Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

PHYSICAL GEOLOGY NOTES ON TARBUCK AND 4. Principles applied in geology

LUTGENS A. Relative dating
a. Events are placed in their order
Chapter 1 Introduction to geology without knowing their age in
years
1. 2 Branches of geology
B. Law of superposition
A. Physical geology
a. Layers on top are younger than
a. Examines the Earth materials
at the bottom given that the
seeks to understand the
strata are undeformed
processes beneath and on the
C. Fossil or faunal succession
surface
a. Fossil organisms succeed one
B. Historical geology
another in a determinable order
a. Understands the origin and
and therefore any time period
development of Earth
can be recognized by its fossil
b. Creates a chronological
content
arrangement of processes
5. Nature of scientific inquiry
2. Focus of geology
A. Hypothesis
A. Natural hazards
a. Tentative or untested
a. Volcanoes
explanation
b. Floods
b. Before it becomes accepted,
c. Tsunamis
must pass objective testing and
d. Earthquakes
analysis
e. Landslides
B. Theory
B. Resources
a. A well tested and widely
a. Water
accepted view
b. Soil
b. Paradigms are theories that
c. Metallic minerals
explain a wide scope or
d. Non-metallic minerals
interrelated aspect of the
e. Energy
natural world
C. Environmental impact
C. Scientific law
3. Two fundamental laws in geology
a. A basic principle that has
A. Catastrophism
specific scope and is consistent
a. Formulated by James Ussher in
with testing and can be stated
mid- 1600s
briefly like a mathematical
b. Earth’s landscapes had been
formula
shaped by catastrophes
b. It can be applied directly by
c. Earth is 4004 years old
humans
B. Uniformitarianism
D. Scientific method
a. Formulated by James Hutton in
a. The process of data gathering
late 1700s
through observation and
b. The Earth processes that
formulating hypothesis and
operate today have also
theories
operated in the geologic pass
6. Earth’s spheres
c. The present is the key to the
A. Hydrosphere
pass
d. Age of Earth is 4.5 billion years
old

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

a. Global ocean is 71% of the c. Extends to a depth of 2900 km

surface, 3800 meters deep and d. Peridotite composition
97% of all the waters C. Core
B. Atmosphere a. Iron nickel alloy composition
a. Life-giving gaseous envelope with minor amounts of oxygen,
C. Geosphere silicon and sulfur
a. Largest of the four spheres b. 11 g/cm3
D. Biosphere c. 16% by volume, 32% by mass
a. Totality of life on Earth 10. Earth’s internal structure by physical
7. Earth system science properties
A. Aims to understand the Earth as a A. Lithosphere
system a. Consists of the entire crust and
B. 2 types of system uppermost mantle
a. Closed system where matter b. Cool and rigid
cannot get in and out while c. 100 km thick average
energy can B. Asthenosphere
b. Open system where both matter a. Soft and weak
and energy can b. Extends to a depth of 350 km
C. 2 types of feedback mechanism C. Transition zone
a. Positive feedback mechanism a. Part of the upper mantle from
enhances or drives change 410 to 660 km
b. Negative feedback mechanism b. Sudden change in density from
maintains the system 3.5 g/cm3 to 3.7 g/cm3
D. 2 Earth systems D. Lower mantle
a. Hydrologic cycle a. From 660 to 2900 km
b. Rock cycle b. Very hard rocks but very hot
8. Early evolution of Earth and capable of flowing
A. Universe came from Big Bang c. D” layer is the upper 200 km of
B. Solar system came from a nebula the lower most mantle
9. Earth’s internal structure by chemical d. Gutenberg discontinuity is the
composition mantle-core boundary
A. Crust E. Outer core
a. Oceanic crust (sima), 7 km a. Liquid layer
thick, basaltic, 3.0 g/cm3 b. 2270 km thick
density, oldest is 180 million c. Movement of iron caused the
years old magnetic Earth
b. Continental crust (sial), 35 to 40 d. Lehman discontinuity is the
km thick, granitic to outer core-inner core boundary
granodiorite, 2.7 g/cm3 density, F. Inner core
some are 4 billion years old a. Radius of 1216 km
c. Conrad discontinuity is the b. Solid due to immense pressure
oceanic-continental boundary 11. Face of the Earth
B. Mantle A. Continents
a. 82% of the volume, 68% by a. Mountain belts
mass i. Circum-pacific belt in
b. Density from 3.2 to 5 g/cm3 West America

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

ii. Alps through Himalayas i. Foliated

b. Stable interior ii. Non-foliated
i. Cratons or the interiors
of the continents Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics
ii. Shields inside the stable
1. Continental drift hypothesis
interior, are expansive
A. Formulated by Alfred Wegener
flat regions composed
in 1915
of deformed crystalline
B. Pangaea (Supercontinent) once
rocks
existed and broken up 200
iii. Stable platforms which
million years ago during
are covered with
Mesozoic era and fragments
sedimentary rocks and
were drifting to their current
are horizontal except
positions
when it form basins or
C. Fit of the continents of South
domes
America and Africa
B. Ocean floors
D. Fossil evidence
a. Continental margins
a. Mesosaurus
i. Continental shelf which
b. Glossopteris
is the flooded part of
c. Present-day organisms with
the continents
similar ancestry evolving
ii. Continental slope which
differently during breakup
is relatively steep
of the continents (examples
iii. Continental rise which is
are the marsupials,
more gradual incline
opossum and kangaroo)
b. Deep-ocean basins
E. Rock types and similar
i. Abyssal plains which are
structures
flat regions
a. 2.2 billion year old igneous
ii. Trenches which are
rocks in Brazil similar in age
deep depressions
with rocks in Africa
iii. Seamounts which
b. Appalachians continues to
submerged volcanic
Africa
structures
F. Paleoclimatic evidence
c. Oceanic ridges
a. Ice sheets covered Southern
i. Mid-Atlantic ridge
Hemisphere and India near
ii. East Pacific rise
the end of Paleozoic era
12. Rocks and rock cycle
(300 million years ago)
A. Minerals combine to form rocks
b. Glacially deposited
B. Types of rocks
sediments of the same age
a. Igneous
found in South Africa, South
i. Volcanic
America, India and Australia
ii. Plutonic
c. But large tropical swamps
b. Sedimentary
existed in the Northern
i. Clastic
Hemisphere during this time
ii. Chemical
d. Thus, earlier continents
iii. Biochemical
were once connected to
c. Metamorphic
each other

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

2. The breakup of Pangaea B. Discovered during ocean

A. North America and Africa split exploration and guyots (flat-
up around 180 Ma topped seamounts) were
B. By 130 Ma, South Atlantic discovered
opened near South Africa C. As the sea floor is moving away
C. Africa and Antarctica separated from the ridge, new sea floor is
and India went Northward being created
D. By early Cenozoic (50 Ma), D. Older parts of the sea floor are
Australia had separated from being consumed at the trenches
Antarctica and South Atlantic E. The convective flow in the
ocean fully formed mantle caused the Earth’s entire
E. India collided with Asia around outer shell to move
45 Ma and created Himalayas 5. Geomagnetic reversals
and closed the Tethys sea A. The north magnetic pole
F. At the same time, Greenland becomes the south magnetic
separated from Eurasia pole and vice versa
G. Around 20 Ma, Arabia rifted B. Fred Vine and D.H. Matthews
from Africa to form the Red sea connected sea-floor spreading
3. Paleomagnetism hypothesis and geomagnetic
A. Formed around mid-1950s after reversals
Wegener’s death C. Major divisions of magnetic time
B. Rocks that have iron-rich scales are called chrons
minerals records the magnetism D. Magnetometer records ocean
at the time they were formed magnetism
(Below Curie point, 585 E. New rocks are added on equal
degrees Celsius for magnetite) amounts on either side of
C. They also provide the latitude of ridges, thus the polarity of rocks
their origin on one side is the same as on
D. The inclination of paleomagnetic the other side.
rocks indicates the latitude at 6. Plate tectonics: the new paradigm
the time it became magnetized A. Formulated in 1968 by J. Tuzo
E. The dip angle decreases as the Wilson
distance from the Equator B. Earth surface is divided into
decreases (O degrees in the rigid plates that move slide pass
Equator each other, toward each other
F. Some rocks found far from the or away from each other (5 cm
Equator shows paleomagnetic or 2 inches per year) (Eurasia
evidences that they were moving 3 mm per year)
formed at the Equator C. Earth’s major plates
suggesting that the continents a. North America
were drifting b. South America
G. The current magnetic north is in c. Africa (almost entirely
Ellesmere Island, Canada bounded by divergents)
4. Sea-floor spreading hypothesis d. Eurasia
A. Formulated by Harry Hess in e. Indian-Australian
1960’s

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

f. Antarctica (almost entirely c. Fracture zones are prominent

bounded by divergents) linear breaks in ocean crust and
g. Pacific (largest) (fast include active transform fault and
moving) inactive zone
D. Earth’s minor plates 8. Hotspots
a. Caribbean (between NA and A. Intraplate volcanism creates
SA) seamounts such as Hawaii islands
b. Nazca (SA)(fast moving) B. It is caused by rising mantle
c. Scotia (Near Antarctica) plume from deep in the outer core
d. Juan de Fuca (NA) C. The surface manifestation of this
e. Arabian (between Africa and mantle plume is the hotspot
Eurasia) D. Mid-ocean ridge basalts have low
f. Philippines amounts of trace elements while
g. Cocos (Left of Caribbean ) hotspot basalts are rich in the same
(fast moving) elements suggesting a different
7. Plate boundaries source of magma
A. Divergent (Spreading centers) 9. Forces that drive plate motion
a. Oceanic ridges A. Slab pull
i. 20% of the Earth’s surface a. Subducting dense slab pulls the
ii. The down-faulted trailing plate
structures are called rift B. Ridge push
valleys a. Elevated position of the ridge
iii. Fastest is the East Pacific pushes the surrounding rocks aside
Rise (15 cm or 6 inches per due to gravity
year) C. Slab suction
a. Continental rifts a. Dragging of the overlying plate
i. Example is the East African and the subducting plate towards the
Rift that might develop into bottom
an oceanic crust (Red Sea) b. Due to induced mantle
A. Convergent (Subduction zones) circulation that pulls both the
a. Western Pacific plate is the subducting slab and the overriding
thickest, densest and oldest plate towards the trench even after
b. Oceanic-continental producing the detachment of the subducting
continental volcanic arcs slab from the overlying plate
c. Oceanic-oceanic producing 10. Models of plate-mantle convection
volcanic island arcs A. Layering at 660 km
d. Continental-continental producing B. Whole mantle convection
mountain belts C. Deep layer
B. Transform faults
a. Only the active zone which lie Chapter 3 Matter and minerals
only between the two offset ridge
1. Mineral characteristics
segments
A. Naturally occurring
b. Inactive where fractures are
B. Solid
preserved as linear topographic
C. Formed by inorganic process
scars
D. Definite chemical composition
E. Orderly crystalline structure

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

2. Matter nomenclature D. Subhedral are intermediate

A. Element between the two
a. Any substance that cannot be E. Crystallization
broken down into simpler a. Constitute molecules or ions
substance by chemical or chemically bonded to form an
physical means orderly internal structure
b. 90 naturally formed b. Geode are somewhat spherical
c. 23 synthetic body with crystals projecting
B. Atom inward
a. Electron (outermost electrons F. Special ways of crystallization
called valence electron) c. Sulfur directly form from hot,
b. Proton sulfur-rich vapor
c. Neutron d. Ice crystals directly form from
C. Chemical compound water vapor
D. Principal shells or energy levels e. Pyrite found in shale and coal
a. Regions around the nucleus beds generated by sulfate-
where electrons move within reducing bacteria
E. Atomic number G. Crystal structure
a. Number of protons a. X-ray diffraction examines
F. Mass number crystal structures
a. Number of neutrons and protons b. X-ray scatters inside the
b. Isotopes are elements having crystal and the photographic
same proton number but film on the opposite end
different neutron number produces a pattern of dark
G. Types of chemical bonding spots that are unique to every
a. Ionic bonding or electron mineral
transfer c. Thus, minerals can be
b. Covalent bonding or electron identified using X-ray
sharing diffraction technique
c. Metallic bonding d. Minerals with large cations are
3. Crystal or crystalline relatively less denser than
A. Any natural solid with an ordered, minerals having the same
repetitive, atomic structure atomic weights (Sylvite less
B. Euhedral have perfect geometric dense than pyrrhotite)
shape e. Law of constancy of
a. Influenced by the available interfacial angle (Steno’s
spaces for crystallization law) states that angles
b. More spaces means minerals between equivalent faces of
can take the form of euhedral the same mineral are always
C. Anhedral have irregular faces the same
a. Less space for crystallization H. Asbestos
so takes the form of the a. Chrysotile (white)(serpentine)
available space which is b. Amosite (brown)(grunerite)
lesser to produce well-formed c. Crocidolite (blue)(riebeckite)
crystals I. Variations in minerals
a. Chemical variations

