Al-Furat Al-Awsat Technical University

Engineering Technical College / Najaf

Department of Building & Construction Technical Engineering
3rd Stage

Soil Mechanics

Lecture (Week 1)
(Introduction)

Dr. Abbas S. A. Al-Hedad

‫الدكتور عباس صاحب عبد علي الحداد‬
Most topics in the present lecture was prepared according the lecture (Dr. Wasaam Al-Baghdadi),
lecturer in University of Kufa, the department of Civil Engineering.

2023-2024

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 1. Objectives of Theoretical Study:

The student should understand the nature of soil, its formation, classification and engineering
properties. The student should also know the behavior of soil under stresses, the effect of water flowing
inside the soil, the using of soil as a construction materials. The different methods used for testing the
soil in laboratory and field should also be given to the students.

Week Theoretical Syllabus

1&2 Soil formation, Types of soil

3 Geotechnical properties, Mineralogical composition
4&5&6 Weight–volume relationships, Grain size distribution, Soil classification
7&8&9 Hydraulic properties, Permeability of soil
10&11 Seepage & flow net construction
12 Effective stress & Pore water pressure
13&14&
Soil stabilization, Mechanical and chemical stabilization
15&16
17&18 Contact pressure and stress distribution
19&20&
Compressibility & Consolidation, Consolidation test , Settlement analysis
21&22
23&24& Shear strength of soil, Mohr-Coulomb theory, Cases of shearing tests, Types
25&26 of shearing tests.

27&28 Lateral earth pressure and retaining structures

29&30 Special types of soils, Collapsing & swelling soils

2. Objectives of Practical Study:

The different methods used for testing the soil in laboratory and field should also be given to the
students. The student should understand the field collection of the soil sample. The soil tests in
laboratory, such as the water content determination, liquid and plastic limit tests. The shrinkage limit
test, specific gravity of soil solids, total soluble salts & organic matter content should be given. The
particle size analysis (Mechanical method), particle size analysis (Hydrometer method), classification
of soil, Moisture- unit weight relationship (Compaction test) and determination of in-place density of
soil should know.

Week Practical Syllabus

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 1 Field collection of a soil sample
2 Water content determination
3 Liquid &Plastic limits test
4 Shrinkage limit test
5 Specific gravity of soil solids
6 Total soluble salts & Organic matter content
7 Particle size analysis ( Mechanical method )
8&9 Particle size analysis ( Hydrometer method )
10 Classification of soil
11&12 Moisture- unit weight relationship ( Compaction test )
13&14 Determination of in-place density of soil
15&16 Permeability tests ( Constant & Falling head )
17&18&19 Consolidation test
20 Unconfined compression test
21 Direct shear test
22&23&24 Triaxial compression test
25&26 California Bearing Ratio test
27 Collapsing test
28&29 Swelling test
30 Relative density determination

3. References:
a. Graham Barnes (G. E. Barnes), Soil Mechanics: Principles and Practice, Fourth
edition, Macmillan Education/Palgrave, London, 2016.
b. Braja M. Das (B.M. Das), Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 7th ed, Cengage
Learning, Stamford, Conn., ©2010.
c. Bharat Singh (B. Singh) and Shamsher Prakash (S. Prakash), Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, 6th ed, Nem Chand, Roorkee, 1990.
d. Joseph E. Bowles (J.E. Bowles), Engineering Properties of Soils and their
Measurements, 4th ed, McGraw-Hill, New York, ©1992.
e. Soil Testing for Engineers, Thomas William Lambe (T. W. Lambe), Wiley, New
York, 1964.

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 f. Soil Mechanics Fundamentals, Buldhu, M., John Wily & Sons, Ltd, First Edition,
United Kingdom, ISBN 978-0-470-57795-0, (2015)
,‫ الطبعة الثانية‬,‫ األستاذ المساعد‬,‫ اساسيات ميكانيك التربة وتطبيقاته الهندسية‬,‫ الدكتور مكي جعفر محمد الوائلي‬.g
.2020

4. Introduction:
Soils are natural, complex materials consisting of solids, liquids and gases. A good understanding of
soil behavior for civil engineers is necessary to analyze and design support systems (foundations) for
infrastructures (e.g., roads and highways, pipelines, bridges, tunnels, embankments), energy systems
(e.g., hydroelectric power stations, wind turbines, solar supports, geothermal and nuclear plants) and
environmental systems (e.g., solids waste disposal, reservoirs, water treatments and water distribution
systems, flood protection systems). In other words, the stability and life of any these systems depend
on the stability, strength, and deformation of soils. Thus, successful civil engineering projects are
heavily dependent on our understanding of soil behavior (Figure 1).

Picture 1.(a) Willis tower (Formerly the Sears Tower) in Chicago, (b) Empire State Building in New
York City, and (c) Hoover Dam at the border of Arizona and Nevada.

Soil could be studied in the different ways according to the type of science:

1. Agricultural scientists. They study soils from its relationship with the plants, because the
soil is the medium of plants growth, they are interest of approximately just one meter in
depth of soil where the roots are growth.

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 2. Geologist scientists. They study the whole depth of soil from the core, mantle, and crust
up to the ground surface. Also, they are interest of history of earth formation and the kinds
and origins of materials that forming the soil.
3. Civil engineering scientists. The soil from another direction is studied. For example, they
have an interest for studying the soil behavior under loading of buildings, the porosity of
soil, when using it as earth dams, the shear stress of the soil, and many more. (Figure 1)

Figure 1. Load-Settlement Relationship for a soil and sketch for a real settlement of soil due to the
load

The civil engineers should study the following characteristics of soil:

a) Origin.
b) Size distribution grain.
c) Drain water.
d) Shear strength.
e) Load-bearing capacity.

