14 in
elevation, and this developed section on 6 14 in the side elevation, will be
known hereafter as A 2
.

To obtain the true length of the joint line 5 14 in side elevation, take the
various divisions 5 to 25, to 24, to 23, etc., up to 14 and place them on any verti-

cal line as H J as shown by similar numbers. Through these numbers at right

angles to H J draw lines as shown, making them equal in length to the various

hights in the true sections having similar numbers, measuring always from the
vertical lines in the various sections.
For example, to find the true length of 18 19 in the side elevation, place this
distance on the line H J as shown from 18 to 19, from which points erect the
perpendicular 18 18° and 19 19° equal respectively to the distances 18 18° in the
true section R° and 19 19° in the true section P°. Then a line drawn from 18° to
19° in B* will be the true length desired. In this way, all of the true lengths

in B* are obtained.
 i,°3 6 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns

Take the various divisions on the joint line 4 36 in the side elevation and
place them on the vertical line K L, from which points lines are erected equal in
length to similar numbered hights in the true sections. As no two sections are
numbered alike, no mistake can occur in finding the proper distance to be placed
in C 2 in which the solid irregular line shows the true lengths of the various
divisions required. In a similar manner take the girth of the various spaces in the
joint lines 3 37 and 2 55 in the side elevation and place them on the vertical lines

J M and N 0 respectively as shown by similar numbers. From these small

figures, perpendiculars are drawn, equal to similar numbered distances in the
proper true sections or profiles, thus giving the true lengths in diagrams
D 2
and E 2
.

In the side elevation, the various gores have been lettered A B C D and E.
To find the true lengths of the dotted lines in A, take the various lengths of 7 22,
8 21, 9 20, etc., and place them on any line as P P x as shown by similar num-
2
bers in F ,
setting each inside of one another, to save space. From these small
figures on P P! in F 8
,
erect perpendiculars equal to the various projections of
similar numbered points in the true sections. Thus to find the true length of 8 21
in the gore A in side elevation, take this distance and set it off on the line P I\ as
shown by 8 21. From 8 and 21 erect the perpendiculars 8 8° and 21 21° equal
to similar numbers in the true sections A and N°.
2
The distance from 8° to 21° in
F2 then gives the true length of the line 8 21 in gore A in side elevation.
In a similar manner take the lengths of the various dotted lines in gore B in
side elevation, also placing them upon the line P P and x obtain the true lengths of
these lines as indicated in diagram G 2
. In precisely the same manner take the
various lengths of the dotted lines in gores C, D and E in the side elevation and
place them as shown by similar numbers on the lines S T and U V respectively,
making the vertical hights in these three diagrams H 2 J* and K 2 equal to similar ,

hights in the various true sections. As before mentioned, no mistake can occur in
finding these true lengths as every point has a different number.
No true lengths need be found along the bottom of the boat 1 57 14, as this
line shows its true length. The true sections having been found, also the various
true lengths on all in the side elevation, the various patterns are now
points shown
in order, and we will begin with the gore A in the side elevation starting at 6 6.
Take the distance of 6° 5° in the true section H 6
,
and place it as shown by 6 5
in the pattern shape A*. Using 6 as center and 6° 25° in the section J°, 6° 24°
e s
in the section K ,
6° 23° in the section L° and 6 22° in the section M° as radii,
draw the various arcs in the pattern A 8
as shown by 25, 24, 23 and 22. Using 5 as
 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns i,°37

center and 5 25 in the true lengths in B 2 as radius, intersect the arc 25

in A® as shown. Again using the divisions in B 2 from 25° to 24°, 24° to 23° and
23° to 22°, set them off in the pattern A®, as shown by the intersections 25 to 24,
24 to 23 and 23 to 22. Draw lines from 22, 23, 24 and 25 to 6.
With 6 7° in the developed section A 2
as radius, and 6 in the pattern A® as
center, describe the arc 7, which intersect by an arc struck from 22 as center, and
22° 7° in the true lengths in F 2
as radius. Now with 22° 21° in the diagram B2
as radius, and 22 in the pattern A® as center, describe the arc 21, which intersect
by an arc, struck fr <m 7 as center, and 7° 21° in the true section N° as radius.
Proceed in this manner, using alternately first the proper division in A 2
,
then the
true length in the diagram F 2
;
the proper division in B 2
,
then the proper length
shown along the profile in the true section, until the intersection 14 in the pattern
A® has been obtained, which completes the pattern for the gore A in side elevation.
The pattern for gore B is shown by B®. The spaces along 5 14 are obtained
from the spaces along 5 14 in the lower part of the pattern A®. The length of the
dotted lines in B® are obtained from the true lengths in G 2
,
while the length of the
solid lines in B® are obtained from the curved parts of the various true sections of
similar numbers. The divisions along the lower edge in the pattern B® are taken

from the true lengths in C2 excepting the distance 36 14

,
in the pattern B®, which
is taken from 36 14 in the side elevation which shows its true length.

The pattern for the gore C is shown by C®. The divisions along the upper

edge are taken from the lower edge of B®, the divisions along the lower edge in C®
are obtained from the true lengths in D 2
,
excepting 36 37 in C®, which is taken
from the side elevation. The length of the solid and dotted lines in C® are taken
respectively from the curved profiles in the true sections and the true lengths in
diagram H 2
. So in D®, which represents the pattern for the gore D, the divisions
along the upper edge line are obtained from the divisions in the lower edge line in
pattern C®. The divisions along the lower edge in D®, being obtained from the
true lengths in E2 ,
excepting the division 37 55 in D®, which is obtained from sim-
ilar numbers in the side elevation. The lengths of the solid and dotted lines in

the pattern D® are taken respectively from the divisions in the curved profiles in
2
the true sections having similar numbers and the true lengths in the diagram J .

The last pattern against the keel, shown in side elevation by E, is shown
developed by E®. The divisions along the upper edge line are obtained from the
divisions in the lower edge line in the pattern D® while the divisions along the
lower edge line of the pattern E® are obtained from the lower line of the boat in
the side elevation which shows its true length along the keel, as shown by similar
1.038 Sheet Metal Boat Patterns

numbers. The lengths of the various solid and dotted lines in the pattern E# are
obtained respectively from the proper numbered divisions in the curved profiles in
the true sections and the slant lines in diagram K 2
.

The pattern for the keel strip, following the continuation of the wooden keel,

is simply a rectangular piece of metal shown in the diagram F® and is developed as

follows : Take the girth from 1 to 63 to 62 to x in the side elevation, and place it

asshown by similar numbers in F making

6
,
the width I 1" as wide as the width of
1
the wooden keel, or twice the width of 6 in the one-half plan. This completes
all of the patterns, to which laps must be allowed for nailing to the wooden keel,

as well as for riveting the overlapping longitudinal joints.

The various gores must be raised or stretched to conform to the various true
sections shown. When raising the various gores, the various true full-size sections
should be cut out, flanges allowed and nailed on the proper plane line in the full-

size side elevation placed on the floor. This then gives a model, after which the
various gores can be fitted and then riveted and the joints and rivets sweated with
solder. The seats at each end of the boat should be made up in the form of an
air-tight compartment, to keep the boat from sinking if overturned.
 SECTION X
(Pages 1,039-1,090)

GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS AND

MENSURATION
 Geometrical Problems 1,039

Geometrical Problems
Geometrical Problems. —The following problems illustrating
how various geometrical figures are constructed, are to be
solved by the use of pencil, dividers, compasses, and scale.
Many of these problems are such as are encountered in sheet
metal work in laying out patterns. Proficiency in the solution
of these problems will be of value to draughtsmen.

Problem 1. —To bisect or divide into two equal parts a straight line or arc
of a circle.

In fig. 132, from the ends AB, as centers, describe arcs cutting each
other at C and D, and draw CD, which cuts the line at E, or the arc at F.

Fig. 132. Problems 1 and To a a

3. bisect straight line or arc of circle and to erect a per-
pendicular to the line which is a radial line to the arc.

Fro. 133 . —Problem 3 To erect a perpendicular to a straight line, from a given point in that
line.
 1,040 Geometrical Problems

Problem 2. — To draw a perpendicular to a straight line, or a radial line

to an arc.

In fig. 132 the line CD is perpendicular to AB, moreover, the line CD,
is radial to the arc AFB.

