Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements Second Edition David A. Bell ‘Lambton College of Applied Arts and Technology Sarnia, Ontario, Canada Prentice-Hall of Indie: Private Limiied) New Delhi - 110 001 2003This Indian Reprint—Rs. 225.00 (Original U.S. Edition—Rs. 1510.00) EV ECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS, 2nd Ed. by David A. Bell © 1997 by David A. Bell. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN-81-203-2360-2 For sale in India Bangladesh, Myanmar, Cambodia, China, Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thai , Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, land, and Vietnam, Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, Prentice-Hall of india Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus, New Deihi-110001 and Printed by Syndicate Binders, B-167, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase | New Dethi-110020,Contents PREFACE UNITS, DIMENSIONS, AND STANDARDS Objectives 1 Introduction 1 1-1 SI Mechanical Units 2 1-2 Scientific Notation and Metric Prefixes 4 1-3 SI Electrical Units 5 1-4 SI Temperature Scales 7 1-5 Other Unit Systems 8 1-6 Dimensions 9 1-7 Standards il Review Questions 12 Problems 12 MEASUREMENT ERRORS Objectives 13 Introduction 13 _A-\— Gross Errors and Systematic Errors 14 2-2. Absolute Errors and Relative Errors 15° (23 Accuracy, Precision, Resolution, and Significant Figures 17 134 CAS Measurement Error Combinations 20 Basics of Statistical Analysis 24 Review Questions 27 Problems 27 3 ELECTROMECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS 29 Objectives 29 Introduction 29 3-1 3-2 33 34 3s 1 3-6 37 3-8 39 3-10 cell Permanent-Magnet Moving-Coil Instrument 30 Galvanometer 37 DC Ammeter 39 DC Voltmeter 46 Rectifier Voltmeter 51 Rectifier Ammeter 56 Deflection Instrument Errors 58 Series Ohmmeter 60 Shunt Ohmmeter . 64 Volt-Ohm-Milliameter 69 Electrodynamic Instrument 72 Review Questions 81 Problems 83 4 ANALOG ELECTRONIC VOLT-OHM-MILLIAMMETERS 86 Objectives 86 Introduction 86 41 42 43 44 45 4-6 47 Transistor Voltmeter Circuits 87 Operational Amplifier Voltmeter Circuits 95 Ohmmeter Function in Electronic Instruments 98 AC Electronic Voltmeters 103 Current Measurement with Electronic Instruments 108 Analog Electronic Multimeters 109 Multimeter Probes 111 Review Questions 114 Problems 115 Contentsmn DIGITAL INSTRUMENT BASICS Objectives 117 Introduction 117 5-1 Basic Logic Gates 118 5-2 Flip-Flops 120 5-3. Digital Displays 122 5-4 Digital Counting 125 $-5 Analog-to-Digital Converter 130 5-6 Digital-to-Analog Converter 133 Review Questions 136 Problems 136 DIGITAL VOLTMETERS AND FREQUENCY METERS Objectives 138 Introduction 138 6-1 Digital Voltmeter Systems 139 6-2 Digital Multimeters 144 6-3. Digital Frequency Meter System 150 6-4 Frequency Meter Accuracy 153 6-5 Time and Ratio Measurements 157 6-6 Counter Input Stage 157 6-7 Counter/Timer/Frequency Meter 160 Review Questions 161 Problems 161 LOW, HIGH, AND PRECISE RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS. Objectives 163 Introduction 163 7-1 Voltmeter and Ammeter Methods 164 7-2 Substitution Method 167 7-3 Wheatstone Bridge 167 7-4 Low-Resistance Measurement 174 7-5 Low-Resistance Megsuring Instruments 176 7-6 High-Resistance Measurement 178 7-1 . High-Resistance Measuring Instruments 182 Contents 117 138 163Review Questions 186 Problems 187 INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENTS 189 Objectives 189 Introduction 190 8-1 RCand RL Equivalent Circuits 190 8-2 AC Bridge Theory 195 8-3 Capacitance Bridges 198 8-4 Inductance Bridges 206 8-5 Multifunction Impedance Bridge 212 8-6 Measuring Small C, R, and Z Quantities 212 8-7 Digital L, C, and R Measurements 215 8-8 Digital RCL Meter 218 8-9 QMeter 220 Review Questions 227 Problems 228 CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPES 230 Objectives 230 Introduction 230 9-1 Cathode-Ray Tube 231 9-2 Deflection Amplifiers 234 9-3 Waveform Display 236 9-4 Oscilloscope Time Base 240 9-5 Dual-Trace Oscilloscope 248 9-6 Oscilloscope Controls 252 9-7 Measurement of Voltage, Frequency, and Phase 254 9-8 Pulse Measurements 257 9-9 Oscilloscope Probes 263 9-10 Display of Device Characteristics 270 9-11 X-YandZDisplays 271 9-12 Oscilloscope Specifications and Performance 274 Review Questions 280 Problems 282 vi Contents10 u 12 SPECIAL OSCILLOSCOPES 284 Objectives 284 Introduction 284 10-1 Delayed-Time-Base Oscilloscopes 285 10-2 Analog Storage Oscilloscope 289 10-3 Sampling Oscilloscopes 292 10-4 Digital Storage Oscilloscopes 298 10-5 DSO Applications 304 10-6 Representative DSO 311 Review Questions 311 Problems 312 SIGNAL GENERATORS 314 Objectives 314 Introduction 315 11-1 Low-Frequency Signal Generators 315 11-2. Function Generators 323 11-3. Pulse Generators 330 11-4 RF Signal Generators 337 11-5 Sweep Frequency Generators 342 11-6 Frequency Synthesizer 346 11-7 Arbitrary Waveform Generator 349 Review Questions 350 Problems 351 INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION 353 Objectives 353 Introduction 353 12-1 Comparison Methods 354 12-2 Digital Multimeters as Standard Instruments 358 12-3 Calibration Instruments 360 12-4 Potentiometers 362 12-5 Potentiometer Calibration Methods 368 Review Questions 371 Problems 372 Contents, vi15 16 GRAPHIC RECORDING INSTRUMENTS 374 Objectives 374 Introduction 374 13-1 13-2 13-3 13-4 13-5 Strip Chart Recorders 375 X-Y Recorder 380 Plotting Device Characteristics on an X-¥ Recorder 383 Plotters 384 Digital Waveform Recorder/Analyzer 386 Review Questions 387 WAVEFORM ANALYZING INSTRUMENTS 388 Objectives 388 Introduction 388 14-1 14-2 14-3 14-4 Distortion Meter 389 Spectrum Analyzer 392 Digital Spectrurh Analyzer 398 Additional Waveform Analyzing Instruments 400 Review Questions 401 MISCELLANEOUS METERS 403 Objectives 403 Introduction 403 15-1 15-2 15-3 15-4 Thermocouple Instruments 404 Peak Response Voltmeter 408 True RMS Meters 410 Low-Level Voltmeter/Ammeter 413 Review Questions 417 LABORATORY POWER SUPPLIES 419 Objectives 419 Introduction 419 16-1 16-2 16-3 16-4 16-5 viii Unregulated DC Power Supplies 420 NC Voltage Regulators 424 Output Current Limiting 428 Power Supply Performance and Specifications 430 DC Power Supply Use 432 Contents16-6 Power Supply Testing 432 Review Questions 435 Problems 436 APPENDICES 438 Unit Conversion Factors 438 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems 441 INDEX 445 Contents ixPreface The objectives of this book are to explain the operation, performance, and applications of the most important measuring instruments normally encountered in an electronics labora- tory, and to discuss electronics measuring techniques. An understanding of electrical fun- damentals and transistor circuit operation is assumed. Because digital instruments are (generally) much more accurate, more versatile, tougher, and less expensive than analog instruments, they are rapidly replacing analog i struments, Therefore, analog instrument coverage is reduced, and treatment of digital in- struments is greatly expanded in the second edition of this, book. Starting with ST units and measurement errors, the text progresses through electro- mechanical instruments, analog electronic instruments, digital voltmeters and frequency meters; to resistance, inductance, and capacitance measurement techniques. The special- ized instruments investigated in the latter half of the book include analog oscilloscopes, digital storage oscilloscopes, signal generators, waveform analyzers, and graphic record- ing instruments. Instrument calibration is also explained. ‘The content of this book has been heavily influenced by those who reviewed the first edition and/or the manuscript for the second edition. I would very much like to re- ceive comments on the second edition from users of the book. David BellUnits, Dimensions, and Standards Objectives You will be able to: 1. Discuss the three fundamental mechanical units in the SI system, define the basic ST mechanical derived units, and identify the various metric prefixes. 2. Define the SI units for the following electrical and magnetic quantities: current, charge, emf, resistance, conductance, magnetic flux, flux density, inductance, capaci- tance. 3. Explain the two SI temperature scales. |. Convert from non-SI to SI units, and determine the dimensions of various quantities. 5, Define the various measurement standards and their applications. a Introduction Before standard systems of measurement were invented, many approximate units were used. A long distance was often measured by the number of days it would take to ride a horse over the distance; a horse's height was measured in hands; liquid was measured by the bucket or barrel. With the development of science and engineering, more accurate units had to be de- vised. The English-speaking peoples adopted the foot and the mile for measuring dis- tances, the pound for mass, and the gallon for liquid. Other nations followed the lead of the French in adopting a metric system, in which large and small units are very conve- niently related by a factor of 10. With the increase of world trade and the exchange of scientific information between nations, it became necessary to establish a single system of units of measurement that would be acceptable intemationally. After several world conferences on the matter, a met- 1ric system which uses the meter, kilogram, and second as fundamental units has now been generally adopted around the world. This is known, from the French term “systéme inter- national,” as the S/ or intemational system. 1-1 SI MECHANICAL UNITS Fundamental Units The three basic units in the SI system are: Unit of length: the meter (m)* Unit of mass: the kilogram (kg) Unit of rime: “The second (s) These are known as fundamental units, Other units derived from the fundamental units are termed derived units, For example, the unit of area is meters squared (m?), which is derived from meters, ‘The meter was originally defined as 1 ten-millionth of a meridian passing through Paris from the north pole to the equator. The kilogram was defined as 1000 times the mass of 1 cubic centimeter of distilled water. The liter’ is 1000 times the volume of 1 cubic centimeter of liquid. Consequently, | liter of water has a mass of 1 kilogram. Be- cause of the possibility of error in the original definitions, the meter was redefined in terms of atomic radiation. Also, the kilogram is now defined as the mass of a certain plat- inum-iridium standard bar kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France. The second is, of course, 1/(86 400) of a mean solar day, but it is more accurately defined by atomic radiation. Unit of Force The SI unit of force is the newton’ (N), defined as that force which will give a mass of I kilogram an acceleration of I meter per second per second. When a body is to be accelerated or decelerated, a force must be applied propor- tional to the desired rate of change of velocity, that is, proportional to the acceleration (or deceleration). Force = mass x acceleration emt eee (-) When the mass is in kilograms and the acceleration is in m/s”, the foregoing equa- tion gives the force in newtons. *Canadian spelling is metre. *Canadian spelling is litre, ‘Named forthe great English philosopher and mathematician Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727). 