THE HUMAN BODY:

Introduction
• Define anatomy and physiology.
• Explain how anatomy and physiology are
related
• Derived from the Greek words meaning
to cut (tomy) apart (ana)
• Is the study of the structure and shape
of the body and its parts and their
relationships to one another.
• Gross anatomy or microscopic anatomy
• Is the study of how the body and its
parts work or function
• (physio = nature; ology = the study of)
6 Levels of Structural Organization that
make up the body
1. Chemical level
2. Cellular level
3. Tissue level
4. Organ level
5. Organ system level
6. Organismal level
1. Chemical level
• The simplest level
• Atoms (building blocks of matter)
combine to form molecules such as
water, sugar, and proteins.
2. Cellular level
• Cells are made up of molecules
3. Tissue level
• Tissues consist of groups of similar cells
that have a common function.
• Epithelial, connective, nervous, and
muscle tissues
4. Organ level
• An organ is a structure composed of
two or more tissue types that performs
a specific function for the body.
5. Organ system level
• Is a group of organs that work together
to accomplish a common purpose
Product A Product B
• Feature 1 • Feature 1
• Feature 2 • Feature 2
• Feature 3 • Feature 3
6. Organismal level
• The highest level of structural
organization
• Human organisms are made up of any
organ systems
Necessary Life Functions

1. Maintaining Boundaries
Ø Every living organism must be able to
maintain its boundaries so that its
“inside” remains distinct from its
“outside.”
2. Movement
Ø includes all the activities promoted by the
muscular system, such as walking,
swimming, etc.) and manipulating the
external environment with our fingers
Ø Movement also occurs when substances
such as blood, foodstuffs, and urine re
propelled through the internal organs of
the cardiovascular, digestive, and urinary
systems respectively.
3. Responsiveness
Ø Responsiveness, or irritability, is the
ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the
environment and then to react to them.
Ø The nervous system bears the major
responsibility for responsiveness.
4. Digestion
Ø Is the process of breaking down ingested
food into simple molecules that can be
absorbed into the blood.
Ø The nutrient-rich blood is then distributed
to all body cells by the cardiovascular
system, where body cells use these simple
molecules for energy and raw materials.
5. Metabolism
Ø Refers to all chemical reactions that occur
within the body and all of its cells.
Ø It includes breaking down complex
substances into simpler building blocks,
and using nutrients and oxygen to
produce molecules of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), the energy-rich
molecules that power cellular activities.
6. Excretion
Ø Is the process of removing excreta, or
wastes, from the body.
Ø Several organ systems participate in
excretion.
7. Reproduction
Ø The production of offspring, can occur on the
cellular or organismal level.
Ø In cellular reproduction, the original cell
divides, producing two identical daughter cells
that may then be used for body growth or
repair.
Ø In humans, when a sperm unites with an egg,
a fertilized egg forms, which then develops
into a baby within the mother’s body.
8. Growth
Ø Growth can be an increase in cell size
or an increase in body size that is
usually accomplished by an increase n
the number of cells.
Ø Hormones released by the endocrine
system play a major role in directing
growth.
The goal of nearly all body systems is to
maintain life. However, life is
extraordinarily fragile and requires that
several factors be available. These factors,
which we call survival needs, include
nutrients (food), oxygen, water, and
appropriate temperature and
atmospheric pressure.
1. Nutrients
• Contain the chemicals used for energy and
cell building.
• Carbohydrates are the major energy-providing
fuel for body cells.
• Proteins and fats are essential for building cell
structures.
• Minerals and vitamins are required for the
chemical reactions that go on in cells and for
oxygen transport in the blood.
2. Oxygen
• All the nutrients in the world are useless
unless oxygen is also available.
• Human cells can survive for only a few
minutes without it.
• It is made available to the blood and body
cells by the cooperative efforts of the
respiratory and cardiovascular systems.
3. Water
• Water accounts for 60 to 80 percent of
body weight, depending on the age of
the individual.
• We obtain water chiefly from ingested
foods or liquids, and we lose it by
evaporation from the lungs and skin
and in body excretions.
4. Body temperature
• If body temperature drops below 37
degrees Celsius, metabolic reactions
become slower and slower and finally stop.
• If body temperature is too high, chemical
reactions proceed too rapidly, and body
proteins begin to break down.
• At either extreme, death occurs.
5. Atmospheric pressure
• The force exerted on the surface of the
body by the weight of air is referred to
as atmospheric pressure.
• At high altitudes, where the air is thin
and atmospheric pressure is lower, gas
exchange may be too slow to support
cellular metabolism.
Anatomical Position
• To avoid confusion, we always
assume that the body is in a standard
position called anatomical position.
• In the anatomical position, the body
is erect with the feet parallel and the
arms hanging at the sides with the
palms facing forward.
Directional Terms
• Superior (above)
• Inferior (below)
• Anterior (front)
• Posterior (back)
• Medial (close to midline)
• Lateral (away from midline)
• Proximal (close to point of attachment)
• Distal (far from point of attachment)
• Superficial (close to surface)
• Deep (toward interior of body)
Regional Terms
Anterior Body Landmarks
• Abdominal: anterior body trunk inferior to ribs
• Acromial: point of shoulder
• Antebrachial: forearm
• Antecubital: anterior surface of elbow
• Axillary: armpit
• Brachial: arm
• Buccal: cheek area
• Carpal: wrist
• Cervical: neck region
• Coxal: hip
• Crural: anterior leg; the shin
• Deltoid: curve of shoulder formed by large
deltoid muscle
• Digital: fingers, toes
• Femoral: thigh
• Fibular: lateral part of leg
• Frontal: forehead
• Inguinal: area where thigh meets
• Mental: chin
• Nasal: nose area
• Oral: mouth
• Orbital: eye area
• Patellar: anterior knee
• Pectoral: relating to, or occurring in or on, the chest
• Pelvic: area overlying the pelvis anteriorly
• Pubic: genital region
• Sternal: breastbone area
• Tarsal: ankle region
• Thoracic: area between the neck and abdomen, supported by
the ribs, sternum, and costal cartilages; chest
• Umbilical: navel
Posterior Body Landmarks
• Calcaneal: heel of foot
• Cephalic: head
• Femoral: thigh
• Gluteal: buttock
• Lumbar: area of back between ribs and hips; the
loin
• Occipital: posterior surface of head or base of skull
• Olecranal: posterior surface of elbow
• Popliteal: posterior knee area
• Sacral: area between hips at base of spine
• Scapular: shoulder blade region
• Sural: the posterior surface of leg; the calf
• Vertebral: area of spinal column
When preparing to look at the internal
structures of the body, medical students
make a section, or cut. When the section
is made through the body wall or through
an organ, it is made along an imaginary
line called a plane.
Sagittal Section
• Is a cut along the lengthwise, or
longitudinal, plane of the body, dividing
the body into right and left parts.
Midsagittal Section
• If the cut is down the median plane of
the body and the right and left parts
are equal in size, it is called a median
(midsagittal) section.
Frontal Section
• Is a cut along a lengthwise plane that
divides the body (or an organ) into
anterior and posterior parts.
• It is also called a coronal (crown)
section.
Transverse Section
• Is a cut along a horizontal plane,
dividing the body or organ into superior
and inferior parts.
• It is also called a cross section.
2 Sets of Internal Body Cavities
1. Dorsal Body Cavity
• 2 Subdivisions
a. Cranial Cavity (space inside the
bony skull)
b. Spinal Cavity (extends from the
cranial cavity to the end of the
spinal cord
 Cranial Cavity