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

h. Fayalite (Fe-rich olivine) c. Malleable (easily

(denser) hammered into
i. Forsterite (Mg-rich olivine) shapes)
b. Polymorphs d. Sectile or can be cut
a. Diamond and graphite into thin shavings
b. Calcite and aragonite e. Elastic
c. Pyrite and marcasite g. Hardness
d. Olivine and spinel a. Mineral’s resistance to
(more compact and scratching or abrasion
occurs in subduction) b. Mohs scale of hardness
J. Physical properties i. Talc (Mg3Si4O10(OH)2)
a. Luster ii. Gypsum
a. Quality of reflected light (CaSO4.2H2O)
b. Metallic iii. Calcite (CaCO3)
c. Submetallic iv. Fluorite (CaF2)
d. Non-metallic v. Apatite (Ca5(PO4)3(F,
i. Vitreous Cl, OH)
ii. Earthy vi. Orthoclase (KAlSi3O8)
iii. Pearly vii. Quartz (SiO2)
iv. Greasy viii. Topaz
v. Silky (Al2SiO4(F,OH)2)
b. Ability to transmit light ix. Corundum (Al2O3)
a. Opaque x. Diamond (C)
b. Translucent c. Fingernail is 2.5
c. Transparent d. Copper penny is 3.5
c. Color e. A piece of glass is 5.5
a. Can be diagnostic f. Streak plate is 6.5
property of some h. Cleavage
minerals a. Ability to break in the
d. Streak direction of structural
a. Color of the powdered weakness
mineral i. Fracture
e. Crystal shape or habit a. Ability to break into
a. Equant irregular surfaces
b. Bladed j. Density or specific gravity
c. Fibrous a. Quarts is 2.65
d. Tabular b. Galena is 7.5
e. Prismatic c. Gold is 20
f. Platy k. Secondary includes magnetism
g. Blocky a. For magnetite
h. Botryoidal l. Taste
f. Tenacity a. For halite
a. Mineral’s toughness or m. Smell
resistance to breaking a. For sulfur
b. Brittle n. Feel
a. Talc feels soapy

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

b. Graphite feels greasy ii. Double chain amphiboles and

o. Double refraction sodic amphiboles
a. Calcite e. Tectosilicates
p. Reaction to HCl i. Quartz, feldspar, felspathoid,
a. For calcite zeolite
f. Phyllosilicates
Mineral classes i. Talc, chlorite, serpentine,
mica
1. Silicates (92% of the crust)
C. Polymerization
A. Light silicates (2.7 density)
a. The process of sharing oxygen
a. Feldspar
atoms between adjacent
i. Most common
tetrahedral
ii. More than 50% of the crust
2. Carbonates
iii. Plagioclase (has striations)
A. Calcite
iv. Potassium
B. Dolomite
b. Quartz
C. Aragonite
i. Hexagonal
3. Halides
ii. Relatively more resistant to
A. Halite
weathering
B. Fluorite
c. Clay minerals
4. Sulfides
i. Product of chemical
A. Galena (Pb)
weathering
B. Sphalerite (Zn)
ii. Half the volume of
C. Chalcopyrite (Cu)
sedimentary rocks
D. Realgar (As)
iii. Kaolinite used in manufacture
5. Oxides
of chinaware
A. Magnetite
iv. Montmorillonite absorbs great
B. Hematite
amount of water
6. Native elements
A. Dark silicates (3.2 to 3.6 density)
A. Gold
a. Olivine
B. Silver
b. Pyroxene (two cleavages at right
C. Carbon (Diamond)
angle)(87 degrees)
7. Gemstones
c. Amphibole (57 and 123 degrees
A. Corundum
cleavage)
a. Sapphire (blue)(Ti and Fe)
d. Biotite
b. Ruby (red) (Cr)
e. Garnet (6.5 to 7.5 hardness)
B. Diamond
B. Silicate structures
a. Colorless (shows brilliance or
a. Nesosilicates
flashes of color)
i. Olivine, garnet,
b. Yellow
aluminosilicates, sphene,
C. Beryl
staurolite, zircon
a. Emerald (green)
b. Sorosilicates
D. Opal (softer than quartz unlike all
i. Epidote, zoisite, clinozoisite
other gems)
c. Cyclosilicates
E. Jadeite or nephrite
i. Cordierite, beryl, tourmaline
a. Jade (green)
d. Inosilicates
i. Single chain opx and cpx Chapter 4 Igneous rocks

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

1. Magma b. Water and other volatiles such

A. Parent material of igneous rocks as Cl, F and S make up higher
B. Lava if it reaches the surface percentage that promotes ion
2. Igneous rocks migration so very large grains
A. Intrusive or plutonic are formed
B. Extrusive or volcanic 5. Igneous composition
C. Outcrop A. Felsic
a. Exposed crustal rocks from a. Granite
beneath b. Rhyolite
3. Nature of magma c. Obsidian
A. 3 parts d. Pumice
a. Liquid or melt with ions B. Intermediate
b. Solid or crystallized minerals a. Diorite
c. Gaseous or volatiles like b. Andesite
water, carbon dioxide and C. Mafic
sulfur dioxide a. Gabbro
B. Crystallization b. Basalt
a. Joining together to form D. Ultramafic
minerals as the magma cools a. Peridotite
C. Factors affecting crystal size b. Komatiite
a. Rate of cooling E. Pyroclastic rocks
b. Amount of silica a. Welded tuff
c. Amount of dissolved gases b. Volcanic breccia
D. Rocks consists of unordered ions 6. Generating magma from solid rock
are referred to as glass A. Role of heat
4. Igneous texture a. Geothermal gradient
A. Aphanitic b. 20 to 30 degrees Celsius
a. Rocks with holes are termed in the upper crust
vesicular B. Role of pressure
B. Phaneritic a. Decompression melting
C. Porphyritic 7. Bowen’s reaction series
a. Groundmass A. Discontinuous series
b. Phenocrysts a. Olivine
D. Glassy b. Pyroxene
a. Obisidian is an example from c. Amphibole
granitic melt d. Biotite
b. Strands of volcanic glass in B. Continuous series
Hawaii is called pele’s hair a. Anorthite
E. Pyroclastic (fragmental) b. Bytownite
a. Welded tuff which is c. Labradorite
composed of fine glass that d. Andesine
compacted during their flight e. Oligoclase
F. Pegmatitic f. Albite
a. From late stage crystallization C. Potassium feldspar
of fluid-rich magma a. Anorthoclase
b. Microcline

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

c. Orthoclase 3. Anatomy of a volcano

d. Sanidine A. Conduit or pipe
D. Muscovite mica B. Vent
E. Quartz C. Crater
8. How magmas evolve D. Caldera
A. Magmatic differentiation E. Parasitic cone
a. Formation of one or more 4. Types of volcano
secondary magmas from parent A. Shield
magma a. Mauna Loa
B. Crystal settling b. Kilauea
a. Crystallizing solids settle at the c. Skjalbreidur
bottom of the fluid d. Olympus Mons
C. Assimilation B. Cinder cones (or Scoria cones)
a. Xenoliths assimilate to the a. Most abundant
intruding magma b. Occur as parasitic cones of larger
D. Magma mixing volcanoes
a. Mafic magma mixes with felsic c. An example is Paricutin in Mexico
magma generating C. Stratovolcano or Composite cones
intermediate composition a. St. Helens
E. Partial melting b. Rainier
a. The melting of rocks in a c. Garibaldi
subducting slab d. Mayon
e. Fujiyama
Chapter 5 Volcanoes and Other Igneous f. Vesuvius
Activity g. Produces nuee ardente and lahars
D. Other volcanic landforms
1. Factors of explosiveness of volcanoes
a. Caldera (more than 1 km across
A. Magma composition
but those less than are called
B. Temperature
collapse pits)
C. Amount of dissolved gasses
a. Crater Lake-type
D. All of these affect magma’s viscosity
(explosive eruption of
(amount of silica)
silica-rich pumice and ash
2. Materials extruded during an eruption
fragments)
A. Lava flows
b. Hawaiian-type(collapse of
a. 90% of the volume of lava on
the top of shield volcano
Earth is basaltic, 1% felsic and the
due to ground drainage)
rest is andesitic
c. Yellowstone-type (collapse
b. Aa flows are rough and jagged
due to eruption of large
c. Pahoehoe flows are smooth and
volume of pumice and ash
ropey (higher temperature)
along ring fractures)
B. Gases
b. Fissure
C. Pyroclastic materials
a. Colombia Plateau
a. Ash and dust (less than 2 mm)
b. Deccan trap
b. Lapilli or cinders (2-64 mm)
c. Ontong Java Plateau
c. Bombs and blocks (more than 64
c. Lava domes
mm)
d. Welded tuff

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

a. Example is Mono Craters, i. Occurs at mountainous

California regions and forms talus
d. Volcanic pipes slopes below
a. Kimberly, South Africa b. Salt crystal growth
e. Volcanic necks c. Unloading
a. Shiprock, New Mexico i. A process producing onion-
5. Intrusive igneous activity like layer called sheeting
A. Types of pluton ii. Continued weathering
a. Dikes causes slabs to spall of
b. Sill producing exfoliation
c. Laccolith (upward arch) dome
d. Lopolith (downward arch) iii. Fractures produced by
e. Stock (<100 square km) pressure influence are
f. Batholith (>100 square km) called joints
6. Plate tectonics and igneous activity d. Thermal expansion
A. Convergent e. Biological activity
a. Volcanic island arc b. Chemical weathering
b. Continental volcanic arc a. Dissolution
B. Divergent b. Oxidation
a. Mid-ocean ridge c. Hydrolysis
b. Continental rift c. Spheroidal weathering
C. Intraplate a. Gives a rock more rounded or
a. Hotspots spherical shape because the
b. More than 40 are recognized edges and corners are greatly
c. Examples are Hawaii islands, weathered
Yellowstone, Canary islands B. Mass wasting
7. Living with volcanoes a. The soil transport under the
A. Volcanic hazards influence of gravity
a. Pyroclastic flows C. Erosion
b. Lahars a. The removal of material by a
c. Lava flow mobile agent usually wind, water
B. Monitoring volcanic activity or ice
a. Changes in the volcanic 2. Rates of weathering factors
earthquake patterns A. Rock characteristics
b. Inflation of the volcano B. Climate
c. Changes in the amount and/or C. Differential weathering
composition of the gases emitted a. The formation of landmasses and
d. Increase in ground temperature structures as a result of the
different rates of weathering of
Chapter 6 Weathering and Soil rocks
3. Soil
1. Earth’s external processes
A. Soil
A. Weathering
a. Combination of mineral and
a. Mechanical weathering
organic matter, water and air
a. Frost wedging
b. Humus is the decayed remains of
plants and animals

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

B. Regolith E. World soil orders

a. Layer of rock and mineral a. Alfisols (rich in Fe and Al in
fragments produced by weathering deciduous forest, fertile)
C. Controls of soil formation b. Andisols (parent material is
a. Parent material volcanic ash and cinders)
a. Residual soil (from bedrock) c. Aridosols (arid regions, contains
b. Transported soil (from gypsum and halite)
sediments) d. Entisols (young soils resembling
b. Time parent material usually in river
c. Climate deposits, most common)
a. Most influential controlling e. Gelisols (young soils on permafrost)
factor f. Histosols (organic soils, peat soil)
b. Hot and wet climate produces g. Inceptisols (young soil, in humid
thick soils climate)
c. Leaching is the process of h. Mollisols (Ca and Mg rich fertile soil)
removing materials through g. Oxisols (Fe and Al rich, highly
percolating waters leached poor soil)
d. Plants and animals h. Spodosol (in humid regions of sandy
e. Topography materials)
a. Steep slopes generate poor i. Ultisols (products of long period of
soils due to more erosion weathering)
b. Slope orientation also affects j. Vertisols (Large amounts of clay)
the type of soil formed F. How is soil eroded
D. The soil profile a. Through erosion by thin sheets of
a. O horizon water called sheet erosion
a. Consists of organic matter b. Tiny channels after the thin sheet
b. Upper portion is plant litter forms called rills
c. Lower portion is humus c. Deeper cuts in soil as rills enlarge
b. A horizon called gullies
a. Consists of mineral matter
b. O and A constitute the topsoil Chapter 7 Sedimentary Rocks
c. E horizon
1. Origin of sedimentary rocks
a. Zone of eluviation (washing
A. 5% of the crust are sedimentary
out of finer soil components)
rocks
b. Zone of leaching (depletion of
B. 75% of the landmasses are covered
soluble materials from above)
with sedimentary rocks
d. B horizon
C. Weathering
a. Zone of accumulation (of
D. Erosion, mass wasting and
materials from eluviation and
transportation
leaching in the E horizon)
E. Deposition
b. O, A, E and B constitute the
F. Diagenesis
solum or true soil
2. Types of sedimentary rocks
e. C horizon
A. Detrital sedimentary rocks
a. Partially altered parent
a. Shale
material
ii. 1/256 – 1/16 mm
f. Unweathered parent material
iii. Silt and clay-size particles

