Fluid Mechanics

CHAPTER 1
FLUID AND ITS PROPERTIES

1.1 Basic concept and definition of fluid

1.1.1 Basics

States of matter
 Solid
 Liquid
 Gas

Fluid

The basic definition of fluid is that it is a substance which is capable of flowing. Liquids and gases come
under the category of fluid.

Formal definition of fluid

A Fluid is a substance which deforms continuously or flows under the application of shearing forces,
however small they may be.

Mechanics

Mechanics is the study of force and motion.

Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics is the science which deals with the behaviour of fluids at rest and in motion.

Hydraulics

Hydraulics is the science which deals with the behaviour of water at rest and in motion.

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Branches of Fluid Mechanics

I. Fluid Statics: Fluid statics is the study of fluids at rest.

II. Fluid Dynamics: Fluid dynamics is the study of fluids in motion. It is classified into two branches.
a) Fluid Kinematics: Fluid Kinematics is the study of fluid motion without considering the causes
of motion (forces).
b) Fluid Kinetics: Fluid Kinetics is the study of fluid motion by considering the causes of motion
(forces).

Application of Fluid Mechanics in Civil Engineering

 Water distribution and sanitation
 Dams
 Irrigation
 Pumps and Turbines
 Water retaining structures
 Flood flow analysis
 Flow of air in and around buildings
 Bridge piers in rivers
 Ground-water flow
 Force calculation, developed in pipe due to flowing fluid

1.2 Shear stress in a moving fluid

Stress
A stress is a force per unit area over which it acts. Stresses have both magnitude and direction, and the
direction is relative to the surface on which the stress acts. There are two types of stresses:
I. Normal stress: The stress which acts perpendicular to the surface is normal stress.
II. Tangential stress: The stress which acts along the surface is tangential stress. Shear stress is tangential
stress.
Normal stress

Shear stress

For a fluid at rest, there are no shearing forces acting on it, and any force must be acting perpendicular
to the fluid. In other words, as the velocity gradient dy/dx is zero is a fluid at rest, no tangential or
shearing force exist.

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Strain

Strain is the measurement of deformation. In case of fluid, the deformation caused by shear stress is
measured in terms of angle, which is known as shear strain.

Difference between solids and fluids

 Fluids, lack of ability to resist deformation.
 For a solid, strain is a function of applied stress, provided the elastic limit is not exceeded. For a
fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to applied stress.
 In a fluid shear strain increases for as long as shear stress is applied. This means the fluid flows
as long as the forces acts and will not recover its original position when the force is removed. In
a solid shear strain is constant for a fixed shear stress, and if the elastic limit is not exceeded, the
deformation disappears when the force is removed.

Body force and surface force

Body force: Body force is the force which acts throughout the volume of body. e.g. gravity (weight),
magnetic force, centrifugal force
Surface force: Surface force is the force which acts on the surface of the body. e.g. Pressure, shear force

Liquid and Gas

Liquid: incompressible, fixed volume, forms free surface

Gas: compressible, no fixed volume, expand continuously until restrained by a containing vessel, no free
surface, fill the vessel in which it is placed.

1.3 Concept of Control volume and continuum in fluid mechanics

Concept of Control volume

System: A system is that region of space occupied by the quantity of fluid under consideration. The fluid
contained within the system is separated from the surroundings by a boundary. The system may contain
either a constant or a variable mass. Its boundaries may be fixed or deformable.

Control volume: A control volume is a fixed region in space through which fluid flows. The region is
usually at a fixed location and fixed size. The boundary of the system is its control surface and its shape
does not change with time. The element within the control volume obeys the physical laws. This
approach makes mathematical analysis simpler. The fluid may enter and leave control volume by
crossing the boundary surface (control surface) enabling transfer of mass, momentum and energy.

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As the fluid flows continuously, only a part of it is considered for analysis. The control volume is chosen
arbitrarily for reasons of convenience of analysis.

Differential and integral approach

 Differential approach: If the control volume is of infinitesimal size, differential equations are
used. This approach gives value of variable at a point.
 Integral approach: If the control volume is of finite size, integral equations are used. This
approach gives global or overall values.
Continuum concept in Fluid Mechanics

In Fluid Mechanics, a fluid is considered as a continuous substance. This concept is called continuum
concept. In this concept, molecular structure of the fluid is not considered and the separation between
molecules is neglected. The fluid properties such as velocity and pressure are a continuous function of
space and time. The fluid properties can be considered to be constant at any point in space, which is
average of large number of molecules surrounding that point within a characteristic distance. Using
continuum concept, the mathematical equations relating the physical laws can be derived easily as we
don’t need to consider the motion of individual molecule. From the continuum view point, the overall
properties and the behavior of fluids can be studied without regard for its atomic and molecular
structure.

