Automobile First Lecture

AUTOMOBILE HISTORY
• First automobile
developed in 1860’s in
Europe.
• By 1900 cars gaining
some reliability.
• All cars are hand made
costing $10,000.00
• Henry Ford’s better
ideas:
• Interchangeable parts
• Mass production using
an assembly line

2
MASS PRODUCTION OF
AUTOMOBILES

Mass production reduces the cost

of automobiles to $200.00.

There are now 200,000,000

vehicles in the U.S. alone.

3
 Four Basic Parts of Vehicles
• Engine or power plant
• Chassis or framework
• Drive Train
• Body

4
 Engine Systems
• Compression system • Starting system
• Valve train • Charging system
• Fuel system • Emission controls
• Ignition system • Exhaust system
• Lubricating system
• Cooling system

5
 Engine Block & Head(s)
• Compression system
lower end
• Harnesses the power
of burning gasoline
• Valve train top end
• Lets in and out the
fuel charges to be
burned

6
Fuel System
• Old cars used a
carbureted system.
• Cars now use fuel
injection.
• The purpose of the
fuel system is to
store, move and
deliver the fuel and
air in the proper
proportion to the
engine.

7
 Ignition System
• Ignition systems are
electronically computer
controlled
• The purpose is to
deliver a high voltage
spark (20,000 volts)
to cylinders at the
right time to ignite
the fuel.
• Spark plugs /wires
/coil/distributor/COIL
PACK
8
 Computer
• Recent innovation
• Controls
– Fuel,
– ignition,
– Emission
– suspension

9
Lubrication System
• Force feed or pressure
fed system
• Via an oil pump
• Provides lubrication
and protection for all
the metal parts inside
the engine
• Oil pump/
• pan
• galleries 10
 Cooling System
• Liquid cooled system
• Provides protection
from the excessive
heat which builds up
inside the cylinder
• Radiator, water jacket,
hoses, thermostat,
heater core, fan

11
Starting System
• Uses a battery and
electric starting
motor (cranking motor) to
crank over the engine
for starting
• Battery
• Cranking motor
• Solenoid
• Key switch
• Wires 12
 Charging System
• The charging system has two
functions:
• 1 – To recharge the battery
after starting.
• 2 – To provide all the electricity
for the vehicle while the
engine is running.
• The battery provides power
while the engine is not running
• Battery/alternator/voltage
regulator

13
 Exhaust System

• Removes gases from engine

• Quiets vehicle
• Provides back pressure
• Exhaust manifold
• Tail pipe
• Muffler
• Resonator

14
 Emission Controls
• To clean up the air pollution caused by the
automobile.
• Capture any vapor which might escape the
fuel tank and engines crankcase.
• Clean up exhaust for any un burnt fuel, carbon
monoxide, or oxides of nitrogen.
• Many types of devices are employed.
• PCV/Catalytic convertor/gas cap/EGR

15
 Fuel Tank Vapor Recovery
• Captures the vapor of
gasoline from the fuel
tank.
• The charcoal canister
holds them .
• When the engine runs
the vapors are sucked
into the engine and
burned.
16
Catalytic Converter
• One of the most
important emission
controls on the car.
• Literally burns up
pollution in the
exhaust system.

17
 Automobile Bodies
• Most made of
stamped steel parts
• A few cars made of
aluminum (NSX
Cadillac Allenta)
• Some use composite
materials (Saturn or
GM Minivan)

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Chassis or Frame
• Under lying structure
of all vehicles
• Three types of frame:
• 1 – Full frame
• 2 – Unitized frame
called unibody
• 3 – Space frame

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 Full Frame Chassis
• Uses welded steel alloy
metal
• C-channel or box frame
construction
• Note engine cradle in
front and rear axle hump
in rear
• Used on large cars and
most all trucks
• Body made in separate
unit and bolted to chassis

20
Unitized Body Construction
• Called Unibody
• All body and frame
parts welded
together
• Light weight but
strong structurally
• Most cars use this
construction

21
 Space Frame Construction
• Newest type of
construction
• Hybrid unibody
• Used on race cars first
but now used in
passenger cars
• Many use plastic
fenders and body
panels

22
 Chassis Related Systems

• Braking
system
• Suspension
system
• Steering
system

23
 Braking System
• The purpose of the
braking system is of
course, to stop the car.
• Brakes are used on all
wheels and is
hydraulically operated.
• Two common types of
brake assemblies are
used.
• Disc Brakes
• Drum Brakes

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Disc Brakes
• Uses a rotor that
spins with the wheel
and a stationary
caliper to press
friction material
against the spinning
rotor.
• Used on most all front
brakes and some rear
brakes.

