14

Alternating voltages and currents

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

ž appreciate why a.c. is used in preference to d.c.

ž describe the principle of operation of an a.c. generator
ž distinguish between unidirectional and alternating waveforms
ž define cycle, period or periodic time T and frequency f of a waveform
ž perform calculations involving T D 1/f
ž define instantaneous, peak, mean and r.m.s. values, and form and peak factors for a
sine wave
ž calculate mean and r.m.s. values and form and peak factors for given waveforms
ž understand and perform calculations on the general sinusoidal equation
v D Vm sinωt š 
ž understand lagging and leading angles
ž combine two sinusoidal waveforms (a) by plotting graphically, (b) by drawing
phasors to scale and (c) by calculation

14.1 Introduction
Electricity is produced by generators at power sta-
tions and then distributed by a vast network of
transmission lines (called the National Grid system)
to industry and for domestic use. It is easier and
cheaper to generate alternating current (a.c.) than
direct current (d.c.) and a.c. is more conveniently
distributed than d.c. since its voltage can be readily
altered using transformers. Whenever d.c. is needed
in preference to a.c., devices called rectifiers are Figure 14.1
used for conversion (see Section 14.7).
An e.m.f. is generated in the coil (from Faraday’s
laws) which varies in magnitude and reverses its
14.2 The a.c. generator direction at regular intervals. The reason for this is
shown in Fig. 14.2 In positions (a), (e) and (i) the
Let a single turn coil be free to rotate at constant conductors of the loop are effectively moving along
angular velocity symmetrically between the poles the magnetic field, no flux is cut and hence no e.m.f.
of a magnet system as shown in Fig. 14.1 is induced. In position (c) maximum flux is cut and

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184 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY

Figure 14.3

measured in hertz, Hz. The standard frequency of

Figure 14.2 the electricity supply in Great Britain is 50 Hz

hence maximum e.m.f. is induced. In position (g), 1 1

T = or f =
maximum flux is cut and hence maximum e.m.f. is f T
again induced. However, using Fleming’s right-hand
rule, the induced e.m.f. is in the opposite direction
to that in position (c) and is thus shown as E. In
positions (b), (d), (f) and (h) some flux is cut and Problem 1. Determine the periodic time for
hence some e.m.f. is induced. If all such positions frequencies of (a) 50 Hz and (b) 20 kHz.
of the coil are considered, in one revolution of the
coil, one cycle of alternating e.m.f. is produced as
1 1
shown. This is the principle of operation of the a.c. (a) Periodic time T D D D 0.02 s or 20 ms
generator (i.e. the alternator). f 50
1 1
(b) Periodic time T D D
f 20 000
14.3 Waveforms D 0.00005 s or 50 ms

If values of quantities which vary with time t are

plotted to a base of time, the resulting graph is called Problem 2. Determine the frequencies for
a waveform. Some typical waveforms are shown in periodic times of (a) 4 ms (b) 4 µs.
Fig. 14.3. Waveforms (a) and (b) are unidirectional
waveforms, for, although they vary considerably
with time, they flow in one direction only (i.e. they 1 1
do not cross the time axis and become negative). (a) Frequency f D D
T 4 ð 103
Waveforms (c) to (g) are called alternating wave-
forms since their quantities are continually changing 1000
D D 250 Hz
in direction (i.e. alternately positive and negative). 4
A waveform of the type shown in Fig. 14.3(g) is 1 1 1 000 000
called a sine wave. It is the shape of the waveform (b) Frequency f D D 6
D
T 4 ð 10 4
of e.m.f. produced by an alternator and thus the
mains electricity supply is of ‘sinusoidal’ form. D 250 000 Hz
One complete series of values is called a cycle or 250 kHz or 0.25 MHz
(i.e. from O to P in Fig. 14.3(g)).
The time taken for an alternating quantity to
complete one cycle is called the period or the Problem 3. An alternating current
periodic time, T, of the waveform. completes 5 cycles in 8 ms. What is its
The number of cycles completed in one second frequency?
is called the frequency, f, of the supply and is

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 ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 185

