GENERAL SCIENCE PHYSICS Physics is the study of nature and its laws. The word physics has been derived from a Greek word pkysis which means nature. Physics is one of the academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy. Units Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison with a certain basic arbitrarily chosen and widely accepted reference standard called unit. SI SYSTEM It is based on the following seven basic units and two supplementary units Name of Quantity ‘Name of Unit Basic Units = Length matte = Mass ilogram = Time second + Eeotié urront ampere * Thermodynamic kelvin temporatre + Luminous intonsiy eandoia + Amount of substance moe Supplementary Units Plane angle radian + Solidangle steradian Important Derived Units Physical Quantly Defiiion Sf Unit rea Lengin wf square Velecity Displacement mst peruni time Force Mass x kgs? acceveration Greatest Units 1 light year =9.46 x10" m 1 parsec =3.086%10"° m= 3.26 ly TAU=1.5x 10!m, 1 metric tonne = 10° kg 1 quintal = 10° kg Dimensions of Physical Quantities Dimensions of physica quantiy are the powers ib which the” funtementa Guanttis must he rated to represent Ut quantity completely. There — for the dimensional formula of a quantity is expressed in terms of fundamental quantities, commonly mass M, length Land uume T. Any physical quantity is either a scalar or a Vector eg, Force =([MLT*], Density =|ML*] Scalar Quantities Physical quantities which have magnitude only and no direction are called. scalar quantities. e.g. mass, speed, volume, work, time, power, energy ete Vector Quantities Physical quantities which have both magnitude and direction and also abey triangle law of vector addition ae called tector quantities ex. displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, torque eteGENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science KINEMATICS Itis the branch of mechanics, which deals with the motion of object, Distance + The length of the actual path covered by a body in a particular time interval is called distance, Itis always positive + Ibis a scalar quantity. + Its unitis metre. Displacement + The difference between the Final and the initial position of an object is called displacement, It may be positive, negative or zero + Teisa sector quanthy. ts unit is metre + The magnitude of displacement may or may not be equal to the path length traversed by an object. [Displacement|s| Distance] Speed «Speed is the distance covered by a thovingbod in per uniof me inoral «tiga scalar quanilty tis alvays equal to or greater than magnitude of the velocity. «The average speed of a particle for a given intewal ot ime Is defined as the fall of tol distance tavelled 10 the total time taken. ‘Average speed ™ Total distance waveled Total time taken + Ifthe body covers first half distance with speed 2, and next hal with speed 2, then uy Average speed = Velocity ‘The rate of change of displacement of a. od tn called veloc. Vales,» Displacement Time + Neocty sa vector quantity + Itmay be positive or negative. + Average velocity Total displacement Toulume + Ifthe body covers first half distance with, velocity v, and next half with velocity 2, then 2009 Average velocity = + Ifa body travels with uniform velocity for time t, and with uniform velocity v, for time ¢,, then Average velocity ea 4th + If a body is moving on a circular path. then alter completing one complete cycle, its average velocity is zero. Uniform Velocity An object i said to be moving with uniform velocty if it undergoes equal displacements in equal intervals of time. Non-Uniform Velocity An object is said to be moving with non- uniform or variable velocity if it undergoes: unequal displacements in equal intervals oftime Relative Velocity When two bodies are moving in the straight line, the speed (or velocity) of one with respect to another is known as its relative speed (or velocity). v4, =¥elocity of A with respect to B Vi-Vp Acceleration + ILis the rate of change of velocity ts SI unit isn’, Itis a veetor quantity + When the velocity of a body increases with time then its acceleration i positive and if velocity decreases with time then its acceleration is negative and is called retardation or deceleration + Acceleration of an object is zero, if ft is at rest or moving with uniform velocity Average acceleration,GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science MOTION/REST If the position of a body or a system of bodies does not change with time, it is sald to be at rest On the other hand, ifthe position change ‘with time, itis said to be in motion, A particle in rest does not have the speed and aeceleration, while a particle in the ‘motion has its speed and also may have some acceleration, if the speed changes ‘with respect to time. Equation of Motion For motion on a straight line