25
 Drum Brakes
• Uses a drum which
spins with the wheel.
Stationary brake
shoes are pressed out
from the inside to
cause friction.
• Used on rear brakes
of many cars.

26
ABS Anti-Lock Braking System
• Helps driver stop under• *Does not replace
control hydraulic brakes
• Keeps brakes from • Does not make vehicle
locking up stop faster
• Pulses brakes • Does not work if brake
petal is pumped
• Enables car to be
turned

27
Suspension System
• Uses springs and shock
absorbers to provide a
good ride and improved
handling.
• Coil & leaf springs,
torsion bars and air
suspension are all used.
• Most shock absorbers are
hydraulic or gas operated.
– Stop bouncing action
• Struts
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Independent Suspension
• Allows each wheel to
move up and down
independently with
out effect from the
opposite wheel.
• Used on most all front
wheels and many rear
wheels now.

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 Straight Axle
• Wheels are held
together on a
common axle.
• Very rugged but
poor on handling.
• Used mostly on the
rear wheels.

30
 Steering System
• Two types used:
• Conventional or
parallelogram
steering used on
larger cars and trucks.
• Rack and pinion
steering used on
most cars.
• Conventional on
trucks, SUV, BIG
VEHICLES
31
 Drive train
• Takes the engines torque and sends to the
drive wheels.
• Major types are: front wheel drive, rear wheel
drive, four wheel drive and all wheel drive.
• Major components of all drive trains: clutch,
transmission, differential, and drive shaft(s).

32
 Drive Train Components
• Basic purpose is to get the engines torque to
the wheels.
• Clutches used with manual transmissions a
torque converter used with automatics.
– Disconnects engine from transmission
• Transmission/transaxle
• Drive shafts and drive axles.
• Differentials

33
 Front Wheel Drive
• All drive train
components under
the hood (transaxle)
• Reduces weight and
size of vehicle
• Good traction in rain
and snow

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Front Wheel Drive

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Rear Wheel Drive
• Components spread
from front to rear
– Transmission
• Heavier than FWD
cars
• Poor handling in rain
and snow
• Better traction for
performance
purposes

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 Four Wheel Drive 4X4
• Used primarily on
trucks
• Drive all four wheel
when engaged
• Heavy, poor fuel
economy
• Excellent traction on
rain, snow or off road
conditions

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All Wheel Drive

• Front wheel drive

power train
connected to a drive
shaft in the transaxle
running to a
conventional rear axle
assembly.

38
General Classification of
Automobiles
The Motor Car Type
• Saloon car.

• Hatchback car.

• Coupe car.
The Motor Car Type
• Convertible car.

• Estate car.

• Medium-sized van.

• Medium-sized van.
 The Motor Car Type

Double-decker bus

Rigid 6×4 truck.

Rigid4x2 truck Rigid 8×4 truck.

 Main Parts of the Automobile
The modern automobile can be categorized into two distinct sub-assemblies, the
body and the chassis.

Rigid 4×2 tractor and single-axle 2 articulated

trailers. Rigid 6×2 tractor and tri-axle 6 articulated
trailers.

A car body.

Rigid 6×4 tractor and tandem-axle 4

articulated trailers.
 Main Parts of the Automobile

A car chassis.

Integral body construction.

Vehicle Assemblies (Automobile)
 Engine Position

Front-engined car Rear-engined car.

Mid-engined car
 Drive Arrangements

• Front-wheel drive.

Rear-wheel drive. Front-wheel drive.

Four-wheel drive.
 Automobile Engines Classification

Automobile engines are classified in many

several different ways as follows :
(i) Types of Cycles :
(ii) Types of Fuel Used:
(iii) Number of Cylinders :
(iv) Arrangement of Cylinders :
(v) Firing Order :
(vi) Arrangement of valves:
(viii) Reciprocating or Rotary Engines:
Automobile Engines (Automobile)
Operation of Reciprocating Piston
IC Engines

Piston and crank mechanism.

