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www.cafetinnova.org ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 09, No. 04 August 2016, P.P.1421-1428

Performance of Plain and Lipped Cold-Formed Channel Sections

in Axial Compression
G BEULAH GNANA ANANTHI
Division of Structural Engineering, College of Engineering, Guindy, Anna University, Chennai - 600025
Email: [email protected]

Abstract: Cold-formed steel (CFS) members are finding increasing acceptance within the construction markets
as primary structural elements. Among the members most commonly used is the open channel members that
offers simple fabrication and connection. This paper throws light into the behaviour of both lipped and plain
channel members with different slenderness ratios comparing with the various international codes of practice for
cold-formed sections subjected to compression. The various standards includes, the Indian Standard Code of
Practice for use of Cold-formed Light Steel Structural Members-IS:801, the British Code of Practice for Design
of Cold-formed Sections-BS:5950 (Part 5) and the North American Standard- NAS Manual. Finite element
analysis (FEA) on the post-buckling behaviour of channels under axial compression is compared with the
various codal specifications. The load versus axial shortening behaviour of sections is obtained by using a non-
linear FEA. The load carrying capacities of plain and lipped channels for seven different slenderness ratios are
compared. Load versus axial shortening behaviour for the plain and lipped channels are also presented. The
mode of failure observed is combined local buckling in the case of unstiffened element, flexural buckling about
minor axis for the slenderness ratio of 30 to 100 and for sections having slenderness ratio 120 to 200 overall
flexural buckling about the weak axis. FEA is useful as an alternative and complementary method to the design
of CFS structures and predicts the ultimate load with reasonable accuracy.
Keywords: Cold-Formed Steel; Columns; Plain and Lipped Channels; Finite Element Analysis; Codal
Provisions

1. Introduction evaluating the ultimate load carrying capacity since

all these codes involve empirical formulas. Codal
Cold Forming is a process where steel
provisions also lack in ambiguity with uncommon
members are manufactured by rolling or shaping the
sections. The basis for the determination of member
steel after it is cold. Thin sheet steel products are
capacities of CFS sections is either Allowable Stress
extensively used in building industry, and range from
Design (ASD) or the Limit State Design referred to as
purlins to roof materials and floor decking. The
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD). Most of
broader use of thin walled CFS structural components
the specifications namely British Standards (BS) and
in many areas of application has elevated considerable
the North American Standards have switched over
interest in the local instability of these members.
from ASD to LRFD. However, the Indian Standards
Generally these are available for use as basic building
(IS) is still in the process of conversion to limit state
elements for assembly at site or as prefabricated
design. In this study, FEA is proposed as an
frames or panels. These thin steel sections are cold-
alternative and complementary method to the design
formed, i.e. their manufacturing process involves
of cold-formed steel structures. Ben Young and
forming steel sections in a cold state (i.e. without
Jintang Yan [5] presented a design and numerical
application of heat) from steel sheets of uniform
investigations into the strengths and behavior of cold-
thickness. Sometimes they are also called Light
formed lipped channel columns under fixed end
Gauge Steel Sections or Cold Rolled Steel Sections.
condition by using FEA. A nonlinear FE model was
The thickness of steel sheet used in cold formed
developed and verified against fixed-ended channel
construction is usually 1 to 3 mm. Much thicker
column tests. Geometric and material nonlinearities
material up to 8 mm can be formed if pre-galvanised
were included in the FE model. It was demonstrated
material is not required for the particular application.
that the FE model closely predicted the experimental
Sustained research and continuous upgradation of
ultimate loads and the behaviour of the cold-formed
design codes contributes to the maximum utilization
channel columns. The column strengths obtained from
of these sections for construction. A problem of
the FEA are compared with the design column
particular interest is to investigate their post-buckling
strengths calculated by using the American,
behaviour and ultimate load carrying capacity. There
Australian/New Zealand, and European specifications
are many codal specifications for the design of CFS
for CFS structures. It was shown that the design
issued by various countries like IS:801, BS:5950 (Part
column strengths calculated from the three
5) and NAS manual. Many times it is tedious for
specifications are generally conservative for lipped

