1 Functions and Limits

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Topics for this week
1. Applications of limits
I. Asymptotes
o Vertical asymptotes
o Horizontal asymptotes
2. Continuity
I. Definition of continuity
II. Types of discontinuity
III. Laws of continuity
IV. Some well known results about continuity
V. Intermediate value theorem (an application of continuity)
3. Derivative
I. Derivative by definition
II. Derivative by rules, laws, theorems, known results

2
Vertical Asymptotes

3
Vertical Asymptotes
Definition The vertical line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve y = f(x)
if at least one of the following statements is true:

(𝑎) lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = +∞ (𝑏) lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = +∞ (𝑐) lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

(𝑑) lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞ (𝑒)lim 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞ (𝑓)lim 𝑓 𝑥 = +∞

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

4
 Vertical Asymptotes
Illustrations of these six cases are given in the following Figure.

𝑒 lim 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞ f lim 𝑓 𝑥 = +∞ 5
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Horizontal Asymptotes

If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 then 𝑦 = 𝐿 is a horizontal asymptote.

𝑥→∞

If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑀 then 𝑦 = 𝑀 is a horizontal asymptote.

𝑥→−∞

6
Example 1
Find the vertical asymptotes of f(x) = tan x.
Solution:
Because
sin x
tan x =
cos x
there are potential vertical asymptotes where cos x = 0.

In fact, since cos x → 0+ as x → ( / 2 ) and cos x → 0 − as x → ( / 2 ) , whereas sin x is

− +

positive (near 1) when x is near  / 2, we have

lim − tan x =  and lim + tan x = −

x →( /2 ) x →( /2 )

7
Example 1– Solution
This shows that the line x =  / 2 is a vertical asymptote. Similar reasoning shows
that the lines x =  / 2 + n , where n is an integer, are all vertical asymptotes of
f(x) = tan x.
The graph in Figure 14 confirms this.

y = tan x
Figure 14

8
 Example 2: Vertical Asymptote
𝑥 2 +5𝑥−14
Find the vertical asymptote(s) of 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 2 +3𝑥−10
Solution:
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 14 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 7)
Since 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 10 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 5)

there are potential vertical asymptotes where x = 2 and x = -5.

𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 14 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 7) 𝑥+7 9
In fact, since lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 2 = lim = lim =
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 10 𝑥→2 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 5) 𝑥→2 𝑥 + 5 7
x = 2 is not a vertical asymptote

𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 14 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 7) 𝑥+7
But lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = lim − = lim − = −∞
𝑥→−5− 𝑥→−5− 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 10 𝑥→−5 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 5) 𝑥→−5 𝑥 + 5

Therefore x = -5 is a vertical asymptote

9
Example 2: Vertical Asymptote
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 14
𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 10

Vertical Asymptote
x = -5

Horizontal Asymptote y = 1

10
Example 3: Horizontal Asymptotes

Find the horizontal asymptote(s)

𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 + 63
𝑖 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
7𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 − 81

5𝑒 𝑥 − 70𝑒 −𝑥
𝑖𝑖 𝑓(𝑥) =
15𝑒 𝑥 + 7𝑒 −𝑥

11
Example 3: Horizontal Asymptotes

Solution:
8 63
3
𝑥 − 8𝑥 + 63 1− 2 + 𝑥3 1
𝑖 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 3 = lim 𝑥 =
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 7𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 − 81 𝑥→∞ 5 81 7
7+ − 3
𝑥 𝑥
8 63
3
𝑥 − 8𝑥 + 63 1 − 2 + 𝑥3 1
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = lim 𝑥 =
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞ 7𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 81 𝑥→−∞ 5 81 7
7+ − 3
𝑥 𝑥

1
Therefore the only horizontal asymptote is 𝑦 =
7

12
Example 3: Horizontal Asymptotes

Solution: 𝑥 −𝑥
5𝑒 70𝑒 −2𝑥
5𝑒 𝑥 − 70𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥 5 − 70𝑒 5−0 1
𝑖𝑖 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = lim 𝑒 𝑒 = lim = =
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 15𝑒 𝑥 + 7𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥→∞ 15𝑒 𝑥 7𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥→∞ 15 + 7𝑒 −2𝑥 15 + 0 3
+ 𝑥
𝑒𝑥 𝑒
5𝑒 𝑥 70𝑒 −𝑥
− −𝑥 2𝑥 − 70
5𝑒 𝑥 − 70𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 5𝑒 0 − 70
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = lim 𝑥 −𝑥 = 𝑥→−∞
lim 2𝑥
= = −10
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥
𝑥→−∞ 15𝑒 + 7𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥→−∞ 15𝑒 7𝑒 15𝑒 + 7 0 + 7
+ −𝑥
𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒

1
Therefore horizontal asymptotes are 𝑦 = and 𝑦 = −10
3

13
 Example 4
𝑥 2 −4𝑥−5
Find the vertical asymptotes and horizontal asymptote of 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 2 −2𝑥−15
Solution:
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5 (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 1)
Since 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 =
𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 15 (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 3)

there are potential vertical asymptotes where x = 5 and x = -3.

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5 (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥+1 6
In fact, since lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 2 = lim = lim =
𝑥→5 𝑥→5 𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 15 𝑥→5 (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 3) 𝑥→5 𝑥 + 3 8
x = 5 is not a vertical asymptote

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5 (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥+1
But lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = lim − = lim − =∞
𝑥→−3− 𝑥→−3− 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 15 𝑥→−3 (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 3) 𝑥→−3 𝑥 + 3

Therefore x = -3 is a vertical asymptote

14
Example 4

4 5
2
𝑥 − 4𝑥 − 5 1− − 2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 2 𝑥 𝑥 =1
= lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 15 𝑥→∞ 2 15
1− − 2
𝑥 𝑥
4 5
2
𝑥 − 4𝑥 − 5 1 − −
𝑥 𝑥2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 2 = lim =1
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 15 𝑥→−∞ 2 15
1− − 2
𝑥 𝑥

Therefore the only horizontal asymptote is 𝑦 = 1

15
Example 4
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5
𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 15

Vertical Asymptote
x = -3

Horizontal Asymptote y = 1

16
Continuity of a Function

17
Continuity of a Function (1 of 8)
The limit of a function as x approaches a can often be found simply by
calculating the value of the function at a. Functions with this property are called
continuous at a.
We will see that the mathematical definition of continuity corresponds closely
with the meaning of the word continuity in everyday language. (A continuous
process is one that takes place without interruption.)

1 Definition A function f is continuous at a number a if

lim f ( x ) = f ( a )
x →a

18
 Continuity of a Function (2 of 8)
Notice that Definition 1 implicitly requires three things if f is continuous at a:
1. f(a) is defined (that is, a is in the domain of f )
2. lim f ( x ) exists
x →a

3. lim f ( x ) = f ( a )
x →a

The definition says that f is continuous at a if f(x) approaches f(a) as x

approaches a. Thus a continuous function f has the property that a small
change in x produces only a small change in f(x).

19
Continuity of a Function (3 of 8)
In fact, the change in f(x) can be kept as small as we please by keeping the
change in x sufficiently small.
If f is defined near a (in other words, f is defined on an open interval containing
a, except perhaps at a), we say that f is discontinuous at a (or f has a
discontinuity at a) if f is not continuous at a.
Physical phenomena are usually continuous. For instance, the displacement or
velocity of a vehicle varies continuously with time, as does a person’s height.
But discontinuities do occur in such situations as electric currents.

20
Continuity of a Function (4 of 8)
Geometrically, you can think of a function that is continuous at every number in
an interval as a function whose graph has no break in it: the graph can be
drawn without removing your pen from the paper.

21
Example 1
Figure shows the graph of a function f. At which numbers is f discontinuous? Why?

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

1 9 12 14 𝑥
5

22
 Example 1- Solution
Solution:
At a=5:
It looks as if there is a discontinuity when a = 5 because the graph has a break
there.

𝑖 lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑓 𝑥

𝑥→5 𝑥→5 𝑥→5

𝑖𝑖 𝑓(𝑥) is undefined at x=5

Since lim 𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 𝑓(5) f is discontinuous at 5.

𝑥→5

23
 Example 1- Solution

At a=9:
There is a discontinuity when a = 9 because there is a jump at that point.

𝑖 lim− 𝑓 𝑥 ≠ lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 Therefore lim 𝑓 𝑥 does not exist.

𝑥→9 𝑥→9 𝑥→9

𝑖𝑖 𝑓(𝑥) is defined at x=9

lim 𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 𝑓(9) f is discontinuous at 9.