2 Units, Dimensions, and Standards Chap. |If the body is to be accelerated vertically from the earth's surface, the acceleration due to ‘gravity (g) must be overcome before any vertical motion is possible. In SI units: g= 981 mis? (1-2) Thus, a mass of I kg has a gravitational force of 9.81 N. Work When a body is moved, a force is exerted to overcome the body's resistance to motion. The work done in moving a body is the product of the force and the distance through which the body is moved in the direction of the force. Work = force x distance _W=Fd— The SI unit of work is the joule* (J), defined as the amount of work done when a force of I newton acts through a distance of } meter. (1-3) Thus, the joule may also be termed a newton-meter. For the equation W = Fd, work is ex- pressed in joules when F is in newtons and d is in meters. Energy Energy is defined as the capacity for doing work. Energy is measured in the same units as work. Power Power is the time rate of doing work. If a certain amount of work WV is to be done in a time ¢, the power required is (4) The SI unit of power is the watt (W), defined as the power developed when 1 joule of work is done in I second. For P =Wh, P is in watts when-W is in joules and tis in seconds. ‘*Named after the English physicist James P. Jule (1818-1899). ‘Named after the Scottish engineer and inventor James Watt (1736-1819). Sec. 1-3 SI Electrical Units 31-2 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION AND METRIC PREFIXES Scientific Notation Very large or very small numbers are conveniently written as a number multiplied by 10 raised to a power: 100 = 1x 10x 10 =1x 10° 10.000 = 1 x 10x 10x 10x 10 = Leo 9 — 1 10x 10x10 1 “10 =1x 107 0.001 = 1500 = 1.5 x 10° 5x 107 Note that in the SI system of units, spaces are used instead of commas when writing large numbers. Four-numeral numbers are an exception. One thousand is written as 1000, while ten thousand is /0 000. Metric Prefixes Metric prefixes and the letter symtols for the various multiples and submultiples of 10 are listed in Table 1-1, with those most commonly used with electrical units shown in bold type. The prefixes are employed to simplify the writing of very large and very small quantities. Thus, 1000 Q can be expressed as J kilohm, or J kQ. Here kilo is the prefix that represents 1000, and k is the symbol for kilo. Similarly, J x J0™ A can be written as I milliampere, or 1 mA. Engineering Notation As already discussed, 1 kQ is 1 x 10° Q, and 1 mA is'I'x 10” A, Note also from Table 1-1 that 1 x 10° is expressed as 1 MQ, and 7 x 10~ A can be written as J HA. These quantities, and most of the metric prefixes in Table 1-1, involve multiples of 10° or 10™. Quantities that use 10° or 07 are said to be written in engineering notation. A quantity such as 7 x 10* Q is more conveniently expre:sed as 10 x 10° Q, or 10 kQ. Also, 47 x 10 A is best written as 4.7 x 10” A, or 4.7 mA, For electrical calculations, engineering notation is more convenient than ordinary scientific notation, 4 Units, Dimensions, and Standards Chap. 1TABLE 1-1 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION AND METRIC PREFIXES Scientific Value notation Prefix Symbol 1,000 000 000 000 10? > tera T 1.000 000 000 10° giga G 1.000 000 10° mega M 1.000 10° kilo k 100 10? ecto h 10 10 deka da OL 10! deci d 0.01 107 centi © 0.001 10° m 0.000 001 10% micro # 0,000 000 001 10° nano n 0,000 000 000 001 10°? pico P 1-3 SI ELECTRICAL UNITS Units of Current and Charge Electric current (1) is a flow of charge carriers. Therefore, current could be defined in terms of the quantity of electricity (Q) that passes a given point in a conductor during a time of Is. The coulomb* (C) is the unit of electrical charge or quantity of electricity. The coulomb was originally selected as the fundamental electrical unit from which all other units were derived. However, since it is much easier to measure current accurate- ly than it is to measure charge, the unit of current is now the fundamental electrical unit in the SI system. Thus, the coulomb is'a derived unit, defined in terms of the unit of elec- tric current. The ampere’ (A) is the unit of electric current. The ampere is defined as that constant current which, when flowing in each of two infinitely long parallel conductors I meter apart, exerts a force of 2 x 107” newton per meter of length on each conductor. The coulomb is defined as that charge which passes a given point in a conductor each second, when a current of I ampere flows. These definitions show that the coulomb could be termed an ampere-second. Con- versely, the ampere can be described as a coulomb per second: ‘Named after the French physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806). ‘Named after the French physicist and mathematician André Marie Ampére (1775-1836). Sec. 1-3 SI Electrical Units. 5_ coulombs amperes =" seconds oy It has been established experimentally that J coulomb is equal to the total charge carried by 6,24 x 10'* electrons. Therefore, the charge carried by one electron is 1 6.24 x 10° = 1.602 x 10°C Q= Enmf, Potential Difference, and Voltage The volt* (V) is the unit of electromotive force (emf) and potential difference. The volt (V) is defined as the potential difference between two points on a conduc- tor carrying a constant current of 1 ampere when the power dissipated between these points is I watt As already noted, the coulomb is the charge carried by 6.24 x 10'* electrons. One joule of work is done when 6.24 x 10'* electrons are moved through a potential differ- ence of 1 V. One electron carries a charge of 1/(6.24 x 10'*) coulomb. If only one elec: tron is moved through 1 V, the energy involved is an electron volt (eV). 1 LeV= ax iot I The electron-volt is frequently used in the case of the very small energy levels associated with electrons in orbit around the nucleus of an atom. Resistance and Conductance The ohm’ is the unit of resistance, and the symbol used for ohms is Q; the Greek capita! letter omega, The ohm is defined as that resistance which permits a current flow of I ampere when a potential difference of I volt is applied to the resistance. ‘The term conductance (G) is applied to the reciprocal of resistance. The siemens (S) is the unit of conductance. ‘Named in honor of the Italian physicist Count Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), inventor of the voltaic pile. ‘Named after the German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854), whose investigations led to his statement of “Ohm's law of resistance.” ‘Named after Sir William Siemens (1823-1883), a British engineer who was bom Karl William vor Siemens in Germany. The unit of conductance was previously the mho (“ohm” spelled backwards). 6 Units, Dimensions, and Standards Chap. 1‘Conductance = (1-6) Magnetic Flux and Flux Density The weber* (Wb) is the SI unit of magnetic flux. The weber is defined as the magnetic flux which, linking a single-turn coil, pro- duces an emf of I V when the flix is reduced to zero at a constant rate in I s. The tesla* (T) is the SI unit of magnetic flux density. The tesla is the flux density in a magnetic field when 1 weber of flux occurs in a Plane of 1 square meter; that is, the tesla can be described as 1 Wh/m?. Inductance The SI unit of inductance is the henry* (H). The inductance of a circuit is 1 henry, when an emf of 1 volt is induced by the cur- rent changing at the rate of I A/s. Capacitance The farad' (F) is the SI unit of capacitance. The farad is the capacitance of a capacitor that contains a charge of 1 coulomb when the potential difference between its terminals is 1 volt. 1-4 SI TEMPERATURE SCALES There are two SI temperature scales, the Celsius scale and the Kelvin scale." The Celsius scale has 100 equal divisions (or degrees) between the freezing temperature and the boil- ing temperature of water. At normal atmospheric pressure, water freezes at 0°C (zero de- grees Celsius) and boils at 100°C. ‘The Kelvin temperature scale, also known as the absolute scale, commences at ab- solute zero of temperature, which corresponds to -273.15°C. Therefore, 0°C is equal to 273.15 K, and 100°C is the same temperature as 373.15 K. A temperature difference of 1 Kis the same as a temperature difference of 1°C. ined after the German physicist Wilhelm Weber (1804-1890). tamed for the Croatian-American researcher and inventor Nikola Tesla (1856-1943). ‘Named for the American physicist Joseph Henry (1797-1878). ‘Named for the English chemist and physicist Michael Faraday (1791-1867). “Invented by the Swedish astronomer and scientist Anders Celsius (1701-1744). ‘Named for the Irish-born scientist and mathematician William Thomson, who became Lord Kelvin (1824-1907) : Sec. 1-4 “Temperature Scales 71-5 OTHER UNIT SYSTEMS In the traditional English-language (American and Imperial) systems of measurements, the fundamental mechanical units are the foot for length, the pound for mass, and the sec- ‘ond for time. Other mechanical units derived from these are similar in both systems, with the exception of the units for liquid measure. The Imperial gallon equals approximately 1.2US. gallons. Before the SI system was adopted, CGS systems using the centimeter, gram, and second as fundamental mechanical units were employed for scientific purposes. There were two CGS systems: an electrostatic system and a magnetic system. Many CGS units were too small or too large for practical engineering applications, so practical units were also used. ‘When solving problems, it is sometimes necessary to convert from the traditional unit systems to SI units. Appendix 1 provides a list of conversion factors for this purpose. Example 1-1 A bar magnet with a I inch square cross section is said to have a total magnetic flux of 500 maxwell. Determine the flux density in tesla. eee Solution From Appendix 1, total flux, ‘ = (500 maxwell) x 10 Wb. Be oO =5 Wb - A area, As (1 in. x Fin.) x (2.54 x 107? m? Saw? = 254? x 10% m? ~ ee" 4 © | Spwo fix density A TSP x10 mE B= 23500 =7.75 mT Example 1-2 ‘The normal human body temperature is given as 98.6°F. Determine the equivalent Celsius and Kelvin scale temperatures. Solution From Appendix 1, 8 Units, Dimensions, and Standards Chap. 1Celsius temperature = “F=22 = 98.7— 32 18 18 =37TC - 3 Ke &-32 .a7 = Pee = F232 ly 272.15 Kelvin temperature = = + 273.15 = Sols =31015K 1-6 DIMENSIONS Table 1-2 gives a list of quantities, quantity