Dorsal
Body Superior Mediastinum
Cavity Pleural Cavity

Vertebral Cavity Pericardial Cavity Ventral

Abdominal
Pelvic Cavity Pelvic Cavity
2. Ventral Body Cavity
• Much larger than the dorsal body cavity
• Contains all the structures within the chest and
abdomen, that is, the visceral organs to those
regions.
• Subdivided:
- thoracic cavity (lungs, heart, etc.)
- abdominal cavity (stomach, liver,
intestines)
- pelvic cavity (reproductive organs, bladder,
and rectum)
Other Body Cavities (smaller)
1. Oral Cavity and Digestive Cavity
2. Nasal Cavity
3. Orbital Cavities
4. Middle Ear Cavities
• Describes the body’s ability to maintain
relatively stable internal conditions
even though the outside world is
continuously changing.
• It indicates a dynamic state of
equilibrium, or a balance in which
internal conditions change and vary but
always within relatively narrow limits.
3 Components:
1. Receptor
• Is a type of sensor that monitors and
responds to changes in the environment.
• It responds to such changes, called stimuli, by
sending information (input) to the second
component, the control center.
• Information flows from the receptor to the
control center along the afferent pathway.
2. Control Center
• Determines the level (set point) at
which a variable is to be maintained.
• This component analyzes the
information it receives and then
determines the appropriate response
or course of action.
3. Effector
• Provides the means for the control center’s
response (output) to the stimulus.
• Information flows from the control center to
the effector along the efferent pathway.
• The results of the response then feedback to
influence the stimulus, either by reducing the
amount of change (negative feedback), so
that the whole control mechanism is shut off;
or by increasing the amount of change
(positive feedback), so that the reaction
continues at an even faster rate.
Thank you!