CHAPTER-V

Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

5.1 Current (I) and Current Density (J)

Electric charges in motion constitute a current. The unit of current is the ampere (A), defined
as a rate of movement of charge passing a given reference point of one coulomb per second.
Current is symbolized by I and therefore

∆Q dQ at time ∆t charge moves ∆Q

I= = [ ∆Q ]
∆t ∆→ 0 dt at unit time charge moves
∆t
dQ
I=
dt

Thus in a current of one ampere, charge is being transferred at a rate of one coulomb per
second.

Now the concept of current density 𝐉, if current ∆I flows through a surface ∆S then the current
density is

∆I surface ∆S current crosses ∆I

Jn = [ ∆I ]
∆S current moves through unit surface
∆S
Or,
∆I = Jn ∆S
Assuming that the current density J is perpendicular to the surface. If the current density is
not normal to the surface,
∆I = 𝐉. ∆𝐒
Thus, the total current flowing through a surface S is
dI = 𝐉. d𝐒

I = ∫ 𝐉 ∙ d𝐒
S

The current density at a given point is the current through a unit normal area at that point.
Current density measured in amperes per square meter (A/m2 ).

5.2 Charge in motion constitutes a current

 Figure: 5.1 A current filament having charge density ρv moves a velocity of u along y
direction.
Consider a current filament as shown in figure 5.1. If there is a flow of charge of having
density ρv , at a velocity 𝐔 = U𝐚𝐲, then the current through the filament is
∆Q
∆I =
∆t
[𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 ∆𝐐 = 𝛒𝐯 ∆𝐒 ∆𝐋 ]
∆L
∆I = ρv ∆S
∆t
∆I = ρv ∆S 𝑈y

The y-directed current density Jy is given by

∆I
Jy =
∆S
Jy = ρv 𝑈y

Hence, in general
𝐉 = ρv 𝑼
This result shows very clearly that charge in motion constitutes a current.
The current I is the convection current and J is the convection current density in A/m2
Conduction current requires a conductor. A conductor is characterized by a large amount of
free electrons that provide conduction current due to an impressed electric field E. When an
electric field E is applied, the force on an electron with charge –e is
𝐅 = −e𝐄 (𝐅 = Q𝐄)
Since the electron is not in free space, it will not the accelerated under the influence of E.
rather it suffers constant collision with the atomic lattice and drifts from one atom to another
atom. If the electron with mass m is moving in an electric field E with an average drift
velocity v, according to the Newton’s law, the average change in momentum of the free
electron must match the applied force. Thus,
m𝒗
= 𝐅 = −e𝐄
τ
or
−eτ
𝒗= 𝐄
m

Where τ is the average time interval between collisions. This indicates that drift velocity of
the electron is directly proportional to the electric field. If there are n electrons per unit
volume, the electronic charge density is given by
ρv = (−e)(n) = −ne
Thus the conduction current density is
−eτ ne2 τ
𝐉 = ρv 𝑼 = (−ne) ( 𝐄) = σ𝐄 [σ = is the conductivity of the conductor. ]
m m
The values of σ shown in Appendix. The relation 𝐉 = σ𝐄 is known as the point form of
Ohm’s law.

5.3 Conductors
A conductor has abundance of charge that is free to move. Consider an isolated conductor,
such as shown in Fig. 5.2(a). When an external field Ee is applied, the positive free charges
are pushed along the same direction as the applied E, when the negative free charges move in
the opposite direction. This charge migration takes place very quickly. The free charges do
two things. (1) They accumulate on the surface of the conductor and form an induced
surface charge, and (2) The induced charges set up an internal induced field Ei, which
cancels the externally applied field Ee. The result is illustrated in Fig. 5.2(b). This leads to an
important property of a conductor:
A perfect conductor cannot contain electrostatic field within it.
A conductor is called an equipotential body, implying that the potential is the same
everywhere in the conductor. This is base on the fact that 𝐄 = −∇V = 0 (potential difference
=0)
Another way of looking at this is to consider Ohm’s law, 𝐉 = σ𝐄. To maintain a finite current
density J, in a perfect conductor (σ →∝) requires that the electric field inside the conductor
must vanish. In other words, 𝐄 → 0 because σ →∝ in a perfect conductor. If some charges are
introduced in the interior of such a conductor, the charges will move to the surface and
redistribute themselves quickly in such a manner that the field inside the conductor vanishes.
According to the Gauss’s law, if 𝐄 = 0, the charge density ρv must be zero. Again, we
conclude that a perfect conductor cannot contain an electrostatic field within it. Under static
conditions, 𝐄 = 0, ρv = 0, and Vab = 0 inside the conductor

Fig. 5.2(a) An isolated conductor under the influence of an applied E;

(b) A conductor has zero electric field under static conditions.

5.3.1 Resistance of a Conductor in uniform electric field E

Now we consider a conductor whose ends are maintain at a potential difference V as shown
in Fig.5.3. Note that in this case, E≠ 0 inside the conductor, as shown in Fig. 5.2. There is no
static equilibrium in Fig.5.3 since the conductor is not isolated but wired to a source of emf,
which compels the free charges to move and prevent the eventual establishment of
electrostatic equilibrium. Thus in case of Fig. 5.3 and electric field E must exist inside the
conductor to sustain the flow of current. As the electron moves, they counter some damping
forces called resistance. Based on Ohm’s law, we will derive the resistance of the conducting
material. Suppose the conductor has a uniform cross section S and is of length l. the direction
of the electric field E produced the same as the direction of the flow of positive charge or
current I. The direction is opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.
The relationship between 𝐉 and 𝐄 for a metallic conductor is specified by the
conductivity σ (Sigma),
𝐉 = σ𝐄
Where σ is measured in mhos per meter (℧/m). The equation describes current (A/m2) and
voltage (V/m) relation.

Figure: 5.3 J and E in cylindrical metallic region.