symbols, units, unit symbols, and quantity di- mensions. The symbols and units are those approved for use with the SI system. To un- derstand the dimensions column, consider the fact that the area of a rectangle is deter- mined by multiplying the lengths of the two sides. area = length x length The dimensions of area are (length) TABLE 1-2. SI UNITS, SYMBOLS, AND DIMENSIONS Quantity Symbol Unit ‘Unit symbol Dimensions Length 1 meter m w Mass m kilogram kg (Ml Time t second s (7) Area A square meter m (cy Volume v cubic meter m wy Velocity v meter per second ms ee Acceleration a meter per second per second ms? (47?) Force F newton N (MLT™} Pressure Pp newton per square meter Nim? (ML) Work w joule J (Mer?) Power P watt w (Mr) Electric current L ampere A it) Electric charge Q coulomb a. um) Emf v volt v (MTA) Electric field strength — ‘volt per meter Vin (MiT7r"') Resistance R ohm a (MET) Capacitance c farad F ia'er*Py Inductance L henry H (Mere } Magnetic field strength H ‘ampere per meter Alm uw) Magnetic flux e weber Wo (Merry Magnetic flux density B tesla _ (ur?r} Sec. 1-6 Dimensions 9{area} = (L[L] =(LP or Similarly, | length) _ {L] Welocity] = “Ttime)~ (71 ur {velocity} _ [LT~") (acceleration) = Tire} 17 = {LT} [force] = [mass] x [acceleration] = [M][LT~} =(MLT?) [work] = [force] x [distance] = (MLT~][L] = (MUTT?) [work] _ [MT (Powerl= ime) ~ (71 = (MT) For the electrical quantities, current is another fundamental unit. So electrical quantities can be analyzed to determine dimensions in the fundamental units of L, M, T, and I. Charge = current x time Example 1-3 Determine the dimensions of voltage and resistance. Solution From P=El Pp _ IMT) voltage, Bete =MPTOr} : E (wer) resistance, Rea a =(MPTOr} ——— SSeS 10 Units, Dimensions, and Standards Chap. 11-7 STANDARDS Working Standards Electrical measurement standards are precise resistors, capacitors, inductors, voltage sources, and current sources, which can be used for comparison purposes hen measur- ing electrical quantities. For example, resistance can be accurately measured by means of ‘a Wheatstone bridge which uses a standard resistor (see Section 7-3). Similarly, standard capacitors and inductors can be employed in bridge (or other) methods to accurately mea- sure capacitance and inductance. . The standard resistors, capacitors, and inductors usually found in an electronics laboratory are classified as working standards. Working standard resistors are normally constructed of manganin or a similar material, which has a very low temperature coeffi- cient. They are available in resistance values ranging from 0.01 to 1 MQ, with typi- cal accuracies of 0.01% to 0.1%. A working standard capacitor might be air dielec- tric type, or might be constructed of silvered mica. Available capacitance values are 0.001 pF to 1 pF with a typical accuracy of +0.02%. Standard inductors are available in values ranging from 100 pH to 10 H with typical accuracies of +0.1%. Calibrators provide standard voltages and currents for calibrating voltmeters and ammeters (see Section 12-3). Standard Classifications Measurement standards are classified in four levels: international standards, primary standards, secondary standards, and working standards. Thus, the working standards al- ready discussed are the lowest level of standards. International standards are defined by international agreements, and are maintained at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France. These are as accurate as it is scientifically possible to achieve. They may be used for comparison with primary stan- dards, but are otherwise unavailable for any application, Primary standards are maintained at institutions in various countries around the world, such as th: National Bureau of Standards in Washington. They are also construct ed for the greatest possible accuracy, and their main function is checking the accuracy of secondary standards. ‘Secondary standards are employed in industry as references for calibrating high-ac- curacy equipment and components, and for verifying the accuracy of working standards. Secondary standards are periodically checked at the institutions that maintain primary standards. In summary, working standards are used as measurement references on a day-to- day basis in virtually all electronics laboratories. Secgndary standards are more accurate than working standards, and are used throughout industry for checking working stan- dards, and for calibrating high-accuracy equipment. Primary standards are more accurate than secondary standards. They are maintained to the highest possible accuracy by na- tional institutions as references for calibrating secondary standards. International stan- dards are maintained by international agreement, and may be used for checking primary standards. Sec. 1-7 Standards u11 1-2 13 1-4 1-6 a 1-8 1-9 1-10 1-4 1.5 1-6 1-7 1-8 a9 1-10 1 12 REVIEW QUESTIONS List the thee fundamental SI mechanical units and unit symbols, and discuss their origin. State the SI units and unit symbols for force and work, and define each unit. State the SI units and unit symbols for energy and power, and define each unit. List the names of the various metric prefixes and the corresponding symbols. Also, list the value represented by each prefix in scientific notation. State the SI units and unit symbols for electric current and charge, and define each unit. State the SI units and unit symbols for elecirical resistance and conductance, and define each unit. State the SI units and unit symbols for magnetic flux and flux density, and define each unit, State the SI units and unit symbols for inductance and capacitance, and define each unit. Name the two SI temperature scales, and identify the freezing and boiling tempera- tures of water for each scale. List the various levels of measurement standards, and discuss the application of each classification. PROBLEMS Referring to the unit conversion factors in Appendix 1, perform the following con- versions: (a) 6215 miles to kilometers, (b) 50 miles per hour to kilometers per hour, and (c) 12 square feet to square centimeters. Determine how long it takes light to travel to earth from a star 1 million miles away if the speed of light is 3 x 10° mis. ‘The speed of sound in air is 345 m/s. Calculate the distance in miles from a thun- derstorm when the thunder is heard 5 s after the lightning flash. A 140 Ib person has a height of 5 ft.7 in. Convert these measurements into kilo- grams and centimeters. A bar magnet has a cross section of 0.75 in. x 0.75 in. and a flux density of 1290 lines per square inch. Calculate the total flux in webers. Calculate the Celsius and Kelvin scale equivalents of 80°F. A Yahorsepower electric motor is operated 8 hours per day for 5 days every week. As- suming 100% efficiency, calculate the kilowatthours of energy consumed in 1 year. Determine the dimensions of area, volume, velocity, and acceleration. Determine the dimensions of force, work, energy, and power. Determine the dimensions of charge, voltage, and resistance. Determine the dimensions of capacitance and inductance. Units, Dimensions, and Standards Chap. 1Measurement Errors Objectives You will be able to: 1. Define and explain the following types of errors that occur in measurements: gross, systematic, absolute, relative, random. 2. Explain and apply the following measurement terms: tolerance, accuracy, precision, resolution. 3. Determine the resultant error for various calculations involving instrament and com- ponent error combinations. 4, Use basic statistical methods for analyzing measurement errors. Introduction No electronic component or instrument is perfectly accurate; all have some error or inac- curacy. It is important to understand how these errors are specified and how they combine to create even greater errors in measurement systems. Although it is possible that in some cases errors might almost completely cancel each other out, the worst-case combination of errors must always be assumed, — ~~ “Apart from equipment errors, some operator or observer error is inevitable. Also. even when equipment errors are very small, the system of using the instruments can i troduce a systematic error. Errors of uiexplainable origin are classified as random errors. Where accuracy is extremely important, some errors can be minimized by taking many readings of each instrument and determining mean values. 2Bin the dievec eS Gross errors are essentially human errors that are the result of carelessness. One of the most common errors is the simple misreading of an instrument. In Figure 2-1(a) the digital display of 32.5 mA (the range is 300 mA) might inadvertently be read as 32.5 A. Of course, ‘many digital instruments (not all) display the measurement units alongside the indicated quantity. Thus, making this kind of error is less likely. Figure 2-1(b) shows an analog in- strument with three scales: 0 to 25, 0 to 10, and 0 to 50. The 25 scale is used when the range selection switch is set toa multiple of 25, the 10-scale is for ranges that are.a multiple of 10, and the 50 scale is for multiple of 50 ranges. Obviously, it is possible to read the wrong scale or, even when using the correct scale, to,assume the wrong range multiple. 2) Sometimes a meter is read correctly but the reading is recorded incorrectly, or per- haps it is recorded in the wrong column in a table of measurements. Everyone makes these kinds of mistakes occasionally. They can be avoided only by taking care in using and reading all instruments, and by thinking about whether or not each measurement makes sense. Substituting instrument readings into an appropriate equation, or plotting a few points on a graph, also helps to check the validity of recorded quantities while mea- suremenis are still in progress. Measurement errors will occur if the accuracy of an instrument has not been checked for some time, that is, if the instrument has not been calibrated (see Chapter 12). Errors will also occur with analog instruments if the pointer has not been mechanically zeroed before use. Analog Ghmmeters)must also be electrically zeroed for correct use (as ly . These kinds of errors can be termed gross errors, because Crom run _> problem 2-1 GROSS ERRORS AND SYSTEMATIC ERRORS (@) Digital instrument (b) Analog instrument indicating 32.5 mA indicating 0.76 V Figure 2-1 Serious measurement errors can occur if an instrument ‘The digital instrument is on a 300. mA range, so its reading is in analog meter, the range selection must be noted, and the pointer position must be read from the correct scale “4 Measurement Errors Chap. 2they can be avoided with care. However, they might also be classified as systematic er- rors, because they are the result of the measurement system. ~ Other systematic errors occur because the measurement system affects the mea- sured quantity. For example, when a voltmeter is employed to measure the potential dif- ference between two points in a circuit, the voltmeter resistance may alter the circuit volt age (see Section 3-4). Similarly, an ammeter resistance might change the level of a ‘current. Errors that are the result of instrument inaccuracy are also systematic errors. Where more than one instrument is involved, the errors due to instrument inaccuracy tend to accumulate. The overall measurement error is then usually larger than the error in any ‘one instrument. This is explored in Section 2-4. 