RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (MBA 023)

M.B.A. 2ND SEMESTER

Q1. Define research and examine its characteristics.

Q2. Explain the steps in the exploratory study.
Q3. Explain steps involved in research process.
Q4. Describe importance of primary sources of data.
Q5. Describe the different types of research, clearly pointing out the difference between an experiment
and a survey
Q6. write a lucid note on ‘Research Design’
Q7. What is probability sampling? Give examples.
Q8. Explain the nature and purpose of a ‘questionnaire’ used for research studies. How will you design
A questionnaire for conducting a market survey?
Q9. Distinguish between primary data and secondary data and enlist the important method of collecting
Primary data.
Q10. Sketch out the precautions that must be taken while drafting a questionnaire.
Q11. What is Sampling? Distinguish between the probability samplings and explain their significance.
Q12. What are the different approaches to interview as a method of data collection? Explain their
Relative merits and demerits.
Q13. Differentiate between internal and external secondary data . What are the advantages and
Disadvantages of secondary data?
Q14. What are the various Kinds of charts and diagrams which are used in data analysis? Distinguish
Between line chart, bar chart and histogram.
Q15. Describe the following parts of report: Title page, table of contents, executive summary, problem
definition , research design, data analysis , conclusions and recommendations.
Q16. Describe the guidelines for report writing. What is a pie chart? For what types of information , is it
suitable ? For what type of information is it not suitable?
Q17. What is the difference between primary and secondary data? Why is it important to obtain
Secondary data before primary data?
Q18. What is research design? Why is it necessary for conducting a study ? How do exploratory,
Descriptive and casual studies differ from each other ? Explain with examples.
Q19. Describe the steps involved in research process with suitable illustration.
Q20. How researchers evaluate secondary data? What types of secondary data does the Bureau of
census reports make available?
Q21. Explain the nature and purpose of a ‘questionnaire ’ used for research studies . How will you
design a questionnaire for conducting a market survey?
Q22. Write a lucid note on ‘sampling procedure’.
Q23 Discuss the role played by bibliography in context of research report.
Q24. What are the characteristics of a research report? What functions does this report perform?
Q25. Steps involved in testing of hypothesis.
Q26. What do you mean by research? Explain its significance in modern times.
Q27. “Empirical research in India in particular creates so many problems for researchers”. State the
 Problem s that are usually faced by researchers.
Q28. “Research is much concerned with proper fact finding, analysis and evaluation.” Do you agree with
This statement? Give reasons in support of your answer.
Q29. Explain the meaning and significance of a research design.
Q30. “Research design in exploratory studies must be flexible but in descriptive studies, it must
Minimize bias and maximize reliability.” Discuss.

Q31. Give your understanding of a good research design. Is single research design suitable in all research
studies? If not , why?
Q32. Define Research What are the possible motivation for conducting Research?
Q33. What are the characteristic of research ? Explain the relationship between scientific method and
Research.
Q34. Describe the research process in details.
Q35. Write a short note on “Significance of Research”.
Q36. Define Research Design. What are the characteristics of a good research design?
Q37. Differentiate between exploratory research and descriptive research.
Q38. Research conducted to identify the characteristics of a group is termed as:
(a)exploratory research
(b) descriptive research
(c)diagnostic research
(d)experimental research
Q39. Which of the following is not a principle of experimental design:
(a)principle of replication
(b) principle of randomization
(c)principle of local control
(d)principle of validity
Q40. Difference between
(a)Population and universe
Q41. Compare census survey and sample survey. Under what conditions is a sample preferred to a
Census?
Q42. What is the difference between probability and non‐probability sampling?
Q43. Briefly explain the following terms:
(a) Sampling frame
(b) Sampling unit
Q44. What are the various objectives of doing research?
Q45. What is the significance of research?
Q46. Briefly describe problems of researchers.
Q47. What are the various applications of research in different fields of management?
Q48. What are the steps involved in research process? Explain them.
Q49. Briefly enlist various steps in research process.
Q50. Briefly mention sources of existing literature.
Q51. Define research design.
Q52. List the major components of a research design.