Time for 1 cycle D 8/5 ms D 1.6 ms D periodic

time T. For a sine wave:
1 1 1000 average value = 0.637 × maximum value
Frequency f D D D
T 1.6 ð 103 1.6
.i.e. 2=p × maximum value/
10 000
D D 625 Hz
16
The effective value of an alternating current is
Now try the following exercise that current which will produce the same heating
effect as an equivalent direct current. The effective
value is called the root mean square (r.m.s.) value
Exercise 73 Further problems on and whenever an alternating quantity is given, it
frequency and periodic time is assumed to be the rms value. For example, the
1 Determine the periodic time for the following domestic mains supply in Great Britain is 240 V and
frequencies: is assumed to mean ‘240 V rms’. The symbols used
(a) 2.5 Hz (b) 100 Hz (c) 40 kHz for r.m.s. values are I, V, E, etc. For a non-sinusoidal
[(a) 0.4 s (b) 10 ms (c) 25 µs] waveform as shown in Fig. 14.4 the r.m.s. value is
given by:
2 Calculate the frequency for the following peri-
odic times: 
(a) 5 ms (b) 50 µs (c) 0.2 s i21 C i22 C . . . C i2n
[(a) 200 Hz (b) 20 kHz (c) 5 Hz] ID
n
3 An alternating current completes 4 cycles in
5 ms. What is its frequency? [800 Hz] where n is the number of intervals used.

14.4 A.c. values

Instantaneous values are the values of the alternat-
ing quantities at any instant of time. They are repre-
sented by small letters, i, v, e, etc., (see Fig. 14.3(f)
and (g)).
The largest value reached in a half cycle is called
the peak value or the maximum value or the
crest value or the amplitude of the waveform.
Such values are represented by Vm , Im , Em , etc. Figure 14.4
(see Fig. 14.3(f) and (g)). A peak-to-peak value of
e.m.f. is shown in Fig. 14.3(g) and is the difference
between the maximum and minimum values in a For a sine wave:
cycle.
The average or mean value of a symmetrical rms value = 0.707 × maximum value
alternating quantity, (such as a sine wave), is the p
average value measured over a half cycle, (since .i.e. 1= 2 × maximum value/
over a complete cycle the average value is zero).

area under the curve
Average or
D
mean value length of base
r.m.s. value
Form factor =
The area under the curve is found by approxi- average value
mate methods such as the trapezoidal rule, the mid-
ordinate rule or Simpson’s rule. Average values are
represented by VAV , IAV , EAV , etc. For a sine wave, form factor D 1.11

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186 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY

1 volt second
maximum value D
Peak factor = 10 ð 103 second
r.m.s. value
1000
D D 100 V
For a sine wave, peak factor D 1.41. 10
The values of form and peak factors give an (iii) In Fig. 14.5(a), the first 1/4 cycle is divided
indication of the shape of waveforms. into 4 intervals. Thus

v21 C v22 C v23 C v24
Problem 4. For the periodic waveforms rms value D
4
shown in Fig. 14.5 determine for each: 
(i) frequency (ii) average value over half a 252 C752 C1252 C1752
cycle (iii) r.m.s. value (iv) form factor and D
(v) peak factor. 4
D 114.6 V
(Note that the greater the number of inter-
vals chosen, the greater the accuracy of the
result. For example, if twice the number of
ordinates as that chosen above are used, the
r.m.s. value is found to be 115.6 V)
r.m.s. value
(iv) Form factor D
average value
114.6
D D 1.15
100
maximum value
(v) Peak factor D
r.m.s. value
200
D D 1.75
114.6
(b) Rectangular waveform (Fig. 14.5(b)).
(i) Time for 1 complete cycle D 16 ms D
periodic time, T. Hence
Figure 14.5
1 1 1000
frequency, f D D 3
D
(a) Triangular waveform (Fig. 14.5(a)). T 16 ð 10 16
(i) Time for 1 complete cycle D 20 ms D D 62.5 Hz
periodic time, T. Hence

area under curve
1 1 Average value over
frequency f D D (ii) D
T 20 ð 103 half a cycle length of base
1000 10 ð 8 ð 103
D D 50 Hz D
20 8 ð 103
(ii) Area under the triangular waveform for a D 10 A
half-cycle D 12 ð base ð height 
i21 C i22 C i23 C i24
D 12 ð 10 ð 103 ð 200 D 1 volt second (iii) The r.m.s. value D
4

area under curve
Average value D 10 A, however many intervals are chosen,
D
of waveform length of base since the waveform is rectangular.

