I-A.

Conveyors
Conveyors are used to move materials over a fixed path. The major types of conveyors are:
1. Chute conveyor 13. Vertical conveyor
2. Wheel conveyor a. Vertical lift conveyor
3. Roller conveyor b. Reciprocating vertical conveyor
a. Gravity roller conveyor 14. Cart-on-track conveyor
b. Live (powered) roller conveyor 15. Tow conveyor
4. Chain conveyor 16. Trolley conveyor
5. Slat conveyor 17. Power-and-free conveyor
6. Flat belt conveyor 18. Monorail
7. Magnetic belt conveyor 19. Sortation conveyor
8. Troughed belt conveyor a. Diverter
9. Bucket conveyor b. Pop-up device
10. Vibrating conveyor c. Sliding shoe device
11. Screw conveyor d. Tilting device
12. Pneumatic conveyor e. Cross-belt transfer device
a. Dilute-phase pneumatic conveyor
b. Carrier-system pneumatic
conveyor
Conveyors are used:

x When material is to be moved frequently between specific points x To

move materials over a fixed path x When there is a sufficient flow volume to
justify the fixed conveyor investment Conveyors can be classified in different ways:

x Type of product being handled: unit load or bulk load

x Location of the conveyor: overhead, on-floor, or in-
floor x Whether or not loads can accumulate on the
conveyor

1. Chute Conveyor
Unit/Bulk + On-Floor + Accumulate

Inexpensive

Used to link two handling devices

Used to provide accumulation in shipping areas

Used to convey items between floors

Difficult to control position of the items

 2. Wheel Conveyor
Unit + On-Floor +
Accumulate

Uses a series of skatewheels mounted on

a shaft (or axle), where spacing of the
wheels is dependent on the load being
transported
Slope for gravity
movement depends on load weight
More economical than the

For light-duty applications roller conveyor

Flexible, expandable versions available

3. Roller Conveyor
Unit + On-Floor + Accumulate

May be powered (or live) or nonpowered (or gravity)

Materials must have a rigid riding surface

Minimum of three rollers must support smallest loads at all times

Tapered rollers on curves used to maintain load orientation

3(a) Gravity Roller Conveyor

Alternative to wheel conveyor

For heavy-duty applications

Slope for gravity movement depends on load

weight

For accumulating loads

3(b) Live (Powered) Roller Conveyor
Belt or chain driven

Force-sensitive transmission can be used to disengage

rollers for accumulation

For accumulating loads and merging/sorting

operations

Provides limited incline movement capabilities

4. Chain Conveyor
Unit + In-/On-Floor + No Accumulate

Uses one or more endless chains on which loads are carried directly

Parallel chain configuration used to transport pallets

Vertical chain conveyor used for continuous high-frequency vertical

transfers (cf. vertical conveyor used for low-frequency intermittent
transfers)

5. Slat Conveyor
Unit + In-/On-Floor + No Accumulate

Uses discretely spaced slats connected to a

chain

Unit being transported retains its position (like a belt

conveyor)

Orientation and placement of the load is controlled

Used for heavy loads or loads that might damage a

belt
Bottling and canning plants use flat chain or slat conveyors because of wet conditions,
temperature, and cleanliness requirements

Tilt slat conveyor used for sortation

6. Flat Belt Conveyor

Unit + On-Floor + No Accumulate

For transporting light- and medium-weight loads

between operations, departments, levels, and
buildings

When an incline or decline is required

Provides considerable control over the orientation

and placement of the load.

No smooth accumulation, merging, and sorting on

the belt

The belt is roller or slider bed supported; the slider

bed is used for small and irregularly shaped items

In 1957, B.F. Goodrich, Co. patented the Möbius strip for conveying hot or abrasive substances in
order to have "both" sides wear equally [14]

7. Magnetic Belt Conveyor

Bulk + On-Floor

A steel belt and either a magnetic slider bed or a magnetic

pulley is used

To transport ferrous materials vertically, upside down, and

 around corners

8. Troughed Belt
Conveyor
Bulk + On-Floor

Used to transport bulk

materials

When loaded, the belt conforms to the shape of the troughed rollers and idlers

9. Bucket Conveyor

Used to move bulk materials in a vertical or inclined path

Buckets are attached to a cable, chain, or belt

Buckets are automatically unloaded at the end of the conveyor run

10. Vibrating Conveyor

Bulk + On-Floor

Bulk + On-Floor

Consists of a trough, bed, or tube

Vibrates at a relatively high frequency and

small amplitude in order to convey individual units of products or bulk material
Can be used to convey almost all granular, free-flowing materials

An Oscillating Conveyor is similar in construction, but vibrates at a lower frequency and larger
amplitude (not as gentle) in order to convey larger objects such as hot castings

11. Screw Conveyor

Bulk + On-Floor

Consists of a tube or U-shaped

stationary trough through which a
shaft-mounted helix revolves to push
loose material forward in a
horizontal
or inclined direction

One of the most widely used conveyors in the processing industry

Many applications in agricultural and chemical processing

Water screw developed circa 250 BC by Archimedes

12. Pneumatic Conveyor

Bulk/Unit + Overhead

Can be used for both bulk and unit movement of materials

Air pressure is used to convey materials through a system of vertical and horizontal tubes