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 1422 G B EULAH GNANA ANANTHI

channels having a maximum plate thickness of 6.0 experimental results. It was observed that the design
mm. strengths predicted by the various standards are
generally conservative for both concentrically and
Pandian et al. [6] compared the strengths of channel,
eccentrically loaded columns.
hat, box and I-sections subjected to compression by
using LRFD as per AISI and BS by varying the yield Wang et al [12] investigated the behaviour of thirty
strength and slenderness ratio. In each shape, one pin-ended CFS channel columns with inclined simple
section was considered having an average area of the edge stiffeners and with three different lengths. It was
sections as listed in IS: 811-1987. The slenderness observed that the capacity of the specimens with 45°
ratios were chosen from 25 to 125. BS and AISI codal inclined angle for bearing compression is appreciably
provisions were reviewed with reference to the higher than the other two types of specimens with 90°
compression load carrying capacity of the sections. or 135° inclination with the same negative
Ben Young and Jintang Yan [7] conducted numerical eccentricity, but obviously lower than the other two
investigations on channel columns with complex with the same positive eccentricity. All the columns
stiffeners. Parametric studies on channel columns loaded with positive eccentricity and the
with complex stiffeners were performed using FEM concentrically loaded columns with 45° sloping lip
and concluded that the design strengths obtained from stiffeners failed in combined distortional and flexural
the specification and standards are generally buckling modes, but other concentrically loaded
conservative for fixed-ended channel columns, for columns failed in combined local and flexural
slender sections having a plate thickness of 1 mm, but buckling modes. Vishnuvardhan and Samuel Knight
unconservative for sections having a plate thickness [13] examined the load carrying capacities of singly
of 2 mm. Lam et al [8] studied the load carrying symmetric and doubly symmetric shapes by using
capacities of CFS cut stub columns with lipped various codes of practice. Irrespective of the
channel sections. Geometric imperfections caused by standards, prediction of the ultimate loads is
cutting the section can significantly reduce the conservative for single angles. It was concluded that
ultimate strength of stub columns. the provision of lip marginally increases the predicted
ultimate loads of the order of 10% irrespective of the
Anil Kumar and Kalyanaraman [5] studied the
cross-section of channels.
suitability of Direct Strength Method (DSM) to
evaluate the compressive strength of plain channel, I 2. Details of Cross Sections for the Investigation
section and rectangular tubular members. The
The different configurations of plain and lipped single
comparative study with test results and Effective
channels considered in the present study are shown in
Width Method showed that DSM estimates the
Figure1.
strength of these compression members within an
acceptable accuracy, for practical purposes. From the
literature it is concluded that much work has not been
reported in the area of axially loaded CFS lipped and
unlipped channel sections. The present study is
conducted to analyze the behaviour of plain channels
with different loading patterns along the plane of
symmetry. The behaviour of channel sections without
lips and two different sizes with 2 mm thickness and
four different slenderness ratios were investigated.
Beulah Gnana Ananthi [11] presented the results of a
parametric study conducted on CFS plain single
channel columns with fixed ends, loaded Figure 1: Configuration of sections
concentrically and eccentrically. Experimental 3. Material Characteristics
investigations on columns of slenderness ratios 40 and
numerical investigation on columns of slenderness The load carrying capacities of six plain and lipped
ratio 40, 80,100 and 120 were conducted. Two channels obtained from three different codes and from
different cross-sections of CFS channels CFC FEA are compared. The channels include unlipped
200×50×2 mm and CFC 150×50×2 mm were chosen and lipped channel sections of slenderness ratios 30,
and forty different analytical studies were performed. 60, 100, 120, 150,180 and 200. The yield point of the
The flat width to thickness ratio of all the specimens steels recommended for cold-forming by AISI ranges
considered in this study is more than the limiting from 172 to 482 N/mm2. Similarly the ultimate tensile
value. The FE software ABAQUS 6.10 was used for strength of the steel specified in AISI standards ranges
numerical studies and the variation in stress contours from 289 to 584 N/mm2 and the ratios of tensile
and the load verses deformation behaviour of columns strength to yield strength ranges from 1.21 to 1.8. The
were studied and compared with the experimental minimum percentage elongation recommended by
results. Strength predicted by NAS, IS and BS were AISI ranges from 12 to 27. It is observed that the
also compared with the numerical and the yield strength, ultimate tensile strength and