Problem 3. —To erect a perpendicular to a straight line, from a given point

in that line.

In fig. 133 with any radius from any given point A, in the line BC,
describe arcs cutting the line at B
and C. Next, with a longer radius de-
scribe arcs with B
and C, as centers, intersecting at D, and draw the
perpendicular DA.

Fig. 135 . —Problem 3 . Third method ( boat builder’s laying down method).

Second method. In fig. 134 from any center F, above BC describe a

through the given point A, and cutting the given line at D;
circle passing
draw DF, and produce it to cut the circle at E; now draw the perpendicular
AE.
Third method {boat builders' laying down method)— In fig. 135 let MS
be the given line and A, the given point. From A, measure off a distance
AB, say 4 ft. With centers A and B, and radii of 3 and 5 ft. respectively,
describe arcs F and L, intersecting at C. Draw a line through A and C-
which will be the perpendicular required.
Fourth method.— In fig. 136, from A, describe an arc EC, and from E,
with the same radius, the arc AC, cutting the other at C; through C, draw
 ——

Geometrical Problems 1,041

a line ECD, and set off CD, equal to CE, and through D, draw the perpen-
dicular AD.
Problem 4. —To erect a perpendicular to a straight line from any point
without the line .

In fig. 137, from the point A, with a sufficient radius, cut the given line
at F and G; and from these i>oints describe arcs cutting at E. Place
triangle on points A and E, and from A, draw perpendicular to line GF
Second melhoi —
in fig. 138, from any two points, B,C, at some distance
apart, on the given line, and with the radii BA, CA, respectively, describe
arcs cutting at A ana D. Place triangle on points A and D, and draw the
perpendicular AD.

J
/
/
/
/

FlG. 136. Problem 3. Fourth method .

the
FlG. 137. Problem 4 Td erect a perpendicular to a straight line, from any point without
.

line. If there be no room below Lhe line, the intersection may be taken
above the line, that
is to say, between the line and the given po.nt.

C B

Problem 4. Second method.

Fig. 138.
Through a given point to draw a line parallel with a given line.
Fiq. 139 .—Problem 5.
 —

1,042 Geometrical Problems

Problem 5. -Through a given point to draw aline parallel with a given line*

In fig. 139, with C, as center describe an arc tangent to the given line
AB; the radius will then equal distance from given point to the given line.
Take a point B, on line remote from C, and with same radius, describe an
arc. Draw a line through C, tangent to this arc and it will be parallel to
the given line AB.

Second method.- In hg. 140, from A, the given point, describe the arc
FD, cutting the given line at F; from F, with the same radius, describe
the arc EA, and set off FD, equal to EA. Draw the parallel through the
points AD.
A/ iP

FiC. 140.—Problem 5. Second method.

Fig. 141 . —Problem 6. To divide a line into a number of equal parts.

Problem €. —To divide a line into a number of equal parts.

In fig. 141 assuming line AB, is to be divided into say 5 parts, draw a
diagonal line AC, and space off 5 unit lengths. Join B5, and through the
points 1,2,3, 4, draw lines 1/, 2a, etc. parallel to B5, then will AB, be divided
,

A
into five equal parts, l, la, ar, rf, and/B.

Problem 7. Upon a straight line to draw an angle equal to a given angle.

In figs. 143 and 144 let A, be the given angle and FG, the line.
 Geometrical Problems 1,043

With any radius from the points A and F, describe arcs DE, and IH, cut-
ting the sides of the angle A, and the line FG.

Set off the arc IH, equal to DE, and draw FH. The angle F. is equal to
angle A, as required.

Problem 8. — To bisect an angle.

In fig. 145, let ACB, be the angle; with center C, describe an arc

FlC. 142.—To a given line into any number of equal parts without dividers. Let
divide
M S be the and say it is to be divided into seven equal parts. Erect perpendiculars
line
M
X, and place scale at such angle
M X*and S Y Lay the O, mark of the scale on the line
line L F, and mark the inch divisions as shown.
that coincides with line S Y. Draw a light
With a triangle and T square draw lines from the points on L
F, to S, cuttingM S, at 1, 2, M
3, etc., which divide M
S, into seven equal parts.

.—Problem 7. Upon a straight lint to draw an angU equal to a given angle.

Figs. 143 and 144
 :

Geometrical Problems 1,045

In fig. 146, draw any chord as MS. With and S, as centers and anyM
radius, describe arcs L,F, and L',F', and a line through their intersection,
giving a diameter AB. Applying same construction with centers and B, A
describe arcs ef, and e' f. A line drawn through the intersections of these
arcs will cut AB, at O, the center of the circle.

Problem 9. —Second method. To find the center of a circle.

In 147, select three points. A, B,C, in the circumference, well apart

fig.

with the same radius describe a~cs from these three points cutting each
other, and draw two lines DE, FG
through their intersections. The
point O, where they cut is the center of the circle or arc.

Problem 10. — To describe a circle passing through three given points .

In fig. 147, let A,B,C, be the given points and proceed as in last problem
to find the center O, from which the circle may be described. This problem

Fig. 149 . —Problem 12. To draw a tangent to a circle from a given point in the circumference.

is work as laying out objects of

useful in such large diameter as an arch,
when the span and rise are given.

Problem 11. —Through two given points to describe an arc of a circle with
a given radius.
In fig. 148, take the given points A and B, as centers, and, with the
given radius, describe arcs cutting at C; from C, with the same radius,
describe the required arc AB.

Problem 12.— To draw a tangent to a circh from a given point in the cir-
cumference .

In 149 from point A setoff equal segments

fig. AB, AD; join BD, and
draw AE, parallel with it, for the tangent.
 .

1,046 Geometrical Problems

Problem 13. —On a given straight line A5, to construct any regular polygon
say a pentagon.

In fig. 150 produce the given side A5, say to the left With center A, and .

radius A5, describe a semi-circle. Divide the semi-circle into as many equal
parts as the polygon is to have sides; in this case 5 equal parts, by trial with

Fig. 150 ; —Problem 13. On a given straight line , to construct a regular polygon

compasses. From A, draw A2, which gives another side of the polygon;
and no matter how many sides the polygon is to have, always draw from
A, to the second division on the semi-circle. Bisect the sides 2 A, A 5, by
lines 6 7, and 8 7, intersecting at point 7, which is the center of the polygon.
With center 7, and radius 7 A, describe the circle. Mark off, on the circum-
ference, the divisions 2C, CD, equal to A5. Joint 2C, CD, D5. Then
A2CD5, is the required regular polygon.
 —

Geometrical Problems 1,047

Problem 14. —To ascertain approximately, the length of the circumference

of a given circle .
In fig. 151, draw a diameter AB. Find centerC. Draw AD, perpendicular
to AB, and 3 times the length of the radius. Draw BE, perpendicular to AB.
With 30° triangle, draw angle BCH
= 30°. Mark joint J, on BE. Join
J D. Then line J D, is (approximately) equal to half the circumference; and
twice J D
= the whole circumference. This method is sufficiently accurate
for all practic'.i v crV because the result
, is wrong only by about a
100,000

FlC. 151. Problem 14. To ascertain approximately, the length of the circumference of a given
circle.

part. This problem helps, to ascertain approximately, the length of certain

portions of the circumference. Thus of JD = K %
of the circumference.
Archimedes demonstrated that the diameter is to the circumference,
within a minute fraction, as 7 is to 22, or 1 to 3 1 / 7 . Thus, for all practical
purposes, it may be assumed that if the diameter = 1 in., the circumference
= 3lh
ins. To describe* a circle having a circumference equal to the cir-
cumferences of any number of given equal or unequal circles: Draw a line
equal to the sum of the diameters of the given circles. This line is the dia-
meter of the required circle.
1,048 Geometrical Problems

Problem. 15. —To find the center of a given circle, or arooj a circle.

In fig. 152, draw any two chords, 12 and 23. Bisect these chords by
perpendiculars 45, and 67, intersecting at A. Point A, is the center of the
circle or arc. The chords are not obliged to meet at 2. They may be drawn
anywhere in the circle or arc, but it is better, when possible, to let them be
at about right angles to each other. The chords may intersect. They should
not be made too short.

