Advanced Functions Class 11 Notes

Lesson 11 – Trigonometric Functions (2)

Sinusoidal Functions
Sine, cosine functions and their
transformations are known as the
sinusoidal functions. These functions
exhibit a smooth and periodic oscillation
period
between high and low values. The diagram
amplitude on the left shows the graph of
𝑦 = sin 𝑥 between −2𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋. We see
that the graph oscillates the same distance
(1 unit) above and below the 𝑥 − axis at
regular intervals. It passes through the
𝜋
origin (0, 0), climbs to a peak at ( 2 , 1),
3𝜋
falls back to the 𝑥 − axis at (𝜋, 0), continues to fall to a valley at ( 2 , −1), then back to the 𝑥 −
axis at (2𝜋, 0). This completes one cycle of the function, and the same cyclic pattern can be
seen before and after the interval of 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋.

Let’s now define a few key terms used to describe the properties of sinusoidal functions. Every
sinusoidal function oscillates about a center line. This is often referred to as the central axis of
the function. In the case of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥, the central axis is the 𝑥 − axis and therefore its equation
of axis (EOA) is 𝑦 = 0. Each sinusoidal function is also characterized by an amplitude and a
period. Amplitude is the distance between the central axis and the peak or valley of the function
(blue arrows in the above diagram). Period is the horizontal distance it takes to complete one cycle of
the function. Graphically, we can determine the period by finding the horizontal distance between
two peaks (or two valleys) of the graph (yellow arrows in the diagram).

The graph of 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 is very closely

related to that of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥. When we
𝜋
shift 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 by 2 to the left, we obtain
the graph of 𝑦 = cos 𝑥, as shown in the
diagram on the right. 𝑦 = sin 𝑥
𝜋
Therefore, sin(𝑥 + 2 ) = cos 𝑥. Similarly,
𝜋
shifting 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 to the right by 2 , we
have the graph of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥. So 𝑦 = cos 𝑥
𝜋
cos (𝑥 − 2 ) = sin 𝑥. Other than the
𝜋
offset by 2 , the two graphs exhibit the
same cyclic oscillation pattern.

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Advanced Functions Class 11 Notes

We summarize the properties of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 and 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 in the following table:

𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
Domain 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, ∞) 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, ∞)
Range 𝑥 ∈ [−1, 1] 𝑦 ∈ [−1, 1]
Period 2𝜋 2𝜋
Amplitude 1 1
Equation of Axis (EOA) 𝑦=0 𝑦=0
𝒚 − intercept (0, 0) (0, 1)
𝒙 − intercepts 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ 𝜋
𝑥 = + 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
2

Using Transformations for Graphing Sinusoidal Functions

𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) → 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒇[𝒃(𝒙 − 𝒉)] + 𝒌

We have learnt that when a function 𝑓(𝑥) is transformed using the four parameters 𝑎, 𝑏, ℎ, 𝑘, each
point (𝑥, 𝑦) on the graph of the original function 𝑓(𝑥) is mapped using the point mapping formula to
obtain the graph of the transformed function:
1
(𝑥, 𝑦) → ( 𝑥 + 𝒉, 𝒂𝑦 + 𝒌).
𝒃
Any sinusoidal function can be graphed this way using some points from its base graph (𝑦 = sin 𝑥 or
𝑦 = cos 𝑥. However, as all sinusoidal functions exhibit cyclic oscillation as described on the previous
page, it is probably easier to sketch the graph via the function’s key characteristics.

Example: Graph two cycles of each of the following functions.

𝜋 𝜋
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = −2 sin ( 2 (𝑥 + 0.5)) + 1 b) 𝑔(𝑥) = 3 cos (− 4 (𝑥 − 0.1)) − 2

Solution:
a) First, we determine the key characteristic of 𝑓(𝑥):
• |𝑎| = 2 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 is vertically stretched by a factor of ,, which means that the
amplitude of 𝑓(𝑥) should be ,. The value of 𝑎 is negative, so there is a reflection in the
𝑥 − axis.
𝜋 2
• |𝑏| = 2 , 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 is horizontally compressed by a factor of 𝜋, which means the period
2
of 𝑓(𝑥) becomes 2𝜋 × 𝜋 = 4. The value of 𝑏 is positive, so there is no reflection in the
𝑦 − axis.
• ℎ = −0.5, there is a phase shift of −0.5 (shifted 0.5 unit to the left).
• 𝑘 = 1, there is a vertical shift of 1 (shifted 1 unit upwards), which means the equation
of axis (EOA) of 𝑓(𝑥) is at 𝑦 = 1.