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 Performance of Plain and Lipped Cold-Formed Channel Sections in Axial Compression 1423

percentage elongation of the chosen steel falls within column the structure must be modelled using some
the ranges specified by AISI. The typical stress-strain initial geometric imperfections obtained from the
behaviour of the tensile coupon for the specimens buckling analysis. This was achieved by modelling
used for the theoretical study are shown in Figure 2 the structure with an initial out-of-plane deflection.
and the mechanical properties of the sections tested The scaled value of linear buckling mode shape is
according to ASTM A 370 specifications [3] are used to create an initial geometric imperfection for the
presented in Table 1. nonlinear post-buckling analysis. The degree of
imperfection is assumed as the maximum amplitude
of the buckling mode shape and considered as
percentage of the structure’s thickness. For the
channels, the local buckling imperfection of 0.25
times the thickness, distortional buckling imperfection
of 0.35 times thickness and overall buckling
imperfection of L/1000 is used in the study. Material
and geometrical nonlinearity are incorporated to
predict the strength and behaviour. For the parametric
studies the displacement increment method is used.

Figure 2: Stress- Strain Behaviour of Tensile

Coupons of the specimens
Table 1: Mechanical properties of steel used in the
study
E Fy Fu Percentage
Fu/Fy
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) Elongation
207400 255 350 1.40 11
4. Finite Element Analysis
Commercial FEA software ABAQUS 6.10 is used in
this numerical study. As the CFS sections are very
thin as compared with their other dimensions first
order plate-shell element available in ABAQUS Figure 3: Numerical Model with End Conditions
software (S4R) is generally suitable for modeling. The 4.2. Linear Buckling Analysis
program has static, stability and nonlinear analysis
capabilities that are utilized in this study. To ascertain In the linear buckling analysis, the critical buckling
the type of element to be used for modeling, the load is calculated from the eigenvalue obtained by
model validation is initially carried out with S4R. using
Prior to analyzing the post-buckling behaviour of the
structure, a linear buckling analysis is first performed
on the specimens to get its buckling mode form.
Following this, the nonlinear post-buckling analysis is Where E-Young’s Modulus of elasticity; I-moment of
performed to predict the load versus end-shortening inertia about the weak axis; K- factor based on end
characteristic curves and the ultimate load carrying condition; L- length of specimen.
capacity.
4.3. Post-Buckling Analysis
4.1. Element mesh size and Boundary Condition
The section is loaded axially at the movable end by
Element meshes are refined till the suitable prescribing suitable increments of axial
convergence is obtained. All the columns used for the displacements. For each incremental step of end-
parametric study are with pinned ended boundary shortening, the total reaction at the end is obtained.
conditions. Figure 3 shows the mesh patterns and the Modified Riks arc length method for equilibrium path
boundary conditions for a lipped single channel. The following in nonlinear static problems is used in the
degrees of freedom apart from the translation along analysis. The comparison between the experimental
the axial direction and rotational along all the three ultimate load carrying capacity, and those computed
directions are restrained on the top and at the bottom by FEA are presented in Table 2 and shows a
of the column except the rotational degree of freedom reasonable agreement between the FEA and the
on all the three directions all the translations are experiments.
restrained. For obtaining the ultimate load of the

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 1424 G B EULAH GNANA ANANTHI

Table 2: Comparison of FEA and experimental FEA overestimates than IS for the shallow lipped
results of unlipped channel columns tested by section by 9% to 59%. Whereas BS and NAS
Vishuvardhan and Samuel Knight (2005) underestimates FEA prediction upto 63% and 74%
respectively. For the medium specimens compared to
Specimen PEXP (kN) PFEA (kN) PEXP/ PFEA FEA the percentage of underestimation by IS is upto
40 x20x10x2.1 68.97 86.55 0.80 65% and for BS and NAS the percentage of
60x30x15x2.1 97.9 117.22 0.84 underestimation is about 68% and 77% respectively.
80x40x20x3.3 142.4 158.94 0.90 Similarly for the deep section IS underestimates upto
100x50x20x3.3 138.8 173.47 0.80 72% and for BS and NAS the percentage of under
Mean 0.835 estimation ranges from 75% to 80% respectively.
SD 0.41
For deep channel sections with lip, the load carrying
5. Parametric Studies capacity predicted by NAS is always less irrespective
of the slenderness ratio of the sections. The load
carrying capacity predicted by the BS is marginally
more for sections with all slenderness ratios [15]. For
lipped channel sections with medium depth, the
predictions of load carrying capacity are marginally
more for sections with all slenderness ratios by BS.
For sections with slenderness ratio less than 60, NAS
underestimates the capacity by more than 20% and for
sections with slenderness ratio above 100, NAS
underestimates the load carrying capacity by more
than one and a half times [15]. Distinctively different
behaviour is noticed for the shallow lipped channel
sections, for which NAS underestimates the load
carrying capacity by more than two times for
slenderness ratios greater than 100 [15].