2
FlC. 152. —Problem IS. To find the center of a given circle, or arc of a circle.

Fig. 153. —Problem 18. To draw a tangent to a given circle from any given point.
 Geometrical Problems 1,049

Problem 16 . —To draw a tangent to a given circle from any given point C,
outside the circle.

In fig. 153, 1 is the center of the given circle. Join points Cl. Bisect Cl,
at 2; and with center 2, and radius 2 C, or 21 describe a semi-circle, cutting
,

the circle at D. Point D, is the point of contact. Through D, draw CD,

which is the required tangent.

CD, is tangent because a line through the point of contact D, and center
1, of the circle makes a right angle with CD. Why?

Fig. 154. Problem 17. To draw an interior tangent to two unequal circles.

Problem 17.—To draw an tangent two unequal

interior to circles M andO.
In fig. 154, join centers M and 0. Bisect MO, at T, and describe a
semi-circle on MO. From P, on the larger circle, mark off PQ = OR, the
radius of the smaller circle. With center M, and radius MQ, describe arc
QS, cutting the semi-circle at V. Join MV, and mark point Draw OX. W .

parallel withMV .Through the points of contact W

and X, draw the inter-
ior tangent WX.
1,050 Geometrical Problems
 Geometrical Problems 1,051

Problem 18. — To draw tangents to a circle from points without.

In fig. 155, from A, and with the radius AC, describe an arc BCD, and
from C, with a radius equal to the diameter of the circle, cut the arc at BD;
join BC, CD, cutting the circle at EF, and draw the tangents, AF, AE.

Problem 19. —Between two inclined lines to describe a series of circles tan-
gent to these lines and tangent to each other .

In fig. 156, bisect the inclination of the given lines AB, CD, by the line
NO. From a p tint P, in this line, draw the perpendicular PB, to the line
AB, and about P, describe the circle BD,
touching the lines and cutting the
center line at 1 , From E, draw EF, perpendicular to the center line, cutting

Figs. 157 and 158 . —Problem 20. To construct a triangle having a given base and equivalent
to any rectilineal figure

AB, and about F, describe an arc EG, cutting AB, at G DrawGHpar

at F,
allel with BP, giving H, the center of the next circle, to be described with
the radius HE, and so on for the next circle IN.

Problem 20. — To construct a triangle, having a given base AB, and equiva-
lent to any rectilineal figure, say equal in area to the triangle CDE.

In figs. 157 and 158, produce one side CD, to F, making CF, equal to
the given base AB. Join FE. Draw DG, parallel to FE. Join FG. Then
CFG, is the required triangle.
Problem 21. —To construct when each of the diagonals is equal
a rectangle,
to AB, and each of one pair of opposite sides is equal to C D.

In figs. 159 and 160, bisect AB at 1, and with center 1, and radius 1A,
describe a circle. With centers A and B, and radius CD, obtain points 2
and 3. Join A2, 2B, B3, 3A. Then A2B3 is the required rectangle. If
 —

1,052 Geometrical Problems

the longer side A2 be given, instead of the shorter side, then describe arcs
at 2 and 3, with the longer side as radius.

Problem 22 . To construct a square, whose diagonal is given

In fig. 161 Bisect R S, by a perpendicular 2 3.Cut off 1 4, and 1 5, equal to

lR.or IS. Join R5, 5S, S4, 4R. Then R5S4 is the square required, having
a given diagonal RS.
Problem 23. —To construct a square equal in area to any number of given
squares.

Figs 159 and 160 .*—Problem 21. To construct a rectangle when each diagonal is equal to
a given line and each of one pair of opposite sides is equal to another given line.

—
Fig. 161 . Problem 22. To construct
a square with given diagonal.
 .

Geometrical Problems 1,053

In figs. 162 and 163:
Let A, B, C be the side of the three given squares. Make D
G *A
and D H = B. Join G H. Then the square upon G H equals the squares
upon A and B. Make DK
= GHandDL = C. Join K L. Then the
square K L N M, equals the three squares upon A, B and C.

FlCS. 162 and 163 . —Problem 23. To construct a square equal in area to any number of given
squares

Fig. 164 . —Problem 24. To construct a square equal in area to any parallelogram.

Problem. 24, —To construct a square, equal in area to any parallelogram •

Thus, construct a square equivalent to the rhomboid C DB A,
In 164, make the rectangle
fig. F E, equal toCD A, C DB by producing
E F, and erecting perpendiculars E, C
F. Produce D D C. Make
C G, = CE.
Bisect G
D, at H. With center H, and radius H G, describe
a semicircle. Produce C E, to K. Then C K, is the mean proportional
if G C, C D, and a square constructed with C K as a side is equal in
area to the rhomboid CDBA.
1,054 Geometrical Problems

Problem 25. — Describe a catenary having given the span and versed sine.

In fig. 165, divide half span, as AB, intoany required number of equal
parts, as 1, 2, 3 and let fall BC and AO, each equal to versed sine of curve;
 —

Geometrical Problems 1,055

divideAO into like number of parts, 1', 2', 3', as AB. Connect C'l, C2'
and C3' and points of intersection of perpendiculars let fall from AB will
give points through which curve is to be drawn.

The catenary the curve assumed by a perfectly flexible cord when its
is
ends are fastened at two points, the weight of a unit length being constant.

To construct an equilateral triangle on a given bat*.

Fig. 167. Problem 27,

a equal in area to a given square.

Problem, 26.— To construct circle

In fig- 166. let be side of the given square. Through L, draw

LF
convenient scale divide it into 12 equal
proportional line L S, and with any
F, and at a point/,
Darts At the point/, or 10th division, draw line /
bet ween 11 and 1 2 chaw/
M
parallel with/F is LM
the diameter of the
radius O L describe
required circle. Bisect this diameter at O and with
the required circle.

a square and a rectangle on a given base.

Probtame 28 and 29. To construct
Fig. 168.
1,056 Geometrical Problems

Problem 27. — To construct an equilateral triangle on a given base.

In fig167, with A, and B, as centers and radius equal to AB, describe

arcs l and j. At their intersection C, draw lines CA, and CB, sides of the
required triangle.

Problem 28. — To construct a square on a given base.

In fig. 168, with end points A and B, of base as centers and radius
equal to AB, describe arcs cutting at C; with C as center, describe arcs

A M C
 —

Geometrical Problems 1,057

cutting the others at DE; and with D

and E, cut these at FG. Draw AF,
and BG, and join the intersections HI, then ABIH is the required square.

Problem 29. —To construct a rectangle on a given base.

In fig. 168, let AB, be given base. Erect perpendiculars at A and B,

equal to altitude of the rectangle, and join their ends and I, by line HI, H
ABIH, is the rectangle required.
Problem 30 . To construct a parallelogram having given the sides and an
angle.

To circumscribe a square about a Second method

FlC. 175. Problem 33. circle.

In 169 to 171, draw side DE, equal to the given length A, and
figs
set off the other side DF, equal to the other length B,
forming the given
angle IGH. From E, with DF, as radius, describe an arc, and from F, with
the radius DE, cut the arc at C. Draw FC, EC. Or, the remaining sides
may be drawn as parallels to DE, DF
Problem 31.— To describe a circle about a triangle.

In fig. 172, bisect two sides AB, AC, of the triangle at E and F, and
 —

1,058 Geometrical Problems

from these points draw perpendiculars intersecting at K. From the center

K, with the radius KA, describe the circle ABC.
Problem 32. —To circumscribe about and inscribe a circle in a square.
In fig. 173, draw the diagonals AB and CD, intersecting at E. With

FlG, 176. Problem 34. To inscribe a circle in a triangle .

Fig. 177 .
—Problem 35. To inscribe any regular polygon in a given circle «
 Geometrical Problems 1,059

radius EA, circumscribe the circle. To inscribe a circle let fall from the
center (as just found) a perpendicular to one side of the square as OM, in
fig. 174. With radius OM, inscribe the circle.
Problem 33. —To circumscribe a square about a circle.

In fig. 175, draw diameters MS and LF, at right angles to each other.
At the points M, L, S, F, where these diameters cut the circle, draw tangents
that is, lines perpendicular to the diameter, thus obtaining the sides of the
circumscribed square ABCD.
B

D
Fig. 178. Problem 36. To inscribe a pentagon in a- circle.