 Otto cycle on pressure-volume and
temperature-entropy diagrams.

Actual pressure-volume
diagrams for four stroke
engines.
A. Diesel engine. B. Diesel
engine.
Principle of operation of a four-
stroke petrol engine.
Principle of operation of two-
stroke petrol engine.
Principle of operation of four-
stroke ‘diesel engine.
Principle of operation of two-
stroke diesel engines.
The Cyclic-torque and the Flywheel Effect

Single-cylinder constant-
load flywheel effect.
 Multi-cylinder Cyclic-torque

A. Twin-cylinder engine
B. Three-cylinder
engine.
C. Four-cylinder engine
D. Five-cylinder engine.
E. Six-cylinder engine F.
Eight-cylinder engine.
Arrangement of Cylinders
 Firing Order of Cylinders

Single-cylinder arrangement

Twin-cylinder Arrangement

Horizontally opposed twin-cylinder

arrangement.

In-line side-by-side twin- In-line 180 degree

cylinder arrangement. of phase twin-cylinder
arrangement.
Firing Order of Cylinders
V-twin cylinder arrangement.

In-line three-cylinder arrangement.

1, 3, 2

In-line four-cylinder arrangement.

1, 3, 4, 2
Horizontally opposed flat four-
cylinder arrangement. 1,4,2,3
 In-line six-cylinder arrangement. 1, 5, 3, 6, 2, 4.

In-line five-cylinder arrangement.

1,2,4, 5, 3
90 degrees V eight-cylinder arrangement with two-plane crankshaft.

1, 5, 4, 8, 6, 3, 7, 2.

Twelve Cylinder Arrangement

1, 4, 9, 12, 3, 16, 11, 8, 15, 14, 7, 6, 13, 2, 5, 10
Arrangement of Valves
I-head V-type engine. F-head engine.
 An overhead camshaft engine.

An in-line, six-cylinder OHV engine.

 Valve Timing

Inlet valve timing diagram. Exhaust valve timing diagram.

 Engine Balance

Direction of primary force for single cylinder.

Primary forces for four cylinders. Primary forces for three cylinders.
 Graph of secondary force.

SHM and actual piston motion.

Direction of primary and secondary forces.
 Engine Construction
Cylinder Block
In-line Cylinders.

. Monoblock cylinder block and crankcase. - --Cylinder block with detachable crankcase.
Monoblock V cylinder. ‘V cylinder block (block and crankcase. with detachable crankcase.)
 Cylinder Liner
(i) Those, which are in direct contact with the cylinder bore walls of the cylinder block,
are known as dry liners.
(ii) Those, which are supported only at each end in the cylinder block and are elsewhere
in direct contact with the engine coolant, are known as wet liners.
Liner Materials.
Iron 93.92 to 92.22%
Carbon 3 to 3.5%
Silicon 1.8 to 2.4%
Manganese 0.5 to 0.8%
Phosphorous 0.4 to 0.7%
Sulphur 0.08%)
Chromium 0.3%

Wet cylinder liners. (B)

A. Single sleeve support with open-deck. B.
Double sleeve support with closed-deck.
 Gaskets
PURPOSE OF A GASKET

To confine; gas, oil, water, vacuum or exhaust

Seal out foreign objects such as; Dirt, Water

Must withstand heat, cold, pressure, erosion,

corrosion, moisture and oil
 Sump or Oil Pan
The functions of the sump are
(a) to store the engine’s lubrication oil for circulation within the
lubrication system;
(b) to collect the oil draining from the sides of the crankcase walls and if
ejected directly
from the journal bearings;
(c) to provide a centralized storage area for any contaminants like liquid
fuel, water,
combustion products blown past the piston ring, and worn metal
particles ;
(d) to provide a short recovery period for the hot churned-up and
possibly aerated oil before
it is re-circulated in the lubrication system; and
(e) to provide some inter-cooling between the hot oil inside and the air
steam outside.
 The Power Unit

Principle of Engine Operation

Engine

•“A machine for converting energy into

mechanical force and motion.”
Heat Engine

An engine which uses heat to convert the

chemical energy of a fuel into mechanical
force and motion
Two general categories based on design.