Q53. Define the following terms

(a)Population
(b) Sample
Q54. What are the various types of non‐probability sampling techniques?
Q55. Define the following terms
(a) Primary data
(b) Secondary data
Q56. Differentiate between primary and secondary data..
Q57. Discuss the purpose of research.
Q58. How does research aid planning?
Q59. Distinguish between
(a) Pure research and applied research
(b) Exploratory and Diagnostic studies
(c) Descriptive study and analytical study
(d) Descriptive and diagnostic studies
Q60. Define ‘experimental research, and discuss its features.
Q61. What are the steps involved in research process?
Q62. What kinds of literature should a researcher review and for what purpose?
Q63. What is a research design? Is it a specific plan like a building plan?
Q64. How is a research design prepared?
Q65. What are the contents of a research plan?
Q66. Select a research problem and prepare a research design for its study.
Q67. What are the characteristics of a good sample?
Q68. How would you select a sample of 150 students out of 3500 graduate students in a university?
Q69. What is convenience sampling? What are its limitations?
Q70. Differentiate primary sources of data from secondary sources.
Q71. Define research and examine its characteristics.
Q72. Explain the steps in the exploratory study.
Q73.What is bibliography? What is its purpose?
Q74. Discuss the use of S.P.S.S. in research.
Q75. What are the different approaches to research? Explain in brief starting their relative merits
demerits.
Q76. Describe the difference types of research, clearly pointing out the difference between an
experiment and a survey
Q77. Differentiate between questionnaire and schedule.
Q78. What is sample size? How it is determined?
Q79.Why tabulation and analysis is considered essential in a research study? Narrate the
characteristics of a good table.
Q80. Enumerate briefly the mechanism of report writing and underline the precaution to be taken
at the time of report writing.
Q81. What are the characteristics of a research report? What functions does this report perform?
Q82. What is an Annexure in report? What is its purpose?
Q83.Write notes on following:
(a) Two way ANOVA
(b) Testing of hypothesis
(c) Simple Random Sampling
(d) Types of Business problems encountered by the research
Q84. Distinguish between the exploratory and descriptive research design with help of examples.
Q85. Differentiate between internal and external secondary data. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of secondary data?
Q86. What principles should be followed for designing an ideal questionnaire?
Q87. Distinguish between primary data secondary data and enlist the important methods of
collecting primary data.
Q88.What is Sampling? Distinguish between Probability and Non‐Probability samplings
and explain their significance.
Q89. What is Sampling? Distinguish between the probability samplings and explain their
significance.
Q90. What is the difference between primary and secondary data? Why is it important to obtain
Secondary data before primary data?

Q91. What is research design? Why is it necessary for conducting a study ? How do exploratory,
Descriptive and casual studies differ from each other ? Explain with examples
Q92. “Research design in exploratory studies must be flexible but in descriptive studies, it must
minimize bias and maximize reliability.” Discuss.
Q93. Give your understanding of a good research design. Is single research design suitable in all
research Studies? If not , why? What are the characteristic of research ?
Q94. Differentiate between primary and secondary data.
Q95. Define ‘experimental research, and discuss its features.
Q96. What are the various kinds of charts and diagrams which are used in data analysis? Distinguish
between line chart, bar chart, and histogram.
Q97. Describe the following parts of a report:
(a) Title page
(b) Table of contents
(c) Executive summary
(d) Problem definition
(e) Research design
(f) Data analysis
(g) Conclusions and recommendations
Q98. Describe the guideline for report writing. What is a pie chart? For what type of information, is it
suitable? For what type of information is it not suitable.
Q99. Describe the process of report preparation .Discuss the importance of objectivity in writing a
marketing research report.
Q100. Describe the guideline for report writing. What guideline should be followed in an oral
presentation?

Solution :
Q1. Define research and examine its characteristics.
Research means a search for facts‐ answers to questions and solutions to problems. It is an purposive
investigation. It is an “organized inquiry.” It seeks to find explanations to unexplained phenomenon, to
clarify the doubtful propositions and to correct the misconceived facts.