Since 𝑥→9

24
 Example 1- Solution

At a=12:
There is a discontinuity when a = 12 because f is going to infinity.

𝑖 lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞ , lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 Therefore lim 𝑓 𝑥 does not exist.

𝑥→12 𝑥→12 𝑥→12

𝑖𝑖 𝑓(𝑥) is defined at x=12 and 𝑓 12 = 0

lim 𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 𝑓(12) f is discontinuous at 12.

Since 𝑥→12

25
Example 2
Where are each of the following functions discontinuous?
1
x −x −2
2
x0
(c) f ( x ) =  x 2
if
(a) f ( x ) =
x −2 1 if x =0
 x2 − x − 2
 if x2
(b) f (x) =  x − 2 (d) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥
1 x=2
 if

26
Example 2
Solution:
(a) Notice that f(2) is not defined, so f is discontinuous at 2. Later we’ll see why
f is continuous at all other numbers.

𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2
𝑦=
𝑥−2

2 4

27
Example 2 – Solution (1 of 2)
(b) Here f(2) = 1 is defined and
x2 − x − 2
lim f ( x ) = lim 𝑦
x →2 x →2 x −2

= lim
( x − 2 )( x + 1)
x →2 x −2 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2
𝑦=
𝑥−2
= lim ( x + 1)
x →2

=3
But lim f ( x )  f ( 2 ) 𝑥
x →2 2 4

so f is not continuous at 2.

28
 Example 2 – Solution (1 of 2)

(c) Here f(0) = 1 is defined but

1
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 2 = ∞
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥

does not exist. So f is discontinuous at 0.

29
Example 2 – Solution (2 of 2)
(d) The greatest integer function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 has discontinuities at all of
lim 𝑥 does not exist if n is an integer.
the integers because 𝑥→𝑛

30
Continuity of a Function
In each case the graph can’t be drawn without lifting the pen from the paper
because a hole or break or jump occurs in the graph.
The kind of discontinuity illustrated in parts (a) and (b) is called removable
because we could remove the discontinuity by redefining f at just the single
number 2. [If we redefine f to be 3 at x = 2, then f is equivalent to the function
g(x) = x + 1, which is continuous.]
The discontinuity in part (c) is called an infinite discontinuity. The
discontinuities in part (d) are called jump discontinuities because the function
“jumps” from one value to another.

31
Continuity of a Function
2 Definition A function f is continuous from the right at a number a if
lim+ f ( x ) = f ( a )
x →a

and f is continuous from the left at a if

lim− f ( x ) = f ( a )
x →a

3 Definition A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at

every number in the interval. (If f is defined only on one side of an endpoint of
the interval, we understand continuous at the endpoint to mean continuous
from the right or continuous from the left.)

32
Properties of Continuous Functions

33
Properties of Continuous Functions (1 of 8)
Instead of always using Definitions 1, 2, and 3 to verify the continuity of a
function, it is often convenient to use the next theorem, which shows how to
build up complicated continuous functions from simple ones.

4 Theorem If f and g are continuous at a and c is a constant, then the following

functions are also continuous at a:
1. f + g 2. f − g 3. cf

f
4. fg 5. if g ( a )  0
g

34
Properties of Continuous Functions (2 of 8)
It follows from Theorem 4 and Definition 3 that if f and g are continuous on an
interval, then so are the functions f + g, f − g, cf, fg, and (if g is never 0) f .
g

The following theorem was stated as the Direct Substitution Property.

5 Theorem
(a) Any polynomial is continuous everywhere; that is, it is continuous on
𝑅 = −∞,∞

(b) Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined; that is, it is

continuous on its domain.

35
Properties of Continuous Functions (3 of 8)
As an illustration of Theorem 5, observe that the volume of a sphere varies
continuously with its radius because the formula V ( r ) = 34  r 3 shows that V is a
polynomial function of r.
Likewise, if a ball is thrown vertically into the air with a velocity of 50 ft/s, then
the height of the ball in feet t seconds later is given by the formula h = 50t − 16t 2 .

Again this is a polynomial function, so the height is a continuous function of the

elapsed time.