External combustion engine

Internal combustion engine

Internal Combustion Engines
 Internal Combustion--Intro
Many different designs are used for internal combustion engines.
Engines can be classified by:
1. Size
2. Ignition system
3. Strokes per cycle
4. Crankshaft orientation
5. Control system
 Engine Size
Engines are available in a wide range of sizes.(Small Engine )

Industry definition: “A small engine is

an internal combustion engine
generally rated up to 25 horsepower.”
 Largest
•The Wartsila-Sulzer RTA96-C turbocharged
two-stroke diesel engine is the most powerful
and most efficient prime-mover in the world
today.

The cylinder bore is just under

38" and the stroke is just over
98".
Each cylinder displaces 111,143
cubic inches (1,820 liters) and
Total displacement comes out to 1,556,002 cubic produces 7,780 horsepower.
inches (25,480 liters) for the fourteen cylinder
version.
Ignition
• Spark ignition

Compression ignition
Number of Strokes
• Four stroke

Two stroke
 Cylinder Design

Three Common Cylinder Orientations For Single Cylinder

Engines

Vertical
Horizontal

Slanted
 Cylinder Design-cont.

Three common cylinder configuration in multiple cylinder

engines:

V
Horizontally opposed

In-line
 Cylinder Design-cont.
Gas engines use three crankshaft orientations:

Multi-position
Horizontal

Vertical
• When fuel is oxidized (burned) heat is produced.

• Only approximately 30% of the energy released is

converted into useful work.

• The remaining (70%) must be removed from the engine to

prevent the parts from melting.
Excess heat is removed by:

• Cooling system

• Exhaust system

• Lubrication system

• Radiation
Additional heat is also generated by friction between the
moving parts.

•This heat must also

be removed.
 Controls
 Traditionally engines are controlled
by mechanical means.
 Governor
 Throttle
 Choke
 Etc.
 Honda has an engine with an
electronic control unit (ECU).

 ECU - Electronic Control Unit

– Monitors and controls engine functions including Throttle, Choke,
Ignition Timing, Oil Alert
– Offers programmable governor and throttle modes for
unprecedented flexibility and diagnostic LED for trouble shooting
– Stepper motors precisely control throttle and choke position
Physical Principles of Engines
 Energy Conversion
• “All internal combustion engines exhibit and convert
different forms of energy.”

• “Energy is the resource that provides the capacity to do

work”.

• The two forms of energy used in engines are potential and

kinetic.
 Potential Energy
•“Stored energy a body has due to its
position, chemical state, or condition.”
 Examples of Potential Energy

A compressed spring
has potential energy due
to its mechanical
condition.
•Fuels have potential
energy based on their
chemical state. Water behind a dam has
potential energy due to
difference in elevation.
Kinetic Energy
 A speeding automobile

Water falling over a dam.

• Flywheel
Internal combustion engines operate utilizing the principles of nine (9)
physical phenomena.

•Heat •Pressure
•Chemistry •Lever
•Temperature
•Torque
•Force
•Horsepower
•Power
 Heat
•“Kinetic energy caused by
atoms and molecules in motion
within a substance.”
Engines use heat in two ways
In an engine, as the air-fuel charge is compressed,
internal energy increases, producing heat.

•When the charge is ignited and the burning gases expand,

internal energy decreases and heat is given up.
 Heat Transfer
•Heat is always transferred from an object of higher heat to
one with lower heat.

•Transfer is by conduction, convection,

and radiation
 Force
•“Anything that changes or tends to change the state of rest
or motion of a body.”

•A force can result in pressure, torque

or work, depending on how it is
applied.
 PRESSURE
“A force acting on a unit of area.”

•The cylinder pressure is not

constant. It is highest right
Pressure

after combustion, as much as

2,000 psi, and decreases as
the piston moves away from
the cylinder head.
Time
 Force
• In engines the amount of force
exerted on the top of a piston is Pr e s s u r e
determined by the cylinder pressure
during the combustion process.

A re a
 Torque
•“A force acting on the
perpendicular radial distance
from a point of rotation.”

To (lb-ft) = Force x Radius

 Lever
•“A lever is a simple machine that consists of a rigid bar”,
which pivots on a fulcrum
Applied force

Resultant force

with both resistance and

effort applied.
 Horsepower
•A unit of power developed by James Watt to provide a basis for
comparing the amount of power produced by horses and other
engines.

•1 Hp = 33,000 ft-lb/min

Horsepower (hp) is the name of several units

of measurement of power. The most common
definitions equal between 735.5 and 750 watts
 Chemistry
All internal combustion engines
utilize some form of fossil fuel.

