THE CELLULAR LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

• Consists of a lipid bilayer - made up of

• CELLS are the living structural and functional phospholipids, cholesterol and glycolipids
units enclosed by a membrane.
• All cells arise from existing cells by the MEMBRANE PROTEINS
process of cell division, in which one cell 1. Integral Protein
divides into two identical cells. • extend into or through the lipid bilayer among
• Cell biology or cytology is the study of the fatty acid tails and are firmly embedded in it.
cellular structure and function • Transmembrane proteins are integral protein
which spans the entire lipid bilayer and protrude
3 MAIN PARTS OF THE CELL into both the cytosol and extracellular fluid
1. Plasma Membrane 2. Peripheral Protein
2. Cytoplasm • Not as firmly embedded in the membrane.
– Cytosol • They are attached to the polar heads of
– Organelles membrane lipids or to integral proteins at the
3. Nucleus inner or outer surface of the membrane.
– Chromosomes 3. Glycoprotein
– Genes • Membrane proteins with a carbohydrate group
attached that protrudes into the extracellular
PARTS OF THE CELL fluid
1. Plasma Membrane 4. Glycocalyx
– forms the cell’s flexible outer surface, •The “sugary coating” surrounding the
separating the cell’s internal environment from membrane made up of the carbohydrate
the external environment. portions of the glycolipids and glycoproteins
– It is a selective barrier (semi – permeable) that
regulates the flow of materials into and out of a FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS
cell. 1. Ion Channels – some membrane proteins
–This selectivity helps establish and maintain forms ion channels
the appropriate environment for normal cellular 2. Carriers – other integral proteins act as
activities. carriers, selectively moving a polar
– The plasma membrane also plays a key role in substance or ion from one side of the membrane
communication among cells and between cells to the other. Also known as transporters.
and their external environment. 3. Receptors – serve as cellular recognition
– flexible yet sturdy barrier that surrounds and sites. Each type of receptor recognizes and
contains the cytoplasm of a cell. binds a specific type of molecule.
– fragile, transparent barrier that contains the ● Ligand – binding of a specific molecule
cell contents and separates them from the to a receptor
surrounding environment. 4. Enzymes – catalyze specific chemical
reactions at the inside or outside surface of the
The fluid mosaic model - the arrangement of cell.
molecules within the membrane resembles a 5. Linkers – anchor proteins in the plasma
sea of lipids containing many types of proteins. membranes of neighboring cells to one another
- The lipids act as a barrier to certain or to protein filaments inside and outside the
substances. cell.
- The proteins act as “gatekeepers” to 6. Cell Identity Markers – They may enable a
certain molecules and ions cell to (1) recognize other cells of the same kind
during tissue formation or (2) recognize and
respond to potentially dangerous foreign cells
MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY Cytoskeleton
• The plasma membranes are selectively - The cytoskeleton is a network of protein
permeable. filaments that extends throughout the
• The cell is either permeable or impermeable to cytosol
certain substances. • Microfilaments
● Permeable – means that a structure • Intermediate Filaments
permits the passage of substances • Microtubules
through it.
● Impermeable – means that a structure • Organelles
does not permit the passage of – Little organs, specialized structures inside the
substances through it. cell. (e.g. cytoskeleton, endoplasmic reticulum,
• The lipid bilayer is permeable to small, ribosomes)
nonpolar, uncharged molecules (eg. oxygen,
carbon dioxide, water and steroids), but PROTEIN FILAMENTS
impermeable to glucose. • Microfilaments – are the thinnest elements of
• Transmembrane proteins act as channels and the cytoskeleton. They are composed of the
transporters to assist the entrance of certain proteins actin and myosin and are most
substances, for example, glucose and ion prevalent at the edge of a cell.
– They help generate movement and provide
GRADIENTS ACROSS THE PLASMA mechanical support
MEMBRANE • Intermediate Filaments - thicker than
1. Concentration gradient is the difference in microfilaments but thinner than microtubules
the concentration of a chemical • Microtubules - largest of the cytoskeletal
between one side of the plasma membrane and components and are long, unbranched hollow
the other. (eg. Inside and tubes composed mainly of the protein tubulin.
outside the membrane)
2. Electrical gradient is the difference in Centrosome
concentration of ions between one • The centrosome located near the nucleus,
side of the plasma membrane and the other. consists of two components: a pair of centrioles
3. Together, these gradients make up an and pericentriolar material
Electrochemical gradient • The two centrioles (are cylindrical structures,
each composed of nine clusters of three
2. Cytoplasm microtubules (triplets) arranged in a circular
– consists of all the cellular contents between pattern
the plasma membrane and the nucleus. • Surrounding the centrioles is pericentriolar
• Cytosol material, which contains hundreds of
– The fluid portion of cytoplasm contains water, ring-shaped complexes composed of the protein
dissolved solutes, and suspended particles. tubulin.
