Chapter 2

Definition, Dimensions, and Determinations

Of Tourism Impacts

DEFINITION OF TOURISM IMPACT

from their tourism income are able to get higher
Hall and Lew (2009, 54) defined impact as “a priority in terms of government allocations for
change in a given state o time as the result of tourism-related projects. This is an example of
an external stimulus.” For our purposes, political impact.
external stimulus is
referred to as tourism. Impacts are seldom uni-dimensional. For
instance, a focus on tourism may make
Tourism impact may be defined as an effect governments overzealous in protecting nature
brought about directly and indirectly by tourism at the expense of indigenous people, creating a
policies, conflict between environmental and cultural
tourism-related establishments and concerns. For instance, an expansion of
infrastructure, and tourist behavior. protected areas might be good for nature
conservation and ecotourism but has a
Dictionaries defined impact as (1) influence, (2) negative effect on ethnic people who rely on
effect (3) outcome, (4) result, (5) consequence, swidden agriculture for their livelihood
(6) aftermath, (7) upshot, (8) product. (Dressler 2006). Swidden farming, more
popularly known as kaingin, requires shifting
DIMENSION OF TOURISM IMPACTS the area of cultivation periodically after several
years to allow each patch of land to fallow.
Tourism impacts may be categorized in terms Because of the protected area restrictions,
of their scope, the direction of change and type farmers tend to return to a patch much earlier
of impact, and the scale, distribution, and than the optimal time. This results in the land
duration of the effects. losing its fertility, soon leading to insufficient
and low-quality produce.
The scope of tourism impact may be economic,
environmental, social, cultural, or political. The resulting poverty then, leads some of the
An example of an economic impact of tourism indigenous people to resort to environmentally
is inflation. damaging practices, such as poaching. They
are encouraged to assume mainstream tourism
The supply of products and services usually jobs. The skills, rituals, belief systems, and
lags behind the increase in demand which nomadic way of life banish with time.
results in shortage. The outcome is usually a
price increase of airplane fares, hotel rates, and
even real estate. In terms of the direction of change, tourism may
cause positive or negative changes on the
Each dimension of tourism impacts will he economy, environment, or society. Tourism
covered in greater detail in the latter chapters. may either contribute to the improvement or the
Improved connectivity among transportation deterioration of a place.
nodes is an example of an environmental
impact. Increased crime and prostitution are The creation of employment by tourism is a
some potential social effects of tourism. positive impact. However, the leakage caused
when the tourism industry imports food stuff,
Tourism can also cause cultural diffusion, wine, and managerial expertise is a negative
examples of which are the broadening of food impact.
choices in major tourist areas and the spread of
such sports as surfing. Places that are able to An impact may be seen differently depending
contribute substantially to government coffers on what side of the fence you are sitting on. For
 Chapter 2
Definition, Dimensions, and Determinations
Of Tourism Impacts

example, to people looking for jobs, gaming experience and perceive more and more
tourism is a positive development, but some negative impacts as a tourism destination goes
long-time residents will see gaming tourism as through the various stages of growth: discovery
gambling tourism with the associated casino or exploration, involvement, development,
hotels as places of decadence. consolidation, and stagnation. Tensions
between the tourists and the hosts increase in
The type of impact may be categorized in many the consolidation phase. As tourist facilities
ways actual (objective) or perceived deteriorate, tourist numbers also decline in the
(subjective), quantitative or qualitative, direct or stagnation stage. Doxey (1975), in his Irritation
indirect. Index Model, suggested that the residents'
reaction to tourism changes from euphoria,
Actual or objective impacts of tourism are apathy, annoyance, and antagonism in the
backed up by hard data. Most economic introduction, growth, maturity, and decline
impacts, such as the increased population, stages, consecutively. Stagnation could lead to
number of jobs, amount of investment, and decline and eventual death, or a revitalized
amount of tourist receipts generated by tourism destination through rejuvenation.
are objective in nature and are quantitatively
measured. Quantitative impacts are impacts which can
be measured and expressed in numerical form.
Perceived or subjective impacts refer to the Examples of quantitative impacts are the
opinions of somebody concerning the effects of amount of taxes collected from tourism
tourism. How people perceive tourism impacts businesses, the number of people employed by
will be influenced by their social status, world tourism, and the length of roads constructed as
view, educational attainment, culture, whether part of a program to make a place accessible to
they work directly or indirectly in tourism, and tourists.
some other variables.
Qualitative impacts are impacts that can only
For example, several studies show that people be observed and described. Examples of this
who work directly in tourism tend to view would be the effects of tourism on social
tourism in a more positive light while the rest of relationships and the effect of tourism
the community might focus on the negative experiences on an individual's self-esteem.
effects of tourism on their environment or
culture. An increase in tourist arrivals is an Direct tourism impact is one that is immediate
objective effect of tourism. However, people will and flows from tourism to the receiver of impact
have subjective views on that increase. (e.g., residents) without intervening persons,
Tourism-related business owners, anticipating agencies, or industries.
higher profits from the increased arrivals, will
view tourism as a bane. On the other hand, Indirect impact flows from tourism to the
ordinary residents, expecting crowding and receiver of the impact through intervening
traffic congestion may see tourism as a bane. persons, agencies, or industries.