A.J. Bungcasan – Board Exam Review Notes 12

Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

iv. Forms thin layers called o. Travertine (common in caves,

laminae and has fissile escaping CO2 due to high
property temperature)
v. Forms in quiet environment p. Oolitic limestone (consists of
vi. Over 50% of all sedimentary small spherical grains called
rocks ooids)
b. Mudstone c. Dolostone
i. Forms blocks when it breaks i. Forms when Mg-rich fluids
ii. Clay-size and silt-size circulate limestones
c. Siltstone ii. Abundant in ancient
i. Silt-size grains and sticks sedimentary rock successions
between teeth and less clay- d. Chert
size particles i. Cryptocrystalline silica
d. Claystone ii. Can be found as bedded
i. Only clay-size grains cherts or nodules (secondary
e. Sandstone or replacement)
i. 1/16 to 2 mm iii. Formed by radiolarians and
ii. 20% of all sedimentary rocks diatoms
iii. Sorting and Rounding iv. Flint (dark colored due to
iv. Composition organic matter)
1. Quartz sandstone v. Jasper (red because of Fe
2. Arkose if >25% feldspar oxide)
and little bits of mica vi. Agate (banded form)
(granitic source) e. Evaporite
3. Graywacke (15% of the i. Rock salt
volume is matrix and rock ii. Rock gypsum
fragments and associated A. Organic sedimentary rocks
with submarine deposits a. Coal
made by turbidity currents) a. Forms when the swamp
f. Conglomerate and sedimentary which is oxygen deficient
breccia does not allow the complete
i. >2 mm (gravel size) decomposition of dead plants
ii. Occurs in steep slopes and b. Bacteria decompose these
turbulent flows plants and liberate oxygen
iii. Breccia (angular clast) and and hydrogen
Conglomerate (rounded c. As the elements escape the
clast) percentage of carbon
A. Chemical sedimentary rocks increases
a. Limestone d. The bacteria are not able to
k. 10% of all sedimentary rocks decompose completely these
l. Carbonate limestone plants since they are killed by
m. Coquina (coarse rock with the acids produce during
poorly cemented shells) decomposition
n. Chalk (soft, porous and made e. The partial decomposition
with the hard parts of marine then produce peat
microorganisms)

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

f. Burial of these peat produces 1. Floodplains

lignite (a soft brown coal) 2. Alluvial fan
g. Further burial increases b. Glaciers
temperature and pressure 1. Direct deposits by ice are
producing bituminous coal unsorted (till)
h. During folding and 2. Deposits by water from melted
deformation associated with ice are stratified and well sorted
mountain building, the (stratified drift)
bituminous coal are c. Deserts (eolian)
metamorphose 1. Well sorted deposits by wind
i. The metamorphic product is a 2. Accumulation of dust forms
black, shiny, metallic luster dunes
rock called anthracite 3. Heavy rains produce playa that
2. Turning sediment into sedimentary rock dries up leaving evaporites
A. Diagenesis d. Lake (lacustrine)
a. Collective term for all the changes 1. Small deltas
on sediments during deposition and 2. Lake beaches
lithification 3. Lake bars
B. Lithification 4. Finer sediments due to quiet
a. The process of transforming water
sediments into sedimentary rock by B. Marine
compaction and cementation a. Shallow marine (<200 meters deep)
3. Classification of sedimentary rocks 1. Land-derived sediments
A. Clastic and non-clastic/crystalline 2. Carbonate-rich muds
B. Detrital, chemical and organic 3. Coral reefs
4. Names of sedimentary rocks b. Deep marine (>200 meters deep)
A. Detrital 1. Turbidites
a. Shale or mudstone (<1/256 mm) C. Transitional (shoreline)
b. Siltstone (1/256 to 1/16 mm) a. Beach
c. Sandstone (1/16 to 2 mm) b. Tidal flats
d. Conglomerate and breccia (>2 mm) c. Spits
B. Chemical and organic d. Bars
a. Crystalline limestone e. Barrier islands
b. Travertine f. Deltas
c. Biochemical limestone 6. Nature and distribution of seafloor
1. Coquina sediments
2. Chalk A. Terrigenous
3. Fossiliferous limestone a. Coarse nearshore deposits
d. Chert (light colored) b. Fine abyssal clay
e. Flint (dark colored) B. Biogenous
f. Rock gypsum a. Calcareous ooze (from
g. Rock salt cocolithopores and foraminifers)
h. Bituminous coal b. Siliceous ooze (from diatoms and
5. Sedimentary environments radiolarians)
A. Continental c. Phosphate-rich materials (from
a. Streams bones, teeth, and scales of fish)

A.J. Bungcasan – Board Exam Review Notes 14

Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

C. Hydrogenous by interaction of ions is called

a. Manganese nodules metasomatism)
b. Calcium carbonates 3. Metamorphic textures
c. Metal sulfides A. Foliated textures
d. Evaporites a. Rock or slatey cleavage (splitting of
7. Sedimentary facies low grade metamorphic rocks across
A. Sets of sedimentary rock successions (or oblique to) the bedding plane)
B. Limestone facies b. Schistosity (planar or layered
C. Shale facies structure) (clay metamorphosed to
D. Sandstone facies mica are larger while feldspar and
8. Sedimentary structures quartz are deformed and appear as
A. Strata or bed flat or lens-shaped)
B. Bedding planes (flat surfaces along c. Gneissic texture (banded
which rocks tend to separate or break) appearance due to separation of
C. Cross-bedding dark and light minerals)
D. Graded beds (fining upwards) B. Non foliated textures
E. Ripple marks (symmetrical ones are a. Interlocking crystals
called oscillation ripple marks) b. Porphyroblastic
F. Mud cracks (formed by wet and dry i. Garnet, staurolite and andalusite
climate) forms large crystals
G. Fossils (porphyroblast)
H. Bouma Sequence ii. Muscovite, biotite and quartz
a. E – Pelagic and hemipelagic forms minute crystals (matrix)
laminated mud 4. Metamorphic rocks
b. D - Laminated silt-sand A. Foliated rocks
c. C - Cross-laminated sand a. Slate
d. B - Laminated sand b. Schist
e. A - Massive sand(overly scoured c. Gneiss
base) B. Non foliated rocks
a. Marble
Chapter 8 Metamorphism and Metamorphic b. Quartzite
Rocks 5. Metamorphic environments
A. Contact or thermal
1. Metamorphism terminologies
a. Happens at metamorphic aureole
A. Metamorphism
b. Hornfels are produced
B. Low grade metamorphism (200 to 320
c. Quartzite sometimes formed
degrees Celsius)
d. Also marble
C. High grade metamorphism (>320
B. Hydrothermal
degrees Celsius but less than melting)
a. Hydrothermal fluids are
D. Parent rock (protolith)
responsible
2. Agents of metamorphism
b. Skarns are sometimes produced
A. Heat (from radioactive decay and
C. Burial and subduction zone
residual heat from Earth’s formation)
D. Regional
B. Pressure (confining pressure and
E. Impact or shock
differential stress)
a. Products of these are called
C. Chemically active fluids (water and
impactiles
other volatiles) (change in composition

A.J. Bungcasan – Board Exam Review Notes 15

Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

b. Dense quarts called coesite forms B. Law of superposition

c. Beads of silica rich glasses called a. In an undeformed layers of rocks,
tektites form (higher silica the layers on top are younger than
content than obsidian so not from at the bottom
volcanic source) C. Principle of original horizontality
F. Metamorphism along faults a. Sediments are originally deposited
a. Produces fault breccia (broken and as horizontal layers
crushed rock fragments) b. By Nicolaus Steno (father of modern
b. Produces fault gouge (soft, Stratigraphy)
uncemented, claylike material) D. Principle of cross-cutting relationship
c. Mylonites are produced (ductile a. A fault or intruded magma is older
deformation) than the rocks to which it cuts
6. Metamorphic zones through
A. Textural variations E. Principle of inclusions
a. As the grain size increases, and so a. The included fragments or clasts are
does the grade of metamorphism older
B. Index minerals F. Unconformities
a. Chlorite (indicates low grade) a. Represents a period during which
b. Sillimanite (indicates high grade) deposition stopped, then erosion
c. Migmatites (highest grade of then deposition of new sets of
metamorphism) (light bands of light sediments
silicates start to melt) b. Angular unconformity
7. Interpreting metamorphic environments i. Tilted or folded beds are overlain
A. Metamorphic facies by horizontal beds
a. Hornfels c. Disconformity
b. Zeolite i. Rock layers on either side are
c. Greenschist (chlorite, epidote parallel but separated by erosion
and serpentine) d. Paraconformity
d. Amphibolite i. Rock layers on either side are
e. Blueschist (blue amphibole parallel but no erosion, can only
called glaucophane) be identified by fossils
f. Eclogite (high P and T, green e. Nonconformity
cpx called omphacite) i. Break separates igneous or
g. Granulite metamorphic layers from the
B. Metamorphic facies series sedimentary layers
a. Subduction zone (zeolite, G. Correlation
blueschist, eclogite) a. Rocks with similar ages are
b. Regional (zeolite, greenschist, correlated on different places
amphibolite, granulite) H. Principle of fossil or faunal succession
a. Fossil organisms succeed one
Chapter 9 Geologic Time another in a determinable order
and therefore any time period
1. Relative dating – key principles
can be recognized by its fossil
A. Relative dating
content
a. Rocks are arranged in chronological
b. By William Smith
order without knowing their age in
2. Fossils: evidence of past life
years

A.J. Bungcasan – Board Exam Review Notes 16

Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

A. Petrified b. Alpha decay (2 protons and 2

a. Small cavities and pores are neutrons
filled with mineral matter c. Beta decay (1 more proton)(neutron
B. Replacement to proton)
a. Cell walls and other solid d. Electron capture (1 less
materials are removed and proton)(proton to neutron)
replaced by mineral matter e. Oldest rocks are acasta gneiss at
C. Mold Great Slave Lake, Northern Canada
a. Shell or other structures are (4.03 Ga)
buried and dissolved by f. Oldest mineral grains are zircon at
groundwater Jack Hills, Western Australia (4.3
D. Cast Ga)
a. Hollow spaces are filled with C. Half life
mineral matter a. Time required for half of the
E. Carbonization nuclei to decay
a. Fine sediments squeeze out D. Radioactive elements
fluid and leaves a thin residue a. Rb-87 (to Sr-87, 47 Ga)
of carbon preserving the b. Th-232 (Pb-208, 14.1 Ga)
remains c. U-238 (Pb 206, 4.5 Ga)
F. Impression d. U-235 (Pb 207, 713 Ma)
a. A replica of the surface if thin e. K-40 (to Argon 40, 1.25 Ga)
carbon film is lost f. C-14 (to N-14, 5730 years)
G. Amber i. Radiocarbon dating
a. Insects trapped inside the ii. Only for materials under
hardened resin of trees called 70,000 years old
amber iii. Developed by Willard F. Libby
H. Trace fossils (Ichnology) 6. The geologic time scale
a. Tracks (animal footprints) A. Precambrian (super eon) (88% of Earth
b. Burrows (tubes made by history)
burrowing animals) a. Hadean (4.6 Ga – 4 Ga)
c. Coprolites (fossil dung) b. Archean (4 Ga – 2.5 Ga)
d. Gastroliths (stomach stones) c. Proterozoic (2.5 Ga – 542 Ma)
3. Conditions favoring fossilization B. Phanerozoic (visible life eon, began 542
A. Rapid burial Ma)
B. Presence of hard parts (such as shells) a. Paleozoic
4. Requirement for index fossil i. Cambrian(542-488)
A. Widespread ii. Ordovician(488-444)
B. Limited to a short span of geological iii. Silurian(444-416)
time iv. Devonian(416-359)
5. Absolute dating v. Carboniferous
A. Reviewing basic atomic structure 1. Mississippian(359-318)
a. Electrons 2. Pennsylvanian(318-299)
b. Protons vi. Permian(299-251)
c. Neutrons b. Mesozoic
B. Radioactivity i. Triassic(251-199.6)
a. Spontaneous decay of nuclei ii. Jurassic(199.6-145.5)