Problem 34. —To inscribe a circle in a triangle.

In fig 176 bisect two of the angles A

and C, of the triangle by lines
perpendicular DE, to any side, and with DE,
cutting at D; from D, draw a
as radius, describe a circle.
Problem 35.—To inscribe any regular polygon in a given circle.
In fig. 177, draw a diameter D 5. Divide D 5, into as many equal parts
1,060 Geometrical Problems

as the polygon is to have sides, in this case, five equal parts. With points
D and 5, as centers, and the diameter D
5, as radius, describe arcs inter-
secting at 6. From 6, draw a line through Point 2 to E. Join E, which D
is one side of the required polygon. Make E F, F G, H, each equal G
DE. JoinEF, FG, GH, Then E HD. D FG
H, is the required polygon.
This method is only approximately correct. It is however, sufficiently
accurate for all practical work. On the same principle, an arc can (approx-
imately) be divided into any number of equal parts, or a circle into equal
sectors. By this method, a regular polygon having any number of sides

Fig, 179 . —Problem 37 . To construct a hexagon upon a given straight line .

can be inscribed, (approximately) within a given circle. If a nonagon is

to be inscribed, divide the diameter into nine equal parts, and then pro-
ceed as above. To get the first side of the polygon, always draw a line
from point 6; through the 2nd division on the diameter, no matter how
many sides the polygon is to have. In a polygon, that has an even number
of sides, a line drawn from one angle to the opposite angle (a diagonal)
passes through the center. When there is an odd number of sides, a line
from an angle through the center, bisects the opposite side. Note these
facts as tests for accuracy in the work.
 Geometrical Problems 1,061

Problem 36. —To inscribe a pentagon in a circle.

In fig. 178, draw two diameters, AC, BD, at right angles intersecting
at O; bisect AO, at E, and from E, with radius EB, cut AC, at F, and
from B, with radius BF, cut the circumference at G,H, and with the same
radius step round the circle to I and K; ioin the points so found to form
the pentagon.

Problem 37. — To construct a hexagon upon a given straight line.

In fig. 179, from A and B, the ends of the given line describe arcs
intersecting at g. from g, with the radius gA, describe a circle. With the
same radius sei off the arcs AG, GF
and BD, DE. Join the points so found
to form the hexagon.

Fic. 180.—Problem 38. To inscribe a hexagon in a circle.

Problem 39. To construct an octagon on a given straight line.

Fig 181.

Problem 38. — To inscribe a hexagon in a circle.

In fig 180, draw a diameter

ACB; from A and B, as centers with the
circumference at D,.E, F, G, and draw AD,
radius of the circle AC, cut the
DE, etc., to form the hexagon.
The DE, etc., may be found by stepping the radius (with the
points
dividers) six times round the circle.

Problem 39. -To construct an octagon on a given straight line.

In fig. 181,' produce the given line

AB, both ways, and draw perpendicu-
lars AE BF -
bisect the external angles A
and B, by the lines AH, BC,
which make equal to AB.Draw CD and HG parallel with AE and equal to
1,062 Geometrical Problems

AB; from centers G, D, with the radius AB, cut the perpendiculars at EF,
and draw EF, to complete the octagon.
Problem 40 . — To inscribe an octagon in a square.
In fig. 182 draw the diagonals of the square intersecting at e; from the
 —

Geometrical Problems 1,063

Problem 41. — To inscribe an octagon in a circle

In fig. 183, draw two diameters AC, BD, at right angles; bisect the
arcs AB, BG, etc., at e, /, etc., and join the points of division to form the
octagon.
Problem 42. —To circumscribe an octagon about a circle.

In fig. 184 ,
circumscribe a square EFGH, about the given circle Draw

Fig. 186. —Problem 43. Second method.

diagonals HF
and EG, and tangents h r, etc., through points where the
diagonals cut the circle to form with the intercepts, the octagon.

Problem 43 To describe an ellipse when the two axes are given

.

In fig. 185, draw the major and minor axes AB and CD, at right angles,
intersecting at E. On the center C, with AE, as radius, cut the axis AB, at
F and G, the foci; insert pins through the axis at F and G, and loop a
thread or cord upon them equal in length to the axis AB, so that when
stretched it reaches the extremity C, of the minor axis, as shown in
dotted lines. Place a pencil inside the cord, as at H, and guiding the
pencil in this way, keeping the cord equally in tension, carry the pencil
round the pins FG, and so describe the ellipse.
Second Method - In fig. 186 along the edge of a piece of paper, mark off
a distance ac, equal to AC, half the major axis, and from the same point, a
distance ab, equal to CD, half the minor axis. Place the slip so as to bring
the point b, on the line AB, or major axis, and the point c, on the line DE,
or minor axis. Set off the position of the point a. Shifting the slip, so that
the point b, travels on the major axis, and the point c, on the minor axis,
any number of points in the curve may be found, through which the curve
may be traced.
 1,064 Geometrical Problems

Problem 44. — To construct a spiral or volute, by means of tangential arcs

of circles.
Construct a square 1 2 3 4, and produce the sides, fig. 44. With centei
2, and radius 2 1, describe arc 1
A; center 3, and radius 3 A, de-
scribe arc A B; center 4 and radius ,

4 B describe arc B C center 1 and

, ; ,

radius 1 C, describe C D; center

2, and radius 2 D, describe D E.
In the same way describe any
number of arcs, E F, F G, G H.
The curve obtained is a spiral or
volute. 1 2 3 4, is the eye of the
spiral . The eye can be formed by
any regular or irregular recti-
lineal figure, not having a
re-entrant angle. In every case,
proceed as above.

Fig. 187 . —Problem 44. To construct a spiral or volute, by means of tangential arcs of circles.

Fig. 188. — notes about ellipses. If from any points G, H, in the curve of an
- General
ellipse, lines parallelto the major axis I J, be drawn, or to the minor axis L, be drawn, and K
the distance M
N, be made equal to M O
H, or P, be made equal to G, other points, N, P, O
in the elliptic curve are obtained. A line C, or D, drawn from any point Q, in a diam-
Q Q
eter E F, and parallel to a conjugate diameter A B, is called an ordinate. H, P, are M O
also ordinates. The whole line D, C H
N, or G
P, is a double ordinate. Draw any cord
C D, parallel to A B. Bisect B, A C
D, at R. Then E F, drawn through
Q R, is a con- Q
jugate diameter to A
B. The minor axis is called “the conjugate axis,” because of its
relationship to the major axis. The major and minor axes are a pair of conjugate diameters.
 .

Geometrical Problems 1,065

—
Problem 45. To find the foci of an ellipse and then to draw the elliptic
curve by means of intersecting arcs, the major axis Q and minor axis PV T
being given.

In 189, with T, one end of the minor axis, as center and XQ, half the
fig.

major axis as radius, describe arcY, cutting the major axis at F', F". These
points are the required foci Between F' and X, mark any number of points
.

1, 2, 3, 4. With centers F\ F", and radiusPI, describe arcs a, a, a, a. With

the same centers and radius Q 1, cut arcs a, a a, a, at b, b, b, b. With
,

each focus as center and radius P2, describe arcs, c, c, c, c. With the

Fig. 189 —Problem 45.

. To construct an ellipse having given minor and major axes

Fig. 189 — Problem 46. The major axis and foci of an ellipse being given to find the minor axis.

same centers and radius 2, cut these arcs at d, d, d, d. In the same way
Q
use points 3 and 4, to get g, g, h, h. Through points b, d, g, h, draw the
curve of the ellipse. The points 1, 2, 3, 4 may be at any distance apart,
but it is more convenient to let the divisions decrease in length toward F\
Do not make the arcs too long, as this causes confusion.
Problem 46.—The major axis and foci of an ellipse being given to find
the minor axis.
In fig. 189, bisect P Q, at X. With P, or X X
Q, as radius and the
foci as centers, strike arcs cutting at T and V. Join T V. Then T V, is
the minor axis.
 1,066 Geometrical Problems

Problem 47. —Draw the curve of an ellipse by means of intersecting lines .