A number of variables affect people's For example, salaries paid by a hotel to its
perceptions of tourism impacts. employees represent a direct economic impact
while the income earned by taxi drivers
Butler and Doxey linked residents' perception servicing the hotel employees is an indirect
of tourism to the stage of tourism development. impact.
Butler (1980), in his Tourism Area Life Cycle
theory, predicted that the community will
 Chapter 2
Definition, Dimensions, and Determinations
Of Tourism Impacts

Cumulative Impact – one that is caused by An irreversible impact is one that requires a
Tourism development over time. long period of time to recover. For example, the
effect of divers on coral reefs. Corals grow very
Immediate Impact - is an impact that is slowly. It takes generations to replace Cora
caused by a single event, and could happen reefs stepped on by divers or hit by boat
within a short period of time. propellers and anchors.

Long – term Impact – are those that will be The impact from tourism may have a chain
borne or experienced by the affected sectors or reaction or just an isolated effect. Tourism,
stakeholders for years or even generation to particularly when carried out on a mass scale,
come. has the potential to affect the environmental,
( Short – term effects are those that do economic, and social systems in an intertwined
not endanger the welfare of the affected people fashion.
or places way into the distant future.)
For example, the unexpected deluge of tourists
Another way to look at tourism impacts is in to the Puerto Princess underground river
terms of their distribution among stakeholders caused by the successful bid to become a new
or geographical coverage. For instance, most of wonder of nature has generated tremendous
the tourism income is said to accrue mostly to employment and investment opportunities.
only the local elites, such as wealthy
entrepreneur and powerful politicians. In Unfortunately, the sudden increase in tourist
contrast, poor people are not able to take arrivals has caused airport congestion, created
advantage of the opportunities presented by shortfalls in water and electricity supply, and
tourism because of lack of skills, finance migration to the city, making people feel less
capacity, or social capital (lack of connections). secure. For some types of tourists’ markets and
activities, the effect may be isolated or even
Places that are endowed with outstanding inconsequential. In line with this we can also
tourism assets, in close proximity to the say that an impact may be intended/expected
transportation terminals or gateways, and have or unintended/unexpected.
a high concentration of skilled human resources
are more likely to benefit from tourism than Tourism impacts may also be classified
less-endowed areas. Tourism impacts will also according to the source. According to Hall and
be felt at varying levels in the different areas Lew (2009, 64) a tourism impact may come
where tourism activity could take place. from a point source or non-point source.