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 ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 187

r.m.s. value 10
(iv) Form factor D D D1
average value 10
maximum value 10
(v) Peak factor D D D1
r.m.s. value 10

Problem 5. The following table gives the

corresponding values of current and time for
a half cycle of alternating current.

time t (ms) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

current i (A) 0 7 14 23 40

time t (ms) 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

current i (A) 56 68 76 60 5 0

Assuming the negative half cycle is identical

in shape to the positive half cycle, plot the
waveform and find (a) the frequency of the
supply, (b) the instantaneous values of
current after 1.25 ms and 3.8 ms, (c) the peak
or maximum value, (d) the mean or average
value, and (e) the r.m.s. value of the Figure 14.6
waveform.

0.5 ð 103 351
Hence mean or
The half cycle of alternating current is shown plotted D
average value 5 ð 103
in Fig. 14.6
D 35.1 A
(a) Time for a half cycle D 5 ms; hence the time for 

1 cycle, i.e. the periodic time,  32 C 102 C 192 C 302
 C 492 C632 C732 C722
T D 10 ms or 0.01 s 
 C 302 C 22
1 1 (e) R.m.s value D
Frequency, f D D D 100 Hz 10
T 0.01 
(b) Instantaneous value of current after 1.25 ms is 19157
D D 43.8 A
19 A, from Fig. 14.6. Instantaneous value of 10
current after 3.8 ms is 70 A, from Fig. 14.6
(c) Peak or maximum value D 76 A Problem 6. Calculate the r.m.s. value of a
area under curve sinusoidal current of maximum value 20 A.
(d) Mean or average value D
length of base
Using the mid-ordinate rule with 10 intervals, For a sine wave,
each of width 0.5 ms gives:

r.m.s. value D 0.707 ð maximum value
area under 3
D 0.5 ð 10 [3 C 10 C 19 C 30 D 0.707 ð 20 D 14.14 A
curve
C 49 C 63 C 73 C 72 C 30 C 2]
(see Fig. 14.6) Problem 7. Determine the peak and mean
values for a 240 V mains supply.
D 0.5 ð 103 351

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188 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY

For a sine wave, r.m.s. value of voltage 2 For the waveforms shown in Fig. 14.7 deter-
V D 0.707 ð Vm . mine for each (i) the frequency (ii) the average
A 240 V mains supply means that 240 V is the r.m.s. value over half a cycle (iii) the r.m.s. value
value, hence (iv) the form factor (v) the peak factor.
[(a) (i) 100 Hz (ii) 2.50 A (iii) 2.88 A
V 240 (iv) 1.15 (v) 1.74
Vm D D D 339.5 V
0.707 0.707 (b) (i) 250 Hz (ii) 20 V (iii) 20 V
D peak value (iv) 1.0 (v) 1.0
(c) (i) 125 Hz (ii) 18 A (iii) 19.56 A
Mean value (iv) 1.09 (v) 1.23
(d) (i) 250 Hz (ii) 25 V (iii) 50 V
VAV D 0.637 Vm D 0.637 ð 339.5 D 216.3 V (iv) 2.0 (v) 2.0]

Problem 8. A supply voltage has a mean

value of 150 V. Determine its maximum
value and its r.m.s. value.

For a sine wave, mean value D 0.637 ð maximum

value. Hence
mean value 150
maximum value D D
0.637 0.637
D 235.5 V

R.m.s. value D 0.707 ð maximum value

D 0.707 ð 235.5 D 166.5 V

Figure 14.7
Now try the following exercise

3 An alternating voltage is triangular in shape,

Exercise 74 Further problems on a.c. rising at a constant rate to a maximum of
values of waveforms 300 V in 8 ms and then falling to zero at a
1 An alternating current varies with time over constant rate in 4 ms. The negative half cycle
half a cycle as follows: is identical in shape to the positive half cycle.
Calculate (a) the mean voltage over half a
cycle, and (b) the r.m.s. voltage
Current (A) 0 0.7 2.0 4.2 8.4 [(a) 150 V (b) 170 V]
time (ms) 0 1 2 3 4 4 An alternating e.m.f. varies with time over half
a cycle as follows:
Current (A) 8.2 2.5 1.0 0.4 0.2 0
time (ms) 5 6 7 8 9 10
E.m.f. (V) 0 45 80 155
time (ms) 0 1.5 3.0 4.5
The negative half cycle is similar. Plot the
curve and determine: E.m.f. (V) 215 320 210 95
(a) the frequency (b) the instantaneous values time (ms) 6.0 7.5 9.0 10.5
at 3.4 ms and 5.8 ms (c) its mean value and
E.m.f. (V) 0
(d) its r.m.s. value
time (ms) 12.0
[(a) 50 Hz (b) 5.5 A, 3.4 A (c) 2.8 A (d) 4.0 A]