Velocity profile

No slip condition: The velocity of fluid particle immediately in contact with the boundary is same as that
of the boundary. This is called no-slip condition.
Fixed

Fixed Fixed

Diagram for velocity profile

Velocity of the fluid at the fixed boundary is zero and increases away from the boundary until it reaches
a maximum value. If the particles of the fluid move relative to each other with different velocities, shear
stress is developed. If the velocity is same, no shear stress is produced.

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Basic laws used in Fluid Mechanics

Newton’s laws of motion

I. A body will remain at rest or in a state of uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an
external force.
II. The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the force applied and takes place in the
direction of action of that force. (Force = mass x acceleration)
III. Action and reaction are equal and opposite.
Conservation of mass: Mass remains constant.
Conservation of momentum (Newton’s second law of motion): Force = rate of change of momentum or
F=ma
Conservation of energy: Energy remains constant.

1.4 Fluid properties

1.4.1 Density (Mass Density)

The density of a fluid is defined as its mass per unit volume.

𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
Where 𝜌 = density, m = mass, V = Volume
Unit: kg/m3
Dimension: ML-3

𝜌 decreases with increase of temperature and increases with increase of pressure. As the temperature
increases, molecular activity increases and spacing between molecules increases, thus increasing volume
and reducing density. If pressure is increased, large number of can be forced into a given volume, thus
reducing volume and increasing density.

1.4.2 Specific weight

The specific weight of a fluid is defined as its weight per unit volume.
𝑊 𝑚𝑔
𝛾= = = 𝜌𝑔
𝑉 𝑉
Where 𝛾 = specific weight, W = weight, V = Volume, m = mass, 𝜌 = density and g= acceleration due to
gravity
𝛾 varies from point to point according to the value of g.
Unit: N/m3
Dimension: ML-2T-2

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1.4.3 Specific gravity (or relative density)

Specific gravity (or relative density) is the ratio of specific weight (or density) of a fluid to that of water at
40C.
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑆𝑝 𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑆= 𝑜𝑟
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑝 𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Unit: As it is ratio, it does not have unit.

1.4.4 Specific volume

The specific volume of a fluid is defined as its volume per unit mass.
𝑉 1
𝑣𝑠 = =
𝑚 𝜌
Where vs = specific volume, V= Volume, m = mass and 𝜌 = density
Unit: m3/kg
Dimension: M-1L3

Variation of temperature and pressure has little effect on density, specific weight and specific volume of
liquids as the molecules of liquids are packed together, whereas the impact on these properties in case
of gases is significant.

1.4.5 Compressibility and Bulk modulus

Compressibility is defined as property of changing the volume of fluid under the action of external force.
When temperature changes are involved, the compressibility of a fluid becomes important. It is
expressed by Bulk modulus of elasticity

If pressure increases from P to P+dP, then the volume V of a given mass will be reduced to V-dV.

𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

OR

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑃
𝐾 = −𝑑𝑉/𝑉 (a)
Where K= Bulk modulus of elasticity, dv/v = Volumetric strain
-ve sign means decrease in volume with pressure.

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Unit of K: N/m2 (Pa)
Dimension: ML-1T-2

Compressibility is the inverse (reciprocal) of the Bulk modulus of elasticity.

1 𝑀
Considering unit mass of substance, 𝑉= (𝑉 = ,𝑀 = 1)
𝜌 𝜌
𝜌𝑉 = 1
Differentiating
𝜌𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝜌 = 0
𝑑𝑉 = −(𝑉/𝜌)𝑑𝜌 (b)

From a and b,
−𝑑𝑉/𝑉 = (1/𝜌)𝑑𝜌
𝑑𝑃
𝐾
= (1/𝜌)𝑑𝜌
𝑑𝑃
𝐾=𝜌
𝑑𝜌
This shows that the value of K depends on the relationship between the pressure and density. Since
density is also affected by temperature, it will depend on how the temperature changes during
compression. K increases with increase in pressure and decreases with increase in temperature in case
of liquids. This relationship is opposite in case of gases.

1.4.6 Capillarity

Capillarity is the rise or fall of liquid in a column of very small diameter when the latter is dipped in it. It
is cause by surface tension as well as adhesion (attraction between molecules of different substances)
and cohesion (attraction between molecules of same liquid).

If adhesion is greater than cohesion, the liquid wets the solid and the liquid will rise. If cohesion is
greater than adhesion, the liquid does not wet the solid and the liquid will fall. The contact angle is less
than 900 for capillary rise and greater than 900 for fall.