• The cytosol (intracellular fluid) is the fluid • These tubulin complexes are the organizing
portion of the cytoplasm that centers for growth of the mitotic spindle, which
surrounds organelles and constitutes about 55% plays a critical role in cell division, and for
of total cell volume microtubule formation in nondividing cells.
• Cytosol is 75–90% water plus various
dissolved and suspended components. Ribosomes
• Among these are different types of ions, - Ribosomes associated with
glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, proteins, endoplasmic reticulum synthesize
lipids, ATP, and waste products proteins destined for insertion in the
• The cytosol is the site of many chemical plasma membrane or secretion from the
reactions required for a cell’s existence cell
 - Free ribosomes synthesize proteins • Chromosome
used in the cytosol – a single molecule of DNA associated with
several proteins, contains
Endoplasmic Reticulum thousands of hereditary units called genes.
- Rough ER synthesizes glycoproteins • Genes
and phospholipids that are transferred – control most aspects of cellular structure and
into cellular organelles, inserted into the function.
plasma membrane, or secreted during
exocytosis TRANSPORT ACROSS THE PLASMA
- Smooth ER synthesizes fatty acids and MEMBRANE
steroids, such as estrogens and 1. Passive Process
testosterone; inactivates or detoxifies – Diffusion
drugs and other potentially harmful • Simple diffusion
substances; removes the phosphate • Channel – Mediated Facilitated diffusion
group from glucose-6 phosphate and • Carrier – Mediated Facilitated diffusion
stores and releases calcium ions that – Osmosis
trigger contraction in muscle cells 2. Active Process
Golgi Complex – Active Transport
- Modifies, sorts, packages and transport – Vesicular Transport
proteins received from the rough ER
- Forms secretory vesicles that discharge 1. Passive Process
processed proteins via exocytosis into – a substance moves down its concentration or
extracellular fluid; forms membrane electrical gradient to cross the membrane using
vesicles that ferry new molecules to the only its own kinetic energy (energy of motion).
plasma membrane; forms transport – Kinetic energy is intrinsic to the particles that
vesicles that carry molecules to other are moving. There is no input of energy from the
organelles, such as lysosomes cell.
Lysosomes DIFFUSION
- Digests substances that enter a cell via – is a passive process in which the random
endocytosis and transport final products mixing of particles in a solution occurs because
of digestion into cytosol of the particles’ kinetic energy.
- Carry out autophagy - the digestion of – They move down from higher concentration
worn-out organelles gradient to a lower conc. gradient.
- Implement autolysis - the digestion of a Diffusion is influenced by:
entire cell - Steepness of the concentration gradient
- Accomplish extracellular digestion - Temperature
Mitochondria - Mass of diffusion substance
- Generate ATP through reactions of - Surface area
aerobic cellular respiration - Diffusion distance
- Important role in apoptosis • Simple Diffusion
– is a passive process in which
3. Nucleus substances move freely through the
– is a large organelle that houses most of a cell’s lipid bilayer of the plasma membranes
DNA of cells without the help of membrane
- controls cellular structure transport proteins.
- directs cellular activities
- produce ribosomes in nucleoli
 ● CHANNEL-MEDIATED FACILITATED • Secondary Active Transport
DIFFUSION – energy stored in a Na or H concentration
– In channel mediated facilitated diffusion, a gradient is used to drive other substances
solute moves down its concentration gradient across the membrane against their own
across the lipid bilayer through a membrane concentration gradients. Because a Na or H
channel gradient is established by primary active
● CARRIER-MEDIATED FACILITATED transport, secondary active transport indirectly
DIFFUSION uses energy obtained from the hydrolysis of ATP
– In carrier mediated facilitated diffusion, a
carrier (also called a transporter) TRANSPORT IN VESICLES
moves a solute down its concentration gradient • Vesicle - a small spherical sac formed by
across the plasma membrane budding off from a membrane
OSMOSIS • Endocytosis - materials move into a cell in a
• The net movement of a solvent through a vesicle formed from the plasma membrane
selectively permeable membrane – three types: receptor-mediated endocytosis;
from an area of high concentration to an area of phagocytosis; bulk-phase
low concentration. endocytosis (pinocytosis)
• Like the other types of diffusion, osmosis is a • Receptor-mediated endocytosis
passive process. In living systems, the solvent is – highly selective type of endocytosis by which
water, which moves by osmosis across plasma cells take up specific ligands.
membranes from an area of higher water • Phagocytosis
concentration to an area of lower water – a form of endocytosis in which the cell engulfs
concentration large solid particles, such as worn-out cells,
TONICITY whole bacteria, or virus.
• Tonicity of a solution relates to how the solution • Pinocytosis / Bulk-phase endocytosis
influences the shape of body – a form of endocytosis in which tiny droplets of
cells. extracellular fluid are taken up
1. Isotonic Solution
2. Hypotonic Solution • Exocytosis - vesicles fuse with the plasma
3. Hypertonic Solution membrane, releasing their contents into the
extracellular fluid. Materials move out in the cell