with constant acceleration « @ v=u+at Lae (iy =ut + Lat? 2 (it) v? =u? + 20s Equation of Motion Under Gravity (a) Downward Direction Lae i) veutgt Gih=ut+ Sot ® at iyhant + 3a 24 phe displacement travelled height, ¢ = time velocity final velocity cceleration, icceleration due to gravity for retardation awillbe replaced ty ~ a (b)Upward Direction If velocity of a body is decreasing instead of increasing, then equation of motion v=u-gt 1 haut}, 3 v2 au? —2gh (e)Distance travelled by a body in mth seconds, Sau = + R= E + IP the body is thrown upwards, then it will rise “until its vertical "velocity becomes zero. Then, the maximum height attained is Graphical Representation of Motion Displacement-Time Graph If body moves with a uniform velocity then displacement - time graph is a straight line ‘The slope or gradient ofthe straight line is speed. Dissiacerent vont gone Lon Ot Velocity-Time Graph 1. Constant Acceleration If a body moves with a constant velocity, velocity-time graph isa straight line. Velocity * aL—+a $-———— tre 2. Uniformly Accelerated Motion The vyelocity-time graph is a straight line. Velocity & Time Two Dimensional Motion In this motion of a body is described in a rectangular co-ordinate axis. Projectile Motion: = When a particle is projected so that it makes certain angle with horizontal then the motion of the particle is said to be projectile, Path of a projectile is parabolic in nature. + The initial velocity w of the projectile can be resolved into two components (® u c08 8 (horizontal direction) i) w sin 8 (vertical direction)GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science For the Projectile Motion Maximum Height It is the maximum vertical distance travelled by a body. sin?@ % Horizontal Range The distance between projecting and landing point cis given by () = cis given by ( u?sind0 9 Time of Flight Time taken in reaching the landing point from projecting point. Itis given by een g + For maximum range Therefore, a long jumper takes jump at an angle of 45° + For maximum height 0=90°, + The horizontal range is the same when the body is projected at @ or (00 - 0) + When a body is dropped freely from the top of the tower and another body is projected horizontally from the same point, both will reach the ground at the + When two balls of different masses are projected horizontally they will reach ground at same time. Circular Motion + When an object moves along a circular path, then its: motion is called circular motion e.g, motion of top ete. [fan object moves along a circular path with uniform speed, its motion fs called uniform Gircular motion. It is accelerated even if the speed of the body is constant. The motion ofa satellite isan accelerated motion, + The acceleration is directed towards the centre and is given by = where v is the speed and r is the radius, This is called centripetal acceleration. FORCE Force is a push or pull which can change the position or direction of a body. Centripetal Force A body performing circular motion is acted upon by a force which is always directed towards the centre ofthe circle. This force is called centripetal force. Any of the forces found in nature (such as frictional force, gravitational force, electzical force, magnetic force ete) may act asa centripetal force + Cyclist bends his body towards the centre on a tu while turning to obtain the required centnipetal force. Generally, in rain the scooter slips at the turning ofa road because the Jziction between tyre and road is reduced. Due to this, necessary centripetal foree is not provided. Roads are banked at tums to provide the required centripetal force for taking a turn, Centrifugal Force Pseudo Force When we in a non-inertial frame of reference to apply Newton's laws, we have to apply a force on the object equal to mass times in opposite direction ofacceleration or retardation of the frame. Centrifugal force is such a Pscudo force. Itis always equal and opposite to centripetal fore. Cream separator, centrifugal drier ete work on the principle of centrifugal force. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION First Law + “Every body retains its state of rest or state of uniform motion, until an external force is applied on it.” This law is also known as law of. inertia or law of Galileo. + First law gives the definition of inertia, Inertia is the virtue of a body due to which it ties to retain its state. Inertia is of three types Inertia of rest Inertia of motion Inertia of direction A person sitting in a moving car falls forward, when the car stops suddenly. This is because the feet ofthe passenger comes to the rest along with the car, but the upper part of his body, tends to remain in motion due to inertia of motion,GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science + The dust particle come