I = ∫ 𝐉 ∙ d𝐒
S

Since the conductor has an uniform cross section,

I I
I = J S =≫ J = S =≫ σE = S [ Since they are uniform]

And
a
Vab = − ∫ 𝐄 ∙ d𝐋
b
a
Vab = −𝐄. ∫ d𝐋 [uniform]
b

Vab = −𝐄 ∙ 𝐋ba
Vab = 𝐄 ∙ 𝐋ab
Fig. 5.3 gives
V V
V=EL =≫ E = =≫ σ E = σ (both side multiplied by σ)
L L
I V I
=σ [putting σE = ]
S L S
Hence
L
V= I
σS
The ratio of the potential difference between the two ends of the cylinder to the current
entering the more positive end, however, is recognized from elementary circuit theory as the
resistance of the conductor and according to Ohm’s law,
L L
V=IR =≫ I R = I [putting the value V = I]
σS σS
Where,
L
R=
σS

It is the resistance of any conductor of uniform cross section.

However, the basic definition of resistance R as the ration of the potential difference V
between the two ends of the conductor to the current I through the conductor still apply. The
general expression for resistance of a conductor of non-uniform cross section,
a
Vab − ∫b 𝐄 ∙ d𝐋
R= =
I ∫S σ𝐄 ∙ d𝐒

5.3.2 Power dissipation

The presence of an electric field in a medium having nonzero conductivity causes the
movement of free charge in that region, giving rise to a current density
𝐉 = ρv 𝑼
Where ρv is the charges of one type (electrons, ions, etc.) per unit volume and 𝒗 is the of the
charges. The movement of the charge Q over a distance ∆L requires and expenditure of
energy by electric field of

∆W = Q𝐄. ∆𝐋 [W = 𝑄 ∫ 𝐄. d𝐋 =≫ ∆W = Q𝐄. ∆𝐋]

The power required is

∆W ∆𝐋
p= = Q𝐄. = Q𝐄. 𝑼
lim → 0 ∆t ∆t
The total power required in moving all charges in a infinitesimal volume dv
dP = dQ𝐄. 𝑼 = ρ𝒗 dv 𝐄. 𝑼 = 𝐄. ρ𝒗 𝑼dv = 𝐄. 𝐉dv
Thus a power density per unit volume is defined as
dP
= 𝐄. 𝐉 W/m3
dv
Total power delivered to the charges is therefore

P = ∫ 𝐄. 𝐉 dv W

This relation is known as Joule’s Law

Consider a conductor of uniform cross-sectional area S and length L. Assuming that the
electric field and current density are, at all points, directed along the conductor length may be
written as
 P = ∫ 𝐄. d𝐋 ∫ 𝐉. d𝐒
L S

P = VI W
Thus power dissipate in a resistor in usual lumped-circuit is obtained
V 2 (IR)2
P= =
R R
P = I2 R W

Problem 5.1 Determine the power dissipated in a coaxial cable per unit length of the cable as
shown in figure 4.6.
Solution:
q q
𝐄= =≫ 𝐉 = σ𝐄 = σ
2𝜋ε𝐫 2πε𝐫
b 2π 1

P = ∫ 𝐄. 𝐉 dv = ∫ ∫ ∫ Eρ Jρ ρdρdφdz
ρ=a φ=0 z=0

b 2π 1
q σq
= ∫ ∫ ∫( )( ) ρdρdφdz
2περ 2περ
ρ=a φ=0 z=0

σq2 1
= [𝜑]2𝜋 1 𝑏
0 [𝑧]0 [lnρ]𝑎
2πε2 2π

σq2 b (2π)σ q2 b 2 2πσ q b 2

p= ln = (ln ) = b ( ln )
2πε2 a (ln b)(2π)2 ε2 a ln 2πε a
a a
a a
2πσ 2
q b q
P= b
V [V = ln ] [V = − ∫ 𝐄 ∙ d𝐋 = − ∫ dr ]
ln a 2πε a b b 2πεr

V2 2πσ
P = gV 2 = W/m [g = b
]
r ln a

V2 1
From circuit theory P = [G = R ]
R

5.4 Polarization in Dielectrics

We notice that the main difference between a conductor and a dielectric lies in the
availability of free electrons in the atomic outmost shells to conduct current. Although the
charges in dielectrics are not able to move about freely, they are bound by finite forces and
we may certainly expect a displacement when an external force is applied.
To understand the microscopic effect of an electric field on a dielectric, consider an atom of
the dielectric as consisting of a negative charge –Q (electron cloud) and a positive charge +Q
(nucleus) as shown in Fig.5.4 (a). A similar picture can be adopted for dielectric molecules;
we can treat the nuclei in molecules as point charges and the electronic structure as single
cloud of negative charge. Since we have equal amounts of positive and negative charge, the
whole atom or molecule is electrically neutral. When an electric field E is applied, the
positive charge is displaced from equilibrium position in the direction of E by the force
F+=QE while the negative charge is displaced in the opposite direction by the force F-=QE. A
dipole results from the displacement of the charges and the dielectric is said to be polarized.
In the polarized state, the electron cloud is distorted by the applied electric field E. The
distorted charge distribution is equivalent, by the principle of superposition, to the original
distribution plus a dipole whose moment is

P = Qd

Where d is the distance vector from – Q to +Q of the dipole as shown in Fig.5.4 (b). We may
view the result as a large number of dipoles, each composed of charge– Q to +Q and is
referred to as bond charge since it is not normally available for conduction except under the
application of the very large electric fields.

If there are N dipoles in a volume ∆V of the dielectric, the total dipole moment due to the
electric field is
N

Q1 𝐝1 + Q2 𝐝2 + … … … … + QN 𝐝N = ∑ Qk 𝐝k
k=1
As a measure of intensity of the polarization, we define polarization P (C/m2) as the dipole
moment per unit volume of the dielectric, that is,

lim ∑N
k=1 Q k 𝐝k d𝐩
∆𝑣→0
𝐏= = … … … … … … … . . (5.1)
∆𝑣 d𝑣
Thus we conclude that the major effect of the electric field E on a dielectric is the creation of
dipole moments that align themselves in the direction of E. This type dielectric is said to be
nonpolar. Example of such dielectrics are hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and the rare gases.