A.J. Bungcasan – Board Exam Review Notes 17

Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

iii. Cretaceous(145.5-65.5) b. Syncline (downfolds)

c. Cenozoic c. Overturned (one limb is tilted
i. Paleogene beyond vertical)
1. Paleocene (65.5-55.8) d. Recumbent (lying on one side)
2. Eocene(55.8-33.9) e. Monoclines (associated with
3. Oligocene(33.9-23) blind thrust faults, step-like
ii. Neogene folds)
1. Miocene(23-5.3) 5. Domes and basins
2. Pliocene(5.3-2.6) A. Dome (upwarping) (oldest at the center)
iii. Quaternary B. Basin (downwarping) (youngest at the
1. Pleistocene(2.6-11.7k) center)
2. Holocene(<11.7k) C. Hogbacks are more resistant ridges
associated with folds
Chapter 10 Crustal Deformation 6. Faults
A. Parts of a fault
1. Deformation
a. Hanging wall
A. All changes in shape, size, orientation or
b. Footwall
position of a rock mass
c. Fault gouge (soft, clayish
B. 3 types
material due to movement)
a. Elastic deformation
d. Slickensides (polished striated
b. Ductile deformation (weak)
surfaces due to movement)
c. Brittle deformation (strong)
e. Fault scarps only in dip-slips
2. Stress
B. Types of fault
A. Amount of force over an area
A. Dip-slip
B. 3 types
a. Normal
a. Compressional
i. Extensional
b. Tensional
ii. Hanging wall moves down
c. Shear
iii. Dips usually at 60 degrees
C. Strain is an irreversible change in shape
iv. Some associated with fault
and size of a rock body caused by stress
block mountains
3. Mapping geologic structures
v. Horsts are uplifted blocks
A. Strike
vi. Grabens are down-dropped
a. Direction of the line which the
blocks
rock structure makes with a
vii. Detachment faults are
horizontal plane
nearly horizontal normal
B. Dip
faults
a. Angle and direction of
b. Reverse
inclination
i. Compressional
4. Folds
ii. Hanging wall moves up
A. Parts of a fold
iii. High angle ones do not
a. Limbs (2 sides of the fold)
occur much at large scale
b. Hinge (maximum curvature,
c. Thrust (reverse but <45
inclined ones are called plunge)
degrees)
c. Axial plane (imaginary plane
i. Klippe is an isolated block
dividing the fold symmetrically)
remnant of a thrusted sheet
B. Types of fold
which was eroded
a. Anticline (upfolds)

A.J. Bungcasan – Board Exam Review Notes 18

Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

ii. Nappe is a large body of a. Made of dragon and frogs

rock that has displaced 2 km b. The dragon drops ball to the
from its initial position due frog to the direction of the
to thrust faulting (hanging vibration
wall) or folding (recumbent D. Seismograms
fold) a. Records obtained by
B. Strike-slip seismographs
a. Right lateral (dextral, San E. Earthquake waves
Andreas) a. Surface wave
b. Left lateral (sinistral, Phillipine i. Love wave
Fault System) ii. Rayleigh wave
C. Oblique-slip b. Body wave
a. Right lateral movement i. P-wave
displaced to the right forms ii. S-wave
pull-apart basins 3. Locating earthquake
b. Left lateral movement A. Determine the difference between
displaced to the right forms the arrival of the P and S waves
push-up mountains B. The larger gap means the farther
7. Joints the earthquake from the seismic
A. Fractures with no appreciable station
displacement C. Using 3 seismic locations, the
common area will be the location of
Chapter 11 Earthquakes the earthquake (triangulation)
4. Earthquake depths
1. Key terms
A. Shallow (<70 km)
A. Earthquake
B. Intermediate (70 to 300 km)
a. Earth’s vibration
C. Deep (>300 km)
B. Focus (hypocenter)
D. Wadati-Benioff zone
a. Origin of earthquake from
a. Regions of seismic activities
underground
5. Earthquake size
C. Epicenter
A. Intensity
a. The surface directly above the
a. Based on the amount of damage
focus
b. Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale
D. Aftershock
(from I to XII)
a. The vibrations after the main
B. Magnitude
earthquake
a. Amount of energy released
E. Foreshock
b. Richter Magnitude Scale (1 to
a. Small quakes preceding big
10) (ML)
ones
i. 10 fold increase in wave
F. Fault creep
amplitude in each unit
a. Slow gradual displacement
ii. 32 fold increase in energy in
along fault zone
each unit (31.6)
2. Seismology
c. Moment Magnitude (Mw)
A. Study of earthquake waves
i. Based on average
B. Seismograph
displacement, area of rupture
a. Records seismic waves
and shear strength of the
C. Ancient Chinese seismograph

A.J. Bungcasan – Board Exam Review Notes 19

Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

faulted rock (how much strain a. 410 to 660 km

energy a rock can store b. 3.5 to 3.7 g/cm3
before slipping and breaking c. Olivine changes to Beta
and release enegy) spinel called
ii. San Francisco (7.9) and Wadsleyite(upper)
Alaskan (9.2) Earthquakes d. Beta spinel changes to
were formerly 8.3 magnitude Ringwoodite (lower)
6. Destruction from seismic vibrations e. Capable of holding great
A. Liquefaction amounts of water (2% by
B. Seiches weight)
a. Rhythmic sloshing of lake waters c. Lower mantle
C. Tsunami i. From 660 to 2891 km
a. Seismic sea waves ii. Olivine and pyroxene changes to
D. Landslide perovskite (Fe, Mg) SiO3
E. Ground subsidence iii. 56% of the volume of the planet
F. Fire iv. Perovskite is the single most
abundant material within Earth
Chapter 12 Earth’s Interior C. D”layer
a. The layer 200 km above the
1. Earth’s layers
Gutenberg discontinuity (CMB)
A. Crust
D. Gutenberg discontinuity
a. Oceanic crust
a. Boundary between rocky mantle
i. 7 km thick
and liquid outer core
ii. 5 to 7 km/s P-wave speed
E. Core
iii. 3.0 g/cm3 density
a. Outer core
b. Continental crust
i. S-waves drops from 7.3
i. 35 to 40 km thick
km/s to 0
ii. Thickest in Himalayas and
ii. 5.6 to 9.9 g/cm3 density
thinnest north American crust is
iii. Contains Fe and Ni and
Basin and Range province
small amounts of S, O,
iii. 2.7 g/cm3 density
Si and H
B. Mohorovicic discontinuity
b. Lehman discontinuity
a. Seismic waves speed changes from
i. Inner core-outer core
6 to 8 km/s
boundary
b. Cross-over is the point where the
c. Inner core
waves from crust and refracted
i. Only 1/142 of the
wave from mantle coincides
volume of Earth
B. Mantle
2. Earth’s temperature
a. 2900 km thick
A. 5500 degrees Celsius at the center and
b. Upper mantle
0 at the surface
i. 660 km thick
B. Sources of internal heat
ii. Made up of peridotite
a. Residual heat during the
iii. 3 layers
formation of the planet
1. Lithosphere
b. Radioactive isotope decay
2. Asthenosphere
i. U-238
3. Transition zone (410 to 660
ii. U-235
km)(3.5 to 3.7 g/cm3)

A.J. Bungcasan – Board Exam Review Notes 20

Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

iii. Th-232 C. At any location, the direction that

iv. K-40 the magnetic field is pointing can be
C. Geothermal gradient measured in two angles
a. Average temperature at each a. Declination
depth i. Direction of the magnetic
b. 25 degrees Celsius per km on north pole with respect to the
average geographic north pole
c. Base of lithosphere is 1400 b. Inclination
degrees Celsius i. Downward tilt of magnetic
d. Base of mantle is 2800 degrees lines of force at any location
Celsius (at D’’ layer) ii. At equator it is horizontal
3. Earth’s gravity (Zero degrees)
A. Lowest at equator (9.78 m/s2) (6378 km iii. At the magnetic north it is
diameter) pointing downwards
B. Highest at poles (9.83 m/s2) (6357 km E. Magnetic reversal
diameter) a. Decrease in magnetic strength
C. Geoid is the shape of Earth that differs by 10 % and reverses polarity
from what is expected due to rotation b. Magnetosphere protects the
D. Seismic tomography is the seismic planet from charged particles
observations used to create a 3-D model from the Sun called solar winds
of Earth 5. Global dynamic connections
4. Earth’s magnetic field A. Pangaea break up 200 Ma and great
A. Due to convective flow of the liquid amounts of subduction occurred and
outer core plunged to the base of the mantle
a. Outermost part cools and B. This then displaces rocks at the base of
crystallizes then sinks due to the mantle and cools the upper most
escaping heat (thermal outer core
convection) C. This speeds up the convection and
b. Solid iron at the bottom prevents reversal
crystallizes and releases D. 80 Ma years later the core reversal
buoyant fluids that rises stopped for 35 Ma
(chemical convection) E. The melted subducted slabs at the outer
c. Radioactive decay such as K-40 core rises to the surface as mantle
adds to the thermal convection plumes creating flood basalts
B. The convection moves in a spiral F. After tens of million years, there were
manner due to rotation of the planet enormous outpourings of lava
(Coriolis effect)
C. Since the fluid is electrically charged, it Chapter 13 Divergent Boundaries: Origin and
generates magnetism called Evolution of the Ocean Floor
geodynamo
1. Mapping the seafloor
D. Polar wandering
A. Bathymetry
A. Moves 20 km per year
a. Topography of the ocean floor
B. Current magnetic north pole is in
B. Sonar
Ellesmere Island, Northern Canada
a. Sound navigation and ranging
C. Seismic reflection profile

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

a. Topographic profile of the ocean C. Mid-Atlantic ridge and Mid-Indian ridge

floor produced from reflection of (1 to 5 cm per year)
artificial sound waves D. East Pacific Rise (more than 9 cm per
2. Continental margins year)
A. Passive continental margin 5. Nature of oceanic crust (ophiolite complex
a. Continental shelf or suite)
i. Flooded extension of A. Deep-sea sediments
continents B. Pillow basalts
b. Continental slope C. Sheeted dike complex
i. Relatively steeper D. Massive gabbro
c. Continental rise E. Layered Gabbro
i. Consists of sediments from F. Peridotite
the shelf to the deep ocean 6. Interaction between seawater and oceanic
floor deposited by turbidity crust
currents A. Seawater interacting with basaltic
ii. Sediments from canyons oceanic rocks causing hydrothermal
form deep-sea fan metamorphism (mafic minerals turns
B. Active continental margin into talc and serpentine)
a. Accretionary wedge B. Seawater also dissolves ions of silica,
i. Chaotic accumulation of Fe, Cu, Au and Ag from basalts forming
sediments from the collision buoyant, metallic-rich solutions called
of the plates black smokers
3. Deep ocean basins (area between margins C. The hot seawater mixes with cold
and ridges) seawater precipitating the massive,
A. Deep-ocean trench metallic sulfide deposits
a. Often paralleled with volcanic 7. Mechanisms for continental rifting
island arc or continental volcanic A. Mantle plume
arc a. Large outpourings of lava
B. Abyssal plain preceded the rifting
a. Deep flat features b. Evidence comes from the
C. Seamounts existence of flood basalts at
a. Submarine volcanoes South America and Africa which
D. Guyots was thought to be connected
a. Flat-topped seamounts before
b. Also called tablemounts c. Existence of hotspot activity in
E. Oceanic plateaus Iceland that was thought to
a. Areas of large outpourings of initiate the rifting of Greenland
basaltic lavas onto the ocean from Northern Europe
floor B. Slab pull and slab suction
4. Oceanic ridges a. Continental crust are being
A. Some axis of some segments of the stretch during the overriding
ridge have down-faulted structures beneath the oceanic crust
called rift valley b. The trench retreats and is
B. Gently sloping less rugged feature of referred to as roll back
fast moving ridges is called rise 7. Destruction of ocean basins due to
subduction

A.J. Bungcasan – Board Exam Review Notes 22

Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

A. Africa collides with Eurasia destroying 2. Features of subduction zone

the Tethys sea leaving now a small A. Deep-ocean trench
remnant that is the Mediterranean Sea a. Mariana trench (deep)
B. Farallon plate located in the eastern b. Cascadia subduction zone (lack
part of the Pacific got destroyed during a well-defined trench)(Juan de
collision with North American plate Fuca)
C. The remnants of Farallon plate creates c. Peru-Chile trench (intermediate
Juan de Fuca, Cocos and Nazca plates depth)
D. During the destruction of the Farallon B. Volcanic arc
plate, the spreading center collided with a. Volcanic island arc
North America and subducts at the b. Continental volcanic arc
California Trench (Andean-type plate margins)
E. Then the creation of a transform fault c. Aleutian subduction zone (West
system due to the difference in motion part is oceanic-oceanic while the
direction of Pacific and North America East part is oceanic-continental)
(San Andreas Fault System) C. Forearc
a. Between volcanic arc and ocean
Chapter 14 Convergent: Origin of Mountains trench
b. Consists of pyroclastic materials
1. Mountains
from the volcanic arc and ocean
A. Process of mountain building is called
sediments from subducting slab
orogenesis
c. Uplifting of accretionary wedge
B. Diastrophic forces lead to the folding,
acts as a barrier for the
faulting, uplift and subsidence of the
deposition of sediments from
lithosphere
volcanic arc to the trench thus
a. Orogeny is the process of
depositing much sedimentary
mountain building
rocks and sediments to the
b. Epeirogeny is the upheaval or
forarc region creating a forarc
depression of large areas of
basin
cratons without folding or
d. Compressional forces
faulting and includes
D. Backarc
i. Isostatic movements
a. At the back of the volcanic arc
such as rebound of land
b. Tensional forces dominate that
after an ice sheet
results in the formation of
melted
backarc basin
ii. Cymatogeny is the
c. Continued stretching of the
arching or doming of
basin creates marginal oceanic
rocks with little
basins
deformation 10 – 1,000
3. Orogenesis at Andean-type margins
km
A. Starts with the plate being a passive
C. Sample mountains
margin
a. Cordillera (North America)
B. Subduction of oceanic crust over the
b. Andes (South America)
continental crust resulting in magma
c. Appalachians (East America)
generation
d. Caledonian (NW Europe)
C. Formation of continental volcanic arc
e. Alps and Himalayas (Eurasia)
and emplacement of pluton
f. Ural (North Eurasia)