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Advanced Functions Class 11 Notes

𝑓(𝑥) has a maximum 𝑦 − value of

3 (EOA + amplitude) and a minimum
𝑦 − value of −1 (EOA – amplitude).

The starting point of 𝑓(𝑥) should be

at (−0.5, 1) due to the horizontal
and vertical shifts. As there is a
reflection in 𝑥 − axis, the graph of
𝑓(𝑥) oscillates in the order of
middle (−0.5, 1), minimum
(0.5, −1), middle (1.5, 1),
maximum (2.5, 3), middle (3.5, 1)
every quarter of the period. This
completes one cycle, and the same
oscillation occurs before and after.
The graph on the right shows two
cycles of 𝑓(𝑥).
b) First, we determine the key characteristic of 𝑔(𝑥):
• |𝑎| = 3 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 is vertically stretched by a factor of ,, which means that the
amplitude of 𝑔(𝑥) should be ,. The value of 𝑎 is positive, so there is no reflection in the
𝑥 − axis.
𝜋 4
• |𝑏| = 4 , 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 is horizontally stretched by a factor of 𝜋, which means the period of
4
𝑓(𝑥) becomes 2𝜋 × 𝜋 = 8. The value of 𝑏 is negative, so there is a reflection in the
𝑦 − axis.
• ℎ = 0.1, there is a phase shift of 0.1 (shifted 0.1 unit to the right).
• 𝑘 = −2, there is a vertical shift of −2 (shifted , units downwards), which means the
equation of axis (EOA) of 𝑓(𝑥) is at 𝑦 = −2.
•

𝑔(𝑥) has a maximum 𝑦 − value of 1 (EOA + amplitude) and a minimum 𝑦 − value of −5

(EOA – amplitude).
The starting point of 𝑔(𝑥) should be at (0.1, 1) due to the horizontal and vertical shifts. As
𝑦 = cos (𝑥) has symmetry about the 𝑦 − axis, there is no effect after the reflection in 𝑦 −
axis. The graph of 𝑔(𝑥) oscillates in the order of maximum (0.1, 1), middle (2.1, −2),
minimum (4.1, −5), middle(6.1, −2), maximum (8.1, 1) every quarter of the period. This
completes one cycle, and the same oscillation occurs before and after. The graph below
shows two cycles of 𝑔(𝑥).

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Advanced Functions Class 11 Notes

Example: Determine the equation of each graph using both SINE and COSINE.
a) b)

Solution:
a) Since the maximum and minimum 𝑦 − values of the graph are 4 and −10, the equation
4−10
of axis should be located at the middle: 𝑦 = 2 = −3, so 𝑘 = −3. The amplitude of the
4−(−10) 14 𝜋
graph is |𝑎| = 2
= 2
= 7. The graph has a maximum at (− 4 , 4) and the next
3𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
maximum occurs at ( 4 , 4). The period should be 4 − (− 4 ) = 𝜋, so |𝑏| = 𝜋 = 2. Next,
we need to determine a possible value of phase shift h. If we consider a cosine curve that
𝜋
starts at the maximum (− , 4), then there is no reflection and there is a phase shift of ℎ =
4
𝜋 𝜋
− 4 , so a possible cosine function for the graph is 𝑦 = 7 cos [2 (𝑥 + 4 )] − 3. If we consider a

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Advanced Functions Class 11 Notes

sine curve that starts at (0, −3), then we have a reflected sine curve with no phase shift.
A possible sine function for the graph is 𝑦 = −7 sin(2𝑥) − 3.