A fossil fuel is composed of carbon and hydrogen.

•When the hydrocarbon is ignited in the presence of air, the

oxygen causes an exchange of elements which release heat
energy.
 PERFECT COMBUSTION EQUATION

1
C8H18 +12 O 2 + 47N 2 = 8CO2 + 9H2 O + 47N 2 + HEAT
2

Unfortunately, combustion is not perfect---the result is

many unwanted gasses and compounds.
 Internal Combustion Engines

An engine, such as a gasoline or

diesel engine, in which fuel is burned
inside the engine
Designed to be run on any fuel that
vaporizes easily or on any flammable
gas
 External Combustion Engines

An engine, such as a steam engine, in

which fuel is burned outside the engine
Fuel is burned to produce heat to make
steam
Fuel burning can take place within a few
feet of the engine to several miles away
Diagram External Combustion
 Engine Classification

Cylinder arrangement

Number of cylinders

Cooling system type

Valve location

Camshaft location
 Engine Classification cont.

Combustion chamber design

Type of fuel burned

Type of ignition

Number of strokes per cycle

Number of valves per cylinder

 # 1 Cylinder Arrangement

 Refers to the position of the cylinders in relation to

the crankshaft
 There are five basic cylinder arrangements:

 inline
 V-type
 slant
 W-type
 opposed
 Cylinder Arrangement

YouTube - engine configurations

Horizontally Opposed
In - Line
V configuration
 # 2 Number of Cylinders

Most car and truck engines have

either 4, 6, or 8 cylinders
Some may have 3, 5, 10, 12, or 16
cylinders
Engine power and smoothness are
enhanced by using more cylinders
 Numbering of Cylinders

Engine manufacturers number each engine

cylinder to help technicians make repairs
Service manual illustrations are usually
provided to show the number of each cylinder
Cylinder numbers may be cast into the intake
manifold
 # 3 Firing Orders

Refers to the sequence in which the cylinders

fire
Determined by the position of the crankshaft
rod journals in relation to each other
May be cast into the intake manifold

Service manual illustrations are usually

provided to show the firing order
Numbering and Firing Order
 # 4 Method of Cooling

 There are two types of cooling systems:

 Liquid cooling system

 surrounds the cylinder with coolant

coolant carries combustion heat out of the cylinder
head and engine block
 Air cooling system

 circulates air over cooling fins on the cylinders

 air removes heat from the cylinders
 # 5 Fuel Type

Engines are classified by the type of fuel used

Gasoline engines burn gasoline

Diesel engines burn diesel fuel

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), gasohol (10%

alcohol, 90% gasoline), and pure alcohol can also
be used to power an engine
 # 6 Method of Ignition

Two basic methods are used to

ignite the fuel in an engine
combustion chamber:
spark ignition (spark plug)
compression ignition
(compressed air)
Spark Ignition
Compression Ignition
 # 7 Valve Location

Engines are classified by the location of the valves:

L-head engine
also called a flat head engine
F-head engine

Compromise between I & L head engines

I-head engine
Both overhead valve (OHV) engines and overhead cam (OHC)
are I-head
 ‘I’ and ‘L’ Head

Both the intake and exhaust valves

Both valves are in the are in the block
cylinder head Flathead-Model T
F Head (1971 Jeep)
 # 8 Camshaft Location

There are two basic locations for the engine

camshaft:
Camshaft located in the block
cam-in-block engine

Camshaft located in the cylinder head

overhead cam (OHC) engine
 Cam in Block (OHV)

Uses push rods to transfer

motion to the rocker arms and
valves
Also called an overhead valve
(OHV) engine
 Diagram of OHV

Note the adjustment screw

on the end of the rocker
arm. Not all rocker arms
have this adjustment.
Check the shop manual
for adjustment
procedures.
 Cam in Head

OHC engines may use one or two camshafts per cylinder

head
Single overhead cam (SOHC) engine

uses only one camshaft per cylinder head

Dual overhead cam (DOHC) engine

uses two camshafts per cylinder head

one cam operates the intake valves, while the other
cam operates the exhaust valves
 Diagram of OHC