Leiper (1990), in his Tourism Attraction Point source is a specific tourism- related
System model, identified these Filling the; facility, projects, or object. This could be an
1. Tourist generating region, airport, hotel, attractions, or event. Point
2. The transit route region, and the sources of impact are site-specific, tangible,
3. Tourist destination region. and have clear finite lifespan. Non-point source
is mobile, intangible, and has indefinite lifespan.
Tourism-induced impacts may be reversible
or irreversible. Reversible impact is one which An example of a point source of impact is an
can be corrected immediately or over a short airport. Building a major international airport
period of time. For example, trash left by can have significant impacts on the
festival attendees can be collected and environment, economy, and culture, among
disposed of in a matter of hours or days. others. It may sometimes involve land
reclamation from the sea. This alters the
 Chapter 2
Definition, Dimensions, and Determinations
Of Tourism Impacts

ecology and topography of the site. Marine a country. TTCI is based on four broad sub-
ecosystems may be destroyed as islets are indices with a total of 14 pillar components.
connected to form a bigger space for the airport.
Filling materials are sourced from the First sub index is the environment sub index
mountains or hills. As a result, the terrain is consists of 5 pillar components which are the:
changed forever as the mountains are flattened 1. Business environment
to obtain the filling materials to connect the 2. Safety and security
islets. In the process, trees and animals are 3. Health and hygiene
destroyed. 4. Human resources and labor market
5. ICT readiness
Furthermore, the new airport on the man-made
island will require transportation infrastructure The second sub index is the travel and
consisting of a highway, bridge, or railroad. The Tourism policy and enabling conditions sub
destruction of marine and forest ecosystems index, that consist of the pillars:
has repercussions on traditional livelihoods,
such as fishing or forestry. Local economy and Prioritization of travel and tourism
local culture (e.g., occupational skills and 1. International openness
festivals) could be transformed forever. 2. Price competitiveness
3. Environmental sustainability
Tourists, themselves, as well as cruise ships,
airplanes, and other forms of transformation The infrastructure sub index consist of:
may be considered as non-point sources. 1. Air transport infrastructure
Tourists as a non-point source may negatively 2. Ground port infrastructure
affect the destination through irresponsible 3. Tourist service infrastructure
behavior. For example, a throng of tourists
through their body heat can raise the ambient
temperature and humidity in confined spaces Under the natural and cultural resources
like museum's, thereby contributing to the sub index are:
degradation of sensitive paintings. Lint from 1. Natural resources
people's clothes can accumulate on pristine 2. Cultural resources and business travel
cave walls. Noise produced by tourists can
disturb the biological cycles of animals. Meanwhile a similar framework for assessing a
place’s potential for tourism is the As
DETERMINANTS OF TOURISM IMPACTS framework suggested by Cruz. The framework
consists of
Several factors that determine the direction, • Access
scale, duration and distribution of tourism • Accommodation
impacts could be deduced. • Activities
• Attractions
1. Level of Development of the tourism • Amenities
industry • Atmosphere - refers to the general
- The more developed the tourism industry impression of being welcome and safe
the more the destination stands to gain in a destination
economically from tourism. • Attitude - about the friendliness and
- The Travel of Tourism competitiveness readiness of residents in a destination to
index of the world economic forum is a have tourist in their midst.
measure of the level of tourism development in
 Chapter 2
Definition, Dimensions, and Determinations
Of Tourism Impacts

Atmosphere and attitude are similar to Social representation theory - hold that
international openness, safety and security, and "where there is limited knowledge about
hygiene criteria in the Travel and tourism tourism, a destination community either develop
competitive index. its own social representation of tourism or
• Administration - the management of adapt an existing one.
tourism in the destination and covers
how effective the national and local Social representation - refers to the way
tourism agencies are doing their jobs. people construct knowledge about tourism and
• Assistance - the level of support its impacts.
provided by government to tourist and to
the tourism industry. 4. Tourism Policy
• Serves as the tourism development
• Awareness - refers to the tourism framework. It defines a country's
promotional effort of the government prioritization of tourism in relation to
overall development strategy and
One assumption is that countries which score spells out the objectives of tourism
highly on the TTCI are also likely to attract development and the key strategies
more tourist and gain economic benefit. for attaining them.
• Provides focus and direction to
2. Strength of the economy and linkages tourism development
• The net economic impact of tourism • Could be considered as having the
depends on the proportion of income biggest influence on tourism
that is retained in the local economy. development
• This retained income is basically the • Thus, it is the starting point for the
difference between the tourism national tourism development plans
revenues and the amount of leakages. which define the following
• Leakage - happens when we import a. Location of priority tourism
products or pay for expatriate clusters
managerial expertise. b. Kinds of tourism products to
be developed
3. Stakeholder power and capacity c. Target markets
• One of the key issues in the tourism
development is the extent by which Specific roles of stakeholders, all of which have
the benefits and opportunities are implications on the kind, scale, and
shared by the stakeholders. Ideally, distribution of tourism impact.
there must be equity in the tourism
outcomes. In reality, the more
powerful Stakeholders are able to INVESTMENT INCENTIVE CRITERIA AND
rake in the benefit while the weaker WEIGHTS
ones get to bear the cost of such
development. Policy that is invented by Government to
• One explanation for this inequity is promote the establishment of new businesses
offered by Moscado (2011) through or to encourage existing businesses to expand
social representation theory. or not to relocate elsewhere.
 Chapter 2
Definition, Dimensions, and Determinations
Of Tourism Impacts