Major advantages are that material is completely enclosed and it is easy to implement turns and
vertical moves

12(a) Dilute-Phase Pneumatic Conveyor

Moves a mixture of air and solid

Push (positive pressure) systems push material from one entry

point to several discharge points

Pull (negative pressure or vacuum) systems move material from

several entry points to one discharge point

Push-pull systems are combinations with multiple entry and

discharge points

12(b) Carrier-System Pneumatic Conveyor

Carriers are used to transport items or paperwork (e.g., money from
drive-in stalls at banks)
13. Vertical Conveyor
Unit + On-Floor + No Accumulate

Used for low-frequency intermittent vertical transfers (cf. vertical chain conveyor can be used for
continuous high-frequency vertical transfers

13(a) Vertical Lift Conveyor

Carrier used to raise or lower a load to different
levels of a facility (e.g., different floors and/or
mezzanines)

Differs from a freight elevator in that it is not

designed or certified to carry people

Can be manually or automatically loaded and/or

controlled and can interface with horizontal
conveyors

13(b) Reciprocating Vertical Conveyor

 conveyors

Track Conveyor

Unit + In-Floor + Accumulate

Used to transport carts along a track

14.
Cart-
On-
Carts are transported by a rotating tube

Connected to each cart is a drive wheel that rests on the tube and that is used to vary the speed of
the cart (by varying the angle of contact between the drive wheel and the tube)

Carts are independently controlled

Accumulation can be achieved by maintaining the drive wheel parallel to the tube

15. Tow Conveyor

Unit + In-Floor + Accumulate

Uses towline to provide power to wheeled carriers such as

trucks, dollies, or carts that move along the floor

Used for fixed-path travel of carriers (each of which has

variable path capabilities when disengaged from the towline)

Towline can be located either overhead, flush with the floor,

or in the floor

Selector-pin or pusher-dog arrangements can be used to allow

automatic switching (power or spur lines)

Generally used when long distance and high frequency moves are required

16. Trolley Conveyor

Unit +
Overhead +
No
Accumulate
Uses a series of trolleys supported from or

and are suspended from a chain

Carriers are used to carry multiple units of product

Does not provide for accumulation

Commonly used in processing, assembly, packaging, and storage operations

17.

Powe randFree Conv eyor

Unit + Overhead/On-Floor + Accumulate

Similar to trolley conveyor due to use of discretely spaced carriers transported by an overhead
chain; however, the power-and-free conveyor uses two tracks: one powered and the other
nonpowered (or free)

Carriers can be disengaged from the power chain and accumulated or switched onto spurs

Termed an Inverted Power-and-Free Conveyor when tracks are located on the floor

18.
 Monor
ail

Unit + Overhead + Accumulate

Overhead single track (i.e., mono-rail) or track network on which one or more carriers ride

Carriers: powered (electrically or pneumatically) or nonpowered

Carrier can range from a simple hook to a hoist to an intelligent-vehicle-like device

Single-carrier, single-track monorail similar to bridge or gantry crane

Multi-carrier, track network monorail similar to both a trolley conveyor, except that the carriers
operate independently and the track need not be in a closed loop, and a fixed-path automatic
guided vehicle (AGV) system, except that it operates overhead

Termed an Automated Electrified Monorail (AEM) system when it has similar control
characteristics as an AGV system
19. Sortation Conveyor

Unit + On-Floor/Overhead

Sortation conveyors are used for merging, identifying, inducting, and separating products to be
conveyed to specific destinations

19(a) Sortation Conveyor: Diverter

Stationary or movable arms that deflect, push, or pull a product to desired destination

Since they do not come in contact with the conveyor, they can be used with almost any flat
surface conveyor

Usually hydraulically or pneumatically operated, but also can be motor driven

Simple and low cost

19(b) Sortation Conveyor: Pop-Up Device

One or more rows of powered rollers or wheels or chains that pop up above surface of conveyor
to lift product and guide it off conveyor at an angle; wheels are lowered when products not
required to be diverted

Only capable of sorting flat-bottomed items

Pop-up rollers are generally faster than pop-up wheels

19(c) Sortation Conveyor: Sliding

 Shoe Sorter
Sliding shoe sorter (a.k.a. moving slat sorter)
uses series of diverter slats that slide across
the horizontal surface to engage product and
guide it off conveyor

Slats move from side to side as product

flows in order to divert the product to either
side

Gentle and gradual handling of products

19(d) Sortation Conveyor: Tilting Device

Trays or slats provide combined sorting
mechanism and product transporter

Can accommodate elevation

changes

Tilt tray sorters usually designed in

continuous loops with a compact layout
and recirculation of products not sorted the
first time

Tilt slat sorters carry products on flat-

surface slat conveyor and can handle
wider variety of products compared to tilt
tray

19(e) Sortation Conveyor: Cross-

Belt Transfer Device
Either continuous loop, where individual
carriages are linked together to form an
endless loop, or train style
(asynchronous), where a small number of
carriers tied together with potential for
several trains running track
simultaneously
Each carriage equipped with small belt conveyor, called the cell, that is mounted perpendicular to
direction of travel of loop and discharges product at appropriate destination