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 σ
Fall
Rise
θ H
H

Let θ is the angle of contact between liquid and solid, d is the diameter of the tube, σ is the surface
tension and H is capillary rise. As the liquid is at rest, there is no shear stress and therefore no vertical
shear forces acting. Weight of the fluid and the vertical component of the surface tension are the only
forces acting.

Upward pull due to surface tension force = component of surface tension acting upward x perimeter of
the tube = 𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑥𝜋𝑑
𝜋𝑑 2
Weight of column raised = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑔 = 𝜌𝑥𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑥𝑔 = 𝜌𝑔 𝐻
4
Equating these two equations,
𝜋𝑑2
𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑥𝜋𝑑 = 𝜌𝑔 𝐻
4
4𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐻=
𝜌𝑔𝑑

1.4.7 Surface tension

Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas or on
the surface between two immiscible liquid such that the contact surface behaves like a membrane
under tension. The force is normal to imaginary line in the surface, tangent to the free surface and is
same at all points. Surface tension is constant at any given temperature for the surface of the separation
of two particular substances but it decreases with increase in temperature because attractive force
becomes apparent as the average kinetic energy of molecules increases.

Intermolecular attraction is the cause of surface tension. A molecule within the body of a liquid is
equally attracted in all directions by the other molecules surrounding it. At the interface between two
fluids, the upward and downward attractions are unbalanced, and the surface molecules are pulled
inward making the surface like an elastic membrane. The effect of surface tension is to reduce the
surface of a free body of a liquid to a minimum (formation of spherical drop).

Symbol: 𝜎
Unit: N/m
Dimension: MT-2

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Pressure intensity inside a droplet

σ
Consider a small spherical droplet of radius r. Let P be the internal pressure and 𝜎 be the surface
tension. Consider the half part of the droplet.

Force due to internal pressure = 𝑃𝑥𝜋𝑟 2

Force due to surface tension around perimeter = 𝜎𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜎𝑥2𝜋𝑟
For equilibrium, these two forces are equal.
𝑃𝑥𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜎𝑥2𝜋𝑟
2𝜎
𝑃=
𝑟
4𝜎
In case of soap bubble, 𝑃 = 𝑟 (contribution of inside and outside interface)

1.4.8 Vapor pressure and cavitations

All liquids posses a tendency to vaporize, that is to change from the liquid to the gaseous phase. Liquid
evaporate because of molecules with sufficient kinetic energy escaping from the free liquid surface. The
vapor molecules exert a partial pressure in the space, which is called vapor pressure. Vapor pressure
depends on temperature and increases with it. In equilibrium, the number of molecules striking the
surface and condensing is equal to the number of escaping molecules. When the pressure above a liquid
surface equals or less than the vapor pressure of the liquid, boiling occurs.

Consider a liquid which is confined in a closed vessel. Let the temperature of liquid is 20ºC and pressure
is atmospheric. This liquid (water) will vaporize at 100 ºC. When vaporization takes place, the molecules
escape from the free surface of the liquid. These vapour molecules get accumulated in the space
between the free liquid surface and top of the vessel. These accumulated vapours exert a pressure on
the liquid surface. This pressure is known as vapour pressure.

Again consider the same liquid at 20 ºC at atmospheric pressure in the closed vessel. If the pressure
above the liquid surface is reduced by some means, the boiling temperature will also reduce. If the
pressure is reduced to such an extent that it becomes equal to or less than the vapour pressure, the
boiling of the liquid will start, through the temperature of the liquid is 20 ºC. Thus a liquid may boil even
at ordinary temperature, if the pressure above the liquid surface is reduced so as to be equal or less
than the vapour pressure of the liquid at that temperature.

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When flow of liquid passes through a region having pressure less than vapor pressure, there will be local
boiling and a cloud of vapor bubbles will form. This phenomenon is known as cavitation. The bubbles of
low pressure zone move towards the high pressure zone and collapse under that pressure. If this occurs
in contact with a solid surface, serious damage can result. Cavitation can affect the performance of
hydraulic machinery such as propellers, turbines and pumps and the impact of collapsing bubbles can
cause local erosion of metal surface.

1.4.9 Viscosity

Viscosity is the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over
another adjacent layer of the fluid.

Causes of viscosity in gases and liquid

The molecules of gas are not rigidly constrained and cohesive forces are small, the molecular mass
interchange (momentum) is the cause of viscosity in a gas. As cohesive forces are significant in a liquid,
both mass interchange and cohesion contribute to the viscosity of the liquid.

