PHYSICS PROJECT

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
AND ITS
APPLICATION

DONE BY
S.ARVIND RAJAN
XII-A1
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND IT’S APPLICATION
A PROJECT REPORT IN PHYSICS ( )SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE COMPLETION OF
SSCE 2023-2024
BY

NAME : ……………………………..………………………
ROLL NO : …………………………………………………………….

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF

…………………………………………………………………..
PGT PHYSICS

SHRISHTI VIDYASHRAM SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

BRAMMAPURAM, VELLORE

PROJECT IMAGE
 PROJECT CERTIFICATE
THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT THE PROJECT ENTITLED ________________
SUBMITTED BY ______________________ TO SHRISHTI VIDYASHRAM
SR.SEC.SCHOOL,VELLORE FOR THE INTERNAL ASSESSMENT OF
PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT FOR THE ACADEMIC YEAR 2023-
2024 IS A BONAFIDE RECORD OF THE INVESTIGATORY WORK
ARRIED OUT BY HIM/HER UNDER OUR SUPERVISION.
VELLORE-632516
DATE:

INTERNAL EXAMINER:

EXTERNAL EXAMINER:

PRINCIPAL
 Acknowledgment

I would like to express my gratitude and

appreciation to all who gave me the possibility
complete this project successfully.
Also, I take this opportunity to express my deep
sense of gratitude to my physics Facilitator
Ms.Soundaryaa
Chandramouli,(M.Sc.Physics,B.Ed),PGT Physics,
Shrishti Vidyashram Sr.sec,school under whose
valuable guidance, this project work has been
carried out.
I would like to extend my special thanks to my
parents and friends, without their support and
coordination I would not have been able to
complete this project.
 INDEX

TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.NO TITLE PAGE

NO

1. INTRODUCTION

2. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES FORMATION

3. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE

4. MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF ELECTRO

MAGNETIC WAVE

5. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE EQUATION

6. INTENSITY OF AN ELECTRO MAGNETIC WAVE

7. SPEED OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE IN FREE SPACE

8. ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

9. APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRO MAGNETIC WAVES

INTRODUCTION:
Electromagnetic waves were first postulated by James Clerk Maxwell and subsequently confirmed
by Heinrich Hertz. Electromagnetic waves are created as a result of vibrations between an electric
and a magnetic field. In this article, we will explore the definition and formation of electromagnetic
waves along with the graphical and mathematical representations of electromagnetic waves in
detail.

What Are Electromagnetic Waves?

Electromagnetic waves are also known as EM waves. Electromagnetic radiations are composed of
electromagnetic waves that are produced when an electric field comes in contact with the magnetic
field. It can also be said that electromagnetic waves are the composition of oscillating electric and
magnetic fields. Electromagnetic waves are solutions of Maxwell’s equations, which are the
fundamental equations of electrodynamics.

Maxwell’s Equations of Electromagnetic

Waves Maxwell’s equations are the basic laws of electricity and magnetism. These equations give
complete description of ail electromagnetic interactions.
There are four Maxwell’s equations which are explained below:

MAXWELL’S DISPLACEMENT CURRENT

If we look at the last figure again, we can observe that the common thing that passes through the
surface and between the capacitor plates is an electric field. This field is perpendicular to the surface,
has the same magnitude over the area of the capacitor plats and vanishes outside it.
Hence, the electric flux through the surface is Q/ε0 (using Gauss’s law). Further, since the charge on
the capacitor plates changes with time, for consistency we can calculate the current as follows:

i = ε0 (dQ/dt)

This is the missing term in Ampere’s circuital law. In simple words, when we add a term which is
ε0 times the rate of change of electric flux to the total current carried by the conductors, through the
same surface, then the total has the same value of current ‘i’ for all surfaces. Therefore, no
contradiction is observed if we use the Generalized Ampere’s Law.

Hence, the magnitude of B at a point P outside the plates is the same at a point just inside. Now, the
current carried by conductors due to the flow of charge is called ‘Conduction current’. The new term
added is the current that flows due to the changing electric field and is called ‘Displacement current’
or Maxwell’s Displacement current’.