Fig. 5.4 Polarization of a nonpolar atom or molecule

Nonpolar molecules do not posses dipoles until the application of electric field as we have
noticed. Other types of molecules such as water, sulfur dioxide, and hydrochloric acid have
build-in permanent dipole that are randomly oriented as shown in Fig. 5.5(a) and are said to
be polar. When an electric field E is applied to a polar molecule, the permanent dipole
experiences torque tending to align its dipole moment parallel with E as in Fig. 5.5(b)
 Fig. 5.5 Polarization of a polar molecule: (a) permanent dipole (E = 0), (b) alignment of
permanent dipole (E ≠ 0).
In order to understand the effects of the presence polarize dielectrics, let us see how the
polarization vector P is related to potentials and charge distribution. Notice that polarization
vector P depends on the dipole moment p, which in turn is related to the potential V. The Eq.
(4.4) gives
𝐩. 𝐚𝐫
V= … … … … … … … (5.2)
4πϵ0 r 2

(Fig.4.4), where 𝐚𝐫 is a unit vector directed from the origin toward point P. Now consider an
elemental volume dv' within a polarize dielectric of volume v, as shown in Fig. 5.6. The
vector r' is directed from the origin to dv'.
From (5.2) we have
d𝐩. 𝐚𝐑
dVc = … … … … … … (5.3)
4πϵ0 R2
Where d𝐩 is the dipole moment of the volume dv' and 𝐚𝐫 is the unit vector in the direction of
R, which is shown in Fig. 5.6.

Fig. 5.6 A dielectric with a non uniform polarization.

Now from (5.1) we have d𝐩 = 𝐏d𝑣 ′ . Hence, (5.3) may be written as

𝐏. 𝐚𝐫 d𝑣 ′
dVc = … … … … … … (5.4)
4πϵ0 R2
 1 𝐑
Since R= r-r', we can show that ∇ˊ (R) = R3 , where ∇ˊ is the gradient with respect to primed
coordinate. Therefore, (5.4) becomes

1 1 1 𝐚𝐫
dVc = [𝐏. ∇ˊ ( ) d𝑣 ′ ] … … … … … … (5.5) [∇ˊ ( ) = 2 ]
4πϵ0 R R R
If we use the vector identity 𝛁. (ᴪ𝐀) = ᴪ𝛁. 𝐀 + 𝐀. 𝛁ᴪ, (5.5) becomes
1 𝐏 1 1 1 1
dVc = 4πϵ [∇. (R) − R (∇ˊ. 𝐏)] d𝑣 ′ … … … (5.6) [∇. (R 𝐏) = R (∇ˊ. 𝐏) + 𝐏. ∇ˊ (R)]
0

Hence, the potential at c is given by

1 𝐏 1
Vc = ∫ [∇. ( ) − (∇ˊ. 𝐏)] d𝑣 ′ … … … … … (5.7)
𝟒𝛑𝛜𝟎 R R
𝑣

The first term on the right hand side of (5.7) may be transferred into surface integral by the
divergence theorem, so that

𝐏. d𝐬ˊ 1
Vc = ∮ − ∫ (𝛁ˊ. 𝐏)d𝑣 ′ … … … … (5.8)
4πϵ0 R R
s 𝑣

We observe that the potential at c arises from equivalent bound surface and volume charge
densities, ρsb and ρ𝑣b , respectively
ρsb ds ˊ 1
Vc = ∮ + ∫ ρ𝑣b d𝑣 ′ … … … … . (5.9) [∵ Dn = ρs and 𝛁. 𝐃 = ρ𝑣 ]
4πϵ0 R R
s 𝑣
Eq. (5.9) shows that a polarized dielectric can be replaced by equivalent surface and volume
charge distributions for the purpose of determining the resultant electric field and electric
potentials.
For (5.8) and (5.9) to be equivalent, we must have,
ρsb = Pn … … … … . (5.10) and ρ𝑣b = −𝛁. 𝐏 … … … … … … … (5.11)
Where Pn is the normal component of P to the surface and the similarity of (5.11) to Gauss’s
law is notable. The negative sign in (5.11) is a result of the dipole moment P being directed
from negative charge the dipole to the positive charge. This is opposite to the direction of an
electric field produced by these two charges.
Clearly, the surface of the polarization vector P is bond charge. The unit of P is C/m2 and it is
logical to accept that the charge per unit surface area would be related to P at the surface.

5.5 Polarization in Free Space

We could remove the dielectric (conceptually) and replace it with dipoles in free space. Now
consider a region of space that may contain free charge as well as bond charge. In our
discussion of electric field intensity, the source of E was charged of any type, with no
distinction being made between free and bound charge. Now that we have replaced the
dielectric with bound charges in free space, the total charge that influences the resultant
electric field is ρT = ρvf + ρvb , where ρvf is the volume charge density for free charge.
Consequently using Gauss’s law in point form for this free space region gives

𝛁. (ϵ0 𝐄) = ρT = ρvf + ρvb … … … … … … … … … . . … … … (5.12)

 𝛁. (ϵ0 𝐄) = ρvf − 𝛁. 𝐏 [from (5.11)] … … … … … … … . . (5.13)
And (5.13) becomes
𝛁. (ϵ0 𝐄 + 𝐏) = ρvf … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … . . … … . . (5.14)
With the result in (5.13) we may now define as electric flux density D, that is,
𝐃 = ϵ0 𝐄 + 𝐏 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (5.15)
Note that free space contains no dielectric, P = 0 and 𝐃 = ϵ0 𝐄 as is defined earlier.
It is important to review these results. Consider the pair of parallel conducting plates shown
in Fig. 5.7(a), which are connected by a battery. The medium between the two plates is free
space. Free charge will be transferred to these plates when battery is connected. Now
consider the insertion of a block of dielectric between the plates as shown in Fig. 5.7(b). The
electric field polarizes the dielectric, causing net positive and negative bound charges (shown
by small circles) to appear on opposite surfaces on the dielectric. In order to balance this
induced charge, and additional amount of free charge must be transferred from the battery to
each plate, resulting in an increased amount of free charge on each plate due to the
polarization of the dielectric.