Here's an explanation of these criteria and ● Tourism Density - Tourism density

their potential weights. measures the concentration of tourists
within a specific area or region of a
● Environmental Impact (Weight: High) destination.
➢ This includes criteria related to ● Tourism Ratio - Tourism ratio
minimizing negative environmental compares the number of tourists to the
impacts, such as reducing carbon local population or resources of a
emissions, conserving natural resources, destination.
and protecting ecosystems.
➢ High-weighted incentives encourage ● Concentration or Dispersal of Tourist
projects that incorporate eco-friendly zones
technologies, conserve natural The concentration of tourist zones in
resources, and protect ecosystems. sustainable tourism development refers
to the intentional focus on specific areas
● Economic Benefits (Weight: High) or destinations to manage and
➢ Criteria related to job creation, local maximize the positive impacts of
economic development, and revenue tourism while minimizing negative
generation are often given significant consequences.
weight.
IMPACTS of concentration in sustainable
● Social and Cultural Preservation tourism:
(Weight: Medium to High)
➢ Criteria related to preserving local ● Resource Management
cultures, traditions, and community well- ➢ By concentrating tourists in specific
being are important. zones, it becomes more feasible to
manage and protect natural resources.
● Innovation and Technology (Weight: This allows for better conservation of
Medium) fragile ecosystems, such as coral reefs
➢ Criteria related to the adoption of or rainforests, as well as the
innovative technologies and practices preservation of cultural heritage sites.
that enhance sustainability, efficiency, ● Infrastructure Development
and the visitor experience. ➢ Concentrating tourism in certain areas
can justify investments in infrastructure
● Accessibility and Infrastructure and services. This includes better waste
(Weight: Medium) management, transportation, and
➢ Criteria related to improving accommodations, which can lead to
transportation and infrastructure, improved living conditions for both
making destinations more accessible, tourists and local residents.
and enhancing the visitor experience. ● Economic Benefits
➢ Tourism generates income and job
opportunities. Concentrating tourists in
specific zones can ensure that these
Tourism Volume, Density and Ratio economic benefits are more evenly
● Tourism Volume - refers to the total distributed, benefiting the local
number of tourists or visitors who travel population and supporting sustainable
to a destination within a given time economic development.
frame, typically measured annually.
 Chapter 2
Definition, Dimensions, and Determinations
Of Tourism Impacts