DISPLACEMENT CURRENT EXPLAINED

By now we understand that there are two sources of a magnetic field:

1. Conduction electric current due to the flow of charges

2. Displacement current due to the rate of change of the electric field

Hence, the total current (i) is calculated as follows: (where ic – conduction current and id –
displacement current)

i = ic + id

= ic + ε0(dQ/dt)

This means that –

• Outside the capacitor plates: ic=i and id=0

• Inside the capacitor plates: ic=0 and id=i

So, the generalized Ampere’s law states:

The total current passing through any surface of which the closed loop is the
perimeter is the sum of the conduction current and the displacement current.
This is also known as – Ampere-Maxwell Law. It is important to remember that the displacement
and conduction currents have the same physical effects. Here are some points to remember:

• In cases where the electric field does not change with time, like steady electric fields in a
conducting wire, the displacement current may be zero.

• In cases like the one explained above, both currents are present in different regions of the
space.

• Since a perfectly conducting or insulating medium does not exist, in most cases both the
currents can be present in the same region.

• In cases where there is no conduction current but a time-varying electric field, only
displacement current is present. In such a scenario we have a magnetic field even when there is
no conduction current source nearby.
FARADAY’S LAW OF INDUCTION AND AMPERE-MAXWELL LAW

According to Faraday’s law of induction, there is an induced emf which is equal to the rate of change
of magnetic flux. Since emf between two points is the work done per unit charge to take it from one
point to the other, its existence simply implies the existence of an electric field. Rephrasing Faraday’s
law:

A magnetic field that changes with time gives rise to an electric field.

Hence, an electric field changing with time gives rise to a magnetic field. This is a consequence of the
displacement current being the source of the magnetic field. Hence, it is fair to say that time-
dependent magnetic and electric fields give rise to each other.

DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
We know that an electric current produces a magnetic field around it. J.C. Maxwell showed that for
logical consistency, a changing electric field must also produce a magnetic field. Further, since
magnetic fields have always been associated with currents, Maxwell postulated that this current was
proportional to the rate of change of the electric field and called it displacement current. In this article,
we will look at displacement current in detail.

HOW A CHANGING ELECTRIC FIELD PRODUCES A MAGNETIC FIELD?

To determine this, let’s look at the process of charging a capacitor. Further, we will apply Ampere’s
circuital law to find a magnetic point outside the capacitor.
The figure above shows a parallel plate capacitor connected in a circuit through which a time-
dependent current i(t) flows. We will try to find the magnetic field at a point P, in the region outside the
capacitor.

Consider a plane circular loop of radius r centred symmetrically with the wire. Also, the plane of the
loop is perpendicular to the direction of the current carrying wire. Due to the symmetry, the magnetic
field is directed along the circumference of the loop and has similar magnitude at all points on the
loop.

Figure 2

However, as shown in the Figure(2) above, when the surface is replaced by a pot-like surface where it
doesn’t touch the current but has its bottom between the capacitor plates or a tiffin-shaped surface
(without the lid) and Ampere’s circuital law is applied, certain contradictions arise.

These contradictions arise since no current passes through the surface and Ampere’s law does not take
that scenario into consideration. This leads us to understand that there is something missing in the
Ampere’s circuital law. Also, the missing term is such which enables us to get the same magnetic field
at point P regardless of the surface used.
SOURCES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES:

Consider a charge oscillating with some frequency ( accelerating charge ).This produces an
oscillating electric field in space, which produces an oscillating magnetic field, which in turn, is a
source of oscillating electric field, and so on. The oscillating electric and magnetic fields thus
regenerate each other, as the wave propagates through the space . The frequency of the
electromagnetic wave naturally equals the frequency of oscillation of the charge. The energy
associated with the propagating wave comes at the expense of the energy of thesource – the
accelerated charge.

NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES:

From Maxwell’s equations, it is found that electric and magnetic fields in an electromagnetic wave
are perpendicular to each other, and to the direction of propagation. A typical example of a plane
electromagnetic wave propagating along the z direction(the fields are shown as a function of the z
coordinate, at a given time t). The electric field 𝑬𝒙 is along the x-axis, and varies sinusoidally with
z, at a given time. The magnetic field 𝑩𝒚 is along the y-axis, and again varies sinusoidally with z.
The electric and magnetic fields 𝑬𝒙 and 𝑩𝒚 are perpendicular to each other, and to the direction z
of propagation.