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

D. Development of accretionary wedge d. The marginal sea got destroyed

which is composed of ocean sediments as it is being subducted beneath
from subducting slab, pyroclastics and the fragment of North America
weathered materials from volcanic arc e. Collision of North America and
and buoyant metamorphosed sediments its microcontinent creating Blue
that rise from the plunging slab Ridge/Western Piedmont
4. Continental collisions f. Second episode of orogenesis
A. Features are called fold-and-thrust began at 400 Ma
belts g. As the closing of North Atlantic
B. Examples include Appalachian Valley, continues, the volcanic arc
northern Alps and Himalayas and created by the subduction zone
Canadian Rockies at the right side of the North
C. Zone where two continents collide is Atlantic collided with North
called suture that often preserves America creating Carolina Slate
ophiolites or portion of once oceanic Belt/Eastern Piedmont
crust h. The final orogeny began 250 to
D. Himalayas 300 Ma when Africa collided
a. Orogenesis began 45 Ma with North America
b. Collision between India and Asia i. Upon the break up Pangaea, the
c. Northern margin of India is North Atlantic began to form
passive while Southern margin again separating Africa and
of Asia is active North America but a remnant of
d. The oceanic part between the Africa remains intact with North
plates got destroyed and crustal America
thickening of continents F. Alps
followed a. Collision between Africa and
e. Much of Asia got deformed Europe during closing of Tethys
(continental escape) while India Sea
was not because it is composed G. Urals
of crystalline Precambrian rocks a. Collision between Northern
(shield) Europe (Baltica) and North Asia
E. Appalachians (Siberia) during the assembly of
a. Resulted from 3 distinct Pangaea
orogenesis 4. Orogenesis of terranes
b. Began 750 Ma during break up A. Accreted crustal blocks to a continent is
of Rodinia which rifted NA called terrane
from Europe and Africa creating a. Exotic terrane is not the same
ocean basin of North Atlantic b. Suspect terrane is unknown
and a fragment of North history
America creating also a c. Composite terrane is formed
marginal basin from identifiable terranes
c. At 600 Ma, the North Atlantic B. Terranes are distinct and recognizable
began to close due to formation series of rock formations that are
of subduction zones on either transported by tectonic processes
side C. Oceanic plates sometimes has mature
seamounts (light rocks due to magmatic

A.J. Bungcasan – Board Exam Review Notes 24

Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

differentiation), microcontinent or concave upward curve like a

volcanic island arc spoon
D. These buoyant features do not subduct iii. Translational slide where
E. When these features collide with a mass material moves along
continent, they were accreted flat surface such as joint, fault
5. Fault-block mountains or bedding plane
A. Mountains formed by continental rifting c. Flow
which are bounded by high angle i. Material moves as viscous
normal faults causing extension and fluid
creation of half-grabens C. Rate of movement
B. Example is Basin and Range Province a. Rock avalanche (fast)
6. Vertical movements of crust b. Creep (slow)
A. Isostacy D. Slump
a. The concept of a floating crust a. Downward sliding of
in a gravitational balance unconsolidated material
b. Pratt model (different heights along a curve surface
due to different densities) E. Rockslide
c. Airy model (different heights a. Block of bedrock breaks
due to different thickness) loose
B. Isostatic adjustment b. Debris slide is used if
a. Establishment of new materials are
gravitational equilibrium unconsolidated
C. Continental uplift by mantle plume F. Debris flow
a. South Africa is being uplifted by a. Flow of soil and regolith
a superplume with large amount of water
b. Also called mudflows that
Chapter 15 Mass Wasting: The Work of Gravity most occur in semi-arid
regions
1. Mass wasting
c. Lahars are debris flows with
A. Controls and triggers
mostly volcanic materials
a. Water
G. Earthflow
b. Slope
a. Occurs on hillsides in humid
c. Removal of vegetation
regions during rains and
d. Earthquake
snowmelt
2. Classification of mass wasting
b. Most of the materials are
A. Type of material
clay-rich
B. Type of motion
H. Creep
a. Fall
a. Gradual movement of soil
i. Involves free fall of detached
and regolith
pieces
I. Solifluction
b. Slide
a. Gradual movement of
i. Zone of weakness separating
saturated soil
from a stable underlying
b. Common in permafrost
material
specifically above it in the
ii. Rotational slide where the
active layer which thaws
surface of rupture is a

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

during summer and b. Shape, size and roughness of

refreezes during winter channel
i. Lesser contact with the channel
Chapter 16 Running Water the faster the water flow
E. Discharge
1. Hydrologic cycle
i. Volume of water per unit of time
A. The unending cycle of Earth’s waters
ii. Affected by the velocity
B. Infiltration is the movement of water
iii. Cross sectional area multiplied by
through the soil
velocity
C. Runoff is the surface movement of water
5. Changes from upstream to downstream
D. Transpiration is the release of water by
A. Longitudinal profile
plants to the atmosphere
a. Cross-sectional view of the stream
E. Evapotranspiration is the loss of water by
b. From source (head or headwaters)
land through evaporation and
c. To mouth
transpiration
B. Decrease in gradient
2. Running water
C. Increase in discharge due to wider
A. Sheet flow is the flowing of runoff across
channel and smoother bed
thin sheets of the surface
6. Work of running water
B. Infiltration capacity is the amount of
A. Potholes
water that runs off rather than sinking
a. Rounded depressions on river beds
a. Intensity and duration of rainfall
B. Types of sediment loads
C. Drainage basin is land area that
a. Dissolved load
contributes water to the river system
b. Bed load
a. Separated by a divide
i. Moves by saltation (jumping and
3. River system
bouncing)
A. Zone of erosion
c. Suspended load
B. Zone of transportation (trunk stream)
i. Factors that control suspension
C. Zone of deposition
include water velocity
4. Stream flow
ii. Settling velocity (Stoke’s Law)
A. Laminar flow
1. w = [(ƿl – ƿ)g/18 µ]d2
a. Water moves in straight lines
2. settling velocity, w is equal to
parallel to the stream
the density difference between
B. Turbulent flow
particles and fluid multiplied by
a. Water moving in erratic fashion
acceleration due to gravity, g
creating whirlpools and eddies
all over viscosity µ times 18
C. Reynolds Number
multiplied by diameter of the
a. R = Udƿ /µ
particles squared
b. Where U is velocity of particle
3. Applies when particles are
c. d is the diameter of the particle
perfect spheres
d. ƿ is the density of the particle
C. Capacity
e. µ is the viscosity of the liquid
a. Maximum load of sediment that the
f. Turbulent >2000
stream can carry
g. Laminar <500
D. Competence
D. Factors contributing to the velocity of
a. The largest particle size that the
stream
stream can carry
a. Gradient
E. Deposition of stream
i. Slope of the stream channel

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

a. Alluvium D. Stream valley

i. Materials deposited by a stream a. Consists of channel, valley bottom
b. Sorting and channel walls
i. Separation of different sizes of b. Valley deepening
sediments i. Occurs near headwaters where
7. Stream channels gradient is steep
A. Bedrock channel ii. Most prominent features are
a. Streams that are actively cutting into rapids and waterfalls
solid rock c. Valley widening
b. Occurs in headwaters where gradient i. Occurs near the mouth
is steep ii. Creates flood plain which is a flat
B. Alluvial channel valley floor covered with alluvium
a. Bed and banks consists of due to flooding (erosional and
consolidated sediments depositional)
b. Meandering streams E. Incised meanders
i. Streams that moves in sweeping a. Stream channels that flow in steep,
bends called meanders narrow valleys
ii. Transports finer sediments b. Channels begin to down cut due to
iii. Cutbanks changes in sea level (uplift or
a. Active zone of erosion outside dropping of sea level)
the meander c. Produces new, lower level of flood
iv. Point bars plain due to down cutting then
a. Zone of deposition inside the widening
meanders d. The remnants of former flood plain
v. Cutoff is now called terrace
a. Shorter channels (chute) 8. Depositional landforms
vi. Oxbow lake A. Bars
a. Abandoned bends a. Temporary channel deposits
c. Braided streams composed of sand and gravel
i. Complex network of converging B. Deltas
and diverging channels a. Forms when streams enter ocean or
ii. Consist of coarse-grained bed lake
loads and variable discharge b. Occur in 3 types of bed
forming branching channels i. Foreset bed
C. Base level 1. Inclined bed composed of
a. The downward limit to stream coarse grains downslope
erosion fronting the delta as the river
b. Ultimate base level (sea level) enters a lake
c. Local or temporary base level ii. Topset bed
i. Lakes 1. Horizontal beds deposited
ii. Resistant rocks during flood
iii. Main streams for tributaries iii. Bottomset bed
d. Graded stream 1. Horizontal beds composed of
i. Has correct slope and other finer silts and clay some
characteristics necessary for it to distance from the mouth after
just transport sediments the topset bed

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

c. Main channel dividing into smaller D. Trellis pattern

channels called distributaries a. Rectangular pattern but the
C. Natural levees tributaries are parallel to one
a. Ridges parallel to channels that are another
deposited by flooding b. Forms in bed rocks with alternating
b. Coarser sediments near the sides bands of resistant and less resistant
while finer sediments on the far side rocks
c. The area behind the levees where c. Occur in folded Appalachian
the water cannot go back to the Mountains which exhibits both weak
channel because of the levee is and strong strata outcrop in parallel
called back swamp belts
d. When tributaries flow parallel to the 10. Headward erosion
main channel because it is block by A. Erosion on the head valley upslope
the levee, it is called yazoo B. Occurs when sheet flows become
tributary (named after Yazoo River concentrated at the head
along the Mississippi River) C. Results in the diversion of the drainage
D. Alluvial fans of one stream into another (Stream
a. Fan-shaped deposits at the mouth piracy)
of a valley from mountainous or D. The stream with steeper gradient has
upland area more energy in it therefore eroding its
b. Alluvial fans in arid regions have head valley and cutting the divide then
debris-flow deposits interbedded extending its tributaries into the slower
with alluvium stream
c. Coalesced alluvial fans in arid E. Stream piracy produces steep-sided,
regions are called bajada narrow gorges with no running water
9. Drainage pattern called water gaps
A. Dendritic pattern F. This water gaps are the steep-walled
a. Irregular branching tributaries notch as the stream cuts through a
b. Forms where underlying bedrock is structure such as a ridge
uniform such as massive igneous G. Remnants of the water gaps are called
rock or flat-lying sedimentary strata wind gaps
c. The pattern is mainly controlled by H. Wind gaps form when the source of the
the slope of the land rather than the stream is no longer providing water to
resistance to erosion of the bed rock the proceeding channel due to stream
B. Radial pattern piracy
a. Streams diverge from a central area I. Streams that have been uplifted is called
b. Forms in isolated volcanic cones or antecedent stream
domal uplifts J. Streams that occur on top of a folded
C. Rectangular pattern strata down cuts this strata and is called
a. Many right-angle bends of superposed stream
tributaries 11. Floods and flood control
b. Forms when bedrock is crisscrossed A. Recurrence interval or return
with by a series of joints and faults period
c. The geometric pattern of the a. Average interval of time
structure guides the direction of the between the occurrence of a
stream flow flood

