Continental Drift,

Seafloor Spreading,
Convection Current
Theory &
Plate Tectonics
Continental Drift
Theory
Continental Drift Theory

Theory of continental drift was among first attempts to explain present arrangement
of continents and ocean basins.
Explains how continents moved over time.

Theory is currently replaced by theory of Plate Tectonics.

Alfred Wegner, a German astronomer, propounded this theory in 1912.

According to Continental landmasses were drifting across earth.

this theory, This movement of continents was termed “continental drift”.
All landmasses united into a large, single supercontinent called
Pangea.
It was surrounded by a massive body of water called Panthalassa.
Continental Drift Theory

Split of Pangea:
• Pangea began to split 200 million years ago.
• At first, broke into two large masses –
• Laurasia to north
• Gondwanaland to South.
• Laurasia comprised present day North America, Greenland, and all of Eurasia
north of lndian subcontinent and Gondwanaland comprised present day South
America, Africa, Madagascar, lndia, Arabia, Malaysia, Australia and Antarctica.
• Laurasia and Gondwanaland were separated by a long shallow inland sea called
Tethys Sea.
• Later, Laurasia and Gondwanaland split and drifted away to form present-day
continents.
Continental Drift Theory
Continental Drift Theory

Direction of Movement:
• According to Wegner, continents drifted in two directions towards west and
equator.
Due To Equatorward Movement
• Africa and Eurasia came closer.
• Tethys Sea was squeezed and deposits of sea were raised to form fold
mountains of Alps, Atlas, Zagros, Himalayas, etc.
• Indian peninsula and Africa got separated from Antarctica and Australia
which was believed to be due to gravitational attraction caused by
Earth's equatorial bulge.

Due To Westward Movement

• North and South America separated from Europe and Africa, and
Atlantic Ocean was formed.
• This westward movement was attributed to tidal force of Sun and
moon on continents.
Continental Drift Theory

Evidence Supporting The Continental Drift Theory:

"Jigsaw" fit: Outlines of coasts on either side of Atlantic Ocean-coastlines of

South America and Africa; they can be joined together.
They fit like a jig-saw puzzle indicating that they were joined
together at a point in time in geological history.
Paleoclimatic Coal deposits in mid-latitude regions, stretching from North
Evidence: America to Europe to China that date back to 245360 million years
ago.
Regions would have had an equatorial location in past and were
covered by vegetation that later turned into coal.
Paleontological Similar fossils found on continents located on either side of
or Evidence Atlantic Ocean - fossil remains of Cynognathus have been found
from Fossils: in Argentina and South Africa.
Continental Drift Theory

Geological
Evidence: Opposite coasts of Atlantic Ocean also have similar rock types of
same age, suggesting that they were unified at a point in time.

Tillite Deposits: Gondwana system of sediments – consisting of tillite deposits are

found in Madagascar, Africa, Antarctica, Falkland lsland,
Australia, and India.

Deposits in regions close to Equator indicated that glaciers either

covered entire globe or were found in middle of ocean.
Wegner suggested that glaciers were centered over
Gondwanaland close to South Pole.
Continents, later on, moved to their current position.
Continental Drift Theory
Polar There have been changes in position of magnetic north and south
Wandering: poles over different geological periods –phenomenon termed as
polar wandering.
Due to magnetic properties, minerals in rock align to earth's
magnetic field.

When scientists found 400-million-year-old magnetite rock in

Europe, pointed to a different north magnetic pole than same-
aged magnetite in North America.
Suggested that if continents had remained fixed while north
magnetic pole moved, there must have been two separate north
poles.
Only one magnetic north pole.
Concluded that magnetic pole remained fixed, but continents
drifted.
Continental Drift Theory
Continental Drift Theory
Continental Drift Theory

Evaluation:

Scientists Theory failed to explain mechanism of how continental drift

largely rejected actually works and why did continents drift apart.
Wegner's
theory of Gravitational attraction and tidal forces are not strong enough to
Continental drift continents apart.
Drift because:
Theory was loosely based on assumptions and did not rationalize
why drift started only 200 million years ago and not before.
 Convection
Current Theory
Convection Current Theory
Theory aims to explain intricate problems of origin of major relief features of earth's
surface.
It was put forward by Arthur Holmes in 1930s.