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 ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 189

The negative half cycle is identical in shape If all such vertical components are projected on to
to the positive half cycle. Plot the waveform a graph of y against angle ωt (in radians), a sine
and determine (a) the periodic time and fre- curve results of maximum value 0A. Any quantity
quency (b) the instantaneous value of voltage which varies sinusoidally can thus be represented as
at 3.75 ms (c) the times when the voltage is a phasor.
125 V (d) the mean value, and (e) the r.m.s. A sine curve may not always start at 0° . To
value show this a periodic function is represented by
[(a) 24 ms, 41.67 Hz (b) 115 V y D sinωt š  , where  is the phase (or angle) dif-
(c) 4 ms and 10.1 ms (d) 142 V ference compared with y D sin ωt. In Fig. 14.9(a),
(e) 171 V] y2 D sinωt C  starts  radians earlier than
5 Calculate the r.m.s. value of a sinusoidal curve y1 D sin ωt and is thus said to lead y1 by  radians.
of maximum value 300 V [212.1 V] Phasors y1 and y2 are shown in Fig. 14.9(b) at the
time when t D 0.
6 Find the peak and mean values for a 200 V
mains supply [282.9 V, 180.2 V]
7 Plot a sine wave of peak value 10.0 A. Show
that the average value of the waveform is
6.37 A over half a cycle, and that the r.m.s.
value is 7.07 A
8 A sinusoidal voltage has a maximum value of
120 V. Calculate its r.m.s. and average values.
[84.8 V, 76.4 V]
9 A sinusoidal current has a mean value of
15.0 A. Determine its maximum and r.m.s.
values. [23.55 A, 16.65 A]
Figure 14.9

In Fig. 14.9(c), y4 D sinωt   starts  radians

14.5 The equation of a sinusoidal later than y3 D sin ωt and is thus said to lag y3 by 
waveform radians. Phasors y3 and y4 are shown in Fig. 14.9(d)
at the time when t D 0.
Given the general sinusoidal voltage,
In Fig. 14.8, 0A represents a vector that is free to v = V m sin.wt ± f/, then
rotate anticlockwise about 0 at an angular velocity
of ω rad/s. A rotating vector is known as a phasor. (i) Amplitude or maximum value D Vm
After time t seconds the vector 0A has turned (ii) Peak to peak value D 2 Vm
through an angle ωt. If the line BC is constructed (iii) Angular velocity D ω rad/s
perpendicular to 0A as shown, then (iv) Periodic time, T D 2/ω seconds
(v) Frequency, f D ω/2 Hz (since ω D 2f)
BC (vi)  D angle of lag or lead (compared with
sin ωt D i.e. BC D 0B sin ωt v D Vm sin ωt)
0B

Problem 9. An alternating voltage is given

by v D 282.8 sin 314 t volts. Find (a) the
r.m.s. voltage, (b) the frequency and (c) the
instantaneous value of voltage when
t D 4 ms.

(a) The general expression for an alternating voltage

Figure 14.8 is v D Vm sinωt š  . Comparing

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190 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY

v D 282.8 sin 314 t with this general expression 180°

gives the peak voltage as 282.8 V. Hence the 0.25 rads D 0.25 ð D 14.32°

r.m.s. voltage D 0.707 ð maximum value
Hence phase angle D 14.32° lagging
D 0.707 ð 282.8 D 200 V
(b) Angular velocity, ω D 314 rad/s, i.e. 2f D Problem 11. An alternating voltage, v, has
314. Hence frequency, a periodic time of 0.01 s and a peak value of
314 40 V. When time t is zero, v D 20 V.
fD D 50 Hz Express the instantaneous voltage in the form
2 v D Vm sinωt š  .
(c) When t D 4 ms,
Amplitude, Vm D 40 V.
v D 282.8 sin314 ð 4 ð 103 2
Periodic time T D hence angular velocity,
D 282.8 sin1.256 D 268.9 V ω
2 2
  ωD D D 200 rad/s.
180° T 0.01
Note that 1.256 radians D 1.256 ð v D Vm sinωt C  thus becomes