2.2 ABSOLUTE ERRORS AND RELATIVE ERRORS SEE nel eeueeend RELATIVE E If a resistor is known to have a resistance of 500.2. with a possible error of +50 2, the £50 Q is an absolute error. This is because 50°Q.is stated as an absolute quantity, not as a percentage of the 500 resistance. When the error is expressed as a percentage or as a fraction of the total resistance, it becomes a relative error. Thus, the +50 {2 is +10%, rela- tive to $00 9, or #'/iv of 500 ©. So the resistance can be specified as R=500 2.410% Percentages are usually employed to express errors in resistances and other electri- cal quantities. The terms accuracy and tolerance are also used. A resistor with a possible error of +10% is said to be accurate to +10%, or to have a tolerance of £10% (see Figure 2-2(a)). Tolerance is the term normally used by component manufacturers. Suppose that a Voltage is measured as 20.00 V using an instrument which is known to have a 40.02 V First three bands indicate resistance Value ‘Tolerance Voltmeter accuracy = 20.1% Vv Relative Measured votage = 20.00 V OTE Retaive ror = 20.00 VEE \ Absolute cor (2) Resistor tolerance is denied (b) Votumeter accuracy defines the upper ty a colored band and lower limits of measured quantity Figure 2-2 Percentage accuracy gives the relative error in « measured, or specified ‘quantity. The absolute error can be determined by converting the percentage error into an absolute quantity. Sec. 2-2 Absolute Errors and Relative Esrors 15me SR 100 pvc 1 ar annie Figure 2-3 Instead of percentages, errs i canbe expressed in pars per milion (ppm) felatve othe total quantity. Resistance change wit temperature increases usually T= *< stated In pm. error. The measured voltage can be stated as 20.00 V + 0.02 V. The 0.02 V is an absolute quantity, 50 itis an absolute error. But 0.02 V is‘also 0.1% relative to 20 V, so the mea- sured quantity could be expressed as 20 V + 0.1% (see Figure 2-2(b)], and now the error is stated as a relative error. ‘Another method of expressing an error is to refer to it in parts per million (ppm) relative to the total quantity. For example, the temperature coefficient of a1 M2. resistor might be stated as 100 ppmv°C, which means 100 parts per million per degree Celsius. One millionth of 1 MQ is 1 9; consequently, 100 ppm of 1 MQ is 100 ©. Therefore, a 1°C change in temperature may cause the 1 MO resistance to increase or decrease by 100 (see Figure 2-3). Example 2-1 ‘A component manufacturer constructs certain resistances to be anywhere between 1.14 KO and 1:26 kQ and classifies them to be 1 tors. What tolerance should be stat- ed? If the resistance values are specified at 25°C and the resistors have a temperature co: efficient of +500 ppm/°C, calculate the maximum resistance that one of these compo- nents mighthave at 75°C. Solution Absolute error = 1.26 KO ~ 1.2 k= 40.06 kM or = 1.2kO- 1.14 k0= 0.06 KO =40.06k ~ 10.06 k 12kO =15% Tolerance = x 100% Largest possible resistance 25°C: R=12k2+0.06 kD = 1.260 Resistance change per °C: 1.26 KO 1.000.000 = 0.63 AC 500 ppm of R= 500 16 Measurement Errors Chap. 2Temperature increase: Total resistance increase: AR 63. OPC x 50°C =350 Maximum resistance at 75°C: R+ AR=126kN4 31.50 212915 K 1.2915 ki 2-3 ACCURACY, PRECISION, RESOLUTION, ~~ AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES 1 Accuracy and Precision ‘When a voltmeter with an error of £1% indicates exactly 100 V, the true level of the mea- sured voltage is somewhere between 99 V and 101 Y. Thus, the measurement accuracy: of £1% defines how close the measurement is to the actual measured quantity. The preci- sion with which the measurement is made is not the same as the accuracy of measure- ment, although accuracy and precision are related. Consider the digital voltmeter indication shown in Figure 2-4(a). For the 8.135 V quantity indicated, the last (right-side) numeral refers to millivolts. If the measured quan- tity increases or decreases by 1 mY, the reading becomes 8.136 V or 8.134 V, respective ly. Therefore, the voltage is measured with a precision of | mV. For the analog voltmeter in Figure 2-4(b), the pointer position can be read to within (perhaps) one-fourth cf the smallest scale division. Since the smallest scale division represents 0.2 V (on the 10 V ‘Thousanths of volts (rnillivolts) (a) Digital voltmeter display (©) Analog instrument display ‘with a precision of 1 mV ‘with a precision of 50 mV Figure 2-4 Measurement precision depends on the smatiest change that can be observed in the ‘measured quantity. A 1 mV change will be indicated on the digital voltmeter display above. For the analog instrument, 50 mv is the smallest change that can be noted. Sec. 2-3 Accuracy, Precision, Resolution, and Significant Figures Wrange), one-fourth of the scale division is 50 mV, So 50 mV is the measurement precision of the analog instrument. Neither of these (wo measurements (digital or analog) takes ac- count of the measurement accuracy. ‘Suppose that the digital voltmeter referred to above has an accuracy of £0.2%. The measured voltage is 8.135 V + 0.2%, or 8.135 V + 16 mV, meaning that the actual volt: age is somewhere between 8,119 V and 8.151 V. So, although the quantity is measured with a precision of 1 mY, the measurement accuracy is +16 mV. The analog voltmeter in Figure 2-4(b) might have a typical accuracy of +2% of full scale, or +2% of 10 V. Thus. the measured quantity is 4,85 V + 200 mY, that is, 4.65 V to 5.05 V. In this case, the mea- surement is made to a precision of 50 mY, but the measurement accuracy is +200 mV. “The measurement precision for the digital and analog instruments discussed above might seem unimportant given the possible error due to the instrument accuracy. Howev- er, the instrument accuracy normally depends on the accuracy of internal components, and any error due to the measurement precision must be much smaller than that due t6 the specified accuracy of the instrument. Resolution The measurement precision of an instrument defines the smallest change in measured quantity that can be observed, This (smallest observable change) is the resolution of the instrument. in the case of the 10 V analog instrument scale that can Be read to a precision cof 50 mV, 50 ml is the smallest vollage change that can observed. Thus, the measure: ment resolution is 50 mV. Similarly, with the digital instrument, the measurement resolu- tion is 1 mV. —— — Consider the potentiometer illustrated in Figure 2-5. The circuit symbol in Figure 2-5(a) illustrates a resistor with two terminals and a contact that can be moved anywhere between the two. The potentiometer construction shown in Figure 2-5(b) reveals that the movable contact slides over a track off on€ side of a number of turns of resistance wire ‘The contact does fot slide along the whole length of the wire but jumps from one point on one turn of the wire to a point on the next turn. Assume that the total potentiometer re- sistance is 100.0 and that there are 1000 turns of wire. Each turn has a resistance of 100.0 1000 200 19 When the contact moves from one turn to the next, the resistance from any end to the moving contact changes by 0.1 1 It can now be stated that the resistance from one end to the moving contact can be adjusted from 0 to 100 0 with a resolution of 0.1 2 or a resolution of 1 in 1000. In the case of the potentiometer, the resolution defines how pre- cisely the resistance may be set. It also defines how precisely the variable voltage from the potentiometer moving contact may be adjusted when a potential difference is applied across the potentiometef. 5 Significant Figures ‘The number of significant figures used in a measured quantity indicate the precision of measurement. For the 8.135 V measurement in Figure 2-4(a), the four significant figures 18 Measurement Errors Chap.Shaft for adjustment Moving contact terminal (2) Potentiometer circuit symbol End terminal (b) Potentiometer construction Figure 2-5 A potentiometer consists of a resistance wire wound around an insulating former. The movable contact slides from one turn to the next, changing the resistance (from one end to the moving contact) in steps. The potentiometer resolution depends on the number of steps. show that the measurement precision is 0.001 V, or 1 mV. If the measurement was made to a precision of 10 mv, the display would be 8.13 V or 8.14 V; that is, there would be only three significant figures. In the case of a resistance value stated as 47.3 Q, the actual value may not be exact- ly 47.3 2, but it is assumed to be closer to 47.3 Q than it is to either 47.2 2 or 47.4.0. The three significant figures show that measurement precision is 0.1 Q. If the quantity was 47.3 k®, the measurement precision would be 0.1 kA, or 100 0. If 47.3 0 is rewrit- ten with two significant figures, it becomes 47 0, because 47.3 0 is clearly closer to 47 2 than it is to 48 0. If the quantity were written as 47.0 ©, it would imply that the resis- tance is closer to 47 £2 than itis to 47.1 ©, and in this case the zero (in 47.0.) would be a significant figure. ‘Now consider the result of using an electronic calculator to determine a resistance value from digital measurement of voltage and current. R= X= BIAV _5,493562232k0 1 233mA “Clearly, it does not make sense to have an answer containing 10 significant figures when each of the original quantities had only three significant figures. The only reasonable ap- proach is to use the same number of significant figures in the answer as in the original quantities, So the calculation becomes 8.14V 1 233mA =3.49kO Sec.2-3 _Accufacy, Precision, Resolution, and Significant Figures 19“The resistance is now stated to the same precision as the measured voltage and current. This calculation has not taken the accuracy of the voltmeter and ammeter into account (see Section 2-4), As illustrated by the discussion above, the number of significant figures in a quanti- ty defines the precision of the measuring instruments involved. No greater number of sig- nificant figures should be used in a calculation result than those in the original quantities. Where the quantities in a calculation have different precisions, the precision of the an. ‘wer should not be greater than the least precise of the original quantities. 