36
Example 5
x 3 + 2x 2 − 1
Find lim
x →−2 5 − 3x

Solution:
x 3 + 2x 2 − 1
The function f ( x ) =
5 − 3x
 5
is rational, so by Theorem 5 it is continuous on its domain, which is  x | x  .
 3 
Therefore

37
Properties of Continuous Functions (4 of 8)
It turns out that most of the familiar functions are continuous at every number in
their domains.
From the appearance of the graphs of the sine and cosine functions, we would
certainly guess that they are continuous.

We know from the definitions of sin θ

and cos θ that the coordinates of the
point P in Figure 5 are (cos θ, sin θ).
As θ → 0, we see that P approaches
the point (1, 0) and so cos θ → 1 and
sin θ → 0.
Figure 5

38
Properties of Continuous Functions (5 of 8)
Thus
6 lim cos  = 1 lim sin = 0
 →0  →0

Since cos 0 = 1 and sin 0 = 0, the equations in (6) assert that the cosine and
sine functions are continuous at 0.
The addition formulas for cosine and sine can then be used to deduce that
these functions are continuous everywhere.
It follows from part 5 of Theorem 4 that
sin x
tan x =
cos x
is continuous except where cos x = 0.

39
Properties of Continuous Functions (6 of 8)

This happens when x is an odd integer multiple of 2
, so y = tan x has
 3 5
infinite discontinuities when x =  ,  , , and so on (see Figure 6).
2 2 2

y = tan x
Figure 6

40
Properties of Continuous Functions (7 of 8)
7 Theorem The following types of functions are continuous at every number in
their domains:
• polynomials • rational functions
• root functions • trigonometric functions

Another way of combining continuous functions f and g to get a new continuous

function is to form the composite function f g. This fact is a consequence
of the following theorem.
8 Theorem If f is continuous at b and lim g ( x ) = b, then lim f ( g ( x ) ) = f ( b ) .
x →a x →a
In other words,
(
lim f ( g ( x ) ) = f lim g ( x )
x →a x →a
)
41
Properties of Continuous Functions (8 of 8)
Intuitively, Theorem 8 is reasonable because if x is close to a, then g(x) is close to
b, and since f is continuous at b, if g(x) is close to b, then f(g(x)) is close to f(b).

9 Theorem If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a). then the composite

function f g given by ( f g )( x ) = f ( g ( x ) ) is continuous at a.

42
Properties of Continuous Functions (Summary)

• If f and g are continuous at a and c is a constant, then the following

functions are also continuous at a:
f
1. f + g 2. f − g 3. cf 4. fg 5. if g ( a )  0
g
• If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a). then the composite
function f g given by ( f g )( x ) = f ( g ( x ) ) is continuous at a.

• The following types of functions are continuous at every number in their

domains:
• polynomials • rational functions
• root functions • trigonometric functions
43
Example 6
Find c such that the following function is continuous on R

𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 3, 𝑥<2
𝑓(𝑥) = ቊ 2
𝑐 − 𝑥𝑐, 𝑥≥2
Solution:
The function is continuous for 𝑥 < 2 because if 𝑥 < 2 then 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 3
which is a polynomial.

The function is continuous for 𝑥 > 2 because if 𝑥 > 2 then 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐 2 − 𝑥𝑐 which

is a polynomial.

44
Example 6

The function is continuous at 𝑥 = 2 if

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(2)
𝑥→2
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(2)
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

lim−(𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 3) = lim+ (𝑐 2 −𝑥𝑐) = 𝑐 2 − 2𝑐

𝑥→2 𝑥→2

23 + 22 + 3) = (𝑐 2 −2𝑐) = 𝑐 2 − 2𝑐

15 = 𝑐 2 − 2𝑐 = 𝑐 2 − 2𝑐

45
 Example 6

𝑐 2 − 2𝑐 −15 =0
(𝑐 − 5)(𝑐 + 3) =0

𝑐 = 5,-3
Therefore 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous on R if 𝑐 = 5,-3

46
The Intermediate Value Theorem

47
The Intermediate Value Theorem (1 of 7)
An important property of continuous functions is expressed by the following
theorem, whose proof is found in more advanced books on calculus.

10 The Intermediate Value Theorem Suppose that f is continuous on the

closed interval [a, b] and let N be any number between f(a) and f(b), where
f(a) ≠ f(b). Then there exists a number c in (a, b) such that f(c) = N.

48
The Intermediate Value Theorem (2 of 7)
The Intermediate Value Theorem states that a continuous function takes on
every intermediate value between the function values f(a) and f(b). It is
illustrated by Figure 7.
Note that the value N can be taken on once [as in part (a)] or more than once
[as in part (b)].