b) Since the maximum and minimum 𝑦 − values of the graph are 6 and −3, the equation of
6−3 3 3
axis should be located at the middle: 𝑦 = 2 = 2, so 𝑘 = 2. The amplitude of the graph is
6−(−3) 9 𝜋 3𝜋
|𝑎| = = . The graph has a minimum at (− , −3) and the next maximum at ( , 6).
2 2 2 2
3𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 1
The half of a period should be 2 − (− 2 ) = 2𝜋, so the period is 4𝜋 and|𝑏| = 4𝜋 = 2. Next,
we need to determine a possible value of phase shift h. If we consider a cosine curve that
𝜋
starts at the minimum (− 2 , −3), then we have a reflected cosine curve with a phase shift
𝜋 9 1 𝜋 3
of ℎ = − 2 , so a possible cosine function for the graph is 𝑦 = − 2 cos [2 (𝑥 + 2 )] + 2 . If we
𝜋 3
consider a sine curve that starts at ( 2 , 2), then we have a sine curve with no reflection and
𝜋 9 1 𝜋 3
a phase shift of ℎ = . A possible sine function for the graph is 𝑦 = sin [ (𝑥 − )] + .
2 2 2 2 2

Graphs of Reciprocal Trigonometric Functions

Now, let’s look at how to graph the reciprocal trigonometric functions. We will start with the
reciprocal functions of sine and cosine, namely cosecant and secant functions.

1
Recall back in lesson 5, we learnt that when graphing the reciprocal function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), we can start off
with the graph of the original function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and use the point mapping as follows:

1
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

1
(𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥, 𝑦)

Applying the method, we can use the graph of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 to graph 𝑦 = csc 𝑥.

𝑦 = sin 𝑥

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Advanced Functions Class 11 Notes

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As sin 𝑥 = csc 𝑥, we know that csc 𝑥 is undefined when sin 𝑥 is zero. Looking at the graph of sin 𝑥
shown above, we can see that the graph of csc 𝑥 will be undefined when 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ.

We know that the reciprocal of 1 is 1, so the points where sin 𝑥 = 1 or −1 will also be on the graph
of csc 𝑥. We called these invariant points back in lesson 5.

Once we have these points noted on our graph, we can look at the direction the sine graph goes, then
do the opposite for the cosecant graph. For example, when we look at any point where sin 𝑥 = 1, the
graph immediately decreases before and after that point. Therefore, in the cosecant function, the
function will increase before and after the same point. And when we look at any point where sin 𝑥 =
−1, the graph immediately increases before and after the point, and so the opposite happens in the
1
graph of cosecant function. This is so because when 𝑦 increases or decreases, 𝑦 always goes in the
opposite direction.

We already know that csc 𝑥 should be undefined whenever sin 𝑥 = 0. In fact, there will be vertical
asymptotes in the cosecant graph at these 𝑥 − values. For example, let’s examine the small
1
neighbourhood around 𝑥 = 0. As 𝑥 → 0+ , sin 𝑥 → 0+ , so csc 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 → ∞. As 𝑥 → 0− , sin 𝑥 →
1
0− , so csc 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 → −∞. Hence, we have a vertical asymptote at 𝑥 = 0 in the graph of csc 𝑥. The
same thing happens at all other zeros of sine. We conclude that the cosecant graph has vertical
asymptotes at 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ.

Using all this information we have gained from the sine graph; we can now graph cosecant!

𝑦 = csc 𝑥

𝑦 = sin 𝑥

We can follow a similar process that we did to graph the secant function. We start off with the graph
of cosine and note down where its zeros are. As we see below, the zeros of cosine indicate that the
𝜋
secant graph should have its vertical asymptotes at 𝑥 = 2 + 𝑛𝜋.

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Advanced Functions Class 11 Notes

We also note down the points where cos 𝑥 = 1 and −1, and invert the behaviour of cosine from
these points to draw the graph of secant:

𝑦 = sec 𝑥

𝑦 = cos 𝑥

Cosecant and secant graphs are not sinusoidal functions as they do not exhibit the typical oscillation
pattern of a sinusoidal curve. However, they are still periodic. As we can see from their graphs, a
complete cycle of both 𝑦 = csc 𝑥 and 𝑦 = sec 𝑥 is 2𝜋, the same as 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 and 𝑦 = cos 𝑥.