Kerlinger defines research as a “systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of

hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among the natural phenomenon.”

Characteristics of Research:

• Research is a systematic and critical investigation into phenomenon.

• It adopts scientific method i.e. based on observable experience or empirical evidence.
• Research is directed towards finding answers to the pertinent questions and solutions to
problems.
• It emphasizes the development of generalization, principles or theories.
• It is not mere compilation but a purposive investigation.
• It aims at describing, interpreting and explaining a phenomenon.
• It is objective and logical. It applies possible tests to validate the measuring tools and the
conclusions obtained.
Q2. Explain the steps in the exploratory study.
Exploratory research is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the researcher has
Little or no knowledge. It is similar to a doctor’s initial investigation of a patient suffering from
unfamiliar malady for getting some clues for identifying it. It is ill‐structured and much focused on the
predetermined objectives . It is usually takes the form of a pilot study. It is the separate type of research
It is appropriate to consider or contributes a three stage process :
Exploration the phenomenon
Description of the phenomenon
Experimentation the relationship among the related variables.

Q3. Explain steps involved in research process.

The major steps in research are as follows:
Formulation of the Research Problem: This is the first stage of the research process. In this stage the
researcher single out or identified the problem he wants to study. It means that he must decide the
general areas of interest or aspects of a subject‐matter that he would like to inquire. Essentially two
steps are involved in formulating the research problem:
• Understanding the problem theoretically
• Rephrasing the same into analytical terms from an analytical point of view.
Understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or those having expertise in the
matter. In an academic institutions the researcher can seek the help from a guide who is usually an
experienced person and has several research problems in mind. The guide puts forth the problem in
general terms and it is up to the researcher to narrow it down and phase the problem in operational
terms.

Extensive Literature Survey(Review): At this stage the researcher should undertake extensive literature
survey connected with the problem. For this purpose the abstracting and indexing journals and
published or unpublished bibliographies are first place to go i.e. Academic journals, books, research
reports, Government reports etc., It should be remember that one source will lead to another .
Development of Working Hypothesis: In this stage researcher state in clear terms the working
hypothesis or hypothesis. Working hypothesis is tentative assumptions made in order to draw out and
test its logical or empirical consequences. Hypothesis should be very specific, clear and limited to the
piece of research in hand because it has to be tested.
Preparing the Research Design: In this stage the researcher prepare a research design i.e. conceptual
structure of the within which research would be conducted. It contains:
• Methodology of the research work
• Sampling plan
• Tools of gathering data
• Geographical are is to covered
• Scope of the study
• Operational definition of the study
• Conceptual model of study
• Reference period
• Budget

Determination of Sampling Design : In this stage researcher decide the way of selecting a sample which
is popularly known as sample design. It is a defined plan determined before any data are actually
collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Samples can be either probability samples or
non‐probability samples. With probability samples each element has known probability of being
included in the sample but the non‐probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine the
probability.
Collection of Data : In this stage the researcher collect data. Data can be collected from several ways i.e.
survey , observation, interview and experiment etc. the researcher should select one method of data
collection taking into consideration the nature of the investigation, objectives and scope of the inquiry,
financial resources, available time and desired degree of accuracy.
Analysis of Data: The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application to these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation
and then drawing statistical inferences. The researcher classify the raw data into some purposeful and
usable categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data
are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that
improves the quality of the data for coding. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein
classified data are put in the form of tables. Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on
computation of various coefficients, measures used to obtain results.
Hypothesis –Testing: The hypothesis may be tested through the use of one or more tests such as chi‐
square test, t‐test, F‐test depending upon the nature and objectives of the research inquiry . Hypothesis
testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.
Generalization and Interpretation: In this stage the researcher arrive at generalization i.e. to build a
theory. As the matter of fact the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain
generalizations.
Preparation of the Research Report: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been
done by the him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:
Preliminary Body
The Main Text
The End Matter
Preliminary Body: It contains:
Title page
Researcher’s declaration
The certificate of the research supervisor
Acknowledgement
Table of contents List of tables