2-4 MEASUREMENT ERROR COMBINATIONS ‘When a quantity is calculated from measurements made on two (or more) instruments, it must be assumed that the errors due to instrument inaccuracy combine in the worst possi- ble way. The resulting error is then larger than the error in any one instrument. Sum of Quantities Where a quantity is determined as the sum of two measurements, the total error is the sum of the absolute errors in each measurement, As illustrated in Figure 2-6(a), E=(V, £AV,)+(V; 4 AV3) giving E=(V, + V2) + (AV, + AV) Q1) Example 2-2 Calculate the maximum percentage error in the sum of two voltage measurements when V, = 100 V+ 1% and V, = 80 V#5%. Solution 100 V + 1% OV TV V2 =80V 45% =80VL4V E=Vs4¥, = (100 V41V)+(80V44 Vv) =I90VECVE4I) =180V45V = 180V 428% 20 Measurement Errors. Chap. 22 (V, # OV,) + (Vp # AV 2) = (My + Ma) * (AN + V2) {a) Error in sum of quantities equals sum of errors Vics, V, # AV,)~ (Vo * AV2) ee = EL = (EL AB) xX (Ft A) ELBE Tal ELAe R mR (c) Percentage error in product or quotient of {quantities equals sum of percentage errors Figure 2-6 When messured quantities are combined to determine another quantity, the ‘measurement errors must be assumed to combine in the way that gives the largest possi- ble resultant error. In Example 2-2, note that the percentage error in the final quantity cannot be cal- culated directly from the percentage errors in the two measured quantities. Where two or more measured quantities are summed to determine a final quan- tity, the absolute values of the errors must be summed to find the total possible error. Difference of Quantities Figure 2-6(b) illustrates a situation in which a potential difference is determined as the difference between two measured voltages. Here again, the errors are additive: Sec. 2-4 Measurement Error Combinations aE=V\-V, =(V, £ AV) ~ (V2 + AV) E=(V,—V2) + (AV, + AV) (2-2) Example 2-3 Calculate the maximum percentage error in the difference of two measured voltages when V, = 100 V + 1% and V; = 80 V + 5%, Solution V= 20 t(1+4) | : 2etby ae a oa 5% E=(100V#1V)~(80V+4V) =20VE5V =20V 425% Example 2.3 demonstrates that she percentage error in the difference of two quanti- ties can he very large. If the difference was smaller, the percentage error would be even larger. Obviously, measurement systems involving the difference of two quantities should be avoided. Product of Quantities Wher a calculated quantity is the product of two or more quantities, che percentage error is the sum of the percentage errors in each quantity [consider Figure 2-6(c)]: 7 = (EL AE\I+ AN) SEIZE AI*I E+ AE A) Pe Since SE Al is very small, P= EIL(EAI+1 AB) percentage error = fauae x 100% 2 Measurement Errors Chap. 2(G+ 3) x 100%, TE error in P = (% error in 1) + (% error in E) (2-3) Thus, when a voltage is measured with an accuracy of + 1%, and a current is measured with an accuracy of +2%, the calculated power has an accuracy of #3%. Quotient of Quantities Here again it can be shown that the percentage error is the sum of the percentage errors in each quantity. In Figure 2-6(c), % error in Ell = (% error in E) + (% error in I) (2-4) Quantity Raised to a Power When a quantity A is raised to a power B, the percentage error in A® can be shown to be % error in A®= B(% error in A) (2-5) For a current / with an accuracy of 3%, the error in [? is 2(43%) = 46%. Example 2-4 An 820 0 resistance with an accuracy of + 10% carries a current of 10 mA. The current was measured by an analog ammeter on a 25 mA range with an accuracy of +2% of full scale. { Calculate the power dissipated in the resistor, and determine the accuracy of the result. Solution pote P=PR . (0 mA)? x 820 0 LL 2 mW P error in R= 10% error in 1 =42% of 25 mA = 40.5 mA = 205mA 1OmA : 2 = 45% 6ffer In T x 100% Sec.2-4 Measurement Error Combinations 20%) 2107 4M) ZtLIH, :Summary ForX=A+B, error in X = [(error in A) + (error in B)) For X= AB, % error in X = + [(%o error in A) + (% error in B)| For X=A/B, % error in X = + [(% error in A) + (% error in B)| For X= A*, % error in X = £B(% error in A) 2-5 BASICS OF STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Arithmetic Mean Value When a number of measurements of a quantity are made and the measurements are not all exactly equal, the best approximation to the actual value is found by calculating the average value, or arithmetic mean, of the results. For m measured values Of X1,.¥9..53.. + +5 qs the arithmetic mean is Avhat tet — 2-6) Determining the arithmetic mean of several measurements is one method of minimizing the effects of random errors. Random errors are the result of chance or accidental occur- rences. They may be human errors produced by fatigue, or they may be the result of such events as a surge in ac supply voltage, a brief draft upon equipment, or a variation in frequency. ‘When determining the mean value of a number of readings, it is sometimes found that one or two measurements differ from the mean by a much larger amount than any of the others. In this case, itis justifiable to reject these few readings as mistakes and to cal- culate the average value from the other measurements. This action should not be taken when more than a small number of readings differ greatly from the mean. Instead, the whole series of measurements should be repeated. Deviation The difference between any one measured value and the arithmetic mean of a series of ‘mecsurements is termed the deviation. The deviations (d,, dz, d3,. . . . d,) may be posi- tive or negative, and the algebraic sum of the deviations is always zero. The average devi- 4 Ne RP Measurement Errors ~ Chap. 2 ¢ “eation may be calculated as the average of the absolute values of the deviations (neglecting plus and minus signs). If the measured quantity is assumed to be constant, the average de- vation might be regarded as an indicator of the measurement precision (see Example 2-5). \ds| + [da] + faa] + --- + Ie pn Will elelad | — n Example 2-5 ‘The accuracy of five digital voltmeters are checked by using each of them to measure a standard 1.0000 V from a calibration instrument (see Section 12-3). The voltmeter read- ings are as follows: V, = 1.001 V, V2 = 1.002, V; = 0.999, V, = 0.998, and Vs = 1.000. Calculate the average measured voltage and the average deviation. Solution Vit Vat Vat Vat Vs From Equation2-6, Vay= 3 1,001 V + 1,002 V + 0.999 V +0.998 V + 1.000 V . 5 = 1.000 d,=V; — Vy = 1.001 V ~ 1.000 V yu_y, i ‘ lay =0001V l S dy=Va~Vqy = 1.002 V "1.000 V Va ave, y= Vy ~Vqy = 0.999 V ~ 1.000 V v =-0001V ae d= Va~ Vay = 0.998 V ~ 1,000 V =~0.002V a 2 d= V5 ~ Vy = 1.000 V ~ 1.000 V =0V 2 = From Equation 2-7, ‘e+ Jal + f+ etl + Lat D= 3 D 0.001 V + 0.002 V + 0.001 V +0.002 V +0 5 = 0.0012 V Sec. 2-5 Basics of Statistical Analysis, 23From Example 2-5, the average measured voltage is 1.000 V, and the average devi- ation from this is 1.2 mV. These figures could be used to determine the accuracy of mea surement made on any of the five instruments, Standard Deviation and Probable Error AS already discussed, measurement results can be analyzed by determining the arith- metic mean value of a number of measurements of the same quantity and by further determining the deviations and the average deviation. The mean-squared value of the deviations can also be calculated by first squaring each deviation value before deter. mining the average. This gives a quantity known as the variance. Taking the square Toot of the variance produces the root mean squared (rms) value, also termed the stan- dard deviation (o). (2-8) For the case of a large number of measurements in which only random errors are present, it can be shown that the probable error in any one measurement is 0.6745 times the standard deviation: probable error = 0.67450 (2-9) Example 2-6 Determine the standard deviation and the probable measurement error for the group of in- struments referred to in Example 2-5. SS TT eS Solution oe Mee (@aaiad?eaa? Equation 2-8, (Atta gus 2 08te, ———————— yobatl® yooo™ = jou + 0.002? + 0.001? + 0.002? + 0? 7 = 0.0014V Equation 2-9, probable error = 0.6745 o = 0.6745 x 1.4mV 1.94 mV 6 Measurement Errors Chap. 2REVIEW QUESTIONS 2-1 Explain gross errors and systematic errors. Give examples of each. 2-2. Define absolute errors and relative errors. 2-3, Discuss accuracy, precision, and resolution, and explain how they are related. 2-4 Explain the significance of the number of significant figures in a stated quantity. 2-8 Discuss the resultant error in calculations involving quantities with stated accuracies when the quantities are (a) added, (b) subtracted, (c) multiplied, (d) divided, and (e) one quantity is raised to the power of the other. PROBLEMS 2-1 For the analog instrument in Figure 2-1(b), determine the meter reading when the selector switch is set to (a) 2.5 mA, (b) 5 V, and (c) 100 mA. 2-2 A batch of resistors that each have a nominal resistance of 330 @ are to be tested and classified as +5% and +10% components. Calculate the maximum and mini- mum absolute resistance for each case. 2-3 The resistors in Problem 2-2 are specified at 25°C, and their temperature coefficient is -300 ppm/°C. Calculate the maximum and minimum resistance for these compo- nents at 100°C. 2-4 Estimate the measurement precision of the digital and analog instruments in Figure 2-1, 2-5. Estimate the measurement precision of the digital instrument in Figure 2-2(b). 2-6 A1kQ potentiometer that has a resolution 0.5 is used as a potential #10 V supply. Determine the precision of the output voltage. 2-7 Three of the resistors referred to in Problem 2-2 are connected in series. One has a 45% tolerance, and the other two are +10%. Calculate the maximum and minimum values of the total resistance, 2-8 A de power supply provides currents to four electronic circuits. The currents are, 37 mA, 42 mA, 13 mA, and 6.7 mA. The first two are measured with an accuracy of 43%, and the other two are measured with +1% accuracy. Determine the maximum and minimum levels . the total supply current, 2-9 Two currents from different sources flow in opposite directions through a resistor. 1, is measured as 79 mA on a 100 mA analog instrument with an accuracy of +£3% of full scale. />, determined as 31 mA, is measured on a digital instrument with a +100 WA accuracy. Calculate the maximum and minimum levels of the current in Ry. 2-10 The voltages at opposite ends of a 470 0, +5% resistor are measured as V, = 12 V and V; = 5 V. The measufring accuracies are +0.5 V for V; and 42% for V2. Calcu- late the level of current in the resistor, and specify its accuracy, ider with Sec 2-5 Problems 272-11 A resistor R; has a potential difference of 25 V across its terminals, and a current of 63 mA. The voltage is measured on a 30 V analog instrument with an accuracy of £5% of full scale. The current is measured on a digital instrument with a $1 mA ac- curacy. Calculate the resistance of R, and specify its tolerance. 2-12 Calculate the maximum and minimum power dissipation in the resistor in Problem 2-10. 