Figure 4 Details of Studies Conducted The provision of lip increases the load carrying
capacity almost twice for the single plain channel
FEA model is used for extensive parametric studies sections used in the parametric studies. The increase
by varying cross-sectional geometries. Six series of in the web depth from shallow to medium increases
cold-formed unlipped and lipped single channels are the ultimate load carrying capacity predicted by FEA
investigated as shown in Figure 4. Flange width of 50 for the plain section by about 8%. Whereas for the
mm and thickness of 3.15 mm is kept constant web depth increase from shallow to deep and from
whereas the parameters which are varied are the web medium to deep the load carrying capacity increases
depth and slenderness ratio from 30 to 200 by by about 36% and 30% respectively. Similarly for the
incorporating the lip depth of 25 mm for the lipped lipped sections increase in the web depth from
channels. The studies conducted include the FEA and shallow to medium increases FEA predicted ultimate
the calculations as per Indian Standard, North load carrying capacity by about 24%. For an increase
American Standards and the British Standards in the web depth from 75 to 150 mm, the increase in
respectively. the load carrying capacity is twice and from 90 to 150
Figures 5 to 7 show the load versus slenderness ratio mm, the increase is upto 60% respectively.
behaviour of both unlipped and lipped channel
sections for seven different slenderness ratios. For the
section CFC 75x50x3.15 mm, IS underestimates the
ultimate loads compared to those predicted by FEA
upto 62%, whereas BS underestimates the predicted
ultimate loads from FEA upto 64%. NAS
underestimates the ultimate loads upto 74%, predicted
by the FEA. IS underestimates FEA predicted
ultimate loads upto 57% for the medium depth
channels. For the same section BS and NAS
underestimates the predicted ultimate loads, upto 61%
and 69% respectively. For the deep unlipped channel
sections the underestimation by IS is upto 47% and
the percentage of underestimation by BS method and
NAS are 52% and 59% respectively.
Figure 5: Load versus Slenderness Ratio Behaviour
of Shallow Channel Sections

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 Performance of Plain and Lipped Cold-Formed Channel Sections in Axial Compression 1425

Figure 6: Load versus Slenderness Ratio Behaviour

of Medium Channel Sections

Figure 9: Deformed Shapes of Lipped Channels

5.1. Load versus Axial Shortening Behaviour
Figures 10 to 13 show the load versus axial shortening
behaviour for the various slenderness ratios ranging
from 30 to 200 for the sections used in the parametric
studies. During the initial stages of loading, all the
curves show a linear relationship between the load
and the end-shortening. As the end-shortening
increases and exceed the critical buckling load, the
columns enter the post-buckling range, where
nonlinear behaviour dominates. In the post-buckling
Figure 7: Load versus Slenderness Ratio Behaviour range, the load increases progressively at a slower rate
of Deep Channel Sections as the end-shortening increases. This can be noticed
as the gradient of the curves is gradual than that at the
Figures 8 and 9 show the deformed shapes from FEA initial stage. At the ultimate load, the columns failed
for unlipped and lipped channels with slenderness and lost its ability to carry further loading. Therefore,
ratio of 30, 60, 100 and 120 respectively. the load decreases with the end-shortening beyond the
ultimate load. The load versus axial shortening
behaviour is initially linear in all the cases upto 80%
of the ultimate load irrespective of the cross-section of
the specimens. The very long horizontal plateau after
the ultimate load is noticed indicates high degree of
ductility. The initial stiffness is calculated for all the
sections. It was observed that the initial stiffness for
the sections with slenderness ratio 30 is the greatest as
compared to that of other slenderness ratios
irrespective of whether lipped or unlipped sections.

Figure 10: Load versus axial shortening behaviour

Figure 8: Deformed Shapes of Unlipped Channels with varying the λ for the section CFC 75 x 50 x 3.15
mm

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 1426 G B EULAH GNANA ANANTHI

the reduction factors α and ψ, equations are proposed

based on the linear regression analysis to develop the
ultimate strength design formula for unlipped and
lipped channels subjected to axial compression.