How Are Electromagnetic Waves Formed?

• Generally, an electric field is produced by a charged particle. A force is exerted by this

electric field on other charged particles. Positive charges accelerate in the direction of the
field and negative charges accelerate in a direction opposite to the direction of the field.
• The Magnetic field is produced by a moving charged particle. A force is exerted by this
magnetic field on other moving particles. The force on these charges is always
perpendicular to the direction of their velocity and therefore only changes the direction of
the velocity, not the speed.
• So, the electromagnetic field is produced by an accelerating charged particle.
Electromagnetic waves are nothing but electric and magnetic fields travelling through free
space with the speed of light c. An accelerating charged particle is when the charged
particle oscillates about an equilibrium position. If the frequency of oscillation of the
charged particle is f, then it produces an electromagnetic wave with frequency f. The
wavelength λ of this wave is given by λ = c/f. Electromagnetic waves transfer energy
through space.
Graphical Representation of Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves are shown by a sinusoidal graph. It consists of time-varying electric and magnetic
fields which are perpendicular to each other and are also perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
waves. Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature. The highest point of the wave is known as the crest
while the lowest point is known as a trough. In vacuum, the waves travel at a constant velocity of 3 x
108 m.s-1.

Uses of EM Waves

Wavelength of the ElectroMagnetic spectrum continuallychanges

high frequency = short wavelength

high frequency = high energy

high energy = more dangerous

1.Radio Waves (communications)

TV and FM radio (short wavelength)

Direct line of sight with transmitter (do not diffract)

Medium wavelength travel further because they reflectfrom layers in the atmosphere
2.Satellite signals (Microwaves)

Frequency of microwaves pass easily throughatmosphere and clouds

3.Cooking (Microwaves)

Microwaves are absorbed by water molecules.

These water molecules become heated > heat food

4.Dangers
Microwaves are absorbed by living tissueInternal heating will damage or kill cells

5.Infrared Radiation (remote controls, toasters)

Any object that radiates heat radiates Infrared Radiation

Infrared Radiation is absorbed by all materials andcauses heating

It is used for night vision and security cameras asInfrared Radiation is visible in daytime or night-
time

Mathematical Representation of Electromagnetic Wave

A plane Electromagnetic wave travelling in the x-direction is of the form

𝐸(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + Φ)

𝐵(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + Φ)

In the electromagnetic wave, E is the electric field vector and B is the magnetic field vector.

Maxwell gave the basic idea of Electromagnetic radiations, while Hertz experimentally confirmed
the existence of an electromagnetic wave.

The direction of propagation of the electromagnetic wave is given by the vector cross product of
the electric field and magnetic field. It is given as:
→ →
𝐸×𝐵
.
Electromagnetic Wave Equation

• The electromagnetic wave equation describes the propagation of electromagnetic waves in

a vacuum or through a medium.
• The electromagnetic wave equation is a second-order partial differential equation.
• It is a 3D form of the wave equation.
• The homogeneous form of the equation is written as

2 𝜕2 2 𝜕2
(𝜐𝑝ℎ ▽2 − 𝜕𝑡 2 )𝐸 = 0; (𝜐𝑝ℎ ▽2 − 𝜕𝑡 2)𝐵 = 0

Where,
1
𝜐𝑝ℎ =
√𝜇𝜖

Intensity of an Electromagnetic Wave

𝑃 1
𝐼 = 𝐴 = 2 𝑐𝜖0 𝐸02

1 𝑐
= 2 𝜇 𝐵02
0

Speed of Electromagnetic Waves in Free Space

It is given by
1
𝐶=
√(𝜇0 𝜖0 )
Where,
𝜇0
is called absolute permeability. Its value is
1.257 × 10−6𝑇𝑚𝐴−1

𝜖0
is called absolute permittivity. Its value is
8.854 × 10−12 𝐶 2 𝑁 −1 𝑚−2
C is the velocity of light in vacuum = velocity of electromagnetic waves in free space =
3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic waves are classified according to their frequency f or according to their

wavelength
𝑐
𝜆= .
𝑓

The wavelength ranges of different lights are as follows,

For visible light – approx. 400 nm to approx. 700 nm

For violet light – approx. 400 nm

For red light – approx. 700 nm

For more insights, stay tuned with BYJU ’s and fall in love with learning.