D 71.96° v D 40 sin200t C  volts.
Hence v D 282.8 sin 71.96° D 268.9 V, as When time t D 0, v D 20 V
above. i.e. 20 D 40 sin 
so that sin  D 20/40 D 0.5
Problem 10. An alternating voltage is given Hence  D sin1 0.5 D 30°
by v D 75 sin200t  0.25 volts. Find  
(a) the amplitude, (b) the peak-to-peak value, D 30 ð rads D  rads
(c) the r.m.s. value, (d) the periodic time, 180 6
(e) the frequency, and (f) the phase angle (in p
degrees and minutes) relative to 75 sin 200t. Thus v = 40 sin 200pt − V
6

Comparing v D 75 sin200t  0.25 with the gen- Problem 12. The current in an a.c. circuit at
eral expression v D Vm sinωt š  gives: any time t seconds is given by:
i D 120 sin100t C 0.36 amperes. Find:
(a) the peak value, the periodic time, the
(a) Amplitude, or peak value D 75 V frequency and phase angle relative to
(b) Peak-to-peak value D 2 ð 75 D 150 V 120 sin 100t (b) the value of the current
when t D 0 (c) the value of the current when
(c) The r.m.s. value D 0.707 ð maximum value t D 8 ms (d) the time when the current first
reaches 60 A, and (e) the time when the
D 0.707 ð 75 D 53 V current is first a maximum.

(d) Angular velocity, ω D 200 rad/s. Hence peri- (a) Peak value D 120 A
odic time,
2
Periodic time T D
2 2 1 ω
TD D D D 0.01 s or 10 ms
ω 200 100 2
D since ω D 100
1 1 100
(e) Frequency, f D D D 100 Hz
T 0.01 1
D D 0.02 s or 20 ms
50
(f) Phase angle,  D 0.25 radians lagging
1 1
75 sin 200t Frequency, f D D D 50 Hz
T 0.02

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 ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 191

Phase angle D 0.36 rads (in degrees) of the following alternating quan-
tities:
180°
D 0.36 ð D 20.63° leading (a) v D 90 sin 400t volts
 [90 V, 63.63 V, 5 ms, 200 Hz, 0° ]
(b) When t D 0, (b) i D 50 sin100t C 0.30 amperes
[50 A, 35.35 A, 0.02 s, 50 Hz, 17.19° lead]
i D 120 sin0 C 0.36 (c) e D 200 sin628.4 t  0.41 volts
[200 V, 141.4 V, 0.01 s, 100 Hz, 23.49°
D 120 sin 20.63° D 42.3 A lag]
(c) When t D 8 ms, 3 A sinusoidal current has a peak value of 30 A
  and a frequency of 60 Hz. At time t D 0,
8 the current is zero. Express the instantaneous
i D 120 sin 100 C 0.36
103 current i in the form i D Im sin ωt
[i D 30 sin 120t]
D 120 sin 2.8733D 120 sin 164.63°
D 31.8 A 4 An alternating voltage v has a periodic time
of 20 ms and a maximum value of 200 V.
(d) When i D 60 A, 60 D 120 sin100t C 0.36 When time t D 0, v D 75 volts. Deduce
thus 60/120 D sin100t C 0.36 so that a sinusoidal expression for v and sketch one
100t C 0.36 D sin1 0.5 D 30° cycle of the voltage showing important points.
D /6 rads D 0.5236 rads. Hence time, [v D 200 sin100t  0.384 ]

0.5236  0.36 5 The voltage in an alternating current circuit at

tD D 0.521 ms any time t seconds is given by v D 60 sin 40t
100 volts. Find the first time when the voltage is
(e) When the current is a maximum, i D 120 A. (a) 20 V (b) 30 V
[(a) 8.496 ms (b) 91.63 ms]
Thus 120 D 120 sin100t C 0.36
6 The instantaneous value of voltage in an a.c.
1 D sin100t C 0.36 circuit at any time t seconds is given by
100t C 0.36 D sin1 1 D 90° v D 100 sin50t  0.523 V. Find:
(a) the peak-to-peak voltage, the periodic
D /2 rads time, the frequency and the phase angle
(b) the voltage when t D 0
D 1.5708 rads.
(c) the voltage when t D 8 ms
1.5708  0.36 (d) the times in the first cycle when the voltage
Hence time, tD D 3.85 ms
100 is 60 V
(e) the times in the first cycle when the voltage
is 40 V
Now try the following exercise (f) the first time when the voltage is a maxi-
mum.
Sketch the curve for one cycle showing
relevant points. [(a) 200 V, 0.04 s, 25 Hz,
Exercise 75 Further problems on
29.97° lagging (b) 49.95 V (c) 66.96 V
v = Vm sin.wt ± f/
(d) 7.426 ms, 19.23 ms (e) 25.95 ms, 40.71 ms
1 An alternating voltage is represented by v D (f) 13.33 ms]
20 sin 157.1 t volts. Find (a) the maximum
value (b) the frequency (c) the periodic time.
(d) What is the angular velocity of the phasor
representing this waveform?
[(a) 20 V (b) 25 Hz 14.6 Combination of waveforms
(c) 0.04 s (d) 157.1 rads/s]
2 Find the peak value, the r.m.s. value, the peri- The resultant of the addition (or subtraction) of two
odic time, the frequency and the phase angle sinusoidal quantities may be determined either:

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192 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY

(a) by plotting the periodic functions graphically The resultant waveform leads the curve i1 D
(see worked Problems 13 and 16), or 20 sin ωt by 19° i.e. 19 ð /180 rads D 0.332 rads
Hence the sinusoidal expression for the resultant
(b) by resolution of phasors by drawing or calcula- i1 C i2 is given by:
tion (see worked Problems 14 and 15)
iR = i1 + i2 = 26.5 sin.wt + 0.332/ A
Problem 13. The instantaneous values of
two alternating currents are given by Problem 14. Two alternating voltages are
i1 D 20 sin ωt amperes and represented by v1 D 50 sin ωt volts and
i2 D 10 sinωt C /3 amperes. By plotting v2 D 100 sinωt  /6 V. Draw the phasor
i1 and i2 on the same axes, using the same diagram and find, by calculation, a sinusoidal
scale, over one cycle, and adding ordinates at expression to represent v1 C v2 .
intervals, obtain a sinusoidal expression for
i 1 C i2 .
Phasors are usually drawn at the instant when time
t D 0. Thus v1 is drawn horizontally 50 units
i1 D 20 sin ωt and i2 D 10 sinωt C /3 are shown long and v2 is drawn 100 units long lagging v1 by
plotted in Fig. 14.10. Ordinates of i1 and i2 are /6 rads, i.e. 30° . This is shown in Fig. 14.11(a)
added at, say, 15° intervals (a pair of dividers are where 0 is the point of rotation of the phasors.
useful for this). For example,

at 30° , i1 C i2 D 10 C 10 D 20 A
at 60° , i1 C i2 D 17.3 C 8.7 D 26 A
at 150° , i1 C i2 D 10 C 5 D 5 A, and so on.

Figure 14.11

Procedure to draw phasor diagram to represent

v1 C v2 :

(i) Draw v1 horizontal 50 units long, i.e. oa of

Fig. 14.11(b)
(ii) Join v2 to the end of v1 at the appropriate angle,
i.e. ab of Fig. 14.11(b)
(iii) The resultant vR D v1 C v2 is given by the
length ob and its phase angle may be measured
with respect to v1
Figure 14.10
Alternatively, when two phasors are being added the
The resultant waveform for i1 C i2 is shown by the resultant is always the diagonal of the parallelogram,
broken line in Fig. 14.10. It has the same period, as shown in Fig. 14.11(c).
and hence frequency, as i1 and i2 . The amplitude or From the drawing, by measurement, vR D 145 V
peak value is 26.5 A and angle  D 20° lagging v1 .

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 ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 193

A more accurate solution is obtained by calcu- from which iR D 26.46 A

lation, using the cosine and sine rules. Using the
cosine rule on triangle 0ab of Fig. 14.11(b) gives: By the sine rule:

v2R D v21 C v22  2v1 v2 cos 150° 10 26.46

D
sin  sin 120°
D 502 C 1002  250 100 cos 150°
D 2500 C 10000  8660 from which  D 19.10° i.e. 0.333 rads
p
vR D 21160 D 145.5 V Hence, by calculation,

iR = 26.46 sin.wt + 0.333/ A

Using the sine rule,

100 145.5 Problem 16. Two alternating voltages are

D
sin  sin 150° given by v1 D 120 sin ωt volts and
v2 D 200 sinωt  /4 volts. Obtain
100 sin 150° sinusoidal expressions for v1  v2 (a) by
from which sin  D
145.5 plotting waveforms, and (b) by resolution of
D 0.3436 phasors.

and  D sin1 0.3436 D 20.096° D 0.35 radians, (a) v1 D 120 sin ωt and v2 D 200 sinωt  /4 are
and lags v1 . Hence
shown plotted in Fig. 14.13 Care must be taken
when subtracting values of ordinates especially
vR D v1 C v2 D 145.5 sin.wt − 0.35/ V when at least one of the ordinates is negative.
For example

Problem 15. Find a sinusoidal expression at 30° , v1  v2 D 60  52 D 112 V

for i1 C i2 of Problem 13, (b) by drawing at 60° , v1  v2 D 104  52 D 52 V
phasors, (b) by calculation. at 150° , v1  v2 D 60  193 D 133 V and
so on.