Fig. 5.7 Increase of free charge by polarization of dielectric.

Note that the P lines began and terminate on the bound charges: the source of P. The lines of
D began and terminate on the free charges: the source of D. Note also that the lines of E (or
more properly ϵ0 𝐄) began and terminate on charge of both types. The visual picture confirms
the vector addition in (5.15).
Clearly the strength of P and the strength of E are related. For most common dielectric
materials, P and E are parallel. Therefore for these materials we may relate P and E as
𝐏 = χe ϵ0 𝐄 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (5.16)
The constant 𝛘𝐞 is called the electric susceptibility of the material. Substituting this into
(5.15) gives
𝐃 = ϵ0 𝐄 + χ𝐞 ϵ0 𝐄 = ϵ0 (1 + χ𝐞 )𝐄 … … … … … … … (5.17a)
The quantity ϵ0 (1 + χe ) is given the symbol of ϵ = ϵ0 (1 + χe ) and we obtain
𝐃 = ϵ𝐄 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … … (5.17b)
The constant ϵ is known as the permittivity of the dielectric. Note that for free space χe must
be zero since P = 0 (no bound charge is available), thus ϵ = ϵ0 .
It is common to classifying materials according to a relative permittivity or dielectric
ϵ
constant ϵr = ϵ , which gives a measure of the polarizability of a material relative to free
0
space.
The permittivity of dielectrics may also depend on frequency, so the alternative terms –
dielectric constant is not preferred for ϵr . If the battery in Fig. 5.7 is replaced by a sinusoidal
source, the free charge on the plates tends to alternate sign with each half-cycle change in
polarity of the source. The dipole in the dielectric also tends to align with each resulting
change in the direction of the field produced by the alternating voltage source. As the
frequency of the source is increased, the tendency of the dipole alignment lack behind the
directional changes of the field becomes more pronounced.
The electric susceptibility χe is assumed to be a scalar quantity. If the electric susceptibility is
independent of applied electric field E, the medium is said to be linear. Thus, the polarization
vector P and the applied electric field vector E are linearly related. Nonlinear medium can
also be thought of as having permittivity that depends on the strength of ϵ𝐄. In addition, we
have assumed that P and E are parallel and point in the same direction. Material medium
having this property are said to be isotropic. For anisotropic materials, such as crystals, P and
E are not parallel. In this case the scalar permittivity must be replaced by a matrix relating to
the three components of P to the three component of E, such as
Px ϵxx ϵxy ϵxz Ex
[Py ] = [ϵyx ϵyy ϵyz ] [Ey ] … … … … … … … (5.18)
Pz ϵzx ϵzy ϵzz Ez

If the susceptibility (and permeability) is same at all points in the dielectric. The materials are
said to be homogenous. In some materials, the value of ϵ depends on location in the material,
and these materials are said to be inhomogeneous. For this reason, the permittivity must be
written as ϵ(x, y, z) to denote its dependents on position. Materials that are linear,
homogeneous, anisotropic are said to be simple media.
The typical metallic conductor in which 𝐉 = σ𝐄, are reasonably linear, homogeneous, and
isotropic− in the sense, respectively, that σ is independent of the magnitude of E, that
σ is the same at all points of the material and J and E are parallel (point in the same
direction) at all points in the material. But for large value of applied E, however many
materials that are linear in moderate electric fields break down, resulting in a nonlinear
behavior.

5.6 Conservation of Charge and Charge Relaxation

Due to the principle of conservation of charge, the time rate of decrease of charge within a
given volume must be equal to the net outward current flow through the closed surface of the
volume. Thus current IOut coming out of the closed surface is

IOut = ∮ 𝐉 ∙ d𝐒

−dQin
IOut = … … … … … (5.19)
dt
d
∮ 𝐉 ∙ d𝐒 = − ∫ ρv dv … … … (5.20)
dt
S v

If we agree to keep the surface constant, the derivative becomes a partial derivative and may
appear within the integral,
 ∂ρv
∫(𝛁 ∙ 𝐉) dv = − ∫ dv … … . (5.21) [∮ 𝐉 ∙ d𝐒
∂t
v v S

= ∫(𝛁 ∙ 𝐉) dv (divergence theorem)]

v

Since the expression is true for any volume, however small, it is true for an incremental
volume,
∂ρv
(𝛁 ∙ 𝐉) ∇V = − ∇V
∂t
From which we obtain,
∂ρv
𝛁∙𝐉 =− … … … … … … … … … … … … . … (5.22)
∂t

Eq. (5.20) and its point form in (5.22) are referred to as the Eqs. of continuity or the law of
conservation of charge. Accordingly, the rate of flow of free charge out of the region (𝛁 ∙ 𝐉) is
equal to the rate of decrease of the free charge contained within the region. For steady
current, 𝛁 ∙ 𝐉 = 𝟎
Consider the case of a conductor in which an excess free charge is placed. The resulting
Coulomb forces, this charge imbalance will force the excess charge to move. If the medium
surrounding the conductor is a perfect dielectric (none of this free charge can leave the
conductor), we find that this excess free charge accumulates on the surface of the conductor
as a surface charge density. The removal of charge from the interior of the conductor
continuous until the interior is once again devoid of excess charge and is electrically neutral.
The time required for resumption of neutrality within the conductor is quite rapid loop
conductors, and the majority of the excess charge is moved to the surface in a time known as
the relaxation time, which is on the order of 10-19s for typical metals. Once neutrality has
been reestablished, no net charge exists within the conductor interior. And by Gauss’s law we
find that
𝐄=0 (𝛁. 𝐃 = 𝛁. ϵ𝐄 = ρv =≫ 𝛁. ϵ𝐄 = 0)
In the conductor.
In order to determine the relaxation time 𝜏, we substitute 𝐉 = σ𝐄 into the continuity equation:
∂ρv
𝛁 ∙ σ𝐄 = − … … … … … … … … … (5.23)
∂t
1 ∂ρv
𝛁∙𝐄=− … … … … … … … . … (5.24)
σ ∂t
And compared (5.23) to Gauss’s law
𝛁. 𝐃 = 𝛁. ϵ𝐄 = ρv … … … … . . … . . . . (5.25)
1
𝛁. 𝐄 = ρ … … … … … … … … . … . (5.26)
ϵ v
From (5.24) and (5.26) we obtain
1 ∂ρv 1
− = ρv
σ ∂t ϵ
∂ρv σ
+ ρv = 0
∂t ϵ
 ∂ρ σ
+ ρ = 0 … … … … … … . . . … . (5.27)
∂t ϵ