Here is a summary of the key characteristics of 𝑦 = csc 𝑥 and 𝑦 = sec 𝑥.

𝒚 = 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙
𝜋
Domain 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 2 + 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ

Range 𝑦 ∈ (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) 𝑦 ∈ (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)

Period 2𝜋 2𝜋
Amplitude none none

Equation of Axis (EOA) none none

𝒙 − intercept none none

𝒚 − intercept none (0, 1)

Vertical Asymptotes 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ 𝜋

𝑥= + 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
2

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Advanced Functions Class 11 Notes

𝜋
Example: Graph two cycles of each of the following functions 𝑔(𝑥) = −2 csc ( (𝑥 + 0.5))
2
Solution:
𝜋 1
a) First, we rewrite 𝑔(𝑥) = −2 csc ( 2 (𝑥 + 0.5)) as 𝑔(𝑥) = 1 𝜋
. Then, we used
− sin( (𝑥+0.5))
2 2
the characteristics of sinusoidal functions and methods of transformation as shown before
1 𝜋
to sketch two cycles of the graph of 𝑦 = − 2 sin (2 (𝑥 + 0.5)) first:

1 𝜋
𝑦 = − sin ቆ (𝑥 + 0.5)ቇ
2 2

Note that the graph of this sinusoidal function in the denominator oscillates between −0.5
to 0.5, so there are no points where 𝑦 = ±1. We do not have any invariant points as a
result. However, we can still note down the optimal values of the graph and taking
reciprocal of them will give us the optimal values of the function 𝑔.
For example, we have a local maximum at (2.5, 0.5), so there will be a local minimum at
(2.5, 2) for function 𝑔. Similarly, we have a local minimum at (0.5, −0.5), so there will be a
local maximum at (0.5, −2) for function 𝑔.

We also note down where the zeros of the sinusoidal function are and 𝑔 will have vertical
asymptotes at the same locations. Using a similar method of inverting the behaviour of the
sinusoidal graph, we know the graph shown below should be the graph of 𝑔.

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

1 𝜋
𝑦 = − sin ቆ (𝑥 + 0.5)ቇ
2 2

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Advanced Functions Class 11 Notes

Graphs of Tangent and Cotangent

Lastly, we will look at the graphs of 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 and 𝑦 = cot 𝑥.

Tangent is also not a sinusoidal function as we can see from its graph shown on the right. The graph of
𝑦 = tan 𝑥 has a period of 𝜋 instead of 2𝜋. Its zeros are at (𝑛𝜋, 0) where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ and the graph has
𝜋
asymptotes at 𝑥 = 2 + 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ. The graph extends to both ±∞ in the 𝑦 − direction. As cotangent
is the reciprocal of tangent, we expect the graph of 𝑦 = cot 𝑥 to have vertical asymptotes at 𝑥 =
𝜋
𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ (at the zeros of the tangent) and zeros at 𝑥 = 2 + 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ, where tangent has its
vertical asymptotes. We also anticipate the graph 𝑦 = cot 𝑥 to behave in the opposite direction of
𝑦 = tan 𝑥. It also has a period of 𝜋 and it is not sinusoidal.

𝑦 = tan 𝑥 𝑦 = cot 𝑥

𝒚 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙
𝜋
Domain 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 2 + 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ

Range 𝑦 ∈ (−∞, ∞) 𝑦 ∈ (−∞, ∞)

Period 𝜋 𝜋

Amplitude none none

Equation of Axis (EOA) none none

𝜋
𝒙 − intercept (𝑛𝜋, 0), 𝑛 ∈ ℤ ( + 𝑛𝜋, 0) , 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
2
𝒚 − intercept (0, 0) none
𝜋
Vertical Asymptotes 𝑥= + 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
2

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Advanced Functions Class 11 Notes

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