Figure 7

49
The Intermediate Value Theorem (3 of 7)
If we think of a continuous function as a function whose graph has no hole or
break, then it is easy to believe that the Intermediate Value Theorem is true.
In geometric terms it says that if any horizontal line y = N is given between y = f(a)
and y = f(b) as in Figure 8, then the graph of f can’t jump over the line. It must
intersect y = N somewhere.

Figure 8

50
The Intermediate Value Theorem (4 of 7)
It is important that the function f in Theorem 10 be continuous. The
Intermediate Value Theorem is not true in general for discontinuous functions.

51
 Example 9
Show that there is a solution of the equation
4 x 3 − 6 x 2 + 3 x − 2 = 0.

between 1 and 2.

Solution:
Let f ( x ) = 4 x 3 − 6 x 2 + 3 x − 2 = 0.
We are looking for a solution of the given equation, that is, a number c between
1 and 2 such that f(c) = 0. Therefore we take a = 1, b = 2, and N = 0 in
Theorem 10.

52
Example 9 – Solution (1 of 2)
We have
f (1) = 4 − 6 + 3 − 2 = −1  0.

and f (2) = 32 − 24 + 6 − 2 = 12  0.

Thus f(1) < 0 < f(2); that is, N = 0 is a number between f(1) and f(2). The
function f is continuous since it is a polynomial, so the Intermediate Value
Theorem says there is a number c between 1 and 2 such that f(c) = 0.
In other words, the equation 4 x 3 − 6 x 2 + 3 x − 2 = 0 has at least one solution c in
the interval (1, 2).

53
Example 9 – Solution (2 of 2)
In fact, we can locate a solution more precisely by using the Intermediate Value
Theorem again. Since
f(1.2) = −0.128 < 0 and f(1.3) = 0.548 > 0

a solution must lie between 1.2 and 1.3. A calculator gives, by trial and error,

f(1.22) = −0.007008 < 0 and f(1.23) = 0.056068 > 0

so a solution lies in the interval (1.22, 1.23).

54
The Intermediate Value Theorem (5 of 7)
We can use a graphing calculator or computer to illustrate the use of the
Intermediate Value Theorem.

Figure 9 shows the graph of f in the viewing

rectangle [−1, 3] by [−3, 3] and you can see
that the graph crosses the x-axis between 1
and 2.

Figure 9

55
The Intermediate Value Theorem (6 of 7)
Figure 10 shows the result of zooming in to the viewing rectangle [1.2, 1.3] by
[−0.2, 0.2].

Figure 10

In fact, the Intermediate Value Theorem plays a role in the very way these
graphing devices work.

56
The Intermediate Value Theorem (7 of 7)
A computer calculates a finite number of points on the graph and turns on the
pixels that contain these calculated points.
It assumes that the function is continuous and takes on all the intermediate
values between two consecutive points.
The computer therefore “connects the dots” by turning on the intermediate
pixels.

57
Derivatives and Rates of Change

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Derivatives
This special type of limit is called a derivative and we will see that it can be
interpreted as a rate of change in any of the natural or social sciences or
engineering.

59
Tangents

60
Tangents (1 of 8)
If a curve C has equation y = f(x) and we want to find the tangent line to C at
the point P(a, f(a)), then we consider a nearby point Q(x, f(x)), where x ≠ a, and
compute the slope of the secant line PQ:

f ( x ) − f (a )
mPQ =
x −a

Then we let Q approach P along the curve C by letting x approach a.

61
Tangents (2 of 8)
If mPQ approaches a number m, then we define the tangent line ℓ to be the line
through P with slope m. (This amounts to saying that the tangent line is the
limiting position of the secant line PQ as Q approaches P. See Figure 1.)

Figure 1

62
Tangents (3 of 8)
1 Definition The tangent line to the curve y = f(x) at the point P(a, f(a)) is
the line through P with slope
f ( x ) − f (a )
m = lim
x →a x −a

provided that this limit exists.