Soil mechanics (is) the study of the response of soils to loads. These loads may be come from human-
made structures (e.g., buildings), gravity (earth pressures), and natural phenomena (e.g., earthquake)(1)

5. A History of Soil Mechanics Development

1. In 1776, Columb produced a theory of earth pressure.
2. In 1856, both Darcy's Law and Stoke's Law were presented.
3. In 1857, Rankine produced his theory of earth pressure
4. In 1885, Boussinesq provided a solution to determine the stresses in the soil mass due to

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 external point load.
5. In 1911, Atterberg defined the four stages of soil consistency.
6. In 1920, Prandtl published his theory of plastic equilibrium.
7. In 1922, and 1923, Pavlovsky published his analytical solution to the problems of seepage
under hydraulic structures.
8. In 1925, Terzaghi defined the term of Soil Mechanics by publishing his first book. He
maybe the godfather of the soil mechanics engineer because of his many contributions in
this field.

6. Soil Phases
Soil in general is a three phases system, solid (soil particles), liquid (ground water) and gas (usually
air), these phases are shown in the below figure (Figure 2),

(a) (b)

Figure 2, (a) Natural soil element, (b) Three -Phase of soil element.

7. Soil Types
Soil can be classified by use of many classification systems according to a huge number of
properties. In general, soil is classified regarding the textures of soil (Texture refers to the
appearance of feel of a soil). It can be classified into three major groups as shown below:
 Coarse-grained soils or cohesionless or Granular soils like: (Rock, Boulders, Gravel, and
sand). They feel gritty and hard.
 Fine-grained soils or cohesive soils like: (silt, and clays). They feel smooth.
 Organic soils like: (peat, and any organic materials)

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It is worthy to mention that in most cases, the natural soil is a mix among these types, below
a comparison between the soil types:
Table 1. Comparison between soil types.
Item Gravel or Sand Silt or Clay
1 Particles are visible Particles invisible
2 Easily powered between the fingers Can be broken but not powdered between the fingers
3 No cohesive between particles Stick between the fingers
4 High permeable (large voids) Low permeable
5 High internal friction Smooth in touch (No friction)

8. Soil Formation
Soil is formed by means of three ways: (i) Sedimentary, (ii) Residual, and (iii) Fill

1. Sedimentary Soils:

The soil particles are created in a location of its origin, transformed, and then it deposit at another
location, there are three stages to form this kind of soil:

A. Sediment formation: These soil particles are created by means of physical and chemical
weathering of the rock on the earth. The gravel, sand, and silt are usually created by
physical weathering while clayey particles are created by chemical weathering of the rocks
B. Sediment Transportation: There are five major agents which transport the created soil
particles, they are: (water, air, ice, gravity, and organisms)
C. Sediment Deposition: The three main causes of deposition in water are velocity
reduction, solubility decrease and electrolyte increase.

2. Residual Soils:
It formed at the same location when the rock is weathering and there is a very little or no movement
for the weathering particles, so If the rate of rock decomposition exceeds the rate of removal of the
products of decomposition, an accumulation of the residual soil result.

3. Fill:

This soil type is made by man, taking the soil from the quarry and transports it by vehicles and then
place in the wanted location.

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 9. Soil Structure
It means the orientation and distribution of soil mass and the forces among adjacent soil particles.
There are two types of forces among the soil particles

a. Gravitational force: this force is of importance for coarse grained soils

due to their relatively large size.
b. Inter-particle force: this force is important for fine grained soils due to
surface charge of a particle.

The types of structures that can result due to sedimentation of the soil are:

a. Granular structure (Single- Grained structure) as shown in Figure (3).

b. Honey – Combed structure as shown in Figure (4).
c. Flocculated or dispersed structure as shown in Figure (5).

Figure 3. Granular structure (Single-Grained structure).

Figure 4. Honey-Combed structure.

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 Figure 5. Flocculated of dispersed structure.

10. The challenges of soil mechanics in civil engineering fields

(geotechnical engineering fields)

There are many challenges of soil mechanics problems that facing the civil engineers, some of them
are:

1. Buildings
Every building is placed on or within the soil. So, in the both cases, the foundation of the building is
resting on the soil. Because of that it is necessary to determine the bearing capacity of the soil to decide
which type of foundation (shallow, deep), or if it is necessary to improve the soil behavior (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Shallow and Deep Foundations

2. Transportation structures:
All roads are constructed on the soils. In this case, the soil has to resist the loads of all (moving) cars,
trains and other moving vehicles (Figure 7).

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 Figure 7. Road sections (Cut and Fill)

3. Slop stability and lateral support structures

Constructing building near the slopes is a critical case. According to that it should compute the stability
of the soil slopes to avoid slope failure and support it when it is necessary. It sometimes, it is necessary
to construct a structure to support the lateral pressure like retaining walls (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Slope stability and retaining wall sections

4. Underground structures

It is very important to determine special characteristics of soil when it wants to implement an

excavation to construct underground structures such as tunnels (Figure 9).

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 Figure 9. Underground structures (Tunnel)

5. Hydraulic structures
The soil is a porous media. It is important to study the behavior, velocity, dimensions, rate, and quantity
of water seepage through the mass of soil when constructing the hydraulic such as earth dams (Figure
10)

Figure 10. Earth Dams

6. Earthquake resistant structures:

In seismic regions, it is very necessary to construct structures to resist the damage consequences of
earthquake like rubber bearing and steel plate shear walls systems (Figure 11).

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Figure 11. Earth Dams

End lecture

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