The lengths of the major and minor axes AB, and CD, being given.
In 190 and 191 bisect
figs. CD
at E. Bisect AB, at X, by a perpendiculp.
X X
Make G, H, each equal to E C, or E D. With centers G, H, and radius
X A, describe arcs at K, K,K,K. With centers A, B, and radius G, cut X
these arcs at L,M,N,0. JoinLM,MO,ON,NL. Divide A L, AN, BM,
B O, A X, B X, each into the same number of equal parts, say four. Draw
lines from G, to 1, 2, 3, on A L, B M. From H, through 1 (on A X), draw
a line to meet 1 G, at x. Through 2, draw a line from H, to meet 2 G, at

Figs. 190 and 191 . —Problem 47. Draw the curve of an ellipse by means of intersecting lines

x. Through 3, draw a line to meet 3 G, at x. In the same way get points

x,x,x, on the other side. Also get similar points for the lower half of the
ellipse, as shown by dotted lines at R
and S. Through x,x,x, R, S, draw
the curve of the ellipse. The divisions on L, A A
X, may be unequal, pro-
vided those on A
X, be proportional to those on L. A
French curve may A
be used for drawing the elliptic curve, through the points x,x,x. By this
method, an ellipse may be inscribed in any rectangle. By joining G, A
G B, B H, H A, a rhombus is obtained. Therefore an ellipse can be circum-
scribed about a rhombus, or a rhombus can be inscribed in an ellipse.
 Geometrical Problems 1,067

Problem —
The curve or portion of the curve of an ellipse being given
48. ,

to find the centerand the major and minor axes.

In fig. 192, draw two parallel chords A B, CD. Bisect them at E and F,
Through E, F, draw G H, which is a diameter. Bisect it at K, which is the
center of the ellipse. With center K, and any convenient radius, describe the
arc L M
N. With centers L and M, and any radius, describe arcs cutting at
O From O, through K, draw P Q, which is the major axis.With centers M
and N; and any radius, describe arcs cutting at R. From R, through K, draw
T S, which is the minor axis. Instead of describing arcs at O and R, L M M ,

N, may be joined and the axes through K, parallel with L N, drawn. MM ,

Fig. 192. —Problem 48. The curve or portion of the curve of an Mips* being given, to find the
center and the major and minor axes.
For convenience, the given ellipse may be drawn with a piece of thread as
shown in fig 185. If a small portion of the curve be given, the chords
A B, C D, must be drawn closer together. If only one end of G H, meet
the curve, draw another pair of parallel chords, and get another diameter,
then the intersection of the two diameters gives the center. The portion
of the curve given should contain at least one end of each axis.
NOTE. To draw an ellipse when the foci and one point in the curve are given. Draw a
foci. Draw a line from each focua to the given point. The
tine of indefinite length through the
wua Qf theae two lines gives the length of the major axis. With half the major axis as radius,
foci aa centers, describe arcs intersecting at
points, which give the ends of the minor
and the
axis. Obtain the curve of the ellipse.
 — ;

1,068 Geometrical Problems

—
Problem 49. At any point A, in the curve of an ellipse, to draw a normal
and through any point B in the curve to draw a tangent.
In fig. draw the ellipse with a piece of thread. From each focus,
193,
draw a through A, to D, and C. Bisect angle
line D
A C, by A E. The
line A E, is the required normal (or perpendicular). From the foci draw
lines to B. Produce one of the lines, say to G. Bisect the angle G B F", by
H K. Then the line HK
is the required tangent. The normal may also
be obtained by bisecting the angle F' A F". To draw a normal at either

X
Fig* 193. Problem 4$. At any point in the curve of an ellipse to draw a normal and through
,

any point in the curve to draw a tangent

extremity of the major or minor axis, simply produce the axis. A tangent
at either extremity of the major or minor axes must be drawn at right
angles to the axis.

NOTE.— To draw tangential linee to an ellipee from a given point outeide the curve.
OH given point 1, and place it in any position with regard to ellipse. With 1, as center
and the distance to the nearer focus, as radius, describe about half of a circle cutting the ellipse
in two {daces. With the further focus as center and the major axis as radius, cut the arc
in points 2 and 3. From points 2 and 3, draw lines to the further focus. These lines cut the
ellipse in two points. Call these points 4 and 5; they are the required points of contact. Draw
two lines from the given point 1, through points 4 and 5; and these lines are the required tan
gents.
 .

Geometrical Problems 1,069

Problem 50. — To get the curve of an ellipse approximately with arcs of

circles , and by the use of a paper trammel.
In figs. 194 to 196, lines A B, CD, are major and minor axes. Drew E 1
E 2, at any angle. Make EG
= C, and E X H X
= A. Join H. With G
center E, and radii E G, E H, strike the arcs F, G H
J. Draw F L, J K,
parallel vvithGHJVIake D
M, C N, equal to E K, and A O, B P, equal to E L.
With centers N
and M, and radius N
C, describe arcs passing through C
and D With centers O, P, and radius O A, describe arcs at A and B. These
four arcs give approximately parts of the ellipse. On one edge of a straight

C Q

Figs. 194 to 196. —

Problem 50. To get the curve of an ellipse approximately with arcs of circlts
and by the use of a paper trammel This method applies only when the minor axis is more
.

than about %
of the major axis In making a narrow ellipse
. andM N
will fall outside the ellipse .

slip of paper R, set off V S, equal to A X, and V T equal to C X. Then

Q f

use Q R, as a trammel. Adjust the trammel Q R, in such a manner, that

—
NOTE To describe an ellipse, having one diameter given, similar to any given ellipse.
.

In two similar ellipses, any two conjugate diameters of one ellipse have the same proportion
to each other as the corresponding conjugate diameters of the other ellipse have to each other.
Therefore find a fourth proportional to the given diameter, and the two diameters of the given
ellipse. This fourth proportional gives the length of the other diameter of the required ellipse.
Place the two diameters bisecting each other, and at the required angle and describe the ellipse.
1,070 Geometrical Problems

point t, rests somewhere on the major axis; and point s, on the minor axis.

Wherever point v, comes, will be a point situated in the curve of the ellipse.
Mark several points as at tv, and through these points draw curves connect-
ing the arcs. E L, is a third proportional less, and E K, is a third propor-
tional greater, to the lines E G, E H. A French curve may be used to
connect the arcs through the points at tv. The entire curve can be drawn
by means of points obtained with a trammel. When an ellipse has a short
minor axis, the points M
and N, fall outside the ellipse, on the minor axis
produced. This method is when representing circles
exceedingly useful in
perspective, and also in mechanical drawing when describing ellipses.
 — .

Mensuration 1,071

Mensuration
Mensuration is the process of measuring.

It is that branch of mathematics that has to do with finding:

the length of lines, the area of surfaces, and the volume of solids.
Accordingly the problems which follow will be divided into three
groups, as:

1. Measurement of lines.

a. One dimension, length

2. Measurement of surfaces (areas).

a Two dimensions, length and breadth

3. Measurement of solids (volumes).

a. Three dimensions, length, breadth, and thickness

1. Measurement of Lines
(length)

l.— To find the length of any side of a right triangle,

1

Problem
the other two sides being given.

Rule. Length of hypotenuse equals square root of the sum of

 1,072 Mensuration

the squares of the two legs; length of either leg equals square root of
the difference of the square of the hypotenuse and the square of the
other leg .

Example . —The two legs of a right triangle measure 3 and 4 ft.; find
length of hypotenuse. the length of hypotenuse and one leg be 5 and
If
3 ft. respectively, what is the length of the other leg?

In fig 197
AB = V 3*
_
= V25 = 5
-f 4*

In fig. 198 BC = V 5 * _ 3* = V 25 — 9 = V 16 = 4.

Problem 2. —To find length of circumference of a circle.

Rule. —Multiply the diameter by 3.1416.

Example. — What length of moulding strip is required for a circular
window 5 ft. in diameter?
5 X 3.1416 = 15.7 ft.
 Mensuration 1,073

As the mechanic does not ordinarily measure feet in tenths, the .7 should
be reduced to inches; it corresponds to 8% ins. from the table below. That
is, the length of moulding is 15 ft. 8 ins. (approx). %
Problem 3. —To find the length of an are of a circle.

Rule. — As 360° is to the number of degrees of the arc so is the

length of the circumference to the length of the arc.

Fro. 199 —Problem 4 To find width oj board required for plate form of circular pattern.