(a) The relative positions of i1 and i2 at time t D 0

are shown as phasors in Fig. 14.12(a). The pha-
sor diagram in Fig. 14.12(b) shows the resultant
iR , and iR is measured as 26 A and angle  as
19° or 0.33 rads leading i1 .
Hence, by drawing, iR = 26 sin.wt + 0.33/ A

Figure 14.12

(b) From Fig. 14.12(b), by the cosine rule:

i2R D 202 C 102  220 10 cos 120° Figure 14.13

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194 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY

The resultant waveform, vR D v1  v2 , is shown from which, 0 D tan1 6.6013

by the broken line in Fig. 14.13 The maximum
value of vR is 143 V and the waveform is seen D 81.39°
to lead v1 by 99° (i.e. 1.73 radians) and  D 98.61° or 1.721 radians
Hence, by drawing,
Hence, by resolution of phasors,
vR = v1 − v2 = 143 sin.wt + 1.73/volts
vR = v1 − v2 = 143.0 sin.wt + 1.721/ volts
(b) The relative positions of v1 and v2 are shown at
time t D 0 as phasors in Fig. 14.14(a). Since
the resultant of v1  v2 is required, v2 is Now try the following exercise
drawn in the opposite direction to Cv2 and is
shown by the broken line in Fig. 14.14(a). The Exercise 76 Further problems on the
phasor diagram with the resultant is shown in combination of periodic functions
Fig. 14.14(b) where v2 is added phasorially
to v1 . 1 The instantaneous values of two alternating
voltages are given by v1 D 5 sin ωt and v2 D
8 sinωt  /6 . By plotting v1 and v2 on the
same axes, using the same scale, over one
cycle, obtain expressions for
(a) v1 C v2 and (b) v1  v2
[(a) v1 C v2 D 12.58 sinωt  0.325 V
(b) v1  v2 D 4.44 sinωt C 2.02 V]
2 Repeat Problem 1 using resolution of phasors
3 Construct a phasor diagram to represent i1 C i2
where i1 D 12 sin ωt and
i2 D 15 sinωt C /3 . By measurement, or
by calculation, find a sinusoidal expression to
represent i1 C i2
[23.43 sinωt C 0.588 ]
Determine, either by plotting graphs and
adding ordinates at intervals, or by calculation,
the following periodic functions in the form
v D Vm sinωt š 
4 10 sin ωt C 4 sinωt C /4
Figure 14.14 [13.14 sinωt C 0.217 ]
5 80 sinωt C /3 C 50 sinωt  /6
By resolution: [94.34 sinωt C 0.489 ]
Sum of horizontal components of v1 and v2 D 6 100 sin ωt  70 sinωt  /3
120 cos 0°  200 cos 45° D 21.42 [88.88 sinωt C 0.751 ]
Sum of vertical components of v1 and v2 D
120 sin 0° C 200 sin 45° D 141.4
From Fig. 14.14(c), resultant 14.7 Rectification
vR D 21.42 2 C 141.4 2
The process of obtaining unidirectional currents and
D 143.0 voltages from alternating currents and voltages is
141.4 called rectification. Automatic switching in circuits
and tan 0 D is carried out by devices called diodes. Half and full-
21.42 wave rectifiers are explained in Chapter 11, Sec-
D tan 6.6013 tion 11.7, page 132

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 ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 195

Now try the following exercises (a) a maximum value

(b) a peak value
(c) an instantaneous value
Exercise 77 Short answer questions on (d) an r.m.s. value
alternating voltages and currents
2 An alternating current completes 100 cycles
1 Briefly explain the principle of operation of in 0.1 s. Its frequency is:
the simple alternator (a) 20 Hz (b) 100 Hz
2 What is meant by (a) waveform (b) cycle (c) 0.002 Hz (d) 1 kHz