63
Example 1
Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x 2 at the point P(1, 1).

Solution:
Here we have a = 1 and f ( x ) = x 2 , so the slope is

f ( x ) − f (1) x2 − 1
m = lim = lim
x →1 x −1 x →1 x − 1

= lim
( x − 1)( x + 1)
x →1 x −1

64
Example 1 – Solution

= lim ( x + 1)
x →1

= 1+ 1
= 2

Using the point-slope form of the equation of a line, we find that an equation of
the tangent line at (1, 1) is

y − 1 = 2 ( x − 1) or y = 2x − 1

65
Tangents (4 of 8)
We sometimes refer to the slope of the tangent line to a curve at a point as the
slope of the curve at the point.
The idea is that if we zoom in far enough toward the point, the curve looks
almost like a straight line.

66
Tangents (5 of 8)
Figure 2 illustrates this procedure for the curve y = x 2 in Example 1.

Zooming in toward the point (1, 1) on the parabola y = x2

Figure 2

67
Tangents (6 of 8)
The more we zoom in, the more the parabola looks like a line.
In other words, the curve becomes almost indistinguishable from its tangent
line.
There is another expression for the slope of a tangent line that is sometimes
easier to use.

68
Tangents (7 of 8)
If h = x − a, then x = a + h and so the slope of the secant line PQ is
f (a + h ) − f (a )
mPQ =
h

(See Figure 3 where the case h > 0 is illustrated and Q is to the right of P. If it
happened that h < 0, however, Q would be to the left of P.)

Figure 3

69
Tangents (8 of 8)
Notice that as x approaches a, h approaches 0 (because h = x − a) and so the
expression for the slope of the tangent line in Definition 1 becomes

f (a + h ) − f (a )
2 m = lim
h →0 h

70
Velocities

71
Velocities (1 of 4)
In general, suppose an object moves along a straight line according to an
equation of motion s = f(t), where s is the displacement (directed distance) of the
object from the origin at time t.
The function f that describes the motion is called the position function of the
object.
In the time interval from t = a to t = a + h, the change in position is f(a + h) − f(a).

72
Velocities (2 of 4)
See Figure 5.

Figure 5

73
Velocities (3 of 4)
The average velocity over this time interval is

displacement f ( a + h ) − f ( a )
average velocity = =
time h

which is the same as the slope of the

secant line PQ in Figure 6.

Figure 6

74
Velocities (4 of 4)
Now suppose we compute the average velocities over shorter and shorter time
intervals [a, a + h].
In other words, we let h approach 0. As in the example of the falling ball, we
define the velocity (or instantaneous velocity) v(a) at time t = a to be the limit
of these average velocities:
3 Definition The instantaneous velocity of an object with position function
f(t) at time t = a is
f (a + h ) − f (a )
v ( a ) = lim
h →0 h
provided that this limit exists.
This means that the velocity at time t = a is equal to the slope of the tangent
line at P.
75
Example 3
Suppose that a ball is dropped from the upper observation deck of the CN
Tower, 450 m above the ground.
(a) What is the velocity of the ball after 5 seconds?
(b) How fast is the ball traveling when it hits the ground?
Solution:
Since two different velocities are requested, it’s efficient to start by finding the
velocity at a general time t = a.

76
Example 3 – Solution (1 of 4)
Using the equation of motion s = f (t ) = 4.9t 2 , we have

77
Example 3 – Solution (2 of 4)
(a) The velocity after 5 seconds is v(5) = (9.8)(5)
= 49 m/s.

78
Example 3 – Solution (3 of 4)
(b) Since the observation deck is 450 m above the ground, the ball will hit the
ground at the time t when s(t) = 450, that is,

4.9t 2 = 450

This gives

450 450
t2 = and t=  9.6 s
4.9 4.9

79
Example 3 – Solution (4 of 4)
The velocity of the ball as it hits the ground is therefore

 450  450
v  = 9.8
 4.9  4.9
 94 m/s

80
Derivative and derivative function

81
Derivatives and derivative function
We have seen that the same type of limit arises in finding the slope of a
tangent line (Equation 2) or the velocity of an object (Definition 3).
In fact, limits of the form
f (a + h ) − f (a )
lim
h →0 h

arise whenever we calculate a rate of change in any of the sciences or

engineering, such as a rate of reaction in chemistry or a marginal cost in
economics.
Since this type of limit occurs so widely, it is given a special name and notation.

82
Derivatives and derivative function
Definition derivative of f at a number a:
The derivative of a function f at a number a, denoted by f (a ), is
f (a + h ) − f (a )
1 f  ( a ) = lim
h →0 h
if this limit exists.