List of graphs and charts

Main Text:
Introduction:
(i)Theoretical background of the topic
(ii) Statement of the problem
(iii) Review of literature
(iv)The scope of the study
(v)The objectives of the study
(vi)Hypothesis to be tested
(vii)Definition of the concepts
(viii)Model if any
The design of the study:
(i)Methodology
(ii)Sources of data
(iii)Sampling plan
(iv)Data collected instrument
(v)Field work
(vi)Data processing and analysis

Q5. Describe the different types of research, clearly pointing out the difference between an experiment
and a survey
Descriptive Research: Descriptive research is a fact‐finding investigation with adequate
interpretation. It is more specific as it focus on the particular aspects or dimension of the
problem studied. It is designed to gather descriptive information. The main purpose of the
descriptive research is the description of the state of affairs as it exists at present . The main
characteristics of the descriptive research is that the researcher has no control over the
variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening . The data are collected
by using one or more appropriate methods i.e. observation, interview, and questionnaire.
Exploratory Research: Exploratory research is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about
which the researcher has Little or no knowledge. It is similar to a doctor’s initial investigation of
a patient suffering from unfamiliar malady for getting some clues for identifying it. It is ill‐
structured and much focused on the predetermined objectives . It is usually takes the form of a
pilot study. It is the separate type of research , it is appropriate to consider or contributes a
three stage process of exploration , description and experimentation. The purpose of an
exploratory study may be:

To generate new ideas

To increase the researcher’s familiarity with the problem
To gather information for clarifying concepts
An exploratory research does not aim at testing hypothesis but it just attempt s to see what is
there rather than to predict the relationships that will be founded.
Applied Research: Applied research is carried on to find solution to a real life problem requiring
an action or policy decision . It is thus problem‐oriented and action directed. It seeks an
immediate and practical results i.e. marketing research is carried on for studying the post‐
purchase experience of the consumers. It is aiming at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing by a society, an industrial or business organization i.e. moral degradation,
product failure, decrease/reduction in market shares.
Fundamental Research: Fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalization and
formulation of a theory. It is also known as ‘Pure research’. It aims at extension of the
knowledge . It may leads to either discovery of a new theory or refinement of an existing
theory. The findings of pure or fundamental research enrich the storehouse of knowledge.
Analytical Research : Analytical study is the system of procedures and techniques of analysis
applied to quantitative data. The researchers has to use facts or information already available
and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the materials or topic. It may consist of a
system of mathematical models or statistical techniques applicable to numerical data. This is
also known as ‘statistical research or method’. This study aims at testing hypothesis and
specifying, interpreting relationships. It is used or concentrates on analyzing data in depth and
examining relationship from various angles by bringing in as many relevant variables as possible
in the analysis plan.
Diagnostic Research: Diagnostic research is directed towards discovering what is happening ,
why is it happening and what can be done about it. It aims at identifying the causes of a
problem and thee possible solutions for it . It is more directly concerned with causal relationship
and implications for action.
 Experimental Research: Experimental research is designed to assess the effects of particular
variables on a phenomenon by keeping the other variables constant or controlled. It aims at
determining whether and in what manner variables are related to each other. The factor, which
is influenced by other factor is called ‘dependent variable’ and the other factors, which
influence it, are known as ‘independent variables’. For example, agricultural productivity i.e.
crop yield per hectare is a dependent variable and factors such as soil fertility, irrigation, quality
of seeds, measuring practices which influence the yield are independent variables . The nature
of relationship between independent variables and dependent variables is perceived and stated
in form of causal hypothesis. A closely controlled procedure is adopted to test them.
Quantitative Research: Quantitative research is based on the measuring of quantity or
amount. It is applicable to phenomenon that can be expressed in the terms of quantity.
Qualitative Research: Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon i.e.
phenomenon relating to the quality. For example , motivation research, opinion research.
Qualitative research is specifically important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to
discover the underlying motives of human behaviour.