3 What is the difference between an alternating 3 In Fig. 14.15, at the instant shown, the gen-
and a unidirectional waveform? erated e.m.f. will be:
(a) zero
4 The time to complete one cycle of a wave- (b) an r.m.s. value
form is called the . . . . . . (c) an average value
(d) a maximum value
5 What is frequency? Name its unit
6 The mains supply voltage has a special shape
of waveform called a . . . . . .
7 Define peak value
8 What is meant by the r.m.s. value?
9 The domestic mains electricity voltage in
Great Britain is . . . . . .
10 What is the mean value of a sinusoidal alter-
nating e.m.f. which has a maximum value of Figure 14.15
100 V?
11 The effective value of a sinusoidal waveform 4 The supply of electrical energy for a con-
is . . . . . . ð maximum value sumer is usually by a.c. because:
12 What is a phasor quantity? (a) transmission and distribution are more
easily effected
13 Complete the statement: (b) it is most suitable for variable speed
Form factor D . . . . . . ł . . . . . ., and for a sine motors
wave, form factor D . . . . . . (c) the volt drop in cables is minimal
14 Complete the statement: (d) cable power losses are negligible
Peak factor D . . . . . . ł . . . . . ., and for a sine 5 Which of the following statements is false?
wave, peak factor D . . . . . . (a) It is cheaper to use a.c. than d.c.
15 A sinusoidal current is given by i D (b) Distribution of a.c. is more convenient
Im sinωt š ˛ . What do the symbols Im , ω than with d.c. since voltages may be
and ˛ represent? readily altered using transformers
(c) An alternator is an a.c. generator
16 How is switching obtained when converting (d) A rectifier changes d.c. to a.c.
a.c. to d.c.?
6 An alternating voltage of maximum value
100 V is applied to a lamp. Which of the
following direct voltages, if applied to the
lamp, would cause the lamp to light with the
Exercise 78 Multi-choice questions on same brilliance?
alternating voltages and currents (Answers (a) 100 V (b) 63.7 V
on page 375) (c) 70.7 V (d) 141.4 V
1 The value of an alternating current at any 7 The value normally stated when referring to
given instant is: alternating currents and voltages is the:

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196 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY

(a) instantaneous value 10 An alternating voltage is given by v D

(b) r.m.s. value 100 sin50t  0.30 V.
(c) average value Which of the following statements is true?
(d) peak value (a) The r.m.s. voltage is 100 V
(b) The periodic time is 20 ms
8 State which of the following is false. For a (c) The frequency is 25 Hz
sine wave: (d) The voltage is leading v D 100 sin 50t
(a) the peak factor is 1.414 by 0.30 radians
(b) the r.m.s. value is 0.707 ð peak value
(c) the average value is 0.637 ð r.m.s. value 11 The number of complete cycles of an alter-
(d) the form factor is 1.11 nating current occurring in one second is
known as:
9 An a.c. supply is 70.7 V, 50 Hz. Which of the (a) the maximum value of the alternating
following statements is false? current
(a) The periodic time is 20 ms (b) the frequency of the alternating current
(b) The peak value of the voltage is 70.7 V (c) the peak value of the alternating current
(c) The r.m.s. value of the voltage is 70.7 V (d) the r.m.s. or effective value
(d) The peak value of the voltage is 100 V

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 Assignment 4

This assignment covers the material contained in chapters 13 and 14.

The marks for each question are shown in brackets at the end of each question.

1 Find the current flowing in the 5
resis- Find also the current flowing in each of the other
tor of the circuit shown in Fig. A4.1 using two branches of the circuit. (27)
(a) Kirchhoff’s laws, (b) the Superposition the- 2 A d.c. voltage source has an internal resistance
orem, (c) Thévenin’s theorem, (d) Norton’s of 2
and an open circuit voltage of 24 V. State
theorem. the value of load resistance that gives maximum
Demonstrate that the same answer results from power dissipation and determine the value of this
each method. power. (5)
3 A sinusoidal voltage has a mean value of 3.0 A.
Determine it’s maximum and r.m.s. values. (4)
4 The instantaneous value of current in an a.c.
circuit at any time t seconds is given by: i D
50 sin100t  0.45 mA. Determine
(a) the peak to peak current, the periodic time, the
frequency and the phase angle (in degrees)
(b) the current when t D 0
(c) the current when t D 8 ms
(d) the first time when the voltage is a maximum.
Sketch the current for one cycle showing relevant
Figure A4.1 points. (14)

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