Viscosity is practically independent upon pressure and depends on temperature only. If the temperature
increases, the molecular interchange will increase. Therefore, the viscosity of a gas will increase with
increase in temperature. Cohesion is the predominant cause of viscosity in liquid and since cohesion
decreases with temperature, the viscosity of a liquid decreases with increase in temperature.

1.5 Newton’s law of viscosity

Newton’s law of viscosity states that the shear stress is proportional to the rate of deformation or
velocity gradient.
𝑑𝑢
𝜏∝
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
Where 𝜏 = shear stress, du/dy = velocity gradient and the constant of proportionality (𝜇) = coefficient of
viscosity. The constant is also called dynamic viscosity or absolute viscosity.
Unit of 𝜇: Ns/m2 or Kg/ms or Pa S (in SI)
Poise or dyn S/ cm2 (in CGS)
1 NS/m2 = 10 Poise
Dimension: ML-1T-1

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Derivation
dx

A A’ D D’
τ

dφ
dy

τ
B C

Let us consider a fluid confined between two plates, where the bottom plate is stationary and the upper
plate is moving. Let ABCD is the fluid at any time t. Due to the application of shear force τ, the fluid
deforms to A’BCD’ at time t+dt. Let dy = distance between two layers, AA’ = dx and shear strain = dφ.

For small angle, dx = dφ. dy

Also dx = du. dt

Equating
𝑑𝜙. 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑢. 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑦 (a)
Shear stress is proportional to rate of shear strain.
𝑑𝜙
𝜏∝ 𝑑𝑡
(b)
From a and b
𝑑𝑢
𝜏∝
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦

Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density.

𝜇
𝜈=
𝜌
Where ν = Kinematic viscosity and ρ = density.
Unit of ν : m2/s (SI)
Stokes or cm2/s (CGS)
1 m2/s = 104 Stokes
Dimension: L2T-1

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1.6 Variation of viscosity with temperature for fluid

Liquids
1
𝜇 = 𝜇0 (1+𝛼𝑡+𝛽𝑡 2 ) where 𝜇 = viscosity of liquid at t0C in poise, 𝜇0 = viscosity of liquid at 00C in poise
α, β = constants
For gas
𝜇 = 𝜇0 + 𝛼𝑡 − 𝛽𝑡 2 where 𝜇 = viscosity of gas at t0C in poise, 𝜇0 = viscosity of gas at 00C in poise
α, β = constants

1.7 Methods for finding viscosity of fluids

a. Capillary tube

The volume of fluid (Vol) passing through a horizontal capillary tube of radius r under a constant
pressure difference of ∆𝑃 in time t sec is measured for finding viscosity.
𝜋𝑟 4 ∆𝑃 𝑡
𝑉𝑜𝑙 = where 𝜇 = viscosity, l = length of tube
8𝑙𝜇

b. Sphere resistance

The resistance offered by a fluid when a sphere falls into it is the measure of viscosity.

Viscous force F on a sphere of radius r moving with velocity v into a fluid of viscosity 𝜇 is (Stoke’s law)
𝐹 = 6𝜋𝜇𝑟𝑣
4
Pull of gravity on sphere = Weight of sphere-Weight of sphere displaced = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝑔(𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)
3
Where 𝜌𝑠 = density of sphere and 𝜌 = density of fluid.
Equating
4
6𝜋𝜇𝑟𝑣 = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝑔(𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)
3
2𝑟 2
𝑣= 𝑔(𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)
9𝜇
Viscosity is determined by measuring the time taken by the sphere to fall a known height through the
fluid.

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c. Rotating cylinder

A cylinder of radius r1 is rotated coaxially inside a fixed cylinder of radius r2 both cylinders having a
length of l. The annular space between the two cylinders is filled with a liquid of viscosity 𝜇. A torque T is
required to maintain an angular velocity 𝜔 of the inner cylinder. The torque is transmitted from the
inner to the outer cylinder through the liquid which consists of layers.

For small space between cylinders, the velocity gradient may be assumed to be a straight line and
average radius r= (r1+r2)/2 can be taken.
Frictional force (F) = Shear stress(τ) x surface area (A)
𝑑𝑢
𝑇 = 𝐹 𝑟 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦 (2𝜋𝑟𝐿)𝑟
2𝑁𝜋
Here, Angular velocity (𝜔) = and Tangential velocity of inner cylinder (u) = 𝑟2 𝜔 =du
60
dy = dr = r2-r1
r1

r2
d. Viscometer

Viscometer usually measures time (t) taken to pass a certain volume of fluid through an opening fitted
at its bottom. Viscosity is then expressed as a function of t.