Notice that the pushrod

and rocker arm have
been eliminated in this
OHC engine. Less moving
parts in the transmission of
camshaft motion to open
the valve.
This not only reduces
friction points and weight
but also less points for
NOTE-not all OHC have eliminated
wear and component
the rocker arms.
breakage. (See next slide)
Diagram of OHC with Rockers
 Diagram of DOHC
(Dual overhead cam)
# 9 Combustion Chamber Design

 Four basic combustion chamber shapes

are used in most automotive engines:
pancake

wedge

Hemispherical (hemi)
pent-roof
 Pancake

Chamber forms a flat pocket over the piston

head
Valve heads are almost parallel to the top of
the piston
 Wedge

The valves are placed side-by-side

The spark plug is located next to the valves

When the piston reaches TDC, the squish area formed on the
thin side of the chamber squirts the air-fuel mixture out into
the main part of the chamber
this improves air-fuel mixing at low engine speeds
 Hemispherical (Hemi)

Shaped like a dome

The valves are canted on each side of the combustion chamber
The spark plug is located
near the center of the chamber, producing a very
short flame path for combustion
The surface area is very small, reducing heat loss
 Pent Roof

Similar to a hemispherical chamber

Has flat, angled surfaces rather than a domed surface

Improves volumetric efficiency and reduces emissions

Pent Roof Combustion Chamber

Uses two exhaust valves and two intake

valves to increase flow
Additional Combustion Chamber Designs

Swirl

Causes the air-fuel mixture to swirl as it enters the

chamber, improving combustion
CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES

VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES

 CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

1. Application
2. Basic Engine Design
3. Operating Cycle
4. Working Cycle
5. Valve/Port Design and Location
6. Fuel
7. Mixture Preparation
8. Ignition
9. Stratification of Charge
10. Combustion Chamber Design
11. Method of Load Control
12. Cooling
CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

1. 1. Application
2. Automotive: (i) Car
(ii) Truck/Bus
(iii) Off-highway
2. Locomotive
3. Light Aircraft
4. Marine: (i) Outboard
(ii) Inboard
(iii) Ship
5. Power Generation: (i) Portable (Domestic)
(ii) Fixed (Peak Power)
6. Agricultural: (i) Tractors
(ii) Pump sets
7. Earthmoving: (i) Dumpers
(ii) Tippers
(iii) Mining Equipment
8. Home Use: (i) Lawnmowers
(ii) Snow blowers
(iii) Tools
9. Others
Automotive Diesel Engine
Large Two-stroke Marine Engine
Power-split plug-in hybrid electric vehicle configuration.
CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

2. Basic Engine Design:

1. Reciprocating (a) Single Cylinder
(b) Multi-cylinder (I) In-line
(ii) V
(iii) Radial
(iv) Opposed
Cylinder
(v) Opposed
Piston
2. Rotary: (a) Single Rotor
(b) Multi-rotor
Types of Reciprocating Engines
V Engine
Wankel Rotary Piston Engine
Types of Rotary Engines
Wankel Engine Parts
Twin-rotor Wankel
Apex Seals
CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

3. Operating Cycle

• Otto (For the Conventional SI Engine)

• Atkinson (For Complete Expansion SI Engine)
• Miller (For Early or Late Inlet Valve Closing type SI
Engine)
• Diesel (For the Ideal Diesel Engine)
• Dual (For the Actual Diesel Engine)
Atkinson cycle
P–V diagram; T–S diagram for the air
standard Miller cycle
Engine Information
CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