Automatically separates single line of products into multiple in-line discharge lines

I-B. Cranes
Cranes are used to move materials over variable paths within a restricted area. The major types of
cranes are:

1. Jib crane
2. Bridge crane
3. Gantry crane
4. Stacker crane

General characteristics of cranes:

x Used to move loads over variable (horizontal and vertical) paths within a restricted area x
Used when there is insufficient (or intermittent) flow volume such that the use of a
conveyor cannot be justified
x Provide more flexibility in movement than conveyors x
Provide less flexibility in movement than industrial
trucks
x Loads handled are more varied with respect to their shape and weight than those handled by
a conveyor
 x Most cranes utilize hoists for vertical movement, although manipulators can be used if
precise positioning of the load is required

1. Jib Crane
Operates like an arm in a work area, where it
can function as a manipulator for positioning
tasks A hoist is attached to the arm for lifting

Arm mounted on the wall or attached to a floor

mounted support

Arm can rotate 360°

The hoist can move along the arm

2. Bridge Crane
Bridge mounted on tracks that are located
on opposite walls of the facility

Enables three-dimensional handling

Top riding (heavier loads) or underhung

(more versatile) versions of the crane

Underhung crane can transfer loads and

interface with other MHS (e.g., monorail
systems)

3. Gantry Crane
Single leg, double leg, and mobile types of gantry cranes

Similar to a bridge crane except that it is floor supported at one or both ends instead of overhead
(wall) supported

Used to span a smaller portion of the work area as compared to a bridge crane

The supports can be fixed in position or they can travel on runways

Can be used outdoors when "floor" supported at both ends

4. Stacker Crane
Similar to a bridge crane except that, instead
of a hoist, it uses a mast with forks or a
platform to handle unit loads

Considered "fork trucks on a rail"

Used for storing and retrieving unit loads in

storage racks, especially in high-rise
applications in which the racks are more than
50 feet high

Can be controlled remotely or by an operator

in a cab on the mast

Can be rack supported

I-C. Industrial Trucks

Industrial trucks are used to move materials over variable paths, with no restrictions on the area
covered by the movement. The major types of industrial trucks are:
1. Hand truck 7. Narrow-aisle straddle truck
a. Two-wheeled hand truck 8. Narrow-aisle reach truck
b. Dolly 9. Turret truck
c. Floor hand truck a. Operator-down turret truck
2. Pallet jack b. Operator-up turret truck
a. Manual pallet jack 10. Order picker
b. Powered pallet jack 11. Sideloader
3. Walkie stacker 12. Tractor-trailer
a. Manual walkie stacker 13. Personnel and burden carrier
b. Powered walkie stacker 14. Automatic guided vehicle (AGV)
4. Pallet truck a. Tow AGV
5. Platform truck b. Unit load AGV
a. Walkie platform truck c. Assembly AGV
b. Rider platform truck d. Light load AGV
6. Counterbalanced lift truck e. Fork AGV
 a. Sit-down counterbalanced lift truck
b. Stand-up counterbalanced lift truck
Industrial trucks:

x Used to move materials over variable (horizontal) paths with no restrictions on the area
covered (i.e., unrestricted area)

x Provide vertical movement if the truck has lifting capabilities

x Used when there is insufficient (or intermittent) flow volume such that the use of a
conveyor cannot be justified
x Provide more flexibility in movement than conveyors and cranes
x Not licensed to travel on public roads—"commercial trucks" are licensed to travel on public
roads

Characteristics:

x Pallet/Non-Pallet: Does the truck have forks for handling pallets, or does the truck have a
flat surface on which to place loads. Non-Pallet => (usually) other means required to load
truck.

x Manual/Powered: Does the truck have manual or powered vertical (lifting) and/or
horizontal (travel) movement capabilities. Manual => walk => operator provides the force
needed for lifting loads and/or pushing the vehicle. Powered => on-board power source
(e.g., batteries) used for lifting and/or travel.

x Walk/Ride: For non-automated trucks, can the operator ride on the truck (in either a standing
or sitting position) or is the operator required to walk with the truck during travel. Walk
=> manual or powered travel possible => powered travel speed limited to a normal
walking pace. Ride => powered => travel speed can be faster than a walking pace.

x Stack/No Stack: Can the truck be used to lift loads for stacking purposes. Stack => can also
be used as no stack => more expensive to add stacking capability. No Stack may lift a load
a few inches to clear the floor for subsequent travel (e.g., pallet jack), but the loads cannot
be stacked on top of each other or on shelves.

x Narrow Aisle: Is the lift truck designed to have a small turning radius or does it not have to
turn at all in an aisle when loading/unloading. Narrow Aisle => greater cost and (usually)
standing operator => less aisle space required. Counterbalance and/or straddle used for
load support. Small turning radius => load support via straddle or reaching capabilities.
No turning required => even narrower aisle => only one-side loading (sideloaders) or the
capability to rotate the load (turret truck).

x Automated: Is the truck automated so that it can transport loads without requiring an
operator. Non-Automated => direct labor cost of operator is by far the largest cost to
operate a non-automated truck. Semi-Automated => operator used to control
loading/unloading, but automated transport control (e.g., the S/R machine of a Man-on-
board AS/RS). Automated => Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV) => no direct labor cost,
but higher equipment costs.