Definition The derivative function:

If we replace a in Equation 1 by a variable x, we obtain

f ( x + h) − f ( x )
2 f  ( x ) = lim
h →0 h

We can regard f  as a new function, called the derivative of f and defined 83

Derivatives
Alternative Definition of the derivative of a function f at a number a

We know that

f (a + h ) − f (a )
f  ( a ) = lim
h →0 h

If we write x = a + h, then we have h = x − a and h approaches 0 if and only if x

approaches a. Therefore an equivalent way of stating the definition of the
derivative, as we saw in finding tangent lines, is

f ( x ) − f (a )
f  ( a ) = lim
x →a x −a

84
The Derivative Function
Given any number x for which this limit exists, we assign to x the number f ( x ).
So we can regard f  as a new function, called the derivative of f and defined
by Equation 2.
We know that the value of f  at x, f ( x ), can be interpreted geometrically as the
slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at the point (x, f (x)).
The function f  is called the derivative of f because it has been “derived” from f by
the limiting operation in Equation 2. The domain of f  is the set x | f  ( x ) exists
and may be smaller than the domain of f.

85
Other Notations

86
Other Notations
If we use the traditional notation y = f(x) to indicate that the independent
variable is x and the dependent variable is y, then some common alternative
notations for the derivative are as follows:

dy df d
f ( x ) = y  = = = f ( x ) = Df ( x ) = Dx f ( x )
dx dx dx

d
The symbols D and are called differentiation operators because they
dx
indicate the operation of differentiation, which is the process of calculating a
derivative.

87
Other Notations
dy
The symbol , which was introduced by Leibniz, should not be regarded as a
dx
ratio (for the time being); it is simply a synonym for f ( x ). Nonetheless, it is a
very useful and suggestive notation, especially when used in conjunction with
increment notation.
We can rewrite the definition of derivative in Leibniz notation in the form
dy y
= lim
dx x →0 x

88
Other Notations
dy
If we want to indicate the value of a derivative in Leibniz notation at a
dx
specific number a, we use the notation

dy dy 
or
dx x =a dx  x =a

which is a synonym for f (a).

3 Definition A function f is differentiable at a if f (a) exists. It is differentiable

on an open interval (a, b) [or (a, ∞) or (−∞, a) or (−∞, ∞)] if it is
differentiable at every number in the interval.

89
Example 1
Find the derivative of the function f ( x ) = x 2 − 8 x + 9 at the numbers (a) 2 and (b) a.

Solution:
(a) From Definition 4 we have

f ( 2 + h ) − f (2)
f  ( 2) = lim
h →0 h
( 2 + h ) − 8 ( 2 + h ) + 9 − ( −3)
2

= lim
h →0 h
4 + 4h + h 2 − 16 − 8h + 9 + 3
= lim
h →0 h

90
Example 1 – Solution (1 of 2)
h 2 − 4h
= lim
h →0 h
h (h − 4)
= lim
h →0 h
= lim(h − 4) = −4
h →0

f (a + h ) − f (a )
(b) f  (a ) = lim
h →0 h
( a + h )2 − 8 ( a + h ) + 9  − a 2 − 8a + 9 
   
= lim
h →0 h
a 2 + 2ah + h 2 − 8a − 8h + 9 − a 2 + 8a − 9
= lim
x →0 h

91
Example 1 – Solution (2 of 2)
2ah + h 2 − 8h
= lim
h →0 h
= lim ( 2a + h − 8 )
h →0

= 2a − 8

As a check on our work in part (a), notice that if we let a = 2, then

f ' ( 2 ) = 2(2) − 8 = −4.

92
Example 2
2
Find the derivative function of 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥
Solution:
(a) From Definition of derivative of a function we have

𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓′(𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

2 2
−
= lim 𝑥 + ℎ 𝑥
ℎ→0 ℎ
2𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 2ℎ
= lim 𝑥+ℎ
ℎ→0 ℎ
93
Example 2 – Solution (1 of 2)
−2ℎ
𝑥+ℎ 𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

−2ℎ
= lim
ℎ→0 𝑥 + ℎ 𝑥ℎ

−2
= lim
ℎ→0 𝑥 + ℎ 𝑥

−2
=
𝑥+0 𝑥
−2
= 2
𝑥
94
Example 3
Find the derivative function of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 8
Solution:
(a) From Definition of derivative of a function we have

𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓′(𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑥+ℎ+8− 𝑥+8
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑥+ℎ+8− 𝑥+8 𝑥+ℎ+8+ 𝑥+8
= lim 
ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑥+ℎ+8+ 𝑥+8
95
Example 3 – Solution (2 of 2)
𝑥+ℎ+8−𝑥−8
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ( 𝑥 + ℎ + 8 + 𝑥 + 8)
ℎ
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ( 𝑥 + ℎ + 8 + 𝑥 + 8)

1
= lim
ℎ→0 𝑥 + ℎ + 8 + 𝑥 + 8

1 1
= =
𝑥+0+8+ 𝑥+8 2 𝑥+8
96
Example 4
Find the derivative function of 𝑓(𝑥) = 8𝑥
Solution:
(a) From Definition of derivative of a function we have

𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓′(𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

8𝑥+ℎ − 8𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

8 𝑥 8ℎ − 8 𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
97
Example 4 – Solution (2 of 3)
8𝑥 (8ℎ −1)
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
8ℎ − 1
= 8𝑥 lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑒 h ln(8) − 1
= 8𝑥 lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑒 h ln(8) − 1
= 8𝑥 lim ln(8)
ℎ→0 ℎ ln(8)
98
Example 4 – Solution (3 of 3)
h ln(8)
𝑥
𝑒 −1
= ln(8)8 lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ln(8)

= ln(8)8𝑥

99
Example 5
Find the derivative function of 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 8𝑥
Solution:
(a) From Definition of derivative of a function we have

𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓′(𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

sin 8(𝑥 + ℎ) − sin 8𝑥

= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

sin 8𝑥 + 8ℎ − sin 8𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ 100
Example 5 – Solution (2 of 3)
8𝑥 + 8ℎ − 8𝑥 8𝑥 + 8ℎ + 8𝑥
2sin cos
2 2
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

sin 4ℎ cos 8𝑥 + 4ℎ
= 2 lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

sin 4ℎ
= 2 lim ∙ cos 8𝑥 + 4ℎ
ℎ→0 ℎ

sin 4ℎ
= 2 lim ∙ lim cos 8𝑥 + 4ℎ
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0

101
Example 3 – Solution (3 of 3)

sin 4ℎ
= 2 lim 4 ∙ lim cos 8𝑥 + 4ℎ
ℎ→0 4ℎ ℎ→0

sin 4ℎ
= 2 ∙ 4 lim ∙ lim cos 8𝑥 + 4ℎ
ℎ→0 4ℎ ℎ→0

= 8 ∙ 1∙ cos 8𝑥 + 0

= 8 cos 8𝑥

102
Example 6
Find the derivative function of 𝑓(𝑥) = tan 8𝑥
Solution:
(a) From Definition of derivative of a function we have

𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓′(𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

tan 8(𝑥 + ℎ) − tan 8𝑥

= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

tan 8𝑥 + 8ℎ − tan 8𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ 103
Example 6 – Solution (2 of 4)
sin 8𝑥 + 8ℎ sin 8𝑥
−
cos 8𝑥 + 8ℎ cos 8𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

sin 8𝑥 + 8ℎ cos 8𝑥 − sin 8𝑥 cos 8𝑥 + 8ℎ

cos 8𝑥 + 8ℎ cos 8𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

sin 8𝑥 + 8ℎ − 8𝑥
cos 8𝑥 + 8ℎ cos 8𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
104
Example 6 – Solution (3 of 4)
sin 8ℎ
cos 8𝑥 + 8ℎ cos 8𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

sin 8ℎ 1
= lim ∙
ℎ→0 cos 8𝑥 + 8ℎ cos 8𝑥 ℎ

sin 8ℎ 1
= lim ∙
ℎ→0 ℎ cos 8𝑥 + 8ℎ cos 8𝑥

sin 8ℎ 1
= lim ∙ lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 cos 8𝑥 + 8ℎ cos 8𝑥
105
Example 6 – Solution (3 of 4)
sin 8ℎ 1
= 8 lim ∙ lim
ℎ→0 8ℎ ℎ→0 cos 8𝑥 + 8ℎ cos 8𝑥

1
=8∙1∙
cos 8𝑥 + 0 cos 8𝑥

1
=8∙
cos2 (8𝑥)

= 8 ∙ sec 2 (8𝑥) 106