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

b. A flood discharge that has a 1% 2. Distribution of groundwater

chance of occurring for more A. Zone of soil moisture
than a year is a 100-year flood a. Near-surface zone with roots that
(1 yr/1% = 100 yrs) held up water molecules
B. Types of flood B. Zone of saturation (phreatic zone)
a. Regional floods a. Zone where open spaces in
i. Caused by rapid snow rocks and sediments are filled
melting and heavy rains with water
b. Flash floods b. Upper limit of this zone is called
i. Rapid rise in water level water table
ii. Causes are intense and long c. Upward the water table where
duration of rainfall, surface groundwater is held by surface
conditions and topography tension in tiny passages
iii. Lag time is the time between grains of sediments is
required for the water to called capillary fringe
move from where it fell to C. Unsaturated zone (vadose zone)
the stream a. Zone above the phreatic zone
c. Ice-jam floods b. The area above water table
i. Water on a frozen river rises comprising the capillary fringe
but is blocked by the ice but and zone of soil moisture
when this ice dam breaks, it 3. Groundwater and stream interaction
creates flood A. Gaining stream
d. Dam-failure floods a. Streams gaining water from the
i. Failure of dams and artificial inflow of groundwater
levees b. The elevation of the water table
C. Flood control must be higher than the level of
a. Artificial levees the surface of the stream
b. Flood-control dams B. Losing stream
c. Channelization a. Streams losing water from the
i. Altering the natural channel outflow of groundwater
of streams to promote faster b. The elevation of the water table
flowing of water therefore is lower than the level of the
preventing overflowing surface of the stream
d. Non-structural approach C. Intermediate between the two
i. Identifying zones of high a. A stream gaining at some ends
risk flash floods and and losing at some ends
promote appropriate land 4. Factors influencing storage and movement
use of groundwater
A. Porosity
Chapter 17 Groundwater a. The percentage of the total
volume of rock or sediment that
1. Some numbers
has pore spaces
A. Largest volume of freshwater is glacial
B. Permeability
ice
a. The ability to transmit fluid
B. Second is groundwater
b. Percentage of interconnected
C. More than 94% of all liquid freshwater is
pores
groundwater

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

i. Specific yield is the A. Natural outflow of groundwater due

portion of groundwater to intersection of the water table to
that will drain under the the surface
influence of gravity B. Perched water table is a localized
ii. Specific retention is the water table whenever an aquitard is
part that is retained as situated above the main water table
a film on rock surfaces creating a new water table above
and tiny openings the main one
iii. Clay mineral porosity C. Hot springs
(50, specific retention is a. Water is at 6 to 9 degrees
48) Celsius
iv. Sand (porosity is 25, D. Geysers are intermittent hot springs
specific yield is 22) where water is ejected forcefully
v. Gravel (porosity is 20, rising often at 30 to 60 meters
specific yield is 19) a. Water at depth even though
vi. Sandstone (porosity is is heated by intrusions will
11, specific yield is 6) not boil due to immense
C. Aquitards pressure
a. Impermeable layers that b. As pressure increases,
prevent water movement such boiling point increases
as clay c. Water expands due to
D. Aquifers heating and some water is
a. Permeable layers that transmit lost to the surface causing
groundwater freely like sand reduction in pressure
and gravels d. Reduction in pressure
5. Movement of groundwater lowers boiling point of water
A. Discharge zones causing boiling of the lower
a. Springs, lakes or wetlands portion of the water forming
and coastal areas steam and then eruption
B. Factors influencing groundwater e. Groundwater from geysers
velocity and hot springs flowing out
a. Hydraulic gradient contains precipitates of
i. Slope of the water table dissolved silica, siliceous
b. Hydraulic conductivity sinter or geyserite is
i. Permeability of the formed
aquifer f. When the water contains
C. Darcy’s law (Henri Darcy) dissolved calcium
a. Q(discharge) is equal to the carbonate, travertine or
K(hydraulic conductivity calcareous tufa is formed
multiplied by A(cross 7. Well
sectional area) multiplied by A. A hole bored into the zone of
the slope of the water table saturation
(hydraulic gradient)(h1-h2) B. Drawdown is the lowering of the
6. Spring water table level during pumping of
water by wells

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

C. Cone of depression is the 2. Residual hills are towers

depression in the water table due to or mogotes (also called
drawdown haystack hills)
D. Artesian wells are self-rising wells 3. The groundwater has
due to groundwater under pressure dissolved large volumes
rising above the aquifer and the of limestone leaving
aquifer is inclined and confined behind residual hills
E. Confined aquifer is when the layer 4. 100 meters or more tall
above and below the aquifer is 5. Residual hills may have
impermeable extraordinarily sharp
F. Non flowing artesian well is edges and form
when pressure surface is below the pinnacle karst
ground
G. Flowing artesian well is when Chapter 18 Glaciers and Glaciation
pressure surface is above the
1. Glaciers
ground
A. Thick ice mass that forms over hundreds
8. Geologic work of groundwater
or thousands of years
A. Caverns
B. Valley (alpine glaciers)
a. Occurs at or below the water table
a. Glaciers that flows in valleys
b. Dripstone
C. Ice sheets
i. Cave deposits by continuous
a. Larger scale of ice, continental
dripping of water
D. Ice shelves
c. Speleothems
a. Glacial ice that flows into
i. Collective term for dripstone
adjacent ocean like in the
features in caverns
Antarctic coast
ii. Stalactite
E. Ice caps
iii. Stalagmite
a. Glacial ice covering plateaus and
iv. Column
uplands but much smaller than
v. Soda straw (hollow inside)
continental ice(like Iceland)
B. Karst topography
F. Outlet glaciers
a. Landscapes that have been
a. Tongues of ice flown
shaped to a large extend by
downwards from the larger
dissolution by groundwater
masses of ice caps and ice
b. Sinkholes are depressions in
sheets
karst
G. Piedmont glaciers
c. 2 types of cone karst
a. Glacial ice on broad lowlands at
i. Cockpit karst
the base of steep mountains
1. Has residual hills called
and forms when one or more
kugelkarst(half sphere
alpine glaciers emerge from the
shaped) and closed
mountain valleys
depressions shaped
2. Formation and movement of glacial ice
like a starfish called
A. Formation
cockpits
a. Snowline
ii. Tower karst (Turmkarst)
i. The elevation above which snow
1. Forms in wet and
remains throughout the year
tropical climates
b. Firn

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

i. Recrystallized snow that is denser a. The balance or lack of balance

and finer between accumulation at the
B. Movement of glacier upper end and loss at the lower
a. Flow end
i. Movement of glacial ice b. Ablation is the glacial loss
b. Plastic flow 4. Glacial erosion
i. Movement within the ice A. Plucking
c. Basal slip a. The cracking of bedrock and
i. Movement of the entire mass of incorporating it into the glacier
glaciers over its base due to as the meltwater freezes inside
meltwater at the base the cracks of the rocks
ii. Meltwater is produced since the B. Abrasion
pressure is greater and melting a. The sliding of the load of
point decreases as pressure sediments carried by the glacier
increases therefore, ice is over the bedrock creating
molten even though it’s below 0 smooth and polish surface
degrees Celsius below
iii. In addition, the latent heat of b. The pulverized rock produced is
fusion released during the phase called rock flour
change of liquid water to ice c. Glacial striations are long
contributes to the occurrence of scratches and grooves produced
meltwater 5. Erosional features
d. Zone of fracture A. Glacial trough
i. Uppermost zone of glacier a. U-shaped valleys
which is brittle B. Truncated spurs
ii. When ice moves in irregular a. Triangular shaped cliffs
terrain and the zone of fracture produced when glaciers cut
produces cracks called through spurs of land
crevasses C. Hanging valleys
e. Surge a. Tributary valleys that are
i. Extremely rapid movement of elevated higher than the main
glaciers valleys
3. Budget of a glacier D. Pater noster lakes
A. Zone of accumulation a. Bedrock depressions filled with
a. Zone where the ice forms and water that are created by
snow accumulates plucking and abrasion
b. Outer limits define the E. Cirque
snowline a. Bowl-shaped depressions at the
B. Zone of wastage head of the valleys
a. Zone below the snowline where F. Tarn
ice melts a. Cirques that are filled with
b. When ice breaks of large pieces water during glacial melting
in glacial front it is called G. Col
calving where it creates a. A pass between cirques
icebergs H. Fiords
C. Glacial budget

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

a. Glacial troughs that are v. Ground moraine

drowned with seawater where 1. Gently rolling layer of
mountains are adjacent to seas till formed as the
I. Aretes glacier recedes
a. Sinous sharp-edged ridges vi. Terminal moraine
J. Horns 1. Outermost end
a. Sharp, pyramid-like peaks moraine that marks the
produced by enlargement of limit of glacial advance
cirques by plucking and frost vii. Recessional moraine
action 1. End moraines that are
K. Roche mountonnees created when ice front
a. Asymmetrical knob of bedrock stabilizes during retreat
formed when abrasion b. Drumlins
smoothens the gentle slope and i. Smooth, elongated, parallel
plucking steepens the opposite hills
lee side ii. Streamlined asymmetrical
b. French word for sheep rock hills
6. Depositional features iii. The steep side points in the
A. Glacial drift direction from which the ice
a. Collective term for all sediments came from
of glacial origin iv. The longer slope point to
b. Till (unsorted, directly by ice, the direction the ice moves
scratched and polished) v. Occurs in clusters called
i. Glacial erratics are drumlin fields
boulder found in till that C. Landforms made of stratified drift
are different from the a. Outwash plain
underlying bedrock i. A flat area consisting of
c. Stratified drift (well-sorted, by materials that are deposited
glacial meltwater) by meltwater in the glacial
B. Landforms made of till front of an ice sheet
a. Moraine b. Valley train
i. Landforms made of glacial i. Outwash plain but confined
deposits to a mountain valley
ii. Lateral moraine c. Kettles
1. Moraine along the valley i. Depressions or basins in the
sides outwash plain or valley train
iii. Medial moraine formed when blocks of
1. Formerly lateral stagnant ice melts leaving a
moraines that are now at pits or holes
the center of the glaciers d. Ice-contact deposits
that are formed when i. Deposits that are formed
two valley glaciers when water flows from a
coalesced stagnant ice
iv. End moraine ii. Kame
1. Ridge of till at the 1. Mound or steep-sided
terminus of a glacier hill

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

2. Kame terraces form i. Variations in the shape

along the sides of a of Earth’s orbit around
valley when the glacial the Sun
ice occupies a valley b. Obliquity (41,000 years)
iii. Eskers i. Changes in the angle
1. Long, sinuous ridges of that the axis makes
sand and gravel with the plane of Earth’s
formed by meltwater orbit
rivers from the c. Precession (26,000 years)
stagnant ice i. Wobbling of Earth’s axis
7. Other effects of ice-age glaciers C. Other factors
A. Crustal subsidence and rebound a. Reduction of greenhouse gases
a. The contributing weight of the such as methane and carbon
ice mass causes the crust to dioxide as evidence from
warp downwards chemical analysis of air bubbles
b. The removal of the ice mass trapped in glacial ice during
results in isostatic adjustment their formation
causing gradual uplifting of the
crustal block Chapter 19 Desert and Winds
B. Sea-level changes
1. Dry lands
a. Sea-level would rise up to 60 to
A. Arid regions
70 meters if all the ice melts in
B. Semi-arid regions (Steppe)
the Antarctica
C. Both covers 30% of the Earth’s land
C. Changes in river patterns
surface
D. Creation of proglacial lakes
a. Low-latitude deserts
a. Proglacial lakes are lakes
i. Heated air from equatorial low
created by glacial ice blocking
rises to 20 to 30 degrees
rivers causing stagnation of
latitude, North and South
water that forms lakes
ii. It then sinks towards the
E. Pluvial lakes
surface and the air that rises
a. Lakes in the arid and semi-arid
through the atmosphere
regions formed by moderate
expands and cools that leads
precipitations during Ice-Age
to cloud formation and
when the temperature is cooler
eventually precipitation
and climate is wet
iii. However, areas 30 degrees
b. When the ice sheets
North and South latitudes
disappeared, the climate
where high pressure
became more arid causing the
predominates(known as
disappearance of the lake
subtropical highs), air
8. Causes of glaciation
subsides
A. Plate tectonics (glaciation theory)
iv. When air sinks, it compressed
a. Climatic changes as plates
and warmed and inhibits
shifted from different latitudes
cloud formation
B. Variation in Earth’s orbit (interglacial
b. Middle-latitude deserts
theory) (Milankovitch cycle)
i. Exists because they are
a. Eccentricity (100,000 years)
located in the interiors

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

of the continents away D. Playa lake

from ocean moisture a. Temporary lakes that last for
ii. When mountains block days or weeks that forms as the
wet air from the ocean, streams flow across the bajada
the air rises above it into the basin floor
and cloud formation b. The dry, flat lake bed that
happens remains after evaporation and
iii. When the air reaches infiltration is called playa
the leeward side, the air E. Inselbergs
has lost its moisture a. Isolated erosional remnants on
and descends inhibiting a late stage desert landscape
cloud formation b. German word for “island
iv. The dry area that was mountains”
formed is called c. Mount Uluro, Australia is a
rainshadow desert special type of inselberg due to
v. Example is Gobi rounded or domed form called
Desert of Central bornhardts
Asia F. Evolution of Basin and Range region
2. Geologic processes in arid climates a. Playa lakes and alluvial fans
A. Ephemeral streams b. Playa and Bajada
a. Desert streams that only carry c. Inselberg
water during episodic rains 3. Transportation of Sediment by Wind
b. Named wash or arroyo in A. Sediment loads
America a. Bed load
c. Also called wadi (Arabia and i. Consists of sand grains
North Africa), donga (South ii. Windblown sands move by
America) and nullah (India) skipping and bouncing called
d. Nile River traverses the Sahara saltation
desert without a single tributary b. Suspended load
contrary to the humid regions i. Finer particles primarily silt are
where the discharge of a river suspended in air
grows as it flows downstream B. Wind erosion
due to tributaries and a. Deflation
groundwater contribution i. Lifting and removal of loose
B. Interior drainage material
a. Discontinuous pattern of ii. Results of deflation are called
intermittent streams that do not blowouts
flow outside of the desert to the b. Desert pavement
ocean i. Layer of pebbles and cobbles in
b. Occurs in Basin and Range desert underlain by silt and sand
Region ii. Formed when the wind carried
C. Alluvial fans too many sand and silt living
a. Cone of debris at the mouth of behind the coarser pebbles and
a canyon cobbles
b. Coalesced alluvial fans are iii. An alternative explanation could
called bajada be that the surface was initially