1.8 Classification of fluids

a. Ideal and Real fluids

The fluid which is incompressible and has no viscosity is called ideal fluid (non-viscous or inviscid). It is an
imaginary fluid. The fluid which has viscosity is called real fluid (viscous). All the fluids that exist in nature
are real fluids.

b. Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids

Fluids which obey Newton’s law of viscosity are called Newtonian fluids. E.g. water, light oil, air, milk,
glycerin, kerosene. For Newtonian fluids, viscosity is constant i.e. viscosity depends on temperature
only.
Fluids which do not obey Newton’s law of viscosity are called Non-Newtonian fluids. E.g. paint, sewage
sludge, crude oil. Viscosity is not constant for Non-Newtonian fluids i.e. viscosity depends on
temperature, rate of strain and time.

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b. Compressible and incompressible fluid

Fluids whose density changes due to change in pressure are called compressible fluids, e.g. air.
Fluids whose density remains constant are called incompressible fluids, e.g. water.

Shear stress-rate of strain (velocity gradient) diagram

τ
Plastic Bingahm Plastic
IIIIIIIII(II((((
Shearing Stress (τ) Newtonian
Pseudo-
Plastic

Dilatant

Yield stress

Ideal fluid Rate of strain or

𝑑𝑣
velocity gradient ( )
𝑑𝑦

 Plastic fluid: After shear stress reaches a certain minimum value (yield stress), the flow
commences and thereafter shear stress is non-linear with rate of strain, e.g. tooth paste, hand
cream, grease.
 Bingahm plastic (Ideal plastic): After yield stress is reached, the flow commences and thereafter
shear stress is linear with rate of strain, e.g. sewage sludge, drilling mud
 Pseudo-plastic: Viscosity decreases with rate of strain, e.g. paint, shampoo, slurries, ketch up
 Dilatant: Viscosity increases with rate of strain, e.g. printing ink

Time dependent non-Newtonian fluid

 Thixotropic substances: Viscosity decreases with time, e.g. paints, enamels, yoghurt, crude oil.
 Rheopectic substances: Viscosity increases with time, e.g. gypsum suspension

The behavior of Newtonian fluid is studied In Fluid Mechanics. The study of non-Newtonian fluid is
called Rheology.

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Some properties of water

At 40c (at which maximum density occurs) and standard pressure (760mmHg), Density of water = 1000
kg/m3 and specific weight = 9810N/m3

Properties of water at 200C and atmospheric pressure

Density of water = 998 kg/m3
Dynamic viscosity = 1.005x10-3 NS/m2
Kinematic viscosity = 1.007x10-6 m2/s
Surface tension = 0.074 N/m
Bulk modulus = 2.2 Gpa
Vapor pressure = 2.45 Kpa

Properties of air at 200C and atmospheric pressure

Density of air = 1.2 kg/m3
Dynamic viscosity = 14.94x10-3 NS/m2
Kinematic viscosity = 9.83x10-6 m2/s

Anomalous property of water

When cooled, the molecules of water contract up to 40C. The coefficient of thermal expansion of water
becomes zero at 40C, thus making volume minimum and density maximum. From 40C to 00C, expansion
occurs, thus reducing density. So density of ice is less than water.

Most Probable Question

1. What is continuum concept in fluid? Explain the cavitations phenomena. (2070, Ashad)
2. Define Kinematic and dynamic viscosity? A small thin plane surface is pulled through the
liquid filled space between two large horizontal planes in the parallel direction. Show
that the force required will be minimum if the plate is located midway between the
planes. (2068, Chaitra)
𝑑𝑃
3. State and prove Newton's law of viscosity. Prove that K=𝜌 𝑑𝜌 , where K is bulk modulus
of elasticity, P is pressure and 𝜌 is density. (2068, Shrawan)
4. Describe the concept of shear development in a moving fluid. (2067, Ashadh)
5. Define the following fluid properties with associated equations and figures. (2065,
Shrawn)
i) Capillary and surface tension
ii) Viscosity
iii) Specific weight

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6. Define fluid and fluid mechanics. What are the applications of fluid mechanics in civil
engineering?
7. Write down the branches/classification of fluid mechanics.
8. Explain shear stress in moving fluids. Write down difference between solids and fluids.
9. Clearly explain the velocity profile with neat figure.

References

1 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics - PN Modi and SM Seth

2 Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Power Engineering - DS Kumar
3 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics - DP Sangroula
4 A text book of Fluid Mechanics - RK Bansal
5 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics- Dr. Jagdish Lal
Hydraulic Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Mechanics-
6 S. Ramamrutham
7 A text book of Fluid Mechanics- Er. R.K. Rajput
8 Fluid Mechanics- Dr. A. K. Jain

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