Q6. Write a lucid note on ‘Research Design’

Research design is a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing a research study. It is
the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. Research design is a conceptual
structure within which research is conducted. It contribute the blue print for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data. It describes:

What is the study about?

Why is the study being made?
Where will the study be carried out?
What type of data is required?
Where can be required data be found?
What periods of time will the study include?
What will be the sample design?
What techniques of the collection will be used?
How will the data be analyzed?
In what style will the report be prepared?
What is the cost involved?
Contents of Research Design : The research design of a research contain the following sections:
Introduction: The introduction of a research design resign should place the problem in its
historical perspective, state the need for studying aims, researcher’s precise interest in the study
of the problem.
Statement of the Problem: The research problem should be well defined, pointing out its core
nature and its importance. The issue relating to the problem may also be stated . The statement
gives direction to the research process.
 Review of Literature: A review of literature will bring out information the previous studies. The
salient features of those studies may be briefly described and gaps may be pointed out.
Scope of the Study: The scope and dimensions of the study should be delimited with reference
to the topical scope‐breadth, depth, geographical area to be covered, reference period, type of
instructions/ respondents to be studied etc. The purpose of this demarcation is to make the
study meaningful and manageable in in terms of research aims, interest, competence available
techniques.
Objectives of the Study: The objectives of the study should be clearly stated. There refers to
the questions to which the researcher proposes to seek answers through the study.
Conceptual Model: This section is the heart of the research design. This is where researcher
formulates and develops the structure of relationship among the variables he is investigating.
The logical connection of the variables is delineated, the assumptions, propositions used to
develop exploratory framework of the study.
Hypothesis: These refers to the anticipated outcome or possible answers to the research
questions. They should be conceptually clear, specific and simple.
The Significance of the Study: It is important to point out the relevance and significance of the
study/ investigation. What would be the value of the study for policy formulation, theory or
practice? Can the findings contribute to the enrichment of the theory or solutions to the
problem?
Geographical area to be Covered: The territorial area to be covered by the study , should be
decided and specified in the research plan. The area to chosen depends on the purpose of the
study, time and other resources available.
Methodology: In this section the overall typology of the design –experimental, descriptive,
case study or historical study is specified. Further methods to be adopted for collection of the
data i.e. observation, interview, questionnaire are specified.
Sampling Plan: The study require collection of the primary data from the field, the universe
(population0 must be identified and methods of sampling to be used for drawing the sample
from the universe.
Tools for gathering the Data: In this section the tools i.e. questionnaire, interview schedule,
check list to be used for gathering data should be described. The tools chosen to be appropriate
to the methods to be adopted for gathering data.

Chapter Scheme: the chapter scheme of the report to be prepared for communicating the
findings of the study the academic and business community.
Time period: The time period required for each stage of work and total time duration of the
study should be specified.
Financial Budget: This should include as estimated of the expected costs of the research project
under various major categories such as salary, printing, stationary, postages, travel expenses,
computation, typing etc.
Q10. Sketch out the precautions that must be taken while drafting a questionnaire.

A questionnaire is formal set of questions or statements designed to gather information from

respondents that will accomplish the goals of the research project. Questionnaires measure
people’s attitudes, behavior and feelings toward just about everything.

Factors to be looked into while framing questionnaires:

1.Shared Vocabulary:
Interactive language to be kept simple & understandable
Highly technical language should be avoided as much as possible
Words used should not be ambiguous or vague.
o Example: Vague: How satisfied are you with Sterling Resorts?
o Better: How satisfied are you with the hospitality at Sterling Resorts?

2. Unsupported Assumptions:
Assumptions should be explicitly stated not implied.
Unsupported assumptions lead to exaggerated estimates.

3. Frame of Reference:
A single word can have several connotations under different situations.
The frame of desirability should be made clear.
Example: capacity may be connoted differently by an industrialist & an educator.

4.Biased Wording :
Biased Wording should be avoided.
Awareness of desirable response leads to shift of focus from actual response.
Example:
Biased: Do you think TV has negative effect on children?
Unbiased: What are your views on the effect of TV on children?