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

covered with pebbles and cobbles i. Made up of clay

then windblown dust ii. From either deserts or glaciers
accumulates and infiltrates
between the spaces of the Chapter 20 Shorelines
pebbles resulting in a layer of
1. The Shorelines
pebbles and cobbles underlain by
A. Interface
silt and sand
a. Common boundary where different
c. Ventifacts
parts of a system interact
i. Rocks that are polished and
B. Coastal zone
shape by sandblasting or
a. Shoreline
abrasion
i. Line that marks the contact
d. Yardang
between land and sea
i. Wind-sculpted landform that has
b. Shore
narrow bottom since sandblasting
i. Lowest tide level and the highest
effect is greatest at the bottom
elevation on land that is affected
ii. They are oriented parallel to the
by storm waves
wind direction
c. Foreshore
C. Wind deposits
i. Area exposed during low tide and
a. Dunes
submerged during high tide
i. Made up of sand
d. Backshore
ii. Leeward side (slip face) is more
i. Landward of the high tide
inclined and windward side is
shoreline and affected only by
gently inclined
waves during storm
iii. Sand deposited in the slip face
e. Nearshore zone
forms cross beds
i. Lies between low tide shoreline
iv. Barchan dunes are crescent
and line where waves break at
shaped and tips pointing
low tide
downwind and where supply of
f. Offshore zone
sand is limited and surface is flat
i. Seaward of the nearshore zone
v. Barchanoid is combination of
g. Coast
barchan and transverse dunes
i. Extends inland as far as ocean
vi. Parabolic dunes are crescent
related features can be found
shaped also but tips pointing into
h. Coastline
the wind and vegetation partially
i. Marks the coast’s seaward edge
covers the sand
where the inland boundary is not
vii. Transverse dunes are formed
always obvious
perpendicular to the wind
i. Beach
direction and wind is steady and
i. Accumulation of sand found
sand supply is plentiful
along the landward margin of an
viii. Longitudinal dunes are formed
ocean or lake
parallel to the wind direction and
j. Berm
sand supply is moderate
i. Flat platforms composed of sand
ix. Star dunes are isolated hills of
that are adjacent to coastal
sand where wind directions are
dunes or cliffs and are marked by
variable
a change in slope
b. Loess
k. Beach face

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

i. Wet, sloping surface that extends i. Symmetrical longer-

from the berm to the shoreline wavelength waves in a
C. Coastal zone arrangement storm area
a. Offshore G. Wave erosion and deposition
b. Nearshore a. Abrasion
c. Shore i. Sawing and grinding action of
i. Foreshore water armed with rock fragments
1. Beach face b. Movement of sand perpendicularly
ii. Backshore i. High energy waves cause more
1. Berm backswash and erodes the berm
d. Coast c. Beach drift
D. Waves i. Movement of sand in a zigzag
a. Crest pattern due to wave refraction
i. Top of the wave ii. Turbulent waves parallel to
b. Troughs shoreline are called longshore
i. Bottom of the wave currents
c. Still water level H. Shoreline features
i. Between crest and troughs a. Erosional features
d. Wave height i. Wave-cut cliffs
i. Vertical distance between crest 1. Eroded cliffs by waves
and trough resulting in a retreating cliff
e. Wavelengths ii. Wave-cut platforms
i. Horizontal distance between 1. Flat, benchlike remnant
successive crests or troughs surface of a retreated cliff
f. Wave period iii. Marine terraces
i. Time it takes one full wave to 1. Uplifted wave-cut platform
pass a fixed point due to tectonic forces
E. Factors affecting wave height, length iv. Sea archs
and period 1. Two opposite ends of a sea
a. Wind speed caves unite
b. Length of time the wind has v. Sea stacks
blown 1. Isolated remnant of a
c. Fetch (distance the wind collapsed sea arch
traveled across open water) b. Depositional features
F. Waves in the surf zone i. Spit
a. Surf 1. Elongated ridge of sand that
i. Turbulent water created by projects from the land into the
breaking waves mouth of an adjacent bay
b. Swash ii. Baymouth bar
i. Turbulent water that moves 1. Sandbar that completely seals
up the slope of the beach the bay
c. Backswash iii. Tombolo
i. Water flowing back toward 1. Ridge of sand that connects
the surf zone after wave an island to the mainland
breaks
d. Swell

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

2. Tombolos that are submerged a. Caused by moon’s gravity which

during high tides are called revolves around the Earth for 29
tombolinos or tie-bar and a half days
iv. Barrier islands b. Spring tides
1. Low ridges of land parallel to i. Higher high tides and lower low
the coast tides due to combined forces
I. Stabilizing the shore during the alignment of moon
a. Hard stabilization and sun in new and full moon
i. Jetties ii. Occur twice a month
1. Built in pairs at the entrances c. Neap tides
to rivers harbors which i. First and third quarters of the
confines water movement moon
that minimizes sand ii. Less range in tide level
movement iii. Occurs twice a month also
ii. Groins d. Tidal patterns
1. Barrier built at right angle to i. Diurnal tidal pattern
the beach to trap sand that is 1. Single high tide and single
moving parallel to the shore low tide daily
iii. Breakwaters ii. Semidiurnal tidal pattern
1. Built a little farther parallel to 1. Two high tides with same
the shore that prevents large level and two low tides with
waves to form same level daily
iv. Seawall 2. Common in Atlantic coast
1. Armors the coast from large iii. Mixed tidal pattern
waves and protects properties 1. Large inequality in high tides,
2. Beach experiences intense low tides or both
erosion because of this 2. Prevalent on the Pacific coast
b. Alternative to hard stabilization of United States
i. Beach nourishment e. Tidal currents
1. Addition of large quantities of i. Flood currents
sand to the beach system 1. Currents that advance as the
ii. Relocation tide rises
1. Transferring of beach ii. Ebb currents
properties 1. Seaward moving current as
J. Hurricanes the tide falls
a. Typhoons (Western Pacific) iii. Slack water
b. Cyclones (Indian Ocean) 1. Period of little or no current,
K. Coastal classification separates ebb and flood
a. Emergent coast currents
i. An area experiences uplift or iv. Tidal flats
drop in sea level 1. Areas affected by alternating
b. Submergent coast tidal currents
i. Rise in sea level f. Tidal deltas
ii. Drowned river mouths are i. Flood deltas (landward)
called estuaries ii. Ebb deltas (seaward)
L. Tides
Chapter 21 Global Climate Change

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

1. Climate System b. Earth radiation is called

A. Includes atmosphere, hydrosphere, longwave radiation
biosphere, geosphere and cryosphere c. Sun radiation is called
2. Climate Change Detection shortwave radiation
A. Proxy data (date from natural recorders d. The hotter the radiating body,
of climate such as seafloor sediments, the shorter the wavelength of
glacial ice, fossil pollen and tree-growth maximum radiation
rings C. Fate of Incoming Solar Energy
B. Seafloor sediments a. 50% gets absorbed by the
a. Oxygen isotope analysis Earth
i. O-16 being the lighter isotope, is b. 30% gets reflected back to
more abundant in precipitation as space
well as in glacial ice c. 20% gets absorbed directly by
ii. This leaves the ocean more clouds and gases
enriched in O-18 D. Greenhouse effect
iii. Thus, during periods of a. Atmosphere absorbs
glaciation, more O-16 is tied in terrestrial radiation which is
ice and more O-18 in the ocean a longer wave than the
iv. Conversely, during shortwave radiation by the Sun
interglaciation, the O-16 tied in 4. Natural Causes of Climate Change
the ice returns to the ocean A. Volcanic activity
dropping the O-18/16 ratio in the a. Eruption of Mt. Tambora in
ocean Indonesia on 1815 caused a
v. This ratio is recorded in the year without summer
calcite-forming marine organisms B. Solar variability
vi. By studying their carbonates, a. Sunspots are huge magnetic
paleoclimatologists can determine storms that extend from the
changes in the climate system Sun’s surface deep into the
b. Tree rings(dendrochronology) interior
i. Cross dating of rings among trees b. These spots decrease and
in an area increase in a cycle of 11 years
c. Fossil pollen and 22 years of polarity
i. Records vegetational changes reversal
d. Coral 5. Carbon dioxide, Trace gases and Climate
i. Carbonate content to determine change
temperature in which the coral A. CO2 is transparent to short-wavelength
grew solar radiation and opaque to long-
3. Some Atmospheric Basics wavelength Earth radiation
A. Composition of the atmosphere B. Trace gases such as N2O (laughing gas),
a. 78% N, 21% O, 0.93% Ar, CH4 and CFCs do the same
0.038% CO2
b. Aerosols (tiny solid and liquid Chapter 22 Earth’s Evolution through Geologic
particles suspended in air) Time
B. Energy from the Sun
1. Earth-altering events
a. Radiation or electromagnetic
A. By 2.2 Ga, the atmosphere is oxygen
radiation
rich

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

B. By 65 Ma, a 10 km asteroid hit the composing of water vapor, CO2,

planet wiping out ¾ of all species SO2 with minor gasses
including dinosaurs B. Oxygen in the atmosphere
2. Birth of a planet a. As the Earth cooled, water
A. 13.7 Ga, Bigbang happened and H and vapor formed clouds and rains
He are formed began creating the ocean
B. Within a few hundred millions, clouds of b. 3.5 Ga, photosynthetic bacteria
gases condensed into stars creating (cyanobacteria) in the ocean
galaxies produced oxygen in the water
C. As stars are forming, nuclear fusion c. These free oxygen combined
happened creating new heavier with Fe which was produced by
elements up to Fe(26) black smokers forming banded
D. 27 and above elements are created iron formation(alternate
during supernova layers of iron-rich rocks and
E. From planetesimals to protoplanets chert) on the seafloor
a. By 4.5 Ga, the solar nebula d. Most were laid down during
contracted creating protosun Precambrian between 3.5 to 2
and a spinning disk Ga
b. Within the spinning disk, matter e. Significant amount of Oxygen
formed into clumps that collided appeared 2.2 Ga and stabilized
into each other called about 1.5 Ga
planetessimals then into f. O2 rearranged themselves into
protoplanets and their moons O3 when bombarded by UV
F. Earth’s early evolution radiations creating Ozone layer
a. As materials continues to collide above the stratosphere
with each other and radioactive C. Evolution of the oceans
elements decay, the Earth a. About 4 Ga, 90% of the current
became hot enough to melt Fe volume of ocean was contained
and Ni which sank forming the in ocean basins (highly acidic)
core b. Rates of chemical weathering is
b. The heating also produced higher since it is more acidic
magma ocean where buoyant producing more ions to the
masses of molten rock solidified ocean such as Na and Ca
forming the primitive crust c. As a result, the ocean is now a
c. The lighter materials, including saline water (3.5 % dissolved
water vapor, CO2 and other salts)
gases escaped to form the d. CO2 in the ocean where utilized
primitive atmosphere by organisms to produce
3. Origin of atmosphere and oceans carbonate shells
A. Earth’s primitive atmosphere 4. Precambrian History: The Formation of
a. Composed of lighter elements Earth’s Continents
which were blown away by solar A. Earth’s first continents
winds from the active early sun a. During early Archean, Earth is
during its T-Tauri phase still a magma ocean
b. First enduring atmosphere was b. Making continental crust
formed by outgassing