2-13 Determine the maximum and minimum power dissipation in the resistor in Problem 2H. 2-14 A 470 0, £10% resistor has a potential difference of 12 V across its terminals. If the voltage is measured with an accuracy of 46%, determine the power dissipation in the resistor, and specify the accuracy of the result. 2-15 The output voltage from a precision 12 V power supply, monitored at intervals over a period of time, produced the following readings: V, = 12.001 V, V3 = 11.999 V, Vs = 11.998 V, Vs = 12.003 V, Vs = 12.002 V, Vg = 11.997 V, Vy = 12.002 V, Vp = 12.003 V, V5 = 11.998 V, and Vig = 11.997 V. Calculate the average voltage level, the mean deviation, the standard deviation, and the probable error in the measured voltage at any time. 2-16 Successive measurements of the temperature of a liquid over a period of time pro- duced the following data: T; = 25.05°C, T, = 25.02°C, T = 25.03°C, T, = 25.07°C, Ts = 25.55°C, Ty = 25.06°C, T, = 25.04°C, Ts = 25.05°C, Ty = 25.07°C, T, 25.03°C, Ti, = 25.02°C, Tz = 25.04°C, Ty3 = 25.02°C, Ty4 = 25.03°C, and Ty, 25.05°C. Determine the average temperature, the mean deviation from average, the standard deviation, and the probable measurement error. 28 Measurement Errors Chap. 2Electromechanical Instruments Objectives You will be able to: 1. Sketch the construction of a permanent-magnet moving-coil (PMC) instrument, and explain its operation. 2. Show how PPMC instruments are used as galvanometers, de ammeters, de voltmeters, ac ammeters, and ac voltmeters. 3. Calculate appropriate shunt and series resistance values for given ammeter and volt- meter ranges, and determine instrument accuracy. 4. Sketch and explain the operation of series and shunt ohmmeter circuits. Explain ohm- meter scale shapes, and determine ohmmeter accuracy. 5. Sketch the front panel and scales for a typical volt-ohm-milliameter (VOM). Explain function and range selections, and discuss the use of the VOM. 6. Sketch and describe the construction of an electrodynamic instrument, and explain its dc and ac operation. Show how an electrodynamic instrument may be used as a volt- meter, an ammeter, and a wattmeter. Introduction a ‘The permanent-magnet moving-coil (PMMC) instrument consists basically of a light- weight coil of copper wire suspended in the field of a permanent magnet, Current in the wire causes the coil to produce a magnetic field that interacts with the field from the mag- net, resulting in partial rotation of the coil. A pointer connected to the coil deflects over a calibrated scale, indicating the level of current flowing in the wire. The PMMC instrument is essentially a low-level de_ammeter; however, with the ‘use of parallel-connected resisors, it can be employed to measure a wide range of direct 29current levels. The instrument may also be made to function as a de voltmeter by con- necting appropriate-value resistors in series with the coil. Ac ammeters and voltmeters can be constructed by using rectifier circuits with PMMC instruments. Ohmmeters can be made from precision resistors, PMMC instruments, and batteries. Multirange meters are available that combine ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter functions in one instrument. The clectrodynamic instrument is similar to the PMMC instrument except that it Uses stationary coils instead of a permanent mangnet. The most important application of the electrodynamic instrument is as a wattmeter, 3-1 PERMANENT-MAGNET MOVING-COIL INSTRUMENT Deflection Instrument Fundamentals A deflection instrument uses a Pointer that moves over a calibrated scale to indicate a measured quantity. For this to occur, three forces are operating in the electromechanical mechanism (or movement) inside the instrument: a deflecting force, a controlling force, and a damping force, The deflecting force causes the Pointer to move from its zero Position when a cur- rent flows. In the permanent-magnet moving-coil (PMMC) instrument the deflecting force is magnetic. When a current flows in a lightweight moving coil pivoted between the poles of a permanent magnet [Figure 3-1(a)], the current sets up a magnetic field that in- teracts with the field of the permanent magnet. A force is exerted on a current-carrying conductor situated in a magnetic field. Consequently, a force is exerted on the coil tums, as illustrated, causing the coil to rotate on its Pivots. The pointer is fixed to the coil, so it moves over the scale as the coil rotates, The controlling force in the PMMC instrament is provided by spiral springs [Figure 3-1(b)}. The springs retain the coil and Poiner at their zero position when no current is flowing. When current flows, the springs “wind up” as the coil rotates, and the force they exert on the coil increases. The coil and pointer stop rotating when the controlling force becomes equal to the deflecting force. The spring material must be nonmagnetic to avoid any magnetic field influence on the controlling force. Since the springs are also used to make electrical connection to the coil, they must have a low resistance. Phosphor bronze is the material usually employed. As illustrated in Figure 3-2(a), the pointer and coil tend to oscillate for some time before settling down at their final position. A damping force is required to minimize (or damp out) the oscillations. The damping force must be present only when the coil is in_ motion; thus it must be generated by the rotation of the coil. In PMMC instruments, the damping force is normally provided by eddy currénis. The coil former (or frame) is con- structed of aluminum, a nonmagnetic conductor. Eddy currents induced in the coil former Set up a magnetic flux that opposses the coil motion, thus damping the oscillations of the coil [see Figure 3-2(b)). ah " ‘Two methods of supporting the moving system of a deflection instrument a-e illus- trated in Figure 3-3. In the jeweled-bearing suspension shown in Figure 3-3(a), the point- ed ends of shafts or pivors fastened to the coil are inserted into cone-shaped cuts in jewel (sapphire or glass) bearings. This allows the coil to rotate freely with the least possible 30 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3Field Conductor flux flux (a) The deflecting force in a PMMC instrument is provided by ‘a current-carrying coil pivoted in a magnetic field. (b). The controlling force from the springs balances the deflecting force. Figure 3-1 The deflecting force in a PMMC instrument is produced by the current in the moving coil. The controlling force is provided by spiral springs. The two forces are equal when the pointer is stationary. Sec. 3-1 Permanent-Magnet Moving-Coil Instrument 3LPointer Pointer cxcilation with q no damping Lt ft P Final SAT pointer Kade position Ee wd Gy Ma sf tf : whi Poi posi With damping Time —> “oe (b) The damping force in a PMMC instrument is provided. by eddy currents induced in the aluminum coil former 8s it moves through the magnetic field. Figure 3-2 A defection instrument requires a damping force to stop the pointer oscil lating about the indicated reading. The damping force is usually produced by eddy cur fents in a nonmagnetic coil forme. These exist only when the col is in motion, friction. Although the coil is normally very lightweight, the pointed ends of the pivots have extremely small areas, so the surface load per unit area can be considerable. In some cases the bearings may be broken by the shock of an instrument being slammed down heavily upon a bench. Some jewel bearings are spring supported (as illustrated) to absorb such shocks more easily. ‘The taut-band method shown in Figure 3-3(b) is much tougher than jeweled-bearing Suspension. As illustrated, two flat metal ribbons (phosphor bronze or platinum alloy) are 32. Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3Spring-supported Jewel bearing Jewel bearing Jewel bearing. (@) Pivot and jewel-bearing suspension Spring Taut Band ‘Taut Band spring (2) Taut-band suspension Figure 3-3 The moving coil in a PMMC instrument may be supported by pivots in jew- led bearings, or by two flat metal ribbons held taut by springs. Taut-band suspension is the toughest and the most sensitive of the two, held under tension by springs to support the coil. Because of the springs, the metal ribbons behave like rubber unde: tension. The ribbons also exert a controlling force as they twist, and they can be used as electrical connections to the moving coi]. Because there is less friction, taut-band instruments can be much more sensitive than the jeweled-bearing type. The most sensitive jeweled-bearing instruments give full-scale deflection (FSD) with a coil current of 25 pA. With taut-band suspension FSD may be achieved with as litte as 2 yA of coil current. ‘The fact that the spring-mounted ribbon behaves as a rubber band makes the instrument ex- tremely rugged compared to a jeweled-bearing instrument. If a jeweled-bearing instrument is dropped to a concrete floor from bench height, the bearings will almost certainly be shat- tered. A taut-band instrument is unlikely to be affected by a similar fall. Sec. 3-1 Permanent-Magnet Moving-Coil Instrument 3control \pmmc Construction Figure 3-4 also shows one of the two controlling spiral springs. One end of this Spring is fastened to the pivoted coil, and the other end is connected te an adjustable zero- position control. By means of a screw on the instrument cover, the zero-position control can be adjusted to move the end of the spring. This allows the coil and pointer position to be adjusted (when no coil current is flowing) so that the pointer indicates exactly zero on the instrument scale. The PMMC instrument in Figure 3-5 illustrates a different type of construction. In- Stead of using @ horseshoe-shaped permanent magnet, the permanent magnet is placed in- side the coil (i.e Figure 3-4 A typical PMC instrument is constructed of a horseshoe magne, softiron : Pole shoes, a sof-iton core, and a suspended ee Coil that moves inthe air gap between the Soft iron core Core and the pote shoes. Counter 34 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3Soft iron cylinder Permane: magnet nt Permanent "a Soft iron cylinder Figure 3-5 _In a core-magnet PMMC instrument, the permanent magnet is locatéd inside the mov- ing coil, and the coil and magnet are positioned inside a soft-iron cylifder. major advantage of this core-magnet type of construction is that the moving coil is shielded from external magnetic fields due.to the presence of the soft-iron cylinder, The current in the coil of a PMMC instrument must flow in one particular direction to cause the pointer to move (positively) from the zero position over the scale. When the current is reversed, the interaction of the magnetic flux from the coil with that of the per- ‘manent magnet causes the coil to rotate in the opposite direction, and the pointer