According to Theory:

• Origin of convective currents within earth depends on presence of radioactive

elements in rocks.
• Disintegration of radioactive elements generates heat which causes convective
currents.
• Rocks in interior of Earth would buoyantly rise toward surface from deep within
Earth when heated by radioactivity and sink back down as they cooled and
became denser.
Convection Current Theory

● Convection currents move through mantle same way heated air circulates
through a room, and radically reshape Earth’s surface in process.
● Divergent convective currents move crustal blocks away in opposite directions
and create seas and oceans.
● Convergent convective currents cause subsidence in crustal zones giving birth to
geosynclines and closing of sea which leads to formation of island arcs, Mountains
etc.
Convection Current Theory
Sea Floor
Spreading
Sea Floor Spreading

ln 1960s, Harry Hess and Robert S Dietz put forward hypothesis of Sea Floor
Spreading.

According to this theory, seafloor is spreading, resulting in formation of mountains

and drifting of continents.
Sea Floor Spreading

How is the seafloor spreading?

• Convection current within mantle causes molten magma to rise up.
• Crust is fractured, magma spills out and covers crust.
• Molten magma cools down to form igneous rock basalt, forming new seafloor.
• Process continues, existing rocks from ridge are pushed equally in both
directions.
• A younger, less dense oceanic crust is formed near ridge that eventually pushes
continent away from ridge axis.
• When oceanic crust reaches a deep-sea trench, sinks into trench and lost in
mantle.
Sea Floor Spreading

Evidences in Support of the Theory:

Geology of Ocean Floor:

• On mapping of floor of the Atlantic Ocean, it was observed that
seafloor was not flat, plain land but was an active area with giant
peaks, cracks, and active volcanoes.
• An irregular, central mountain ridge was located in middle of Ocean.
• Hess developed idea that magma came out to surface along this ridge
which pushed rock slabs on either side away from one another.

Age of Rocks:
• Young rocks were found right along ridge and older rocks away on
either side of ridge.
• Thus, age of seafloor increases as move further away from mid-
oceanic ridge.
• Phenomenon could only be explained if seafloor was spreading.
Sea Floor Spreading

The thickness of Sediments:

• Thickness of layer of sediments deposited on ocean floor increases as
we get further away from the mid-oceanic ridge.
• Because older rocks got more time to disintegrate and accumulate
sediments.
Sea Floor Spreading
Sea Floor Spreading

Paleo Magnetism:

• Magnetic Reversal or Polar Reversal are captured on solidified rocks

on either side of mid-oceanic ridge.
• As magma swells up through ridge and hits cold ocean water, it
solidifies into rock.
• Minerals within magma align with earth's magnetic field which are
then seen when rocks are formed.
• Pattern of magnetism matches perfectly on either side of ridge which
is possible only when seafloor spreads uniformly.
Sea Floor Spreading
Plate Tectonic
Theory
Plate Tectonic Theory

Plate tectonics is a scientific theory describing large-scale motion of plates

Movements of a larger number of smaller plates of Earth‘s lithosphere, over last

hundreds of millions of years.

Modern update to continental drift theory of Alfred Wegener and Sea Floor
Spreading Theory by Harry Hess.

Theory developed from 1950s to the 70s, and was put forward by D.P. McKenzie, R.L
Parker, W.C Morgan and Le Pichon.
Plate Tectonic Theory

Postulates of Theory:

• Earth's lithosphere is divided into several rigid slabs or plates.

• Plates are moving horizontally over viscous asthenosphere of mantle.
• Due to movement of plates, various deformations such as stretching, folding,
etc., occur along plates' margins or boundaries.
Plate Tectonic Theory

Plates and Plate Movement:

Plates: Earth's outer shell is divided into large slabs of solid rock, called
“plates,” that glide over Earth's mantle

Cause of Surface of earth and interior of earth are not static but dynamic
movement: and continuously moving.

Earth's lithosphere with its rigid plates is moving because of

convection currents generated inside earth's mantle.
Plate Tectonic Theory

Types of Plates:

Lithospheric plates are broadly classified into :

Continental plates: comprise Oceanic plates: made up of oceanic

continental crust called "sial." crust called "sima."

Plates are on an average 125 km thick.

Continental plates are thicker than oceanic plates.
Plate Tectonic Theory

On Basis of their size, they are further classified into:

Major plates: Minor plates:

• Antarctic plate • Cocos plate: Between Central

• North American plate America and Pacific plate
• South American plate • Nazca plate: Between South
• Pacific plate America and Pacific plate
• India-Australia-New Zealand plate • Arabian plate: Mostly Saudi
• Africa with the eastern Atlantic Arabian landmass
floor plate • Philippine plate: Between Asiatic
• Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic and Pacific plate
plate • Caroline plate: Between Philippine
and Indian plate
• Fuji plate: North-east of Australia
• Juan De Fuca plate: South-East of
North American Plate
Plate Tectonic Theory
Plate Tectonic Theory

Plate Margins and Plate Boundaries

Plate Margin: Edge or marginal part of a particular plate.