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

i. Formed by the repeated iv. Continents not part of

remelting of ultramafic Gondwana are North
mantle rocks into felsic America, Northern
rocks that makes the Europe and Siberia
continental crust v. Fast spreading ridges
ii. Since mantle was hotter makes the sea level
than it is today, the rise since ridges
process is rapid occupy more volume
geologically speaking in the ocean basins
c. From continental crust to 5. Phanerozoic History: The Formation of
continents Earth’s Modern History
i. The growth of large A. Paleozoic History (formation of
continental masses was Pangaea)
due to terrane accretion a. Collision between North
and collision America, Northern Europe and
ii. This type of collision Sibera forming Laurasia
deformed and located in the Equator
metamorphosed b. By the end of Paleozoic,
sediments in the middle Gondwana and Laurasia
and in the deepest zone collided to form Pangaea
of collision, partial c. Northern Europe collided with
melting of the thickened Greenland producing
crust generated silica- Caledonian belt
rich magmas d. Two microcontinents collided
iii. The result was the with eastern Northern
formation of large America forming
crustal provinces called Appalachian belt
cratons (portion that is e. By late Paleozoic, Northern
exposed at the surface Asia (Siberia) collided with
is called shield) Northern Europe forming Ural
d. Supercontinents of the mountains
Precambrian f. Pangaea reached its
i. Rodinia (formed during maximum size 250 Ma as
Proterozoic eon, 1.1 Ga) Africa collided with North
ii. The North America is at America
the center unlike in the B. Mesozoic History
Pangaea a. In Triassic, most lands are
iii. Between 800 and 600 above sea level unlike in
Ma, Rodinia split up and Paleozoic
many southern b. In Jurassic, sea invaded
continents formed into western North America as
Gondwanaland (South evidence by Navajo
America, India, Africa, Sandstone
Australia and c. Morrison Formation
Antarctica) (world’s richest storehouse
of dinosaur fossils such as

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

Apatosaurus (formerly a. Paleozoic was the golden

Brontosaurus), age of trilobites
Brachiosaurus and b. Lingula (inarticulate
Stegosaurus brachiopod in Cambrian that
d. In Cretaceous, great is still living today)
swamps formed c. Ordovician marked the
e. Another event in Mesozoic is appearance of
the breakup of Pangaea cephalopods (a type of
around 165 Ma mollusk that is the major
C. Cenozoic History predator at the time)
6. Earth’s First Life d. Ostracoderm (jawless fish,
A. Life existed 3.8 Ga earliest vertibrates in
B. Amino acids are the organic Cambrian and diversified on
compounds for building block of life Ordovician)
which were believed to be e. At 400 Ma, first multi-
synthesized from methane and cellular land plants
ammonia as experimented by appeared
Harold Urey and Stanley Miller f. Cooksonia (oldest fossil
C. Another theory is that the amino evidence of vascular plant)
acid was brought by an asteroid g. At the end of Devonian, 40
called carbonaceous chondrites Ma later, fossil records
D. Another theory is that organic indicate existence of forest
material needed for life came from h. In the ocean, fishes
methane and hydrogen sulfide from developed an internal
deep-sea hydrothermal vents skeleton and jaws
E. Stromatolites are limestone i. Armor-plated fish evolved
mounds and are the fossil evidence during Silurian
for the existence of microscopic j. Acanthodian (first jawed
bacteria which are located at Shark fish appeared in Silurian)
Bay, Australia k. Placoderm (jawed fish that
F. Oldest fossils of eukaryotes are diversified in Devonian)
about 2.1 Ga l. During Devonian, fishes
G. At around 1.5 Ga, multi-celled dominated and hence it was
eukaryotes evolved (one example is called the “Age of the
the green algae) Fishes”
7. Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes E. Vertebrates move to land
A. Cambrian explosion (huge explosion a. Pneumodesmus (oldest
of biodiversity) evidence of land animals, a
B. All invertebrates made their small millipede)
appearance b. During Devonian, lobe-
C. Burgess Shale (fossils of soft finned fish began to adapt
bodied organisms that lived right terrestrial environment (had
after the Cambrian Explosion sacks for breathing)
located in Canadian Rockies) c. By late Devonian, lobe-
D. Early Paleozoic life forms finned fish evolved into air-
breathing amphibians

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

d. Meganeura monyi f. Plesiosaurs and

(largest flying insect ever, ichthyosaurs (fish-eating
75 cm wingspan) marine reptile)
e. Pangaea broke apart by the C. K-T extinction
end of Paleozoic era a. Planet struck by a large
f. The Great Permian carbonaceous meteorite (10
Extinction km diameter)
i. 70% of all b. Evidence is the Chicxulub
vertebrates on land crater at Yucatan
and 90% of all Peninsula, Mexico
marine organisms 9. Cenozoic Era: Age of Mammals
got extinct A. Mammals replaced reptiles
ii. Was thought to be B. Angiosperms replaced gymnosperms
caused by periods (Age of Flowering Plants)
of great volcanism C. Large mammals and extinction
that started 251 Ma a. By Oligocene epoch, a 5
(Siberian Traps meter tall hornless
formed) rhinoceros evolved (largest
iii. Volcanism releases mammal ever)
great amount of b. During Pleistocene
greenhouse gases extinction, large mammals
and reduces the including Mastodons and
amount of O2 in the Mammoths died
ocean
iv. Anaerobic bacteria Chapter 23 Energy and Mineral Resources
then release H2S
1. Energy resources
killing most
A. Coal
organisms
a. Along with oil and natural gas,
8. Mesozoic Era: Age of Dinosaurs
coal is commonly called fossil
A. Gymnosperms dominated the land
fuel
since they can adapt to dryer
B. Oil and natural gas
climate (cycads, ginkgoes and
a. Petroleum formation
conifers)
i. Reservoir rock (porous
B. Reptiles dominated the land
and permeable that
a. Cotylosaur (first true
yields petroleum and
reptile)
natural gas
b. Apatosaurus (long necked
ii. Cap rock (impermeable
herbivore, over 25 m height
like shale that keeps the
and 30 tons weight)
oil from escaping)
c. Tyrannosaurus (carnivore)
b. Kinds of oil traps
d. Pterosaurs (flying
i. Anticline
dinosaurs)
ii. Fault traps
e. Archaeopteryx (bird
iii. Salt domes
ancestor)
iv. Stratigraphic traps
C. Oil sands (or tar sands)

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

a. Mixture of clay and sand ii. Potent source of heat

combined with water and (such as magma
bitumen chamber)
b. Not all are associated with sand iii. Large and porous
and some are with limestone reservoir with channels
and shale connected to the heat
c. The oil is much more viscous source (which water can
compared to others circulate and stored in
d. Mined similar to strip mining of the reservoir)
coal iv. A cap of low-
e. The excavated material is then permeability rocks (to
heated making the bitumen soft trap heat)
and rises f. Tidal power
f. The oily material is then treated 2. Mineral resources
to remove impurities and A. They are endowment of useful minerals
hydrogen is added ultimately available commercially
D. Oil shale B. Reserves are those resources that are
a. Abundant resources but current already identified from which minerals
technology cannot tap it can be extracted profitably
E. Alternate energy resources C. Increase in metal prices makes
a. Nuclear energy unprofitable deposit into an ore
i. Uranium-235 D. Technological advancement of
ii. Uranium mines are extraction also does the same effect
located in 3. Mineral resources and igneous processes
Witwatersrand, South A. Magmatic segregation
Africa where a. Large magma cools, heavy
concentration is due to minerals that crystallize early
high density in quartz settles to the lower portion of
pebbles the magma chamber
iii. Triassic and Jurassic i. Mostly chromite,
sandstones in Colorado magnetite and platinum
Plateau and Wyoming ii. Layers of chromite
where concentration is interbedded with other
due to precipitation of heavy minerals are
uranium from mined in Stillwater
groundwater as a result Complex of Montana
of chemical reaction iii. Bushveld Complex of
with organic matter South Africa which
b. Solar energy contains 70 % of worlds
c. Wind energy Platinum
d. Hydroelectric power b. Late stage crystallization
e. Geothermal energy resulting in pegmatites
i. Geologic factors to i. Include semiprecious
produce geothermal gems such as beryl,
reservoir include topaz and tourmaline

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

ii. Minerals such as Li, Cs, b. Aluminum-rich rocks are subject

U and REEs to intense and prolonged
B. Diamonds weathering and the other ions
a. Generated at the depths up to are leached out leaving only Al
200 km and where carried D. Other deposits
upward through pipe-shaped a. Cu and Ag deposits formed by
conduits inside ultramafic rock secondary enrichment usually
called kimberlite contains pyrite
b. Most deposits are in South b. When pyrite is chemically
Africa altered, sulfuric acid forms
C. Hydrothermal solutions which enables percolating
a. Deposits originate from hot, waters to dissolve ore metals
metal-rich fluids that are and concentrating them to a
remnants of late-stage smaller area
magmatic process 6. Placer deposits
b. Can be vein deposit or A. Formed when heavy minerals are
disseminated deposit mechanically concentrated by currents
4. Mineral resources and metamorphic B. Gold, Pt, Diamonds and Sn can be
processes mined in placer deposits
A. As hot, iron-rich fluid move through C. Cassiterite (principal ore of Sn)
limestone, minerals such as garnet and 7. Nonmetallic mineral resources
corundum are produced including A. Building materials
carbon dioxide which helps in ion a. Natural aggregates
migration b. Gypsum for plaster and
B. Most common minerals include wallboard
sphalerite (Zn), galena (Pb), c. Clay for tile and bricks
chalcopyrite (Cu), magnetite (Fe), and d. Limestone and shale for cement
bornite (Cu) B. Industrial minerals
C. Nonmetallic minerals such as graphite a. Fertilizers
and talc are produced by regional i. Apatite (primary source
metamorphism of Phosphate)
5. Weathering and ore deposits (secondary ii. Sylvite (evaporite which
enrichment) is the primary source of
A. One way is chemical weathering coupled Potassium)
with downward percolating water b. Sulfur
removes undesirable elements from i. Native sulfur and pyrite
decomposing rock, leaving the rock to produce sulfuric acid
enriched with desirable elements in the c. Salt
upper zone of the soil i. Halite
B. Another way is the desirable elements
are leached out and are carried to a Chapter 24 Planetary Geology
zone where it is redeposited and and
1. The Planets: An Overview
became more concentrated
A. Sun (contains 99.85 % of all the mass in
C. Bauxite
the Solar System)
a. Principal ore of aluminum
B. Terrestrial planets
a. Mercury

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

b. Venus d. Volcanoes grew taller since

c. Earth (1 moon) plates are stationary
d. Mars (2 moons)(Phobos (larger) e. Valles Marineris, largest
and Deimos) canyon, formed by slippage of
C. Jovian planets material along huge faults
a. Jupiter (67 moons)(Ganymede f. Mars moon are Phobos and
(largest), Callisto, Deimos
Europa(smallest) ,Io(volcanically D. Jupiter: Lord of the Heavens
active)) a. Fastest rotation, slightly less
b. Saturn (56 moons)(Rhea, Dione, than 10 hours
Tethys(all three are tectonically b. Made of gas hydrogen and
active))(Titan (largest) liquid metallic hydrogen near its
i. Saturn’s density is 0.7 core
which means it will float c. 67 moons, 2 largest are
in water Callisto and Ganymede
c. Uranus (27 i. Ganymede (has
moons)(Miranda(geologically strong magnetic field
active) and largest moon in
d. Neptune (13 Solar System)
moons)(Triton(largest)) d. Two smaller one, Io and
2. Earth’s moon Europa, about same size as
A. Diameter is 3475 km Earth’s moon
B. Lunar surface i. Io (most volcanically
a. Maria (singular mare) are active body in Solar
the dark areas, flat plains of System)
basaltic lavas E. Saturn: The Elegant Planet
b. Lunar highlands (also called a. Outermost ring is the E ring
terrae) b. Rings are believed to be debris
c. Impact craters (examples are ejected from moons
Kepler and Copernicus c. Cassini’s division (separates A
craters) and B rings)
3. The Planets: A Brief Tour d. 56 moons, largest is Titan,
A. Mercury: The Innermost Planet larger then mercury (second
a. Rotation is 179 days largest in the solar system after
B. Venus: The Veiled Planet Ganymede)
a. Volcanism mostly by hotspots i. Titan has atmosphere
b. Volcanoes include Maat Mons like Neptune’s Triton
and Sapas Mons F. Uranus: The Sideways Planet
C. Mars: The Red Planet a. Rotates on its side
a. Polar ice caps are made of G. Neptune: The Windy Planet
water and thin layer of frozen a. Has Great Dark Spot, size of
CO2 Earth
b. Had a molted interior before b. Triton, only large moon that has
c. Olympus Mons (tallest retrograde motion
volcano, 23 km tall, active last i. Exhibits
100 Ma) cryovolcanism (refers

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Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology by Tarbuck and Lutgens

to the eruption of
magmas derived from
the partial melting of ice
rather than silicate
rocks)
4. Minor members
A. Asteroids (>100 meters)
a. Largest is Ceres , 940 km
diameter
b. Second largest is Pallas
c. Asteroid belt
B. Meteroids (<100 meters)
a. Micrometeorites are tiny
meteoroids that are too slow
and just drift in space as space
dust
b. Classification of meteorites
i. Iron (5 to 20% Ni)
ii. Stony (silicate minerals)
iii. Stony-iron
iv. Carbonaceous chondrite
(contains simple amino
acids and other organic
compounds)
C. Comets: Dirty Snowballs
a. Has glowing head called coma
b. Short period comets came from
Kuiper belt (beyond Neptune)
c. Long period comets came from
Oort Cloud (no planar orbit)
D. Dwarf planets

A.J. Bungcasan – Board Exam Review Notes 47