Applications of Electromagnetic Waves

Following are a few applications of electromagnetic waves:

• Electromagnetic radiations can transmit energy in a vacuum or using no medium at all.

• Electromagnetic waves play an important role in communication technology.
• Electromagnetic waves are used in RADARS.
• UV rays are used to detect forged bank notes. Real banknotes don’t turn fluorescent under
UV light.
 • Infrared radiation is used for night vision and is used in security cameras.

• Types of EM Waves…
• Though the sciences generally classify EM waves into seven basictypes, all
are manifestations of the same phenomenon.
•
• Radio Waves: Instant Communication.
• Microwaves: Data and Heat.
• Infrared Waves: Invisible Heat.
• Visible Light Rays: Light.
• Ultraviolet Waves: Energetic Light.
• X-rays: Penetrating Radiation.
• Gamma Rays: Nuclear Energy.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM:

Electromagnetic spectrum is an orderly distribution of electromagnetic waves in terms of

wavelength or frequency Electromagnetic spectrum covers a wide range of wavelengths (or)
frequencies. There is no sharp division between one kind of wave and the next. The overlapping in
certain parts of the spectrum shows that the particular wave can be produced by different methods.
We briefly describe these different types of electromagnetic waves, in order of decreasing
wavelengths or increasing frequencies.

1. Radio waves
2. Micro waves
3. Infra red waves
4. Visible rays
5. Ultra violet rays
6. X-rays
7.Gamma rays
 RADIO WAVES :

(1) Radio waves are produced by the accelerated motion of charges in conducting wires.
(2) They are used in radio and television communication systems.
(3) They are generally in the frequency range from 500 kHz to about 1000 MHz.
(4) The AM (amplitude modulated) band is from 530 kHz to 1710 kHz.
(5) Higher frequencies upto 54 MHz are used for short wave bands.
(6) TV waves range from 54 MHz to 890 MHz.
(7) The FM (frequency modulated) radio band extends from 88 MHz to 108 MHz.
(8) Cellular phones use radio waves to transmit voice communication in the ultrahigh
frequency (UHF) band.

MICRO WAVES:

(1) Microwaves are short-wavelength radio waves, with frequencies in the gigahertz (GHz)
range.
(2) They are produced by special vacuum tubes (called klystrons, magnetrons and Gunn
diodes).
(3) Due to their short wavelengths, they are suitable for the radar systems used in aircraft
navigation.
(4) Radar also provides the basis for the speed guns used to time fast balls, tennis serves,
and automobiles.
(5) Micro waves are used in very long distance wireless communication through satellites.
(6) Micro waves are used in micro wave oven to cook food.

Working:

It is used to cook the food in a short time. When the oven is operated, the microwaves are
generated, which in
turn produce a non−uniform oscillating electric field. The water molecules in the food
which are the electric dipoles are
excited by an oscillating torque. Hence few bonds in the water molecules are broken, and
heat energy is produced. This is used to cook food.

INFRA RED WAVES:

(1) Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies and molecules.

(2) This band lies adjacent to the low-frequency or long-wave length end of the visible
spectrum.
(3) Infrared waves are sometimes referred to as ‘heat waves’.
(4) Infrared lamps are used in physical therapy.
(5) Infrared radiation also plays an important role in maintaining the earth’s warmth or
average temperature through the
greenhouse effect.
(6) Infrared detectors are used in Earth satellites, both for military purposes and to observe
growth of crops.
(7) Electronic devices (for example semiconductor light emitting diodes) also emit infrared
and are widely used in the
 remote switches of household electronic systems such as TV sets, video recorders and hi-fi
systems.