Since the conductor is assumed to be linear, homogeneous, and isotropic, σ and ϵ are
constant. The solution to (5.27) is
σ
ρ = ρ0 e(− ϵ )t … … … … … … … … … … . (5.28)
If at t = 0 we introduce a net excess of free charge into the interior of a conductor, then
evaluate (5.28) at t = 0 shows that the unknown constant ρ0 is the excess charge. We may
write (5.28) as

ρ = ρ0 e(−τ)t … … … … … … . . … . … . (5.29)
Where
σ
τ= … … … … … … … … … . . … . … (5.30)
ϵ
is the relaxation time. From (5.29) it is clear that the excess charge in the interior of the
conductor will eventually decay to zero.
For a perfect conductor σ =∝, the relaxation time is 0s. For copper τ = 1.5 × 1019 s (ϵ =
1
ϵ0 = 36𝜋 × 10−9 F/m and σ = 5.8 × 107 s/m). On other hand, for fused quartz, the
relaxation time is approximately 10 days. For metallic conductor no net free charge within its
interior, thus E in a conductor is zero.

5.7 Boundary conditions for Electric field

If the field exists in a region consisting of two different media, the conditions that the field
must satisfy at the interface separating the media are called boundary conditions. These
conditions are helpful in determining the field on one side of the boundary if the field on the
other side is known.
We shall consider the boundary conditions at an interface separating
• Dielectric (ϵr1 ) and dielectric (ϵr2 )
• Conductor and dielectric
• Conductor and free space
To determine the boundary conditions, we need to use Maxwell’s equations:

∮ 𝐄 ∙ d𝐋 = 0

And

∮ 𝐃 ∙ d𝐒 = Qenclosed

Also we need to decompose the electric field intensity E into two orthogonal components,
E = E t + En
Where, Et and En are, respectively, the tangential and normal components of E to the
interface of interest. Similar decomposition can be done for the electric flux density D.
5.8 Dielectric-Dielectric Boundary Conditions
Consider the E field existing in a region consisting of two different dielectrics characterized
by ϵ1 = ϵ0 ϵr1 and ϵ2 = ϵ0 ϵr2 as shown in following figure. E1 and E2in media 1 and 2
respectively, can be decomposed as
E1 = E1t + E1n … … … … … … . . … (5.31)
E2 = E2t + E2n … … … … … … … (5.32)

Fig. 5.8
Now, applying ∮ E ∙ dl = 0 to the closed path abcda assuming that the path is very small with
respect to the variation of E. We get
∆h ∆h ∆h ∆h
0 = E1t ∆w − E1n − E2n − E2t ∆w + E2n + E1n … … … … (5.33)
2 2 2 2
Where
Et = |Et | and En = |En |.
As ∆h → 0, then equation (5.33) becomes
E1t = E2t … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … … (5.34)
Thus the tangential components of E are the same on the two sides of the boundary. In other
words, Et undergoes no change on the boundary and it is said to be continuous across the
boundary.

Since 𝐃 = ϵ𝐄 = 𝐃t + 𝐃n , then equation (34) can be written as

𝐃1t 𝐃2t
= 𝐄1t = 𝐄2t =
ϵ1 ϵ2
Or
D1t D2t
= … … … … … … . … (5.35)
ϵ1 ϵ2
Dt undergoes some change across the interface. Hence 𝐃t is said to be discontinuous across
the interface.

Similarly, we apply ∮ D ∙ dS = Qenclosed to the pillbox (Gaussian surface) of following figure.

Fig. 5.9

Allowing ∆h → 0 gives
∆Q = ρS ∆S
∆Q = D1n ∆S − D2n ∆S
Or
D1n − D2n = ρS … … … … … … … … … … (5.36)
Where ρS is the free charge density placed deliberately at the boundary. Equation (5.36) is
based on the assumption that D is directed from region 2 to region 1. If no free charge exist at
the interface then ρS = 0 and equation (36) becomes
D1n = D2n … … … … … … … … … … … . … (5.37)

Thus the normal component of D is continuous across the interface; that is, Dn undergoes no
change at the boundary.
Since D = ϵE then equation (5.37) can be written as
ϵ1 E1n = ϵ2 E2n … … … … … … … … … . . … (5.38)
The normal component of E is discontinuous at the boundary.
Equation (5.34) and (5.37) are collectively referred to as boundary conditions; they must be
satisfied by an electric field at the boundary separating two different dielectrics.
We can also use the boundary conditions to determine the refraction of the electric field
across the interface. Consider D1 or E1 and D2 or E2 making angles θ1 and θ2 with normal to
the interface as illustrated in following figure.

Fig. 5.10
Using equation (5.34), we have
E1 sinθ1 = E1t = E2t = E2 sinθ2
E1 sinθ1 = E2 sinθ2 … … … … … … … … … . … (5.39)
Similarly, by applying equation (5.37) or (5.38), we get
ϵ1 E1 cosθ1 = D1n = D2n = ϵ2 E2 cosθ2
Or
ϵ1 E1 cosθ1 = ϵ2 E2 cosθ2 … … … … … … … (5.40)
Now, dividing equation (5.39) by equation (5.40) gives,
E1 sinθ1 E2 sinθ2
=
ϵ1 E1 cosθ1 ϵ2 E2 cosθ2
tan θ1 tanθ2
= … … … … … … … … … … … (5.41)
ϵ1 ϵ2
Since ϵ1 = ϵ0 ϵr1 and ϵ2 = ϵ0 ϵr2 , then equation (5.41) becomes
tan θ1 ϵr1
= … … … … … … … … … . . . . (5.42)
tanθ2 ϵr2
Note that the angles θ1 and θ2 measured with respect to the surface. If the angles are
π π
measured with respect to a normal to the surface, that is, θˊ1 = 2 − θ1 and θˊ 2 = 2 − θ2 , then
 tanθˊ1 ϵr1
= … … … … … … … … … . . . (5.43)
tanθˊ 2 ϵr2
This is the law of refraction of the electric field at a boundary free of charge (Since ρS = 0 is
assumed at the interface).
5.9 Conductor-Dielectric Boundary Conditions
This is the case shown in following figure. The conductor is assumed to be perfect(i. e., σ →
∞ or ρC → 0). Although such a conduction is not practically realizable, we may regard
conductors such as copper and silver.