2. Active Process in a vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane.
– Cellular energy is used to drive the substance • Transcytosis - a combination of endocytosis
“uphill” against its concentration or electrical and exocytosis; vesicles undergo endocytosis
gradient. on one side of a cell, move across the cell, and
– The cellular energy used is usually in the form then undergo exocytosis on the opposite side.
of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
• Active Transport
– Solutes are transported across plasma
membranes with the use of energy, from an area
of lower concentration to an area of higher
Concentration Sodium-potassium pump.
• Primary Active Transport
– energy derived from hydrolysis of ATP
changes the shape of a carrier protein, which
“pumps” a substance across a plasma
membrane against its concentration gradient.
Indeed, carrier proteins that mediate primary
active transport are often called pumps.
Tissues because they encircle the cell similar to the way
● Cells work together in functionally a belt encircles your waist.
related groups called tissues • Adherens junctions help epithelial surfaces
How is this done? resist separation during various contractile
- Attachments activities, as when food moves through the
- communication intestines
Types of tissues:
1.Epithelial – lining and covering 3. Desmosomes
2.Connective – support • Desmosomes contain plaque and have
3.Muscle – movement transmembrane glycoproteins (cadherins) that
Nervous – control extend into the intercellular space between
adjacent cell membranes and attach cells to one
•Tissue is a group of cells that usually have a another; the plaque of desmosomes does not
common origin in an embryo and function attach to microfilaments.
together to carry out specialized activities. • A desmosome plaque attaches to elements of
•Tissues may be hard, semisolid, or even liquid the cytoskeleton known as intermediate
in their consistency, a range exemplified by filaments, which consist of the protein keratin.
bone, fat, and blood. • Desmosomes prevent epidermal cells from
•In addition, tissues vary tremendously with separating under tension and cardiac muscle
respect to the kinds of cells present, how the cells from pulling apart during contraction.
cells are arranged, and the types of fibers
present, if any. 4. Hemidesmosomes
•Hemidesmosomes resemble desmosomes, but
CELL JUNCTIONS they do not link adjacent cells. The name arises
•Cell junctions are contact points between the from the fact that they look like half of a
plasma membranes of tissue cells. desmosome
1. Tight junctions •However, the transmembrane glycoproteins in
- Also known as Occluding Junctions or hemidesmosomes are integrins rather than
Zonula Occludens cadherin.
• Tight junctions consist of web-like strands of •Hemidesmosomes anchor cells not to each
transmembrane proteins that fuse together the other but to the basement membrane
outer surfaces of adjacent plasma membranes
to seal off passageways between adjacent cells. 5. Gap junctions
(eg. stomach, intestines, and urinary bladder) •Gap junctions allow the cells in a tissue to
• They inhibit the passage of substances communicate with one another.
between cells and prevent the contents of these •Gap junctions, membrane proteins called
organs from leaking into the blood or connexins form tiny fluid-filled tunnels called
surrounding tissues. connexons that connect neighboring cells.
•Gap junctions also enable nerve or muscle
2. Adherens junction impulses to spread rapidly among cells
• Adherens junctions contain plaque, a dense
layer of proteins on the inside of the plasma Epithelial Tissue –General Characteristics &
membrane that attaches both to membrane Functions
proteins and to microfilaments of the ● Covers a body surface or lines a body
Cytoskeleton. cavity
Cadherins transmembrane glycoproteins that ● Forms most glands
joins the cells. ● Functions of epithelium
• In epithelial cells, adherens junctions often ● Protection
form extensive zones called adhesion belts ● Absorption, secretion, and
 ● diffusion Simple Columnar Epithelium Location
● Filtration - Non-ciliated form
- Lines digestive tract, gallbladder, ducts
Epithelial tissue of some glands
CELL LAYERS Ciliated form
•Simple epithelium (1 layer) - Lines small bronchi, uterine tubes, and
•Pseudostratified epithelium (1 layer but appears uterus
many) Transitional epithelium
•Stratified epithelium (multiple layer) -
CELL SHAPE
• Squamous
• Cuboidal
• Columnar
• Transitional

Naming Epithelia
Naming the epithelia includes both the layers
(first) and the shape of the cells (second)
- i.e. stratified cuboidal epithelium
The name may also include any accessory
structures
- Goblet cells
- Cilia
- Keratin
Special epithelial tissues (don’t follow
naming convention)
- Psuedostratified

Classifications of Epithelia
● Last name of tissue describes shape of
cells
● Squamous – cells wider than tall (plate
or “scale” like)
● Cuboidal – cells are as wide as tall, as
in cubes
● Columnar – cells are taller than they
are wide, like columns
CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES

Connective Loose - fewer Areolar

Tissue fibers, more Adipose
ground Reticular
substance

Dense - more Regular,

fibers, less collagenous,
ground elastic
substance
Irregular
collagenous,
elastic

Supporting Cartilage - Hyaline

Connective semisolid Fibrocartilage
tissue matrix Elastic

Bone - solid Spongy

matrix Compact

Fluid Blood
Connective Hemopoietic Red Marrow
tissue tissue Yellow Marrow