Decimals of a Foot and Inches

3" 6" fl
8" 9"
Inch <r 7
EgES
o .0 .0833 .1677 .2500 .3333 4167 .5000 .5833 .6667 .7500 .8333 .9167
1-16 .0052 .0885 .1719 .2552 .3385 .4219 •5052 .5885 .6719 .7552 .8385 .9219
1-8 .0104 .0937 .1771 2604 .3437 .4271 .5104 .5937 .6771 .7604 .8437 .9271
3-16 .0156 .0990 .1823 •2656 .3490 .4323 .5156 .5990 .6823 .7656 .8490 9323

1-4 .0208 .1042 .1875 .2708 .3542 .4375 .5208 .6042 .6875 .7708 .8542 .9375
5-16 0260 1094 .1927 .2760 .3594 .4427 .5260 .6094 .6927 .7760 .8594 .9427
3-8 0312 .1146 .1979 2812 .3646 .4479 .5312 .6146 .6979 7812 .8646 .9479
7-16 .0365 .1198 .2031 .2865 .3698 .4531 .5365 .6198 •7031 .7865 .8698 9531

1-2 .0417 .1250 2083 .2917 .3750 .4583 .5417 .6250 .7083 .7917 .8750 .9583
9-16 .0469 J302 .2135 .2969 .3802 .4635 .5469 .6302 .7135 .7969 8802 •9635
5-8 .2188 3021 .3854 .4688 .5521 .6354 .7188 .8021 .8854 9688
.0521 .1354
11-16 .1406 •2240 .3073 .3906 .4740 .5573 .6406 .7240 •8073 .8906 .9740
.0573

3-4 .1458 .2292 3125 .3958 .4792 .5625 .6458 92 8125. .8958 .9792
.0625
4010 .4844 .5677 6510 •K
.7344 •8177 .9010 .9844
13-16 .0677 .1510 .2344 .3177
7-8 .0729 .1562 .2396 .3229 4062 4896 5729 .6562 7396 .8229 .9062 .9896
15-16 .0781 .1615 .2448 .3781 4115 .4948 .5781 6615 7448 .828! 9U5 ,99<8
1,074 Mensuration

Example . — If the circumference of a circle be 6 feet, what is the length

of 60° arc?

Let X = length of the arc, solving for X,

60 X 6 360
360 : 60 5 : X ~ 360 “ 360
lft.

Problem 4. —To find the rise of an arc.

Rule 1. — The an arc

equal to the square of the chord of
rise of is

half the arc divided by the diameter .

— Length of
f

Rule 2. the chord subtending an angle at the center is

equal to twice the sine of half the. angle multiplied by radius.

Example. —A circular pattern 10 ft. in diam. has six plate forms. Find
width of board required for these forms allowing 3 ins. margin for joints as
in fig. 199.

Each plate will subtend an angle of 360 -4- 6 = 60 °

The "chord of half the arc" (mentioned in rule 1) will subtend
60 4- 2 = 30°.
Applying rule 2, “half the angle" = 30° 4- 2 = 15°.

From table of “trigonometrical functions” , sine of 15 ° « .259i

which with radius of 5 ft., becomes
sin 15° (on 10-ft. circle) = 5X .259 = 1.295
Applying rule 2 length of chord MS. = 2 X 1.295 = 2.59

Applying rule 1 rise of arc MS, = 2.59 4 4- 10 = .671 ft.or8 l/ J6 ins. (approx.)

Add to this 3 ins. margin for joints and obtain

width of board 8Vie+ 3 = 11 */
M Use 12 in. board

2. Measurement of Surfaces
(areas)

Problem 5.—To find the area of a square.

"Rule . —Multiply the base by the height .

 Mensuration 1,075

Example . —What is the area of a square whose side is 5 ft. as in fig. 200?

5X5 = 25 sq. ft.

Problem 6. —To find the area of a rectangle.

Rule . —Multiply the base by the height (i. e., width by length ).

5 FT.

AREA 25 50. FT- t-

h- u.
X
0 in

UJ
X

BASE i
FrG. 200 . —Problem 5. Area of square.

Example . —What is the area of a rectangle 5 ft. wide and 12 ft. long, as
in fig. 201?

5 X 12 = 60 sq. ft.

Problem 7. —To find the area of a parallelogram*

Rule . —Multiply base by perpendicular height .
 —

1,076 Mensuration

Example . —What is the area of a parallelogram 2 ft. wide and 10 ft.

long?
2 X 10 = 20 sq. ft.

Problem 8. — To find the area of a triangle.

H 12 FT.

H
u. AREA <b0 5Q. FT- X
I-
to o

LENGTH
Fig. 201. Problem 6. Area of rectangle .

Rule . —Multiply the base by half the altitude .

Example . —How many sq. ft. of sheet tin are required to cover a church
steeple having four triangular sides, measuring 12 ft. (base) 30 ft. X
(altitude)as in fig. 203 ?

Vi of altitude = 15 ft.

area of one side = 12X 15 = 180 sq. ft.

 Mensuration 1,077

Total area (four sides) 4 X 180 = 720 sq. ft.

Problem 9. —To find the area of a trapezoid.

Rule. —Multiply one-half the sum of the two parallel sides by
the perpendicular distance between them.

Example . —What is the area of the trapezoid shown in fig. 205 ?

Here LA and " K, -»re the parallel sides and MS, the perpendicular dis-

Figs. 203 and 204 . —

Problem 8 . Area of triangle. An inspection of fig. 204 will show
A
that area of triangle = base X l altitude because constructing a parallelogram ABCD,
it
is made up of two equal triangles and its area - base X altitude. Hence altitude is tak&a ^
in finding area of a triangle.

tance between them. Applying rule

area = ^ (LA + FR) X MS
= V2 (8 + 12) X 6 * 60 sq. ft.

Problem 10. —To find the area of a trapezium.

Rule. — Draw a diagonal dividing figure into triangles; measure

,

diagonal and altitudes and find area of the triangles.

 1,078 Mensuration

Example. —What is the area of the trapezium shown in fig. 206 , for
the dimensions given? Draw diagonal LR, and altitudes AM and FS.
area triangle ALR = 12 X V2 = 36 sq. ft.
area triangle LRF = 12 X V2 = 54 sq. ft.

area trapezium LARF = 90 sq. ft.

Problem 11. —To find the area of any irregular polygon.

Rule. —Draw diagonals dividing the figure into triangles and
find the sum of the areas of these triangles ,

—
Problem 12. To find the area of any regular polygon when
length of side only is given.

Rule. —Multiply the square of the sides by the figure for **area t
when side =» 1” in the table following:
 Mensuration 1,079

Number of sides

Area when side

3 4
D D 6 8 9 10 11 12

=1 1.721 3.634 4.828 6.181 7.694 9.366 11.196

—
Example, -What is the area of an octagon (8-sided polygon) whose sides
measure 4 ft.

Multiply this by the square of

In the above table under 8, find 4.828.
one side.
4.828 X 42 = 77.25 sq. ft.
 —
.

1,080 Mensuration

Problem 13. —To find the area of a circle.

Rule . —Multiply square of diameter by .7854.

Example . —What is the area of a circle 10 ft. in diameter?

10 2 X .7854 = 78.54 sq. ft.

Figs. 207 and 208 show why the decimal 7854 is used in finding the
area of a circle

Figs. 207 and 208.' Showing why the decimal .7854 is used to find the area of a circle.
>

If the square be divided into 10,000 parts or small squares, a circle having
a diameter D.
a of the large square will coptain 7,854 small squares, hence, if the area of the
equal to side
large square be 1 sq. in., then the area of the circle will be 7854 *t* 10,000 or
.7854 sq. ins..
that is, area of the circle - .7854 XD XD - .7854 1 X - XI
.7854 sq. ins.

Problem 14. —To find the area of a sector of a circle.

Rule. —Multiply the arc of the sector by half the radius .

Example. —How much tin is required to cover a 60° sector of a 10 foot

circular deck?

60
length of 60° arc “ 0* 3*1416 X 10 5.24 ft.
jjgQ

The reason for the above operation should be apparent without any
explanation.
 —

Mensuration 1,081

Applying rule
tin required for 60° sector = 5.24 X M of 5 = 13.1 sq. ft.

Problem 15. —To find the area of a segment of a circle.