is de- flected to the left of zero (i.e., off-scale). The terminals of a PMMC instrument are identi- fied as + and ~ to indicate the correct polarity for connection, and the instrument is said to be polarized. Because it is polarized, the PMMC instrument cannot be used directly to measure altemating current. Without rectifiers, itis purely ade instrument. ‘Torque Equation and Scale When a current / flows through a one-turn coil situated in a magnetic field, a force F is exerted on each side of the coil [Figure 3-6(a)}: F=BIl newtons where Bis the magnetic lux density in tesla, / is the current in amperes, and I is the length of the coil in meters. Since the force acts on each side of the coil, the total force for a coil of N turns is F=2BIIN newtons The force on each side acts at a radius r, producing a deflecting torque: =2BIINr newton meters (N- m) = BIIN(2r) BLIND 3-1) where D is the coil diameter (Figure 3-6(b)]. Sec. 3-1 Permanent-Magnet Moving-Coil Instrument 35(a) Force F acts on each (b) Area enclosed by side of the coit coil is DX (6) Linear scale on a PMMC instrument Figure 3-6 The deflecting torque on the coil of a PMMC instrument is direetly propor- tional to the magnetic flux density, the coil dimensions. and the coil current. This gives the instrument a linear scale. ‘The controlling torque exerted by the spiral springs is directly proportional to the deformation or “windup” of the springs. Thus, the controlling torque is proportional to the actual angle of deflection of the pointer: Te=K0 where K is a constant. For a given deflection, the controlling and deflecting torques are equal: K@=BIIND Since all quantities except @ and / are constant for any given instrument, the deflec- tion angle is @=Cl (3-2) where C is a constant. 36 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3Equation 3-2 shows that the pointer deflection is always proportional to the coil current. Consequently, the scale of the instrument is linear, or uniformly divided; that is, if 1 mA produces a 1 cm movement of the pointer from zero, 2 mA produces a 2 cm movement, and so on [see Figure 3-6(c)]. As will be explained the PMMC instrument can be used as a de voltmeter, a de ammeter, and an ohmmeter. When connected with rectifiers and transformers, it can also be employed to measure alternating voltage and current. ae 3-1 A PMMC instrument with a100-tum coil has a magnetic flux density in its air gaps of B= 0.2 T. The coil dimensions are D = 1 cm and / = 1.5 cm. Calculate the torque on the coil for a current of 1 mA. Solution Equaon 3.1, Type BLVID Tp =BIIND .2T x 15x 107 x 1 mA x 100x 1 x 10? =3x10°N-m 3-2 GALVANOMETER A galvanometer is essentially a PMMC instrument designed to be sensitive to extremely low current levels. The simplest galvanometer is a very sensitive instrument with the type of center-zero scale illustrated in Figure 3-7(a). The deflection system is arranged so that the pointer can be deflected to either right or left of zero, depending on the direction of cur- rent through the moving coil. The scale may be calibrated in microamperes, or it may sim- ply be a millimeter scale. In the latter case, the instrument current sensitivity (usually stated in A/mm) is used to determine the current level that produces a measured deflection. The torque equation for a galvanometer is exactly as discussed in Section 3-1. The deflecting torque is proportional to the number of coil turns, the coil dimensions, and the current flowing in the coil. The most sensitive moving-coil galvanometers use taut-band suspension, and the controlling torque is generated by the twist in the suspension ribbon. ~-Fady current damping may be provided, as in other PMMC instruments, by winding the coil on a nonmagnetic conducting coil former. Sometimes nonconducting coil former is ~“etaployed, and the damping currents are generated sole moving coil. In this case, the coil is shunted by a damping resistor which controls the level of eddy currents gener- ated by the coil movements. Frequently, a critical damping resistance value is stated, which gives just sufficient damping to allow the pointer to settle down quickly with only a very small short-lived oscillation. Sec. 3-2 Galvanometer 7(2) Cemter-zer0 scale Suspension ribbon Sof iron ee core Coit Permanent magnet Scale (b) Basic deflection system of a galvanometer using a light beam Figure 3-7 _A galvanometer is simply an extremely sensitive PMMC instrument with a ccenter-zero scale, For maximum sensitivity, the mass of the moving system is minimized by using a pointer that consists ofa light beam reflected from a tiny mirror fastened to the coil With the moving-coil weight reduced to the lowest possible minimum for greatest sensitivity, the weight of the pointer can create a problem. This is solved in many instru- ments by mounting a small mirror on the moving coil instead of a pointer. The mirror re- flects a beam of light on to a scale, as illustrated in Figure 3-7(b). The light beam behaves as a very long weightless pointer which can be substantially deflected by a very small coil current. This makes light-beam galvanometers sensitive to much lower current levels than pointer instruments. Galvanometer voltage sensitivity is often expré8sed for a given value of critical damping resistance. This is usually stated in microvolts per millimeter. A megohm sensi- tivity is sometimes specified for galvanometers, and this is the value of resistance that must be connected in series with the instrument to restrict the deflection to one scale divi- sion when a potential difference of 1 V is applied across its terminals. Pointer vanometers have current sensitivities ranging from 0.1 to 1 A/mm. For light-beam in struments typical current sensitivities are 0.01 to 0.1 4A per scale division. Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3Figure 3-8 An adjustable shunt resistor is employed to protect the coil of a galvanome- ter from destructively excessive current lev- cls. The shunt resistance is intially set to zero, and then gradually increased to divert current through the galvanometer, Shunt resistance Example 3-2 A galvanometer has a current sensitivity of 1 A/mm and a critical damping re 1k. Calculate (a) the voltage sensitivity and (b) the megohm sensitivity, Solution Voltage sensitivity = 1k. 1 wA/mm =1mV/mm For a voltage sensitivity of 1 Vimm, 1 V/mm. megoli sensivity= VIR = 1 MO 3-3 DC Galvanometers are often employed to detect zero current or voltage in a circuit rather than to measure the actual level of current ot voltage. In this situation, the instru- ment is referred to as a null meter or null detector. A galvanometer used as a null meter must be protected from the excessive current flow that might occur when the voltage across the instrument terminals is not close to zero. Protection is provided by an ad- Justable resistance connected in shunt with the instrument (see Figure 3-8). When the shunt resistance is zero, all of the circuit current flows through the shunt. As the shunt re- sistance is increased above zero, an increasing amount of current flows through the gal- vanometer. Galvanometer applications have been largely taken over by electronic instru- ments that can measure extremely low levels of voltage and current, These instruments are discussed in Section 15-4. AMMETER Ammeter Circuit An ammeter is always connectéd in series with a circuit in which current is to be mea- sured, To avoid affecting the current level in the circuit, the ammeter must have a resi tance much lower than the circuit resistance. The PMMC instrument is an ammeter. Pointer deflection is directly proportional to the current flowing in the coil, However, Sec.3-3 DC Ammeter 39PMMC instrument Ammeter shunt Current terminals {a) Construction of de ammeter Coil resistance Figure 3.9 A direct-current ammeter con- sists of a PMMC instrument and a low- Shunt resistance shunt. The meter current is direct- resistance ly proportional to the shunt current, so that the meter scale can be calibrated to indicate {b) Ammeter circuit the total ammeter current. maximum pointer deflection is produced by a very small current, and the coil is usually wound of thin wire that would be quickly destroyed by large currents. For larger currents, the instrument must be modified so that most of the current to be measured is shunted around the coil of the meter. Only a small portion of the current passes through the mov- ing coil. Figure 3-9 illustrates how this is arranged. A shunt, ot very low resistance, is connected in parallel with the instrument coil [Figure 3-9(a)]. The shunt is sometimes referred to as a four-terminal resistor, because it has two sets of terminals identified as voltage terminals and current terminals. This is to ensure that the resistance in parallel with the coil (R,) is accurately defined and the con- tact resistance of the current terminals is removed from R,. Contact resistance can vary with change in current level and thus introduce errors, 40 Electromecinanical Instruments Chap. 3In the circuit diagram in Figure 3-9(b), R,» is the meter resistance (or coil circuit re- sistance) and R, is the resistance of the shunt. Suppose that the meter resistance is exactly 99 © and the shunt resistance is 1 2. The shunt current (/,) will be 99 times the meter current (/,). In this situation, if the meter gives FSD for a coil current of 0.1 mA, the scale should be calibrated to read 100 x 0.1 mA or 10 mA at full scale, The relationship between shunt current and coil current is further investigated in Examples 3-3 and 3-4, Example 3-3 An ammeter (as in Figure 3-9) has a PMMC instrument with a coil resistance of R,, = 99 a and FSD current of 0.1 mA. Shunt resistance R, = | 9. Determine the total current pass- ing through the ammeter at (a) FSD, (b) 0.5 FSD, and (c) 0.25 FSD, Solution (a) At FSD: meter voltage Vin = ImRulsee Figure 3-9(b)) 1mAx99.0 and total current 1= 1, ly =9.9 MA + 0.1 mA =10mA (b) At 0.5 FSD: Jy = 0.5 X0.1 MA = 0.05 mA Vou = lpm = 0.05 mA x 99.1 = 4.95 mV 95 mV 10 .95 mA + 0.5 mA = 4.95 mA (c) At 0.25 FSD: J, = 0.25 x 0.1 mA = 0.025 mA Ssc.3-3 DC Ammeter - 4rl ‘otal current 1 =, + I= 2475 mA +0.025 mA 5 mA Ammeter Scale The total ammeter current in Example 3-3 is 10 mA when the moving-coil instrument indicates FSD. Therefore, the meter scale can be calibrated for FSD to indicate 10 mA. When the pointer indicates 0.5 FSD and 0.25 FSD, the current levels are 5 mA and 2.5 mA, respectively. Thus, the ammeter scale may be calibrated to linear- ly represent all current levels from zero to 10 mA. Figure 3-10 shows a panel meter (for mounting on a control panel) that has a direct current scale calibrated linearly from 0 mA to 50 pA. Shunt Resistance Refer again to Example 3-3. Ifa shunt having a smaller resistance is used, the shunt cur- rent and the total meter current will be larger than the levels calculated. In fact, shunt re- sistance values can be determined to convert a PMMC instrument into an ammeter for measuring virtually any desired level of current. Example 3-4 demonstrates how shunt re- sistances are calculated. DC WICROAMPERES Figure 3-10 A dc ammeter made up of a PMMC instrument and a shunt has a linear ‘current scale (Courtesy of bach-simpson limited.) 