out from a carpet, when it is beaten with a stick due to their inertia of rest. + Inertial Frame Whenever the frame of reference is moving with uniform velocity or is at rest + Non-Inertial Frame Whenever the frame of reference is accelerating or retarding or rotating is called non- ‘inertial frame of reference. Second Law + The force applied on a body is equal to the product of mass of the body and the acceleration produced in it eg P= ma.” + The second law of motion gives the definition of force. + A force is any influence that causes an object to undergo a certain change, either concerning its movement, direction and geometrical structure. + Sl unit of force is Newton (N). Linear Momentum + The product of the mass and the velocity of a body is called the linear momentum of the body. Itisa vector quantity. Its unit is kg-m/s, -. Linear momentum = Mass x Velocity +A heavier body has a larger linear momentum than a lighter body moving ‘with the same velocity. In the absence of external forces, the total linear momentum of the system remains conserved, Application of Conservation of Linear Momentum + When a man jumps from a boat to the shore, the boat slightly moves away from the shore. Rocket works on the principle of conservation of romentum, + When a bullet is fired from a gun, the gqun recoils or gives a sharp pail in backward direction Impulse + Ifa force aetson a body for avery short time At, then the product of force and time is called the impulse. Impulse =Change in momentum Force x Time interval Its SI unit is N-s or kg-an/s, Concept of Impulse + Accicketer moves his hands backwards while catching a ball + A person jumping from a height on a ‘concrete tloor receives more injury than when jumping ‘ona spongy floor. + Vehicles like cars, buses and scooters are provided with shockers + Bogies ofthe trains are provided with buffers to avoid severe jerks during shunting of trains. Butfers increase the time-duration of jerks during shunting, This reduces the force with ‘hich bogies push or pull each other and thus severe jerks are avoided. Third Law ‘Every action have equal and opposite reaction,” Action and reaction always act on the different bodies On firing the bullet, the gunner is pushed in backward direction. When the boatman is jumped from the boat, the boat is pushed back, In a rocket, gases are ejected with a great speed from the rocket backwards and rocket is pushed forwards. While swimming, @ person pushes the water backwards (action), The water pushes the swimmer forward with the same force (reaction) Equilibrium Ifthe resultant of all the forces aeting on a body is zero, then the body is said to be in equilibrium. If a body is in equilibrium, it willbe either at rest or in uniform motion. If it is at rest, the equilibrium is called static, otherwise dynamic. Static equilibrium is of the following two types (@) Stable Equilibrium If on_ slight displacement from equilibrium position a body has tendency to regain its original position, itis said to be in stable equilibrium.GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science Gi) Unstable Equilibrium Ifon a slight displacement from equilibrium position, a body moves in the direction of displacement and does not regain its original position, the equilibrium is said to be unstable equilibrium. In this equilibrium, the centre of gravity af the body isat the highest position, Neutral Equilibrium fon slight displacement from equilibrium position a body has no tendency to come back to its original position or to move in the direction of displacement, it iS said to be in neutral equilibrium, + In neutral equilibrium, the centre of gravity always remains at the same height Condition for Stable Equilibrium. For stable equilibrium of a body, the following two conditions should be fulfilled ) The centre of gravity of the body should be at the minimum height. (i) The vertical line passing through the centre of gravity of the body should pass through the base of the body. Centre of Mass Centre of mass of a body (system of particles) is a point where the entire ‘mass of the body is supposed to be concentrated. We can define position of centre of mass by at +mee, +m, where, r, 1,1, are position vectors of constituent particles, FRICTION + If-we slide or try to slide a body over a surface, the motion is resisted by a bonding between the bod and the surface, This resistance is called fictional force, + The opposite force that comes into play when one body tends to move over the surface of another body but actually motion has yet not started is called statie frietion. + The maximum value of the static frictional force which comes into play when a body just begins to slide aver the surface of another body is called limiting frictional force. + When two bodies actually roll on each other (as in case of ball bearing), the rolling friction comes into play When two bodies actually slide over each other, sliding frietion comes into play. When a body moves over the other body, then the force of friction acting between two surfaces in contact in relative motion is called Kinetic Friction, + >the >t, hete WH and are called coefficient of static, kinetic and rolling friction respectively Advantages and Disadvantages of Friction + Walking is posse du to fection {the wansfer of motion fom one past of a machine to ather part through belts possible by friction. «Brake works on the bass af Hetion. + Freton causes wear and tea af the parts of machinery in contact. Thus, their Hifetime gets reduced. Methods of Reducing Friction + By polishing, by lubrication, by proper selection of material and by using ball bearing friction can he reduced to some extentGENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science Work, Energy and Power WORK When a body is displaced by applying a force onit, then workis said be done. Ifa body is displaced by a distance son applying a force F on it, then work done W=F-s=Fs cos, where '6' is the angle between the force and the direction of displacement. tisa scalar quantity Its unit is oule (J). Positive Work Done + Positive work means that force is applied along the direction of displacement. e.g. when a horse pulls a cart on a level road, When a body fils freely under gravitational pull. Negative Work Done Negative work means that force is opposite to displacement. e.g. when a positive charge is moved towards another positive charge, when a body is made to slide over a rough surface, Zero Work Done If the force is perpendicular to the displacement and if either the force or the displacement is zero, work done is zero. €.g when a body is moved alonga circular path with the help of a string, when a coolie travels on a platform with a load on his head and when a person does not move from his position but he may be holdingany amount of heavy load, ENERGY + Itis defined as capacity of doing work. Its unit jsjoule in SI and erg in CGS system, + Mechanical energy is in two forms; Kinetic energy and potential energy Kinetic Energy + It is the energy possessed by a body by vine of ts motion ita body of mass mts moving with velocity then Lincs eoegy KE. where, p is the linear momentum, + When momentum is doubled, kinetic energy becomes four times. + Kinetic energy of air is used to run wind, mills, + Kinetic energy of running water is used to run the water mills + A bullet fired from a gun can pierce a target due to its kinetic energy. + If a body is moving in horizontal circle then its kinetic energy is same at all points, but if it is moving in vertical circle, then the kinetic. energy is different at different points, Potential Energy + It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of ts position. + Suppose a body is raised to a height h abore the surface of the earth, then potential energy of the body = mgh. When a body is falling downwards, then its potential energy goes on changing to kinetic energy + The potential energy of the wound spring of a clock is used to drive the hands of the clock The potential energy of water in dams is used to run turbines in. order to produce electric energy using the generators. Conservative and Non-conservative Forces A non-dissipative force is known conservative force e.g. gravitational force, electrostatic force. Non-conservative forces are dissipative forces e.g, frictional forces, viscous force. Law of Conservation of Energy + According to the law of conservation of energy “Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but it can only be transformed from one form to another” + The sum of all kinds of energies in an isolated system remains constant at all times.GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science ‘Transformation of Energy + Ina heat engine, heat energy changes into mechanical energy. + In the electric bulb, the electric energy is converted into light energy + In burning coi, oil ete., the chemical energy changes into heat energy. + In solar cel, solar energy changes into electrical energy + In playing sitar, mechanical energy changes into sound energy + In microphone, sound energy changes into electrical energy. + In loud speaker, electrical energy changes into sound enersy + In battery, chemical energy changes into mechanical energx. + In electric motor, electrical energy changes into mechanical energy. + In candle, chemical energy changes int light and heat energy POWER + Rate of doing work by a body is called power. de. Work done Time taken w Powet P t Slunit of power is watt (W) or joule per second and itis a scalar quantity. 