4. Working Cycle (Strokes)

1. Four Stroke Cycle:(a) Naturally Aspirated

(b)Supercharged/Turbocharged
2. Two Stroke Cycle: (a) Crankcase Scavenged
(b) Uniflow Scavenged
(i) Inlet valve/Exhaust Port
(ii) Inlet Port/Exhaust Valve
(iii) Inlet and Exhaust Valve
May be Naturally Aspirated
Turbocharged
Four Stroke & Two stroke SI
Engines
Four Stroke & Two Stroke CI Engines
Two-stroke Engine
 CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES
5. (a) Valve/Port Design
1. Poppet Valve
2. Rotary Valve
3. Reed Valve
4. Piston Controlled Porting
5. (b) Valve Location
1. The T-head
2. The L-head
3. The F-head
4. The I-head: (i) Over head Valve (OHV)
(ii) Over head Cam (OHC)
Poppet Valve
Valve Locations
Valve Timing Profile
Valve Timing Diagram
Valve Timing Diagram
Valve Timing Diagram
 CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES
6. Fuel
1.Conventional: (a) Crude oil derived (i) Petrol
(ii) Diesel
(b) Other sources: (i) Coal
(ii) Wood (includes bio-mass)
(iii)Tar Sands
(iv)Shale
2. Alternate: (a) Petroleum derived (i) CNG
(ii) LPG
(b) Bio-mass Derived (i) Alcohols (methyl and ethyl)
(ii) Vegetable oils
(iii) Producer gas and biogas
(iv) Hydrogen
3. Blending
4. Dual fueling
 CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES
7. Mixture Preparation
1. Carburetion
2. Fuel Injection (i) Diesel
(ii) Gasoline
(a) Manifold
(b) Port
(c) Cylinder
Gasoline Fuel Injection
 CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES
8. Ignition
1. Spark Ignition
(a) Conventional
(i) Battery
(ii) Magneto
(b) Other methods
2. Compression Ignition
 CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES
9. Charge Stratification

1. Homogeneous Charge (Also Pre-mixed

charge)

2. Stratified Charge (i) With carburetion

(ii) With fuel injection
Charge Stratification
Combustion Chamber Designs
Combustion Chamber Design
Combustion Chamber Design
Combustion Chamber Design
Combustion Chamber Design
Combustion Chamber Design
Combustion Chamber Design
 CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES
10. Combustion Chamber Design
1. Open Chamber: (i) Disc type
(ii) Wedge
(iii) Hemispherical
(iv) Bowl-in-piston
(v) Other design
2. Divided Chamber: (For CI): (i) Swirl chamber
(ii) Pre-chamber
(For SI) (i) CVCC (Controlled Vortex
Combustion Chamber )
(ii) Other designs
 CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES
11. Method of Load Control
1. Throttling: (To keep mixture strength constant)
Also called Charge Control
Used in the Carbureted S.I. Engine
2. Fuel Control (To vary the mixture strength
according to load)
Used in the C.I. Engine
3. Combination
Used in the Fuel-injected S.I. Engine.
 CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES
12. Cooling

1. Direct Air-cooling

2. Indirect Air-cooling (Liquid Cooling)

3. Low Heat Rejection (Semi-adiabatic) engine.

 Engine Parts, Description, Function, Construction

• Cylinder Barrel

• Chrome-molybdenum or nickel-molybdenum steel

• Used to guide and seal piston and to mount cylinder
assembly to head
• Barrel threads into head to form cylinder assembly
 Engine Parts, Description, Function, Construction

Cylinder Walls

Cylinder interior wall

 Engine Parts, Description, Function, Construction

• Cylinder Walls
• Inside surface of cylinder barrel is honed to a
controlled amount of roughness
• Rough enough to hold oil film but smooth enough
to minimize friction and wear
• Plain steel cylinder walls are not treated to prevent
wear or corrosion
• Nitrided cylinder walls are hardened to reduce wear
but still rust as easily as plain steel walls. Nitriding is
exposing the cylinder wall to ammonia at high
temperatures and it hardens the wall to a thickness
of approximately .005”
 Engine Parts, Description, Function, Construction

• Chrome cylinder walls use

chromium plating to resist
wear and provide a
corrosion resistant surface.
• Cylinders may be chromed
back to standard inside
dimensions if they become
worn
• Chrome is too smooth to
hold oil without etching or
channeling during the
overhaul process
 Engine Parts, Description, Function, Construction

• Cylinder wall “CHOKE”

• The cylinder wall is
tapered inward towards
the top so that as the
engine warms up, the
hotter top of the wall
expands more than the
bottom, creating a round
barrel at operating
temperature.
 Engine Parts, Description, Function, Construction

• Cylinder heads
• Constructed of cast
aluminum
• Provides combustion
chamber, and mounting
areas for spark plugs and
valve parts
 Engine Parts, Description, Function, Construction

• The cylinder head is designed to transfer heat by

conduction to the fins and then from the fins to
the air by convection
• The exhaust side of the head has the most fins as
it runs the hottest
• The head also may incorporate a drain line fitting
to allow excess oil to return to the crankcase
(intercylinder drain lines on radials)
 Engine Parts, Description, Function, Construction