Fig. 5.11
Applying ∮ E ∙ dl = 0 to the closed path abcda gives
∆h ∆h ∆h ∆h
0 = 0 ∙ ∆w + 0 ∙ + En ∙ − Et ∙ ∆w − En ∙ −0∙ … … … … (5.44)
2 2 2 2
As ∆h → 0,
Et = 0 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (5.45)
Similarly, by applying ∮ D ∙ dS = Qenclosed to the pillbox of following figure

Fig.5.12
Allowing ∆h → 0, we get
∆Q = Dn ∙ ∆S − 0 ∙ ∆S … … … … … … … (5.46)

As D = ϵE = 0 inside the conductor. Equation (5.46) may be written as

∆Q
Dn = = ρS
∆S
Or
Dn = ρS … … … … … … … … … … . … … … . … … . . (5.47)

Thus under static conditions,

• No electric field may exist within a conductor, that is
ρv = 0, E = 0 … … … … … … … … … … . … (5.48)
• Since E = −∇V = 0, there can be no potential difference between any two points in
the conductor.
• The electric field E can be external to the conductor and normal to its surface; that is
Dt = ϵ0 ϵr Et = 0, Dn = ϵ0 ϵr En = ρS … … … … (5.49)

5.10 Conductor-Free Space Boundary Conditions

This is a special case of the conductor-dielectric conditions and is illustrated in following
figure.

Fig. 5.13
The boundary conditions at the interface between a conductor and free space can be obtained
from the following equation
Dt = ϵ0 ϵr Et = 0, Dn = ϵ0 ϵr En = ρS
By replacing ϵr by 1 (because free space may be regarded as a special dielectric for which
ϵr = 1). We expect E to be external to the conductor and normal to its surface. Thus the
boundary conditions are
Dt = ϵ0 Et = 0, Dn = ϵ0 En = ρS
E field must approach a conducting surface normally.

5.11 Boundary Conditions for Current at Interface of Conductive Region

If a region has finite conductivity, the current flow and the electric field in the region are
related by 𝐉 = σ𝐄. Consequently, we should obtain corresponding boundary condition on the
normal and tangential components of the current at the boundary. Consider medium one and
medium two as conductive regions having finite, nonzero conductivity σ1 and σ2 ,
respectively. For static currents, the continuity equation 𝛁. 𝐉 = 0.
According to Gauss’s law at boundary
D1n − D2n = 0 (at interface ρs = 0)
Similarly, in this case
J1n − J2n = 0
J1n = J2n … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (5.50a)
Since the tangential components of electric field must be continuous across the boundary, we
have 𝐄1t = 𝐄2t , or
𝐉1t 𝐉2t
= … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (5.50b)
σ1 σ2
Equations (5.50a) and (5.50b) are the boundary conditions for currents at interface of the
conductive regions having conductivities σ1 and σ2 .
Since the conductivities are not both zero and cannot be argued that surface density at
interface is zero. The following equation may be applied to the normal component of D
substitute 𝐃 = ϵ𝐄 into this equation and 𝐉 = σ𝐄 into (5.50a) we obtain
𝐃1n − 𝐃2n = ϵ1 𝐄1n − ϵ2 𝐄2n = ρs
J1n = J2n =≫ σ1 𝐄1n = σ2 𝐄2n
σ2
ρs = (ϵ1 − ) 𝐄 … … … … … . . … . . (5.51a)
σ1 2n
σ2
ρs = (ϵ1 − ϵ2 ) 𝐄1n … … … … . . … . (5.51b)
σ1
And the surface charge at the boundary can be found from the knowledge of normal
component of E in either region.
It is important that relation for continuity of the normal components J in (5.50a) was derived
for static field 𝛁. 𝐉 = 0, as was the equation for ρs in (5.50). If J is a function of time,
𝛛𝛒
then 𝛁. 𝐉 = − 𝛛𝐭 , applies and (5.50a) becomes
∂ρ
J1n − J2n = − ∂t , so that the result in (5.51a)and (5.51b) no longer applies.
5.12 Capacitance
Consider the pair of parallel, perfectly conducting plates shown in Fig. 5.14. The surface area
of each plate A and are separated by a distance d in free space. A battery maintains a
potential difference V between two plates. Before the battery is connected the plates are
electrically neutral. When the battery is connected, charge is transferred to the plates of the
capacitor, resulting in +Q on one plate and –Q on other plate. Plate area A is much larger than
separated distance d. Thus assume the lines of E are perpendicular to the plates surface and
total charge Q distributed on each plate to be uniform over the surface.