1. Hand Truck
Non-pallet + manual + no stack
1(a) Two-Wheeled Hand Truck

Load tilted during travel

1(b) Dolly
Three or more wheeled hand truck with a flat platform in
which, since it has no handles, the load is used for pushing

1(c) Floor Hand Truck

Four or more wheeled hand truck with handles for pushing or

hitches for pulling

Sometimes referred to as a "cart" or "(manual) platform truck"

2. Pallet Jack
Pallet + walk + no stack

Front wheels are mounted inside the end of the forks and extend to the floor as the pallet is only
lifted enough to clear the floor for subsequent travel

Pallet restrictions: reversible pallets cannot be used, double-faced nonreversible pallets cannot
have deckboards where the front wheels extend to the floor, and enables only two-way entry into
a fourway notched-stringer pallet because the forks cannot be inserted into the notches

2(a) Manual Pallet Jack

Pallet + walk + no stack + manual

Manual lifting and/or travel

2(b) Powered Pallet Jack
Pallet + walk + no stack + powered

Powered lifting and/or travel

3. Walkie Stacker
Pallet + walk + stack

3(a) Manual Walkie Stacker

Pallet + walk + stack + manual

Manual lifting and/or travel (and straddle load support)

3(b) Powered Walkie Stacker

Pallet + walk + stack +
powered

load support) Powered lifting and/or travel

(and either counterbalance or
straddle

4. Pallet Truck

Pallet + ride + no
Control handle typically tilts stack
loading/unloading
Same pallet restrictions as a pallet
Powered pallet jack is jack
"(walkie) pallet truck"
to allow operator to walk
during

sometimes referred to as a
5. Platform Truck
Non-pallet + powered + no stack

Platform used to provide support for nonpalletized loads

Used for skid handling; platform can lift skid several inches to allow it to clear the floor

Greater lifting capacity compared to fork trucks because the platform provides a greater lifting
surface to support a load

5(a) Walkie Platform Truck x Non-pallet +

powered + no stack + walk

x Operator walks next to truck

x Floor hand truck is sometimes referred to as a
"(manual) platform truck"

5(b) Rider Platform Truck

Non-pallet + powered + no stack + ride

Operator can ride on truck

6. Counterbalanced (CB) Lift Truck

Pallet + ride + stack

Also referred to as fork truck.

Weight of vehicle (and operator) behind the front wheels of truck counterbalances weight of the
load (and weight of vehicle beyond front wheels); front wheels act as fulcrum or pivot point.
Rated capacity reduced for load centers greater than 24 in. and lift heights greater than 13 ft.

Workhorses of material handling because of their flexibility: indoor/outdoor operation over a

variety of different surfaces; variety of load capacities available; and variety of attachments
available—fork attachments can replace the forks (e.g., carton clamps) or enhance the capabilities
of the forks (e.g., blades for slipsheets).

6(a) Sit-Down Counterbalanced Lift Truck

Operator sits down

width requirement

Counterbalanced Lift

giving vehicle narrow-aisle

9-11 ft. minimum aisle

width requirement Similar
to stand-up CB lift truck,
except outrigger arms
straddle a load and are used
to support the load instead

12-13ft. minimum aisle

6(b) Stand-Up
Truck

Operator stands up,

capability

Faster loading/unloading time compared to NA straddle and reach trucks

7. Narrow-Aisle (NA) Straddle Truck

 of the counterbalance of the
truck

7-8 ft. minimum aisle width requirement

Less expensive than stand-up CB lift truck and NA reach truck

Since the load is straddled during stacking, clearance between loads must be provided for the
outrigger arms

Arm clearance typically provided through the use of load-on-beam rack storage or single-wing
pallets for load-on-floor storage

8. Narrow-Aisle (NA) Reach Truck

Similar to both stand-up CB lift truck and NA straddle truck

8-10 ft. minimum aisle width requirement

Load rests on the outrigger arms during transport, but a pantograph

(scissors) mechanism is used for reaching, thereby eliminating the
need to straddle the load during stacking

Reaching capability enables the use of shorter outrigger arms (arms >
1/2 load depth) as compared to NA straddle truck (arms = load depth)

Counterbalance of the truck used to support the load when it extends

beyond the outrigger arms

Although the NA reach truck requires slightly wider aisles than a NA straddle truck since its
outrigger arms do not enter a rack during storage, it does not require arm clearance between loads
(arm clearance is still required when the truck must enter a storage lane when block stacking or
drive-in or -through racks are used)

Extended reaching mechanisms are available to enable double-deep storage

9. Turret Truck
Greater stacking height compared to other narrow-aisle trucks (40 ft. vs. 25 ft.), but greater
investment cost

Forks rotate to allow for side loading and, since truck itself does not rotate during stacking, the
body of the truck can be longer to increase its counterbalance capability and to allow the operator
to sit