Rule . —Find the area of the sector which has the same arc and
also the area of the triangle formed by the radii and chord; take
the sum of these areas if the segment be greater than 180°; take
the difference if less.

Problem 16. —To find the area of a ring.

Rule. — Take the difference between the areas of the two circles.

Problem 17 . To find the area of an ellipse.

Rule . —Multiply the product of the two diameters by .7854.

Example . —What is the area of an ellipse when the minor and major
axes are 6 and 10 ins. respectively?

10 X 6 X .7854 - 47.12 sq. ins.

Problem 18. —To find the circular area of a cylinder.

Rule . —Multiply 3.1416 by the diameter and by the height.

Example.—How many of lumber

sq. ft. am
required for the sides of a
cylindrical tank 8 ft. in diameter and 12 ft. high; how many pieces 4" X 12*
will be required?
cylindrical surface 3.1416 X 8 X 12 — 302 sq. ft.

circumference of tank = 3.1416 X 8 <= 25.1 ft.

Number 4" X 12' pieces 25.1 + 4

/i 2 = 25 .1 X 3 » 75.3, say 76.

Problem 19. —To find the slant area of a cone.

 1,082 Mensuration

Rule . —Multiply 3.1416 by diameter of base and by one-half the

slant height.

Example . —A conical spire having a base 10 ft. diameter and altitude of

20 ft. is to be covered. Find area of surface to be covered.

In fig. 210 , first find slant height, thus

slant height = V 5* -f 20a = V 425 => 20.62 ft.

 Mensuration 1,083

circumference of base = 3.1416\X 10 = 31.42 ft.

area of conical surface = 31 .42 X H of 20.62 = 324 sq. ft.

Problem20. —To find the (slant) area of the frustum of a cone.

Rule . —Multiply half the slant height by the sum of the circum-
ferences.

FkC. 211. Problem 20. Area of frustum of a cone. This is the shape of the ordinary wooden
tank seen in wind mill towers. In the figure LR a* height of tank. Since the difference be-
tween the two diameters is two feet. RF » 1 ft. Hence slant height or LF — ^ 1* 8* +
8 06
. .

—
Example. A tank is 12 ft in diameter at the base, 10 ft at the top, and
8 ft. high. What is the area of the slant surface?

circumference 10 ft. circle » 3 1416 X 10 «** 31.42 ft.

circumference 12 ft circle =» 3 1416 X 12 37.7 ft

sum of circumferences - 69.1 ft

1,084 Mensuration

slant height = V p -f 8 = V65 =

2
8.06
slant surface = sum of circumferences X A slant height
l

= 69.1 X V2 of 8.06 = 278,5 sq. ft.

FlG. 212 —Problem 21.

, Volume of rectangular wedge.

3. Measurement of Solids
(volumes)

Problem 21 . — To find the volume of a rectangular wedge.

Rule . —Multiply length, breadth and one half height.

 Mensuration 1,085

Example. —Find the volume LARFMS of the bam shown in fig. 212.
40X20X \ of 10 = 4000 cu. ft.

Problem 22. —To find the volume of a cylinder.

Rule. —Find the area of the base and multiply this by the length.
Example. —What is the volume of a cylinder whose diameter is 4 ft.
and length ft.?
4 .7854
16
4 47124
7854
__
12.5664 =area of base in sq. ft.

16 7. 5 = length in ft.
628320
879648
Answer, 94.24800 cu. ft.

Problem 23. —To find the volume of a cone.

Rule. —Multiply the area of the base by A the altitude and the
product will be the volume.
Example. —What is the volume of a cone whose diameter is 12 ft. and
altitude 10 ft.?
Area of a = .7854 X sq. of the diameter
circle

Area of base = .7854X122 = 113.1 sq. ft.

volume = 113.1 XH of 10 = 377 cu. ft.

Problem 24. —To find the volume of a sphere.

Rule. —Multiply the cube of the diameter by .5236.

Example. —Find the volume of a sphere whose diameter is 5 ft.

Cube of diameter Diam. 3 X.5236

5 .5236
125
JL
25 26180
5 10472
5236
125 = 5s
65.4500 cu. ft.
 1,086 Mensuration

Problem 25. —Find the volume of a segment of a sphere.

Rule 1. — To three times the square of the radius of the seg-
ment’s base add the square of the height; then multiply
, this sum
by the height and the product by .5236.

Example. —How many cu. a spherical segment, having a base

ins. in
with diameter of 60 ins. and a height of 20 ins.?
Radius = 60 -s- 2 = 30 ins.

Three times square of radius=3 x 30 x30 = 2,700

Add the square of the height

2, 700 +(20 X 20) =3,100.

Multiply this by the height, 3100 X 20 = 62,000

Multiply by .5236 and obtain

62, 000 X. 5236 = 32, 463. 2 cu. ins.

Rule 2 . —From three times the diameter of the sphere subtract

twice the height of the segment; multiply the remainder by the
square of the height , and that product by .5236 for the volume.

—
Example . If the diameter of a sphere be 3 ft. 6 ins. what is the volume
of a segment whose height is 1 ft. 3 ins.?

3X3.5 = 10.5
2X1.25 = 2.5
~~ 8
8 X 1 .25 X 1 .25 X .5236 = 6.55 cu. ft.

Problem 26. —To find the volume of an irregular solid.

Rule. — Divide the irregular solid into different figures; the

1.
sum of their solidities will be the solidity required. 2.To find the
 1

Mensuration 1,087

solidity of a wood or stone that is craggy or uneven put

piece of ,

it into a tub or cistern and pour in as much water as will just

,

cover it; then take it out and find the contents of that part of the
vessel through which the water has descended and it will be the
solidity required.

Problem 27. —To find the surface and volume of any of the
five regular solids, figs. 213 to 217.

Figs. 213 to 217 .-—The five regular solids: Fig. 213, tetrahedron or solid, bounded by four
equilateral triangles; fig. 214, hexahedron or cube, bounded by six squares; fig. 215, octa-
hedron, bounded by eight equilateral triangles; fig. 216 dodecahedron, bounded by twelve
.

pentagons; fig. 217 , icosahedron, bounded by twenty equilateral triangles.

Rule (surface ). —Multiply the tabular area below , by the

square of the edge of the solid .

Rule (volume ). —Multiply the tabular contents below , by the

cube of the given edge .

Surfaces and Volumes of Regular Solids

Number NAME Area. Contents.
of Sides Edge — i Edge — t

4 1.7320 O.II78
6 6.0000 1.0000
8 34641 0.47M
12 20.6458 7.663
20 8.6603 2.l8l7
 =

1,088 Mensuration

Mensuration of Surfaces and Volumes

{Summary)
Area of rectangle = length X breadth.
A
Area of triangle = base X X perpendicular height.
Diameter of circle = radius X 2.
Circumference of circle =diameterX3. 1416.
Area of circle = square of diameter X .7854.

Area of sector of circle- ^ of circle X manner

360
of degrees in arc .

Area of surface of cylinder = circumference X length -f area of two ends.

To find diameter of circle having given area: Divide- the area by .7854.
and extract the square root.
To find the volume of a cylinder: Multiply the area of the section in
square inches by the length in inches = the volume in cubic inches. Cubic
inches divided by 1728= volume in cubic feet.
Surface of a sphere = square of diameter X3. 1416.
Solidity of a sphere = cube of diameter X .5236.
Side of an inscribed cube = radius of a sphere X 1.1547.
Area of the base of a pyramid or cone, whether round, square or tri-
angular, multiplied by one-third of its height = the solidity
Diam. X .8862 = side of an equal square.
Diam. X .7071 =side of an inscribed square.
Radius X 6. 2832 = circumference.
Circumference = 3 .5449 X VArea of 'circle.
Diameter = 1 .1283 X V Area of circle
Length of arc =No. of degrees X .017453 radius.
0
Degrees in arc whose length equals radius = 57,3
Length of an arc of 1° = radius X .017453,
“ 44
1 Min. = radius X. 0002909
44

1 Sec. = radius X- 0000048

44 44 44

x = Proportion of circumference to diameter 3 1415926 .

.

x^= 9 .8696044
Vx= 1.7724538
Log. =0.49715
1/x =0.31831
x/360 = .008727
360/* =114.59
Lineal feet X .00019 =Miles.
44
yards X .0006 a “
Square inches X .007 = Square feet.
 Mensuration 1,089

Square feet X .111 = Square yards.