Fig. 5.14 The parallel-plate capacitor

If we construct a rectangular Gaussian surface around one plate, we conclude from Gauss’s
law the magnitude of electric field is given by
Q
E= [∮ 𝐃. d𝐬 = Q =≫ (ϵ0 E)(A) = Q]
ϵ0 A
The electric potential difference between the two plates is therefore
𝑙2
Qd Q
V= [V = − ∫ 𝐄. d𝐥 = E(∆l) = d]
ϵ0 A ϵ0 A
𝑙1

Thus we define a capacity to store charge or capacitance of this structure to be the ratio the of
the charge stored to the potential difference between two conductors, that is
Q ϵ0 A
C= = F … … … … … … … … … . … … . (5.52)
V d
The units of capacitances are coulomb per volt. The ratio of units is known as farad F (F =
C/V).
Suppose we now insert the block of dielectric having permittivity ϵ between two plates, so
that it completely feels the space. The resulting polarization of the dielectric will result in an
increase of free charge on the plate surface to counter the induction, bound charge on the
surfaces of the dielectric (see Fig. 5.7). In this case, the type of charge is being considered in
(5.52). Since C is to be the capacity of the structure to store charge (extracted from the
battery), then clearly the charge Q in (5.52) must be free charge:

Qf
C= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … . . (5.53)
V

(a)

(b) (c)
Figure: 5.15 Capacitance for a general two conductor’s structure. (a) field
model (b) lumped circuit model for C, and (c) lumped circuit model for R

Again applying Gauss’s law to this problem, we determine

Qf
Dn = ϵE = ρs =
A
so that
Qf
E= … … … … … … … … . … . (5.54)
ϵA
The potential difference between plates is again
Qf
V = Ed = d, so that
ϵA
Qf ϵA
C= = … … … … … . … . . (5.55)
V d
The electric field lines, and consequently the electric flux density lines, terminate normal to
the surface of the bodies. The total charge on the surface of the positively charged body is
found from Gauss’s law and the boundary conditions as

Qf = ∮ 𝐃. d𝐬 … … … … . … … … . (5.56)

Where S is the surface of the positive charged conductor. The potential difference between
two conductors, V, established by the battery is obtained by integrating E along a contour c
between two points P1 and P2 on the surfaces (equipotential surfaces) of the conductor as
P2

V = − ∫ 𝐄. d𝐥 … … … … … … … … … . . … . (5.57)
P1

Substituting (5.56) and (5.57) into (5.53), we obtain a general expression for the capacitance
of this structure:
Qf ∮ 𝐃. d𝐬 ∮ 𝐄 ∙ d𝐒
C= = P
= −ϵ P … … … … … (5.58)
V − ∫ 2 𝐄. d𝐥 ∫
2
𝐄. d𝐥
P 1P 1

Since E is established in the region surrounding the two bodies in Fig. 5.15a, it is clear that
energy is stored in this field and the total energy is given by

1
We = ∫ ϵE 2 dv … … … … … … … … … … . … . . (5.59)
2
v

In order to evaluate (5.59) we must integrate the resulting E throughout the entire volume
surrounding the two bodies. A more convenient method of evaluating the energy stored in the
field avoids is integration is as follows: let assume that body 1 and body 2 are at absolute
potential V1 and V2, respectively, so that V = V2 - V1. The energy stored in the field can be
obtained by evaluating the equation over the surface of each body.

1
We = ∫ ρv V dv … … … … … … … … … … … . . . . (5.60)
2
v

The energy stored in the field due to the charge on body 1 at potential V1 is

1
W1 = ∫ ρs1 V1 ds … … … … … … … … … . . … (5.61)
2
s1

Where s1 is the surface of the body 1 and ρs1 is the surface charge distribution over that
body. Similarly, for body 2 we obtain

1
W2 = ∫ ρs2 V2 ds … … … … … … … … … . … (5.62)
2
s2

Note that both bodies are equipotential surfaces. Thus V1 and V2 are independent of position
on these surfaces and may consequently be removed from integration (5.61) and (5.62) thus
we obtain

1 1
W1 = V1 ∫ ρs1 ds = V1 (−Q f ) … … … … … (5.63)
2 2
s1
 1 1
and W2 = 2 V2 ∫s ρs2 ds = 2 V2 (Q f ) … … … … … … . . … (5.64)
2

The total energy stored is the sum of (5.63) and (5.64):

1 1
We = Q f (V2 − V1 ) = Q f V … … … … … … … . . (5.65)
2 2
Thus the stored energy may be evaluated in terms of charge stored on one body and the
potential difference between two bodies. Further, a simplification can be obtained by
substituting capacitance C in (5.53) into (6.65), resulting in
1 1 1 Qf
We = Q f V = (CV)V = CV 2 (C = ) … … … … … … … … … . . (5.66)
2 2 2 V
1 Qf 2
or We = … … … … … … … … … … . . . (5.67)
2 C

Therefore, any two of the three quantities C, Qf and V are to be known to compute the energy
stored in E of a capacitor.
Now applying the definition of capacitance to a simple two-conductor system shown in
following figure in which the conductors are identical, infinite parallel planes with
separation d.

Fig. 5.16
The lower conducting plane at z = 0 and the upper one at z = d, a uniform sheet of surface
charge ±ρS on each conductor leads to the uniform field
ρS
E= a
ϵ z
Where the permittivity of the homogeneous dielectric is ϵ, and
D = ρS az
The charge on the lower plane must then be positive, since D is directed upward and the
normal value of D is equal to the surface charge density there.
DN = Dz = ρS
On the upper plane,
DN = −Dz
And the surface charge there is the negative of that on the lower plane.

The potential difference between lower and upper planes is

 lower
V0 = − ∫ 𝐄 ∙ d𝐋
upper

0
ρS
V0 = − ∫ dz
d ϵ
ρS
V0 = d
ϵ
Now,
Q = ρS S
ρS
V0 = d
ϵ
Then
Q
C=
V0
ρS S
C = ρS
d
ϵ

ϵS
C=
d
The total energy stored in a capacitor:
1
WE = ∫ ϵ E 2 dv
2
vol

1 S d ρS 2
WE = ∫ ∫ ( ) ϵ dz dS
2 0 0 ϵ

1 ρS 2 ϵ ∙ d2 ∙ S
WE =
2 ϵ2 d
1 ρS 2
WE = Sd
2 ϵ
1 ϵ S ρS 2 d2
WE =
2 d ϵ2
1 ϵ S ρS 2
WE = ( d)
2 d ϵ
1 2
WE = CV
2
1 Q 2
WE = C ( )
2 C
1 Q2
WE =
2 C