Can function like a sideloader for transporting greater-than-pallet-size load

9(a) Operator-Down Turret Truck
Operator not lifted with the load

5-6 ft. minimum aisle width requirement

Termed a swingmast truck (picture shown) when, instead of

just the forks, the entire mast rotates (thus can store on only
one side of a aisle while in aisle)

9(b) Operator-Up Turret Truck

Operator lifted with the load to allow precise stacking and
picking

5-7 ft. minimum aisle width requirement

10. Order Picker

Similar to NA straddle truck, except operator lifted with the load to allow for less-than-unit-load
picking

Typically has forks to allow the truck to be used for pallet

stacking and to support a pallet during less-than-pallet-load
picking

"Belly switch" used for operator safety during picking

11. Sideloader
Forks mounted perpendicular to direction of travel to
allow
for side loading and straddle load support

5-6 ft. minimum aisle width requirement

Can be used to handle greater-than-pallet-size loads (e.g., bar stock)

12. Tractor-Trailer
Non-load-carrying tractor used to pull a train of
trailers (i.e., dollies or floor hand trucks)

Extends the transporting capacity of floor hand

trucks

Typically used at airports for baggage handling 13.

Personnel and Burden Carrier

Non-load-carrying vehicle used to transport personnel

within a facility (e.g., golf cart, bicycle, etc.)

14. Automatic Guided Vehicle (AGV)

AGVs do not require an operator

Good for high labor cost, hazardous, or environmentally sensitive conditions (e.g., clean-room)

Also termed "automated" guided vehicle

AGVs good for low-to-medium volume medium-to-long distance random material flow
operations (e.g., transport between work cells in a flexible manufacturing system (FMS)
environment) Two means of guidance can be used for AGV systems:

Fixed path: Physical guidepath (e.g., wire, tape, paint) on the floor used for guidance

Free-ranging: No physical guidepath, thus easier to change vehicle path (in software), but
absolute position estimates (from, e.g., lasers) are needed to correct dead-reckoning error

14(a) Tow AGV

Used to pull a train of trailers

Automated version of a tractor trailer

Trailers usually loaded manually (early type of

AGV, not much used today)

14(b) Unit Load AGV

 Have decks that can be loaded manually or
automatically

Deck can include conveyor or lift/lower mechanism for

automatic loading

Typically 4 by 4 feet and can carry 1–2,000 lb. loads

Typically less than 10 vehicles in AGV system

14(c) Assembly AGV

Used as assembly platforms (e.g., car chassis, engines,
appliances)

Greatest development activity during the 1980s

(alternative to AEMs)

Typically 50–100 vehicles in AGV system

14(d) Light Load AGV

Used for small loads (< 500 lbs), e.g., components, tools

Typically used in electronics assembly and office environments (as mail

and snack carriers)

14(e) Fork AGV

Counterbalanced, narrow-aisle straddle, and
sideloading versions available

Typically have sensors on forks (e.g., infrared sensors)

for pallet interfacing

III. Unit Load Formation Equipment

Unit load formation equipment used to restrict materials so that they maintain their integrity when
handled a single load during transport and for storage. The major types of unit load formation
equipment are:

1. Self-restraining (no equipment) 10. Bulk load containers

2. Pallets 11. Crates
3. Skids 12. Intermodal containers
4. Slipsheets 13. Strapping/tape/glue
5. Tote pans 14. Shrink-wrap/stretch-wrap
 6. Pallet boxes/skid boxes 15. Palletizers
7. Bins/baskets/racks a. Manual palletizing
8. Cartons b. Robotic pick and place palletizers
9. Bags c. Conventional stripper plate
palletizers
Advantages of unit loads:

x More items can be handled at the same time, thereby reducing the number of trips required
and, potentially, reducing handling costs, loading and unloading times, and product
damage.
x Enables the use of standardized material handling equipment.

Disadvantages of unit loads:

x Time spent forming and breaking down the unit load. x Cost of
containers/pallets and other load restraining materials used in the unit load x
Empty containers/pallets may need to be returned to their point of origin.

1. Self-Restraining (No Equipment)

One or more items that can maintain their integrity when handled as a single item (e.g., a single
part or interlocking parts)

2. Pallets
Platform with enough clearance beneath its top
surface (or face) to enable the insertion of forks
for subsequent lifting purposes

Materials: Wood (most common), paper, plastic,

rubber, and metal

Size of pallet is specified by its depth (i.e.,

length
of its stringers or stringer boards) and its width (i.e., length its deckboards)—pallet height
(typically 5 in.) is usually not specified; orientation of stringers relative to deckboards of pallet is
specified by always listing its depth first and width last: Depth (stringer length) x Width
(deckboard length)

48 x 40 in. pallet is most popular in US (27% of all pallets—no other size over 5%) because its
compatibility with railcar and truck trailer dimensions

1200 x 800 mm "Euro-Pallet" is the standard pallet in Europe

3. Skids
Platform (typically metal) with enough clearance beneath its top
surface to enable a platform truck to move underneath for
subsequent lifting purposes
Forks can also be used to handle skids since the clearance of a skid is greater than that of a pallet