Plate Surface zone of motion between two adjacent plates.

Boundary:
Two neighbouring plate margins meet at a common plate
boundary.

Types of Plate Movement of tectonic plates creates three types of tectonic

Boundaries: boundaries:
• Convergent, where plates move into one another.
• Divergent, where plates move apart.
• Transform, where plates move sideways in relation to each other.
Plate Tectonic Theory

Convergent Boundaries

• A convergent plate boundary is formed when tectonic plates collide with

each other.
• Also Known as destructive boundaries.

Types of Collision: three types of

collision:

Continent-Ocean Continent- Ocean-Ocean

Collision Continent Collision Collision
Plate Tectonic Theory

Collision between an oceanic and continental plate:

• Continental and oceanic plates exist on either side of boundary, oceanic plate is
overridden by continental plate.
• Oceanic plate being heavier plate sinks into mantles asthenosphere, it gets
destroyed as it melts under intense heat of mantle.
• Place where sinking of a plate occurs is called a subduction zone or sink.
• Results in formation of oceanic trenches.
• Continental edge is uplifted and folded to form mountains.
• Eg: formation of Andes Mountains due to collision of South American and
Nazca Plate.
Plate Tectonic Theory
Plate Tectonic Theory

Collision between two oceanic plate:

• Type of collision occurs when oceanic plates are on either side of convergent
plate boundary.
• Denser oceanic plate subducts below lighter oceanic plate as two plates collide.
• An oceanic trench is thus formed along boundary.
• Rocks in denser oceanic plate get metamorphosed and molten under high heat
and pressure inside earth and forms magma.
• Magma has a lower density than surrounding material and due to buoyancy by
surrounding medium, magma rises causing volcanic eruptions on ocean floor.
• Continuous flow of magma creates layers of rocks which over years create
landforms that may rise above ocean floor.
• Such volcanic landforms along plate boundary form chains of volcanic islands
called island arcs parallel to trench.
• Example: Japanese lsland arc, Philippines lsland Arc, etc.
Plate Tectonic Theory
Plate Tectonic Theory

Collision between two continental plates:

• Continental plates do not sink.
• lnstead, they are narrowed down.
• Because sediments on margins get squeezed and uplifted.
Plate Tectonic Theory
Plate Tectonic Theory

Divergent Boundaries:

• Formed by tectonic plates pull apart from each other.

Characteristics Also known as At such plate boundaries, molten magma comes

: constructive out of fissures, and new material is added to
boundaries. surface, thereby constructing lithosphere.

Mid-oceanic ridges characterize these plates.

These are sites of seafloor spreading and rift valleys.

Example: Mid-Atlantic Ridge where American

Plates are separated from Eurasian and African Plates.
Plate Tectonic Theory
Plate Tectonic Theory

Transform Boundaries

• A transform boundary is formed as tectonic plates slide horizontally

past each other

Characteristics: Also known as conservative/sheer plate boundary.

Along these boundaries, continental crust is neither created nor

destroyed.

These plate boundaries are represented by transform faults.

Example: San Andreas Fault in California, USA.

Plate Tectonic Theory
Plate Tectonic Theory

Evaluation:
• Plate Tectonic Theory is most universally accepted theory.
• Provides best explanation for causes of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
• lt adequately explains how major landforms on earth's surface came into
existence due to movements in earth's interior.
Plate Tectonic Theory
Comparison between Continental Drift, Seafloor Spreading and Plate Tectonic Theory

Criteria Continental Drift Seafloor Spreading Plate Tectonics

Propounded by Alfred Wegner in Harry Hess in D.P. McKenzie, R.L

1912 1960's Parker, W.C Morgan
and X. Le Pichon in
1967-168
Explains that Explains that sea- lt says that earth's
Theory continental floor is spreading lithospheric plates
landmasses are i.e. the oceanic (both continental
moving plates are moving and oceanic) are
moving horizontally
Plate Tectonic Theory

Forces of Gravity, tidal Convection current Convection current

movement currents within the earth within the earth

Evidences Evidences from Ocean bottom Plaeomagnetic rocks,

fossils, Tillite relief, occurrence of
deposits, polar Paleomagnetic earthquakes and
wandering rocks, thickness of volcanoes
sediments
Significance Foundation for Foundation for the Helps understand
theory of seafloor theory of plate geomorphic features,
spreading tectonics distribution of
earthquakes and
volcanoes.
Thank You