VISIBLE RAYS:

(1) It is the part of the spectrum that is detected by the human eye.
(2) Its frequency ranges from about 4 × 1014 Hz to about 7 × 1014 Hz or a wavelength
range of about 700 nm to 400 nm.
(3) Visible light emitted or reflected from objects around us provides us information about
the world.
(4) It is produced by incandescent bodies

ULTRA VIOLET RAYS:

(1) It covers wavelengths ranging from about 4 × 10−7 m (400 nm) down to 6 × 10−10 m
(0.6 nm).
(2) Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is produced by special lamps and very hot bodies.
(3) The Sun is an important source of ultraviolet light.
(4) UV light in large quantities has harmful effects on humans.
(5) UV radiation is absorbed by ordinary glass. ( Application: Welders wear special glass
goggles or face masks with glass
windows to protect their eyes from large amount of UV produced by welding arcs )
(6) Due to its shorter wavelengths, UV radiations can be focussed into very narrow beams
for high
precision applications such as LASIK (Laser assisted in situ kerato mileusis) eye surgery.
(7) UV lamps are used to kill germs in water purifiers.

X-RAYS:

(1) X-rays lie beyond the UV region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

(2) It covers wavelengths from about 10−8 m (10 nm) down to 10−13 m (10−4 nm).
 (3) X-rays are used as a diagnostic tool in medicine and as a treatment for certain forms of
cancer.
(4) X-rays damage or destroy living tissues and organisms.
(5) One common way to generate X-rays is to bombard a metal target by high energy
electrons.

GAMMA RAYS:

(1) They lie in the upper frequency range of the electromagnetic spectrum and have
wavelengths from about 10−10 m
to less than 10−14 m.
(2) They are the high frequency radiation produced in nuclear reactions and also emitted by
radioactive nuclei..
(3) They are used in medicine to destroy cancer cells.

PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES:

(1) Electromagnetic waves are produced by accelerated charges.
(2) They do not require any material medium for propagation.
(3) In an electromagnetic wave, the electric ( E ) and magnetic ( B ) field vectors are at
right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation. Hence electromagnetic waves
are transverse in nature.
(4) Variation of maxima and minima in both E and B occur simultaneously.
(5) EM waves can be diffracted, refracted and polarised.
(6)They travel in vacuum or free space with a velocity 3 × 108 m 𝑠 −1 . It is given by the
relation c = 1 𝜇0𝜀0 . where, 𝜇0 → permeability of free space and 𝜀0 → permittivity of free
space (7) Since the energy density (energy per unit volume) associated with the electric
field is 𝟏 𝟐 𝜺𝟎 𝑬 𝟐 and the energy density associated with magnetic field is 𝑩 𝟐 𝟐𝝁𝟎 , there
is a non zero energy density associated with the electromagnetic waves.
(8) Electromagnetic waves possess energy and momentum. Hence EM waves exert
pressure called ‘radiation pressure’.
(9) If the total energy transferred to a surface in time t is U, it can be shown that the
magnitude of the total momentum delivered to this surface (for complete absorption) is, p =
U/c.
(10) Electromagnetic waves are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.

Summary

• Some solutions to the fundamental equations of electricity and magetism (Maxwell's equations)
are electromagnetic waves.
o An electromagnetic wave is any disturbance in the electric and magnetic fields that
propagates.
o All electromagnetic waves propagate at the speed of light in a vacuum.
o The seemingly disparate phenomena of electricity, magnetism, and optics are all related
aspects of the larger phenomenon of electromagnetism.
CONCLUSION

The application of electromagnetic waves like X-rays is to view the bone structures in the human body.
Additionally, X-Ray therapy is one of the best applications of X-rays. Gamma rays are used for medical
purposes with high frequency and lower wavelengths.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
REFERENCE LINKS;
• https://www.aees.gov.in/htmldocs/downloads/e-content_06_04_20/Class_12-Physics_
Alternating current and Electromagnetic Waves_ PPT-3 of 3.pdf
• https://byjus.com/physics/electromagnetic-waves/
• https://physics.info/em-
waves/summary.shtml#:~:text=An%20electromagnetic%20wave%20is%20any,the%20larg
er%20phenomenon%20of%20electromagnetism.

REFERENCE BOOKS;
• NCERT Physics textbook-class XII
• Concepts of physics (volume 1)-H.C. Verma