Compared to a pallet, a skid is usually used for heavier loads and

when stacking is not required; a metal skid can lift heavier loads than an equal-weight metal pallet
because it enables a platform truck to be used for the lifting, with the platform providing a greater
lifting surface to support the skid as compared to the forks used to support the pallet

4. Slipsheets
Thick piece of paper, corrugated fiber, or plastic upon which a
load is placed

Handling method: tabs on the sheet are grabbed by a special

push/pull lift truck attachment

Advantages: usually used in place of a pallet for long-distance

shipping because their cost is 10–30% of pallet costs and their
weight and volume is 1–5% of a pallet

Disadvantages: slower handling as compared to pallets; greater load damage within the facility;
special lift truck attachment reduces the vehicle’s load capacity

5. Tote Pans
Reusable
container
used to
unitize and
protect loose
discrete
items

Typically used for in-process handling

Returnable totes provide alternative to cartons for

distribution

6. Pallet
Boxes/Skid
Boxes
Reusable
container used
to unitize and
protect loose
items for
fork/platform
truck handling
7. Bins/Baskets/Racks
Storage equipment that also can be used to unitize and protect loose discrete items

8. Cartons
Disposable container used to unitize and protect
loose discrete items

Typically used for distribution

Dimensions always specified as sequence: Length x

Width x Depth, where length is the larger, and width
is the smaller, of the two dimension of the open face
of the carton, and depth is the distance perpendicular
to the length and width

Large quantities of finished carton blanks or knocked-down cartons can be stored on pallets until
needed

9. Bags
Disposable container used to unitize and protect bulk materials

Typically used for distribution

Polymerized plastic ("poly") bags available from light weight (1

mil.) to heavy weight (6 mil.) in flat and gusseted styles

Dimensions of bag specified as: Width x Length, for flat bags, and
Width x Depth (half gusset) x Length, for gusseted bags

10. Bulk Load Containers

x Reusable container used to unitize and protect bulk materials x

Includes drums, cylinders, etc. x Used for both distribution and in-
process handling

11. Crates

x Disposable container used to protect discrete items x

Typically used for distribution
 12. Intermodal Containers
Reusable container used to unitize and protect
loose discrete items

Enables a load to be handled as a single unit

when it is transferred between road, rail, and sea
modes of transport; e.g., the container can be
unloaded from a cargo ship and loaded onto a
truck as a single unit

It is not as common to use intermodal

containers for airfreight transport because of
aircraft shape and weight restrictions

The standard outside dimensions of intermodal

containers are: 20 or 40 ft. in length; 8 ft. in
width; and 8, 8.5, or 9.5 ft. in height; less 8 in. of
length, 5 in. of width, and 9.5 in. of height to
determine the inside dimensions. Typical sea
transport costs per 40-ft container are: $3000–
4000 from Japan to the US west coast, $4000–
5000 from Singapore to the US west coast, and
$2500–3500 from Europe to the US east coast;
transport costs for a 20-ft. container is 70% of the costs of a 40-ft. container

13. Strapping/Tape/Glue
Used for load stabilization

Straps are either steel or plastic

Plastic strapping that shrinks is used to keep loads from

becoming loose during shipment

14. Shrink-Wrap/Stretch-Wrap
Used for load stabilization

In shrink-wrapping, a film or bag is placed over the

load and then heat is applied to shrink the film or
bag; allows irregular loads to be stabilized; manual
or automatic; most shrink-wrap applications are
being replaced by stretch-wrapping

In stretch-wrapping, a film is wound around the

load while the film is stretched; allows irregular
loads to be stabilized; manual or automatic; as compared to shrink-wrapping, stretch-wrapping
has lower material, labor, and energy costs

15. Palletizers
Used for load formation.

Three general methods of building (or "palletizing") unit loads:

15(a) Manual Palletizing

Operators arrange items into the desired pattern used to
form the unit load

Since the ergonomics of loading and unloading are

important (e.g., vertically, the prime working zone is
between the knees and the chest; horizontally, reaches of
more than 24 in. with a load should be avoided), lift and
turn tables are often used

Semi-mechanized palletizers use operators to arrange

items into the desired pattern for each layer of the unit
load and a powered device is used to transfer layers onto
a pallet and then lower the load for the next layer

15(b) Robotic Pick and Place Palletizers

Fully automated device to build unit loads

Used when flexibility is required (e.g., the "Distributor’s

Greatest limitation is capacity, typically 6 cycles per

minute; capacity is determined by the number of items

Operators arrange items into the desired pattern for each

layer of the unit load and a powered device is used to
Used when high throughput of identical loads is required (e.g., the "Manufacturer’s Pallet

15(c) Conventional Stripper

Plate Palletizers

Fully automated device to build unit

loads

Loading
Problem")

Capacity is typically greater (30–180 items per minute) than pick and place because an entire
layer is placed on the load at one time; not as flexible as pick and place

Preformed layer of items (cases) are indexed onto the stripper plate (or apron); when properly
positioned over the pallet, the apron is pulled out from underneath the layer to deposit the layer
onto the pallet

"In-line" pattern formation (top picture)— flexible patterns are not possible; ideal for high speed
operation (up to 180 items per minute); takes up more room (larger machine) than right angle