Figure 11: Load versus axial shortening behavior

with varying the λ for the section CFC 90 x 50 x 3.15
mm

Figure 14: Comparison of PFEA versus PTheoretical for

Unlipped Channel Sections
Proposed equation for the unlipped channels is P FEA =
α PTheory + ψ, where α ranges between 0.68 to 0.75; ψ
ranges between 51 to 67 for various slenderness ratio.

Figure 12: Load versus axial shortening behaviour

with varying the λ for the section CFC 75 x 50 x 25 x
3.15 mm

Figure 15: Comparison of PFEA versus PTheoretical

For Lipped Channel Sections
Proposed equation for the lipped channels is P FEA = α
PTheory + ψ, where α ranges between 0.53 to 0.65 ; ψ
ranges between 97 to 115 for various slenderness
ratio. The above design formula is simple and reliable,
and can be used only for the above flat width to
thickness ratio for practical engineers.
6. Modes Of Failure
Figure 13: Load versus axial shortening behaviour
with varying the λ for the section CFC 90 x 50 x 25 x The modes of failure for the plain and lipped channel
3.15 mm sections observed from FEA studies shows that short
and intermediate channels failed either by local plate
From the load versus axial shortening behaviour of and flexural buckling about the weak axis. The failure
the single unlipped and lipped channels, the ductility patterns are distinctly different for the plain and
co-efficient is calculated as defined by Han, Zhao and lipped channel sections. The mode and the location of
Tao [14]. It is calculated as the ratio of the axial failure depend on the slenderness ratio and the cross-
displacement (Δu) corresponding to 85% of ultimate section of the sections. Plain channel sections failed
load in the post ultimate region to the axial by local buckling of the flange, which occurred
displacement at yield load (Δy). For both unlipped and between one third and mid height of the specimens.
lipped channel sections, the ductility co-efficient Plain channel sections with slenderness ratio more
increases with increase in slenderness ratio. Figures than 100 predominantly failed by flexural buckling
14 and 15 show the comparison of ultimate loads with local plate buckling in the flanges. In the case of
obtained in FEA study with the three codal provisions lipped channels the failure initiated by local plate
used for the parametric studies. Taking into account

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 Performance of Plain and Lipped Cold-Formed Channel Sections in Axial Compression 1427

buckling for the short and intermediate columns. The plate buckling for the short and intermediate


singly symmetric plain channels section failed by columns.
local buckling of the flanges, whereas lipped channels The singly symmetric unlipped channels sections
failed by a combination of local and overall buckling. failed by local buckling of the flanges, whereas
The failure between the mid-height of the section and lipped channels failed by a combination of local
one-third height of the section occurred either in the and overall buckling.
lips or in the flanges. Long columns both with and
8. Abbreviations

without lips failed by overall buckling which occurred


between one third and mid-height. A-cross sectional area
CFC – Cold-formed channel

7. Conclusions
E-Young’s Modulus of elasticity
Based on the review of the three international codal 

IS - Indian Standards
provisions and from FEA studies for the CFS BS – British Standards

unlipped and lipped channel sections subjected to
NAS – North American Standards

compression, the following conclusions are drawn.
 
FEA-Finite Element Analysis
Fy- Yield Stress (N/mm2)

The IS allows the use of area factor for stiffened
Fu- Ultimate Stress (N/mm2)

elements based on the effective design width and


stress factor for unstiffened elements based on the PIS- Ultimate Load by IS
allowable compressive stress under uniform

PNAS- Ultimate Load by NAS
compression. Whereas IS, allows only the

PBS- BS Ultimate Load by NAS
effective width concept for both stiffened and

PFEA- Ultimate Load by FEA
unstiffened elements. It does not take into

SD- Standard Deviation
account equations of the local buckling load of

L- length of specimen
both stiffened and unstiffened elements under
λ- Slenderness Ratio

stress gradient.
BS does not consider the effect of end restraint References
and also it does not recommend the plate
[1] IS: 801, “Code of Practice for Use of Cold-

buckling coefficient under stress gradient.
formed Light Gauge Steel Structural Members in
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
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regression analysis to evaluate the ultimate Definitions for Mechanical Testing of Steel


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
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
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