42 Electromechanica! Instruments Chap. 3Example 3-4 ee A PMMC instrument has FSD of 100 A and a coil resistance of 1 k®. Calculate the re- quired shunt resistance value to convert the instrument into an ammeter with (a) FSD = 100 mA aad (b) FSD = 1 A. Solution (a) FSD =100mA: InBn = 100 pA x 1 kO= 100 mV Tt ly ~ In = 100 mA — 100 pA = 99.9 mA, Yq 100mY_ T= 999 mx ~ 1010 (6) FSD=1A: Vin = Rn = 100 mV I,=1-1,= 1 A~ 100 pA =999.9 mA V, 100 mV FX oogma = ¥-10001 0 ‘Swamping Resistance ‘The moving coil in a PMMC instrument is Wound with thin copper wire, and its resis- tance can change significantly when its temperature changes, The heating effect of the ceil current may be enough to produce a resistance change. Any such change in coil resis- tance‘will introduce an error in ammeter current measurements. To minimize the effect of coil resistance veriation, a swamping resistance made of manganin or constantan is con- nected in series with the coil, as illustrated in Figure 3-11. Manganin and constantan have resistance temperature coefficients very close to zero. If the swamping resistance is nine times the coil resistance, a 1% change in coil resistance would result in a total (swamping plus coil) resistance change of 0.1%. ‘Swamping Coil resistance resistance Figure 3-11 A swamping resistance made ‘of a material with a near-zero temperature coefficient can be connected in series with the coil of a PMMC instrument to minimize temperature errors, Sec.3-3 DC Ammeter 43(2) Multirange ammeter (b) Make-before-break Be. using switched shunts switch Figure 3:12. A muldrange ammeter consists of a PMC instrument, several shure, and Such that makes contact with the next shunt before losing contact with the previous ‘one when range switching, ‘The animeter shunt must also be made of manganin or constantan to avoid shunt resistance variations with temperature. As noted in Figure 3-11, the swamping resi tance must be considered part of the meter resistance Rj, when calculating shunt resis tance values. Multirange Ammeters The circuit of a multrange ammeter is shown in Figure 3-12(a). As illustrated, a rotary Switch is employed to select any one of several shunts having different resistance values. A mate-before-break switch [Figure 3-12(b)] must be used so thatthe instrument is nat left without a shunt in parallel with it even for a bref instant. If this occurred, the high re- sistance of the instrument would affect the current flowing in the circuit. More important, When tt large enough to destroy the instrument might flow through its moving coil, When switching between shunts, the wide-ended moving contact of the “eke, before-break switch makes contact with the next terminal before it breaks contact with the previous terminal. Thus, during switching there are actually two shupts in parallel with the instrument, Figure 3-13 shows another method of protecting the deflection instfument of an Ranciet from excessive current flow when switching between shunts. Resistors Ry, e-,Lr-rr—“—CO.mCmC—r™t—sts—SsSsSOSONNsNSOsSNSsSSO the oral resistance in parallel with the instrument is R, + Ry + Ry. The meter eireut resistance remains Ry» When the switch is at contact C [Figure 3-13(b), the resistance ‘a is in series with the meter, and Ry + Ry is in parallel with Ry + Ry Similarly, with the switch at contact D, Ry is in parallel with Ry + Ry + Rs, Because the shunts are Permanently connected, and the switch makes contact with the shunt junctions, the de. fection instrument is neyer left without « pacallel-connected shunt (or shunts} ly Ex, “4 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3(©) (Ry +g) in parallel with (2, + Ry) ‘gure 3-13 An Ayrton shunt used with an ammeter consists of several series-connect- ¢4 resistors all connected in parallel with the PMMC instrument. Range change is effect. €ed by switching between the resistor junctions. ample 3-5 ammeter current ranges are calculated for each switch position on an Ayr- ton shunt, Example 3-5 2 A PMMC instrument has a three-resistor Ayrton shunt connected across it to make an am- meter, as in Figure 3-13, The resistance values are R, = 0.05 0,R,=0.45., and R3=4.52. ‘The meter has R,, = 1 kM and FSD = 50 HA. Calculate the three ranges of the ammeter, Solution Refer to Figure 3-13. ‘Switch at contact B: V.= Tam = 50 BA x1 kO= 50 mV a Ri +R.+ Ry 50 mV ~ o0sn+045 +450 10mA Scc.3-3 DC Ammeter 4“In + 1,= 50 pA + 10 mA, 10.05 mA Ammeter range = 10 mA. ‘Switch at contact C: V,=In(Rm + Rs) = 50 HA KN 44.5.0) = 50mV y, ees RAR, -—_50mv ~ 0.05.2+0450 =100mA 1250 HA +100 mA = 100.05 mA Ammeter range = 100 mA. ‘Switch at contact D: Vy = In( Ry + Ry + Ra) = 50 pA KO +4.5.040.45.0) =50mV Ammeter range = 1 A. 3-41-C VOLTMETER Voltmeter Circuit {ance in series with the instrument {see Figure 3-14(a)]. Because it increases the range of the voltmeter, the series resistance is termed a multiplier resistance. A multiplier resis- 46 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3PMMC instrument Series resistance or “multiplier” \ -—_,_ Fj (a) Construction of de voltmeter Multiplier Coil resistance resistance ee, SD i Figure 3-14 A de voltmeter is made up of = a PMMC instrument and a series multiplier resistor. The meter current is directly pro- y Portional to the applied voltage, so that the eter scale can be calibrated to indicate the {b) Voltmeter cireuit voltage {ance that is nine times the coil resistance will increase the voltmeter range by a factor of 10. Figure 3-14(b) shows that the total resistance of the voltmeter is (multiplier resis- tance) + (coil resistance), Example 3-6 Vi a Frt~—“——™—O——”—~—~—*”—C—CC= con- verted into a voltmeter. Determine the required multiplier resistance ifthe voltmeter to mreasure 50 V at full scale (Figure 3-15), Also calculate the applied voltage when the in. Strument indicates 0.8, 0.5, and 0.2 of FSD. Solution V=q(R,+ Ry) [see Figure 3-14(b)] vs In cand Rade, Ret Rye Sec.3-4 DC Voltmeter a10 EN \ / Vi nti \ Wi py, D.c, VOLTS C—O For V=50V FSD, Tn = 100 pA. SOV 100 pA. =499kN A108 FSD: In, =08 x 100 pA =80 wa 1ka Vz Ig(R, + Rn) = 80 pA(499 KO +1 kA) =40V AtOS FSD. =50 pA V= 50 nAG499 KO + 1k) =25V A102 FSD: 0 LA V=20 wA(499 KO + 1k) =10V ‘Swamping Resistance As in the case of the ammeter, the change in coil resistance (R,) with temperature change can introduce errors in a PMMC voltmeter. However, the presence of the voltmeter multi. Plier resistor (Ry) tends to swamp coil resistance changes, except for low voltage ranges 43 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3where R, is not very much larger than R,,, R, will also be temperature sensitive to some degree (not as much as the copper wire coil), and in some cases it might be necessary to construct the multiplier resistor of manganin or constantan. Voltmeter Sensitivity The voltmeter designed in Example 3-6 has a total resistance of Ry=R,+ Ry = 500K Since the instrument measures 50 V at full scale, its resistance per volt is 500k. 50V This quantity is also termed the sensitivity of the voltmeter. The sensitivity of a voltmeter is always specified by the manufacturer, and it is frequently printed on the scale of the instrument. If the sensitivity is known, the total voltmeter resistance is easily calcu- lated as (sensitivity x range). [It is important to note that the total resistance is not (sensi- tivity x meter reading).} If the full-scale meter current is known, the sensitivity can be de- termined as the reciprocal of full-scale current, Ideally, a voltmeter should have an extremely high resistance. A voltmeter is al- ‘ways connected across, or in parallel with, the points in a circuit at which the voltage is to be measured. If its resistance is too low, it can alter the circuit voltage. This is known as voltmeter loading effect. = 10k0/V Multirange Voltmeter A multirange voltmeter consists of a deflection instrument, several multiplier resistors, and a rotary switch. Two possible circuits are illustrated in Figure 3-16. In Figure 3-16(a) only one of the three multiplier resistors is connected in series with the meter at any time. ‘The range of this voltmeter is V=Iq(Ry +R) where R can be R. &%, or Ry. In Figure 3-16(b} the multiplier resistors are connected in series, and each junction is connected to one of the switch terminals. The range of this voltmeter can also be calcu- lated from the equation V = /,(Rm + R), where R can now be Ry, Ry + Rz, or Ry + Ro + Rs, Of the two circuits, the one in Figure 3-16(b) is the least expensive to construct. This is because (as shown in Example 3-7) all of the multiplier resistors in Figure 3-16(a) must be special (nonstandard) values, while in Figure 3-16(b) only Ry is a special resistor and all other multipliers are standard-value (precise) resistors, Example 3-7 A A PMMC instrument with FSD = 50 pA and Rj, = 1700 2 is to be employed as a volt- meter with ranges of 10 V, 50 V, and 100 V. Calculate the required values of multiplier re- sistors for the circuits of Figure 3-16(a) and (b). Sec.3-4 DC Voltmeter “9Multiplier Meter (4) Maltange vokimeter using switched multiplier resistors (b) Multirange volemeter using series-connected multiplier resistors Solution Circuit as in Figure 3-16(a): Figure 316 A multirange voltmeter con- sists of a PMMC instrument, several multi plier resistors, and a switch for range sel tion. Individual, or series-connected resistors may be used Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3 ‘Circuit as in Figure 3-16(b): Rat R= ¥, ave Rim ph Ra iov 50 HA = 198.3k0, - 1700.9 Rut Ry +Ry= R= Baer, 5OV 0 BA = 800k. ~ 198.3 kA ~ 1700.2. Beehiehe tat R= BRR, Ry 100 V = 50 pa “800 KO - 198.39 ~ 17009 =1Ma 3-5 RECTIFIER VOL? METER PMMC Instrument on AC As discussed earlier, the PMMC instrument is polarized, that is, its terminals are identi- fied as + and —, and it must be connected correctly for positive (on-scale) deflection to occur, When an alternating current with a very low frequency is passed through a PMMC instrument, the pointer tends t¢ instantaneous level of the ac. As current, feases 1 a maximum at the peak of the ac. mast 0 rent i ‘the pointer deflection When the ac goes negative, the pointer is deflected ( kind c! pointer movement can occur only with ac having a frequ or lower. With the normal 60 Hz or higher supply frequencies, the damping mechanisti~ of the instrument and the inertia of the meter movement prevent the pointer from follow- “ing the changing instantaneous levels. Instead, the instrument pointer settles at ihe Sec. 3-5 Rectifier Voltmeter 5