"Right angle" pattern formation (bottom picture)— very flexible patterns are possible; can handle a
wide variety of case sizes and types; limited capacity (up to 80 items per minute); compact design
 IV. Storage Equipment
Storage equipment used for holding or buffering materials over a period of time. The major types
of storage equipment are:
1. Block stacking (no equipment) 10. Shelves/bins/drawers
2. Selective pallet rack 11. Storage carousel
3. Drive-through rack 12. Automatic storage/retrieval
4. Drive-in rack systems
5. Flow-through rack (AS/RS)
6. Push-back rack a. Unit load AS/RS
7. Sliding rack b. Miniload AS/RS
8. Cantilever rack c. Man-on-board AS/RS
9. Stacking frame d. Deep-lane AS/RS
13. Split case order picking system
14. Mezzanine
The most common reason for storing a product allows the other elements of production to operate
more efficiently on a per-unit basis because the fixed costs associated with utilizing the element
can be spread over more products; e.g., storing up to a truckload of product in a facility reduces
the perunit costs of shipping; and buffering or storage of WIP enables batch production which
reduces the per-unit setup costs.

Other potential reasons for storage include: time bridging— allows product to be available when
it is needed (e.g., storing spare machine parts at the facility); processing— for some products
(e.g., wine), storage can be considered as a processing operation because the product undergoes a
required change during storage; and securing— e.g., nuclear waste storage.

1. Block Stacking (No Equipment)

Bulk storage using block stacking can result in the minimum cost of storage since cube utilization
is high and no storage medium is required, but material accessibility is low since only the top of
the front stack is accessible and loads at bottom of a stack must not require support Storage racks
are used when support and/or material accessibility is required

2. Selective Pallet Rack

Most popular type of storage rack

Pallets are supported between load-supporting

beams

Special attachments and decking can be used to

make the racks capable of supporting other types of
unit loads besides pallets (e.g., coils, drums, skids)

Selective racks can be used for the following types

of storage:
Standard— single-deep storage using a counterbalanced lift truck

Narrow-Aisle— storage using a narrow-aisle lift truck

Deep-Reach— greater than single-deep storage (typically double-deep storage)

3. Drive-Through Rack
Loads are supported by rails attached
to the upright beams

Lift trucks are driven between the

uprights beams

Requires similar-width loads

Open at both ends, allowing access

from both ends (FIFO)

4. Drive-In Rack
Same as drive-through rack,
except closed at one end,
allowing entry from only one
end (LIFO)

5. Flow-Through Rack
Loads are supported on an incline to
enable gravity-based movement of
the loads within the rack (via,
e.g., a gravity roller conveyor)

Loaded at the higher end and unloaded at the lower end

(FIFO)

6. Push-Back Rack
 Same as push-back rack,
except loaded and
unloaded at the lower end
and closed
at the higher end
(LIFO)

7. Sliding Rack
Only one mobile aisle is used to access several rows of racks

Location of the aisle is changed by sliding the rows of racks along guide rails in the floor

Typically found in library stacks

8. Cantilever Rack
Loads are supported by cantilever "arms"
Used to store long loads (e.g., bar stock, pipes, lumber)

Similar to pallet racks, except the front upright beams and the front supporting beams are
eliminated

9. Stacking Frame
Interlocking units that enable stacking of a load so that
crushing does not occur

Can be disassembled and stored compactly when not in

used

Pallet frames can be used to enable multilevel block

stacking

11. Storage Carousel

Carousel consists of a set of vertically or

horizontally revolving storage baskets or bins
10. Shelves/Bins/Drawers

Materials (and the storage medium) move to the operator, "part-to-man," for end-of-aisle picking

Each level of the carousel can rotate independently in a clockwise or counter-clockwise direction

Control ranges from manually activated push buttons to automated computer controlled systems

Provides an alternative to typical "man-to-part" AS/RS, where the S/R machine moves to the part

Similar to a trolley conveyor with storage baskets

12. Automatic Storage/Retrieval Systems (AS/RS)

x Consists of an integrated computer-controlled system that combines the storage medium,

transport mechanism, and controls with various levels of automation for fast and accurate
random storage of products and materials
x Storage/retrieval (S/R) machine in an AS/RS operates in narrow aisle, serving rack slots on
both sides of aisle; can travel in horizontal (along the aisle) and vertical (up and down a
rack) directions at same time
x Advantages: fewer material handlers, better material control (including security), and more
efficient use of storage space
x Disadvantages: high capital and maintenance costs, and difficult to modify
 12(a) Unit Load AS/RS
Used to store/retrieve loads that are
palletized or unitized and weigh over
500 lbs.

Stacking heights up to 130 ft. high, with most ranging from 60 to 85 ft. high; 5 to 6 ft. wide aisles;
single- or double-deep storage racks

12(b) Miniload AS/RS

Used to store/retrieve small parts and tools that can be stored in a storage bin or drawer

End-of-aisle order picking and replenishment

Stacking heights range from 12 to 20 ft.; bin capacities range from 200 to 750 lbs.