5.Adequate Alternatives:
Every question should have ample number of alternatives.
They should be explicit rather than being implicit.
Example: Do you prefer eating in restaurants?
Which do you prefer eating in restaurants or eating at home.

6.Double 11barreled questions:

A single question that asks for two responses.
Interpretation of the responses not effective.
Example: Do you believe most Japanese automobiles are comfortable and worth their price?

7.Positively & negatively worded questions:

 Respondents are often guided by the directions of the questions.
Responses are different when surveys are either exclusively positive or negative.
Combination of both is desirable.

8.Generalizations & Estimates :

Proper structuring of questions to avoid generalizations.
Answers which require calculations should be avoided.
Example: How many times have sales promotion influenced you to switch brands over
the last one year?
Better: How many times in the last month have sales promotion influenced you to
switch brands?

Q12. What are the different approaches to interview as a method of data collection? Explain their
relative merits and demerits.
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral‐verbal stimuli and reply in
terms of oral‐verbal responses. This method can be used through :

1. Personal interviews and, if possible, through

2. Telephone interviews

1.Personal Interview: This method requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions
generally in a face to face contact to the other person or persons. This sort of interview may be in
the form of direct personal investigation or it may be indirect oral investigation. Former method is
suitable for extensive investigations. Latter method is used by the commissions and committees
appointed by government to carry on investigations.

Advantages:
y More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained
y Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance if any
y There is a greater flexibility in this method
y Personal information can as well be obtained easily

Disadvantages:
y It is very expensive method
y There remains the possibility of the bias of the interviewer
y This method is relatively more time consuming
y The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over – stimulate the respondent

2. Telephone interview: This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents

on telephone itself. It is not very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial survey. This
method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It is being adopted by the
private individuals, research workers, private and public organisations and even by governments. In this
method a questionnaire is sent to the persons concerned with the request to answer the questions and
return the questionnaire

Advantages:
• Flexible compare to mailing method
• Faster than other methods
• Cheaper than personal interview method
• Callbacks are simple and economical also
• High response than mailing method
• Replies can be recorded without embarrassment to respondents
• Interviewer can explain requirements more easily
• No field staff is required
• Wider distribution of sample is possible
Disadvantages:
• Little time is given to respondents
• Survey is restricted to respondents who have telephones
• Not suitable for intensive survey where comprehensive answers are required
• Bias information may be more
• Very difficult to make questionnaire because it should short and to the point

Q14. What are the various Kinds of charts and diagrams which are used in data analysis? Distinguish
Between line chart, bar chart and histogram.
Graphs are pictorial representations of the relationships between two (or more) variables and are an
important part of descriptive statistics. Different types of graphs can be used for illustration purposes
depending on the type of variable (nominal, ordinal, or interval) and the issues of interest. The various
types of graphs are :

Line Graph: Line graphs use a single line to connect plotted points of interval and, at times, nominal
data. Since they are most commonly used to visually represent trends over time, they are sometimes
referred to as time-series charts.
Advantages - Line graphs can:
clarify patterns and trends over time better than most other graphs
be visually simpler than bar graphs or histograms
summarize a large data set in visual form
become more smooth as data points and categories are added
be easily understood due to widespread use in business and the media
require minimal additional written or verbal explanation
Disadvantages - Line graphs can:
be inadequate to describe the attribute, behavior, or condition of interest
fail to reveal key assumptions, norms, or causes in the data
be easily manipulated to yield false impressions
reveal little about key descriptive statistics, skew, or kurtosis
fail to provide a check of the accuracy or reasonableness of calculations
Bar graphs are commonly used to show the number or proportion of nominal or ordinal data which
possess a particular attribute. They depict the frequency of each category of data points as a bar rising
vertically from the horizontal axis. Bar graphs most often represent the number of observations in a given
category, such as the number of people in a sample falling into a given income or ethnic group. They can
be used to show the proportion of such data points, but the pie chart is more commonly used for this
purpose. Bar graphs are especially good for showing how nominal data change over time.