1W=1)6 1 kW =10°W 1 MW=10° W 1 Horse Power (HP) = 746 W 1 watwsecond (Ws) =1J 1 wattfhour (Ws) = 3600 1 kilowatt hour (kW-h) = 3.6x 10° J Torque + The turning effet of «force on a body isknown as the moment of the foree or torque. Torque is a vector quantity. te, Torque, Z.= Fd ‘Where, F=force 4-=perpendicular distance offorce fom the axis of rotation. Simple Machines * Itis based on moment of force * Lever, inclined plane, sorew guage etc. are simple machine + Scissors, sea saw, brakes of cycle, hand pump, plass are lever of frst kind + Nut cracker and waste carrying machine are lever of second kind + Tong, man’s hand and tiller are lover of third kin, GRAVITATION, In 1686, Newton stated that in the universe each particle of matter attracts every other partic. This universal attractive force is called gravitation. Gravitational Force Its always attractive in nature Iki the weakest force but is a long range force Mathematically it is represented as. 5, - Mm on? where, Fy is. gravitational force, Gis gravitational constant, M is the mass of first particle, m i the mass of second particle Ind ris the distance between them This is called Newton's universal law of gravitation. The value of Gis 6.67 x 10°? N-m?/kg? Gravity Iis the force by which the Earth attracts a body towards its centre. ‘The acceleration due to gravity isthe rate of increase of velocity of a body falling freely towards the Earth, Itis represented by Re where, M, is the mass of the Earth and R, is the radius of Earth, The value of g at the surface of Earth is 98 m/s? ‘The Earth is surrounded by _an atmosphere of gases due to gravity, The value of on the Moon is 1/6th of that on the Earth surface.GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science Variation in the Value of g + When we go above the surface of the Earth, the acceleration due to gravity goes on decreasing. + When we go below the surface of the Earth, the acceleration due to gravi goes on decreasing and becomes zero at the centre of the Earth Decreasing the rotational motion of Earth, the value of g increases. When we go from the equator towards the poles, the value of g goes on increasing. + IfEarth stops its rotation about its own, axis, then at the equator the value of g increases and consequently the weight of body lying there incteases, The value of g is maximum on the surface of the Earth. Centre of Gravity + The centre of gravity of a body is that point at which the whole weight of the body appears to act. + It can be inside the material of the body or outside it. + For regularly shaped body, the centre of gravity lies at its geometrical centre. Mass + The mass of a body is the quantity of matter contained in itlt is a scalar quantity and its ST unit Is kg, + Mass is measured by an ordinary ‘equal arm balance. Mass of body does not change from place-to-place and remains constant. Weight + The weight of a body is the force with, which itis. attracted towards the centre of the Earth. Ie i a vector quantity and its SI unit is Newton ®) + Itis measured by a spring balance. + Iti not constant and it changes from place to place. Weight of a Body in a Lift IF fiftis stationary or moving with uniform spaced (either upward or downward), the apparent eight of a body is equal to its true weight IF fit is going up with an acceleration, the ‘apparent weight ofa body is more than the tue ‘weight. IF lift isgoing dawn with an acceleration, the apparent weight of a body is less than the ‘rue weight, If the cord of the lifts broken, then it falls freely In this situation, the weight of 2 body in the lift becomes zero, This is the situation of weightlessness. * While going down, ifthe acceleration of litt is ‘more than acceleration due to gravity, a body in the lift goes in contact ofthe ceiling of lit. SATELLITE The heavenly body which revolves around the planets is called satellite. Moon is a natural satellite of Earth, ‘The speed of a satellite does not depend upon the mass of the satellite A satellite revolving very close to Earth's surface has a period of revolution about 84 min and its speed is nearly 8 kin/s, Every body inside the satellite is in a state of weightlessness, Total energy of the satellite is negative. Artifictal satellites are of two types Geostationary and Polar satellites () The satellite whose time period is 24 h is called geostationary satellite. Itis used to reflect TV signals and telecast TV programs [rom one part of the world to another. This satellite revolves around the Farth at a height of 36000 km. INSAT-2B and INSAT-2C_— are geostationary satellites of India. Polar satellites revolve around the earth in polar orbits at a height of approximately 800 km, The time period of these satellites is approximately 84 minute, These satellites are used in weather forecasting, in studying upper region of the atmosphere, in mapping etc. PSLV Series Satellites are Polar Satellites of India a