44
yards X .0002067= Acres.
Acres X4840 = Square yards.
Cubic inches X .00058 = Cubic feet.
“ feet X .03704 =Cubic yards.
Circular inches X .00546 = Square feet-
Cyl. inches X .0004546= Cubic feet.
44
feet X .02909 = 44
yards.
Links ’
X .22 = Yards.
X .66 =Feet.
Feet X 1.5 =Links.
Width in chains X 8 = Acres per mile.
183346 circular n =1 square foot.
2200 Cylindrical in =1 cubic foot.
Cubic feet i X 7.48 =U. S. gallons.
44
inches X .004329 =U. S. gallons.
U. S. gallons X .13368 = Cubic feet.
U. S.
44
X 231 = 44
inches.
Cubic feet X .8036 =U. S. bushel.
= 44 “44
44
inches X .000466
Cyl. feet of wate X 6 =U. S. gallons.
Lbs. Avoir X .009 =cwt. (112)
44
44
X .00045 =Tons (2240)
Cubic feet of water X 62.5 = Lbs. Avoir.
“ = 44
44
inch
44
X .03617
Cyl. feet water X 49.1 = “
Cyl. inch water X .02842 =
13.44 U S. gallons of water =1 cwt.
44 44
268.8 US. =1 ton.
1 .8 cubic feet of water =1 cwt.
35.88 cubic feet of water =1 ton.
Column of water, 12 inches high, and 1 inch in diameter = .341 Lbs.
U. S. bushel X .0495 =Cubic yards.
** ** •“ X 1.2446 = 44
feet.
** «« “ X2150 42 = inches.

Problem 28.—To find the volume of a cylindrical ring.

Rule. — To diameter add inner diameter of ring;

of body of ring
multiply sum by square of diameter of body, and product by 2.4674.
Example— What is volume of an anchor ring, diameter of metal, being
3 ins. and inner diameter of ring. 8 ins..
 1,090 Mensuration

3-f8x32 = 99 = product of sum of diameter and square of diameter of

body of ring.

Then 99 X2.4674 = 244.2726 cu. ins.

Problem 29 . —To find the sectional area of a pipe.

Example . —A pipe has an external diameter of 2 ins. and an internal
diameter of 1% ins. Find its sectional area in sq. ins.

Rule . —From the area of the greater circle subtract that of the
lesser.
area of 2 O =2 2
X.7854 = 3.1416
2.4053
area of 1 % O = (1M) 2
X.7854 =
.7363 sq. ins.

Properties of the Circle

(According to Kent)

Diameter of circle X .88623 \ . , -

=sl °e °* e Qual square
.

Circumference of circle X 28209 /

Circumference of circle X 1.1284 = perimeter of equal square
Diameter of circle X .7071 )

Circumference of circle X .22508 \ = side of inscribed square

Area of circle X .90031 •5-diameter J
Area of circle X 1.2732 =area of circumscribed square
Area of circle X .63662 =area of inscribed square
Side of square X 1.4142 =diam. of circumscribed circle
Side of square X 4. 4428 ,
=circum.
Side of square X I 1284
• =diam of equal
. circle
Side of square X3.5449 =circum. of equal circle
Perimeter of square X .88623 =circum. of equal circle
Square inches X 1.2732 = circular inches
 «

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craftradio—marine radio equipment—the radio compass and principle of
operation —radio beacons—automatic radio alarms — wave radio short
coilcalculations—radio testing—cathode ray oscillographs— elim- static
ination and radio trouble — pointersstandards— and
underwriter's units tables.

AUTHENTIC, CLEAR, CONCISE.

ARGELS WIRING DIAGRAMS FOR LIGHT & POWER $1

210 pages, illustrated.

Electricians, wiremen, linemen, plant superintendents, construction engineers

electrical contractors and students will find these diagrams a valuable
source of practical help.
This book gives the practical man the facts on wiring of electrical apparatus,
itexplains clearly in simple language how to wire apparatus for practically
all fields of electricity. Each diagram is complete and self-explaining.

A PRACTICAL, HANDY BOOK OF HOOK-UPS.

 ——

ABDELS CARPENTERS & BUILDERS GUIDES

A PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATED TRADE ASSISTANT ON MODERN
CONSTRUCTION FOR CARPENTERS, JOINERS, BUILDERS, MECHAN-
CS AND ALL WOODWORKERS.
Explaining In practical; concise language and by well-done illustrations,
diagrams, charts, graphs and pictures, principles, advances, short cuts, based
on modem practice. How to figure and calculate various jobs.
— —
Vol. 1 Tools, steel square, saw filing, joinery, furniture 431 pages
1200 illustrations.
Vol. 2—Builders mathematics, drawing plans, specifications, estimates
—
455 pages 400 illustrations.
—
Vol. 3—-House and roof framing, laying out, foundations 255 pages
400 illustrations.
— —
Vol. 4 Doors, windows, stair building, millwork, painting 448 pages
400 illustrations.
4 VOLS., 1 600 PAGES, 3700 ILLUSTRATIONS, FLEXIBLE COVERS, 16 '

EACH VOLUME POCKET SIZE. SOLD SEPARATELY A VOL. $1.50

AUDELS PLUMBERS & STEAMFITTERS GUIDES
A PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATED TRADE ASSISTANT AND READY
REFERENCE FOR MASTER PLUMBERS, JOURNEYMEN AND AP-
PRENTICE STEAM FITTERS, GAS FITTERS AND HELPERS, SHEET
METAL WORKERS AND DRAUGHTSMEN, MASTER BUILDERS
AND ENGINEERS.
• Explaining in plain language and by clear illuihrations, diagrams, charts,
graphs and pictures the principles of modem plumbing practice.
— —
Vol. 1 Mathematics, physics, materials, tools, lead work 374 pages
716 diagrams.
— —
Vol. 2 Water supply, drainage, rough work, tests 496 pages 61 £6 —
diagrams.
Vol. 3— —
Pipe fitting, ventilation, gas, steam 400 pages—900 diagrams.
—
Vol. 4 Sheet metal work, smithing, brazing, motors.
4 VOLS.—1670 PAGES— 3642 DIAGRAMS—FLEXIBLE COVERS, S6.
EACH VOL. POCKET SIZE. SOLD SEPARATELY $1.50 A VOL.
AUDELS MASONS & BUILDERS GUIDES
A PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATED TRADE ASSISTANT ON MODERN
CONSTRUCTION FOR BRICKLAYERS—STONE MASONS—CEMENT
WORKERS— FLASTERERS AND TILE SETTERS.
Explaining in clear language and by well-done illustrations, diagrams,
charts, graphs and pictures, principles, advances, short cuts, based on
modem practice— including how to figure and calculate various jobs.
Vol. 1 —Brick work, brick laying, bonding, designs— 266 pages.
Vol. 2—Brick Foundations, arches, tile setting, estimating—245 pages.
Vol. 3—Concrete mixing, placing forms, reinforced stucco— 259 pages.
, ,
—
Vol. 4 Plastering, stone masonry, steel construction, blue prints— 345 pages.
4 VOLS.—1 1 00 PAGES—2067 ILLUSTRATIONS—COMPLETE SET, $6.
EACH VOL. (POCKET SIZE, FLEXIBLE COVER) *L$0 A VOL.
AUDELS SHEET METAL PATTERN LAYOUTS
A practical, illustrated Encyclopedia in 10 section* covering all
phases of sheet metal work including Pattern Gutting, Pattern
—
Development and shop procedure Developed by experts for sheet
metal workers, layout men, mechanics, artisans, apprentices and
students.
10 BIO SECTIONS, 1100 Pages, 350 Layouts, 1000 Illustra-
tions. Covering Heating and Air Conditioning Duct Patterns
— Special Sheet Metal Layouts—Layouts for various sheet metal
shapes—Conductors, Leaders and Leader Head Layouts—Gutters
and Roof Outlet Layouts—Sheet Metal Roofing Patterns—Skylights
and Louvers—Pattern Layouts—Cornice Pattern Layouts—Sheet
Metal Boat Patterns—Geometrical Problems, Mensuration and
Sheet Metal Mathematics.
 .

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