Advantages - Bar graphs can:

show each nominal or ordinal category in a frequency distribution
display relative numbers or proportions of multiple categories
summarize a large data set in visual form
clarify trends better than do tables or arrays
estimate key values at a glance
permit a visual check of the accuracy and reasonableness of calculations
be easily understood due to widespread use in business and the media

Disadvantages - Bar graphs can:

require additional written or verbal explanation
be easily manipulated to yield false impressions
be inadequate to describe the attribute, behavior, or condition of interest
fail to reveal key assumptions, norms, causes, effects, or patterns

Histograms are the preferred method for graphing grouped interval data. They depict the number or
proportion of data points falling into a given class. For example, a histogram would be appropriate for
depicting the number of people in a sample aged 18-35, 36-60, and over 65. While both bar graphs and
histograms use bars rising vertically from the horizontal axis, histograms depict continuous classes of data
rather than the discrete categories found in bar charts. Thus, there should be no space between the bars of
a histogram.
Advantages - Histograms can:
begin to show the central tendency and dispersion of a data set
closely resemble the bell curve if sufficient data and classes are used
show each interval in the frequency distribution
summarize a large data set in visual form
clarify trends better than do tables or arrays
estimate key values at a glance
permit a visual check of the accuracy and reasonableness of calculations
be easily understood due to widespread use in business and the media
use bars whose areas reflect the proportion of data points in each class

Disadvantages - Histograms can:

require additional written or verbal explanation
be easily manipulated to yield false impressions
be inadequate to describe the attribute, behavior, or condition of interest
fail to reveal key assumptions, norms, causes, effects, or pattern

Q16. Describe the guidelines for report writing. What is a pie chart? For what types of information , is
it suitable ? For what type of information is it not suitable?
A good research report is one which does this task efficiently and effectively. As such
it must be prepared keeping the following precautions in view:
 While determining the length of the report (since research reports vary greatly in
length), one should keep in view the fact that it should be long enough to cover the
subject but short enough to maintain interest. In fact, report-writing should not be a
means to learning more and more about less and less.
A research report should not, if this can be avoided, be dull; it should be such as to
sustain reader’s interest.
Abstract terminology and technical jargon should be avoided in a research report. The
report should be able to convey the matter as simply as possible. This, in other words,
means that report should be written in an objective style in simple language, avoiding
expressions such as “it seems,” “there may be” and the like.
Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of the main findings and
as such the report must provide a ready availability of the findings. For this purpose,
charts, graphs and the statistical tables may be used for the various results in the main
report in addition to the summary of important findings.
The layout of the report should be well thought out and must be appropriate and in
accordance with the objective of the research problem.
The reports should be free from grammatical mistakes and must be prepared strictly in
accordance with the techniques of composition of report-writing such as the use of
quotations and use of abbreviations in footnotes and the like.
The report must present the logical analysis of the subject matter. It must reflect a
structure wherein the different pieces of analysis relating to the research problem fit
well.
Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all the technical data in the report.
Bibliography of sources consulted is a must for a good report and must necessarily be
given.
Index is also considered an essential part of a good report and as such must be
prepared and appended at the end.
Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned and the various constraints
experienced in conducting the research study may also be stated in the report.
Objective of the study, the nature of the problem, the methods employed and the
analysis techniques adopted must all be clearly stated in the beginning of the report in
the form of introduction.

Pie charts are circles subdivided into a number of “slices.” The area of each represents the relative
proportion data points falling into a given category. Pie charts are the preferred method for graphing both
nominal data and percentages.
Advantages - Pie charts can:
display relative proportions of multiple classes of data
show areas proportional to the number of data points in each category
summarize a large data set in visual form
be visually simpler than other types of graphs
permit a visual check of the reasonableness or accuracy of calculations
require minimal additional verbal or written explanation
be easily understood due to widespread use in business and the media
Disadvantages - Pie charts can:
reveal little about central tendency, dispersion, skew, or kurtosis
fail to reveal key assumptions, norms, causes, effects, or patterns
fail to describe the attribute, behavior, or condition of interest
be easily manipulated to yield false impressions