● Cultural Preservation ● Cultural Preservation

➢ In concentrated tourist zones, it's often - Dispersal can help protect and preserve
easier to implement measures to protect local cultures and traditions in multiple
and promote local cultures and regions. It can prevent the
traditions. This can help preserve homogenization of culture that can
cultural heritage and traditions, which occur in highly concentrated tourist
are often an important part of the tourist zones.
experience. ● Economic Benefits for Multiple
Regions
Negative impacts of concentration in - By encouraging tourism in different
sustainable tourism: areas, dispersal can distribute economic
benefits more evenly. This can lead to
● Over-Tourism - Overcrowding in improved livelihoods in various
concentrated tourist zones can lead to communities, reducing the risk of
overtourism, causing damage to the economic vulnerability to tourism
environment, strain on infrastructure, fluctuations.
and dissatisfaction among both tourists ● Infrastructure Development in
and locals. Underserved Areas
● Economic Vulnerability - Over- - Tourism dispersal can drive
reliance on tourism in concentrated infrastructure development in less-
areas can make local economies visited regions. This can lead to
vulnerable to fluctuations in tourist improved living conditions and services
numbers. Diversifying economic for local residents.
activities is crucial for resilience. ● Reduced Pressure on Infrastructure
● Cultural Dilution - Overexposure to - Concentrated tourist zones often face
tourism can sometimes lead to the strain on their infrastructure (e.g.,
dilution or commodification of local transportation, sanitation). Dispersal can
cultures. Balancing tourism's influence alleviate this pressure by redirecting
on culture is essential. tourists to less congested areas.

● Dispersal of Tourist zones - The However, dispersal also presents

dispersal of tourist zones in sustainable challenges:
tourism development refers to the
strategy of spreading tourist activities ● Balancing Development - Developing
across a wider range of destinations or infrastructure and services in multiple
areas instead of concentrating them in a areas can be costly and requires careful
few specific hotspots. planning to ensure that it is done
sustainably and respects local cultures
Here's how dispersal can impact and environments.
sustainable tourism: ● Market Development - Less-visited
regions may require marketing and
● Reduced Environmental Impact promotion efforts to attract tourists,
- Dispersing tourists can help reduce the which can be resource-intensive.
environmental impact on sensitive ● Visitor Experience - Dispersed tourism
ecosystems and natural resources. may not offer the same level of
Overcrowding and environmental convenience and amenities as
degradation in concentrated areas are concentrated tourist zones, which could
less likely to occur. affect the visitor experience.
 Chapter 2
Definition, Dimensions, and Determinations
Of Tourism Impacts

TOURIST MARKET SERVED We can surmise that Institutionalized Tourists

exert some cultural influence on the residents
The TOURIST MARKETS SERVED determine of a destination mainly through demonstration
the kind of impacts that are exerted on the host effect. Demonstration effect is how the behavior
destination as well as those experienced by the of people is influenced by observing and
tourists themselves. Cohen (1972) imitating the actions of tourists.
differentiated the "Institutionalized" from "non-
institutionalized " tourists. TECHNOLOGY

Tourism impacts, especially on the environment,

may be modified by technology, For example,
The first type is composed of organized mass noise and greenhouse emissions from aircraft,
tourists and individual mass tourists, and their which is the primary mode of long-haul travel,
tours are closely linked to the travel industry have been significantly reduced with the
made up of travel agencies, tour operators, deployment of the newest generation of aircraft .
hotels and so on. Water pollution may be abated by installing
wastewater treatment facility. Tourist resorts
may install solar panels to reduce their reliance
on commercial electricity. In that way , they also
This type of tourism encourages the do not have to compete with local residents for
standardization of tourism facilities and services the limited power supply.
and therefore, reduces the qualities of novelty
and uniqueness of the destination. In terms of TOURISM CARRYING CAPACITY
tourism 's impact on the individual, mass
tourists tend to be shielded from local The impact of tourism in a given environment
experiences because they remain largely within will defend on the volume of tourism compared
their " environmental bubble" , although the with the carrying capacity of the site. TOURISM
individual mass tourist may experience some CARRYING CAPACITY is defined as the " the
level of impact because his/her itinerary is not level of human activity an area can
as fixed as the organized mass tourists. The accommodate without the area deteriorating,
second type is composed of explorers and the resident community being adversely
drifters. affected, or the quality of visitors experience
declining" (Middleton and Hawkins
Explorers avoid the popular tourist attractions Chamberlain 1997). The World Tourism
but still prefer the comfortable accommodation organization defines carrying capacity as the "
and reliable modes of transformation. The the maximum number of people that may visit a
drifters seek the excitement of complete tourist destination at the same time, without
strangeness and direct contact with new and causing a destruction of the physical, economic,
different people. Thus the drifters tend to socio-cultural environment and an
experience the most profound personal impacts. unacceptable decrease in the quality of visitors'
satisfaction".