Termed a "microload AS/RS" when used in assembly, kitting, and testing operations to deliver
small containers of parts to individual workstations, where workstations are typically located on
the sides of a pair of racks and the S/R machine operates between the racks to move containers to
openings in the racks (storage lanes) located next to each station

12(c) Man-On-Board AS/RS

x Used for in-aisle picking; operator picks from shelves, bins, or
drawers within the storage structure
x Manual or automatic control
x S/R machine is similar to an order picker or turret truck and can
sometimes operate as an industrial truck when outside an aisle,
except the S/R is guided along a rail when operating in an aisle
 12(d) Deep-
Lane AS/RS
Similar to unit load AS/RS, except loads can be stored to greater
depths in the storage rack

A rack-entry vehicle is used to carry loads into the racks from the S/R machine, and is controlled
by the S/R machine

Termed an "automated item retrieval system" when used to automatically retrieve individual
items or cases, with replenishment (storage) taking place manually from the rear of a flow-
through storage lane and items are pushed forward with a rear-mounted pusher bar for automatic
picking from the front of the storage lane

13. Split-Case Order Picking System

Unlike an AS/RS, a split-case order picking system enables fully automated picking of individual

items

Two general categories of splitcase order picking system are robotic based systems and
magazine/dispenser based systems

Robotic based systems are similar in construction to robotic pick and place
palletizers

Magazine/dispenser based systems are similar to vending machines, but larger in scale

"A-Frame" dispenser system (pictured) is popular within pharmaceutical distribution centers;

items are dispensed onto a belt conveyor that carries them into a container
14. Mezzanine

x Inexpensive means of providing additional storage or

office space
x Makes use of clear space over activities not requiring
much headroom (e.g., restrooms, block storage, etc.)
x At least 14 ft. of clear space is needed for a mezzanine
 V. Identification and Control Equipment
Identification and control equipment is used to collect and communicate the information that is
used to coordinate the flow of materials within a facility and between a facility and its suppliers
and customers. The major types of identification and communication equipment are:
1. Manual (no equipment) 5. Machine vision
2. Bar codes 6. Portable data terminal
3. Radio frequency (RF) tag 7. Electronic data interchange
4. Magnetic stripe (EDI)/Internet
1. Manual (No Equipment)
x The identification of materials and associated communication can be performed manually
with no specialized equipment
x Although it is sometimes possible to manually coordinate the operation of a material
handling system, it becomes more difficult to due so as the speed, size, and complexity of
the system increases
2. Bar Codes x Unique bar/space patterns represent various alphanumeric
characters x Bar code system consists of bar code label, bar code scanner, and
bar code printer x Contact bar code scanners use pen or wand to read labels
x Noncontact bar code scanners include fixed beam, moving beam, and omnidirectional x 1-
D codes are most common; 2-D codes enable much greater data storage capability
3. Radio Frequency (RF) Tag x Data encoded on chip encased in a tag
x Noncontact: can be read when the tag is within 30 ft. of an antenna
x Tags can either be attached to a container, or permanently or temporarily to an item x
RF tags have greater data storage capability than bar codes
4. Magnetic Stripe x Data encoded on a magnetic stripe that is readable in
almost any environment x Requires contact with a reader
x Greater storage capability and more expensive than bar codes
5. Machine Vision
x Does not require explicit encoding of data since objects can be identified by their physical
appearance
x Noncontact, but typically requires structured lighting x More
flexible than other identification equipment, but less robust
6. Portable Data Terminal x Handheld, arm-mounted, or vehicle-mounted data storage
and communication device x Communicates with a host computer via a radio
frequency or infrared link x Variety of input devices available: keyboard, bar code
scanner, voice headset
7. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)/Internet
x Electronic data interchange (EDI) provides standards for inter-corporate transfer of purchase
orders, invoices, shipping notices, and other frequently used business documents

x Prior to the Internet, EDI required expensive dedicated value added networks (VANs). EDI
is critical for implementing JIT manufacturing

References
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selection system," Int. J. Prod. Res., 33(12):3311-3329, 1995.
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3. R.A. Kulwiec, Ed., Material Handling Handbook, Second Edition, Wiley, New York, 1985.
4. S. Konz, Facility Design: Manufacturing Engineering, Second Edition, Publishing Horizons,
Scottsdale, AZ, 1994.
5. R.E. Ward, An Overview of Basic Material Handling Equipment, Material Handling Institute, Charlotte,
NC, 1986.
6. R.A. Kulwiec, Advanced Material Handling, Material Handling Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, 1983.
7. R.A. Kulwiec, Basics of Material Handling, Material Handling Institute, Charlotte, NC, 1981.
8. Application Guidelines for Ergonomic Assist and Safety Equipment, E.A.S.E. Council of Material
Handling Institute, Charlotte, NC, 1996.
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10. Considerations for Planning an Automated Storage/Retrieval System, Material Handling Institute,
Pittsburgh, PA, 1982.
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12. F. Pellegrino, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute: Conveyors and Palletizers, ALVEY Inc., 1993.
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14. M. Gardner, New Mathematical Diversions, Mathematical Assoc. of America, Wahsington, DC, 1995.
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