Problem: 5.2 consider two cylindrical conductors that are infinite in length, as shown in Fig.
5.17a. Determine the capacitance per unit of length of this structure.
Solution: Each cylindrical conductor is a perfect conductor and carries charge distribution of
ρL C/m: positive on one conductor and negative on the other. Thus total charge contain in a
1-m length of one conductor is ρL C/m and is of the other is−ρL C/m. Since conductors are
infinite in the length. The charge distribution is uniform along the axis of the conductor and is
not uniform around the periphery of the conductor, as shown in cross-sectional view of Fig.
5.17b. This is called the proximity effect. The conductors having radius, r+ and r- and
separated by a distance d, is larger than the radii. It is reasonable to assume a uniform charge
d d
distribution around the conductor periphery and the ratio of and is greater than
r+ r−
approximately 10. In this case uniform surface charge distributions on each conductor of
ρL ρL
+
and
2πr 2πr −

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.17

The potential VP at point P with respect to the reference point P shown in Fig. 5.17b is
ρL R0+ ρL R0− ρL ρ
VP = ln + − ln − [VAB = ln A ]
2πϵ0 R 2πϵ0 R 2πϵ0 ρB

ρL R 0 + R−
= ln
2πϵ0 R+ R 0 −

By moving P the potential difference V between two surfaces of the conductor may be found.
Since separation between two conductors is must greater than the radii. We may use the
approximation R+ = r + , R 0 + = d, R− = d and R 0 − = r − . Thus, we obtain

ρL d2
V≅ ln + −
2πϵ0 r r

Free charge stored on the conductor is to be determined in order to determine the capacitance
of this structure. The total free charge on each conductor is infinite, since the length of the
conductors is infinity. However, the total charge per unit conductor length may be readily
determined. The conductor bearing the positive charge distribution, the total charge contained
on 1-m length ρL . The net free charge stored on a 1-m line is qf = ρL . Thus the per-unit-length
capacitance (per unit length quantities will be denoted by lowercase symbols) becomes

qf ρL 2πϵ0
c= = ρL d2
= d2
F/m
V ln r+ r− ln r+ r−
2πϵ0
The particular type of structure in Fig. 5.17 is open referred to as a transmission line. The
two conductors serve to guide the propagation of energy. In most cases of two wire
transmission lines, the wires will be identical. Substituting r + = r − = r yields the per unit
length capacitance of this structure:
πϵ0
c= d
F/m
ln r

Problem 5.3 Consider the coaxial cable shown in Fig. 4.6. Using the relation between
capacitance, voltage and energy stored, determine the capacitance per unit length.

Solution:
Applying Gauss’s law, we obtain radial electric field
q
Er = 2πϵr V/m (from problem 4.9)

The stored energy per unit length is

1 2π b
1 1 q 2
We = ∫ ε|E|2 dv = ε ∫ ∫ ∫ | | rdrdφdz
2 2 2πϵr
V z=0 φ=0 r=a

q2 b
We = ln J/m
4πε a
The voltage between the conductors may then be computed as
a a
q
V = − ∫ 𝐄. d𝐥 = − ∫ dr
2πϵr
b b

q b
V= ln
2πϵ a
Thus, the capacitance per unit length is found from

1 2
We = CV
2
q2 b
2We 2 ln
4πε a
to be C= = b 2
V2 q
( ln )
2πϵ a

2πϵ
C= b
F/m
ln a

This can also be found in a more direct fashion as

q q
C= = q b
V ln a
2πϵ

2πϵ
C= b
F/m
ln a
5.13 Time constant RC of a RC circuit

We have discussed the definition and calculation of capacitance between two conductors. In
this section we present a related topic resistance R in Fig.5.15c. The medium in which these
conductors are immersed is characterized by permittivity ϵ and conductivity σ.

Voltage V between two conductors with cause a current I to flow. E will be established by V
in the region between two conductors. Because of nonzero conductivity of the region, current
density J = σ𝐄 will exist in the region. Then I can be obtained:

I = ∮ 𝐉. d𝐒 … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … (5.68)
s

Where the normal for ds is directed outward for conductor 2 and inward if s surrounds
conductor 1. The voltage may be defined as
P2

V = − ∫ 𝐄. d𝐥 … … … … … … … … … … . . . … … . (5.69)
P1
where d𝐥 is a path between two points on the two conductors. The resistance between two
conductor represented by these lossy medium is then define as
2 P 2 P
V − ∫P1 𝐄. d𝐥 1 ∫P1 𝐄. d𝐥
R= = =− … … … … . (5.70)
I ∮ 𝐉. d𝐒 σ ∮ 𝐄. d𝐒
s s

and represented as in Fig. 5.15c

Comparing (5.70) with

∮ 𝐄 ∙ d𝐒
C = −ϵ 2P … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … (5.71)
∫P1 𝐄. d𝐥

we obtain

ϵ ϵ 1
RC = [C = ( )] … … … … … … . . (5.72)
σ σ R
Therefore resistance and capacitance associated with two conducting bodies are in series and
RC is the time constant of this series circuit. The lumped circuit model in Fig.18 represents
(5.72):
 Fig. 5.18 lumped circuit model for Fig. 5.15a
Problem 5.4: Evaluate the resistance of a 1-mile length of copper wire, which has a diameter
of 0.0508 inch.
Solution:

Diameter of the wire = 0.0508 inch

= 0.0508 × 0.0254
= 1.291 × 10−3 meter
The area of the cross section = πr 2
2
1.291 × 10−3
=π×( )
2

= 1.308 × 10−6 m2
The length = 1 mile = 1609 meter
Conductivity, σ = 5.80 × 107 S/m

The resistance of the wire is therefore,

L
R=
σS
1609
R=
(5.80 × 107 ) × (1.308 × 10−6 )
R = 21.2 Ω (Ans)

Problem-5.5: Calculate the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor having a mica dielectric,

ϵR = 6, a plate area of 10 inch2 and a separation of 0.01 inch.
Solution:
Given,
S = 10 × 0.02542 = 6.45 × 10−3 m2
d = 0.01 × 0.0254 = 2.54 × 10−4 m

Therefore,
 s s 6 × 8.854 × 10−12 × 6.45 × 10−3
C = ϵ = ϵR × ϵ0 =
d d 2.54 × 10−4
C = 1.349 nF (Ans)