• Valve Guides
• Made of bronze
• Secured in the head by an
interference (shrink) fit

• Valve Seats
• Made of chrome steel,
stellite, or brass
• Secured by interference fit
• Crankcase
• The crankcase holds all of the engine parts in
alignment and supports the cylinders and
crankshaft
• It provides a place to mount the engine to the
aircraft
• Constructed of aluminum alloy
• Divided into sections (radial)
• Nose section - Houses prop shaft and bearings
• Power section - mount for cylinders
• Fuel induction section - intake tubes, blower,
manifolds (supercharger)
• Accessory section - mounts for magnetos, pumps,
generators.
• Opposed crankcase
• Sections are not as distinct as in the radial and the
crankcase splits from front to rear instead of in
radial sections
• Pistons
• Constructed of aluminum alloy
• Parts include top, ring grooves, ring lands, skirt, and piston
pin boss
• Cooling fins on the bottom help the oil carry heat away
from the piston top
• Cam ground pistons
• diameter of the piston is greater perpendicular to
the piston pin boss
• This compensates for uneven expansion during
operation (becomes round at operating
temperature)
• Piston head designs
• Piston rings (general)
• Provide seal between cylinder wall and piston
• Rings ride on a thin film of oil
• Conduct heat from the piston out to the cylinder
and the fins
• Material is cast iron or chrome steel

• Piston rings (type)

• Compression rings are located at the top of the
piston and seal the combustion chamber
• Types include rectangular, tapered,wedge
• Compression rings
• Oil control rings
• On bottom of piston below compression rings
• Regulates oil film thickness on cylinder wall
• Holes in ring and piston allow excess oil to drain
back to crankcase
• Too much oil film and the engine will use excessive
oil and too little oil causes heat and insufficient
lubrication

• Oil scraper rings

• Directs the oil away from or towards the oil control
rings depending upon the requirements of the
engine
• Piston ring end gap
• The gap at the end of the rings allows for
expansion and contraction and unevenness in the
cylinder wall
• Butt, step and angle types
• Always stagger the end gaps during ring installation
to prevent losing compression
• Piston Pins (wrist pins)
• Connects the piston to the end of the connecting
rod
• Constructed of hardened steel
• The pin is retained in the piston with clips or plugs
to prevent cylinder wall scoring
• Continental pins are free-floating, meaning the pin
is not secured to the piston or the rod.
• Connecting Rod Assembly

• The link between the crankshaft and the piston

• Normally steel but some low powered engines use
aluminum to save weight
• Cross section is an “H” or “I”
• Types include : Plain Rod
Fork and blade rod
Master and articulated
• Plain Type Rods

• Used on inline and opposed engines

• Small bushing at piston pin end is pressed in place
and reamed to final dimensions
• Large end of rod includes a cap, bolts, nuts, and
plain bearing inserts
• Rods are numbered as to cylinder and for cap-to-
rod alignment
• Fork and Blade Connecting Rod

• Used on “V” type engines

• One rod inside another allows cylinders to be
aligned and to share a common location on the
crankshaft
• Master and Articulating Rod

• Used on radial engines

• Uses “knuckle pins” to retain articulated rods to
master
Master Rod

Articulating Rod
Master/Articulating Rod in Action
• Crankshaft

• Changes reciprocating motion of pistons into

rotating motion to drive propeller
• Constructed of chrome-nickel-molybdenum-steel
• May be one piece or as many as three separate
pieces
• The propeller mounts to the front of the crankshaft
using a taper or flange
• The crankshaft rotates within the crankcase and is
supported by main bearing journals
• Crankshaft throws or crankpins are off center and
account for the reciprocating motion of the pistons
Crankshaft Main Bearing Journal, Pin, Arm
Crankshaft Ends For Mounting Propellers
• Dynamic Dampers can be mounted to the
crankshaft to reduce vibration (floating)
• Counterweights are also used to reduce vibration
but they are rigid and do not float
• Counterweights and dampers are used in piston
engines because the power pulses and movement
of the pistons create large amounts of vibration
• Vibration shortens airframe and engine life and can
lead to premature component failure
• The engine is also mounted in rubber bushings to
absorb vibration
• 2 Piece Crankshaft With Counterweights
(Single Throw, Single Cylinder)
• Valves and the Valve System
• Valves control the flow of gases inside the engine
• Poppet valves are the most common and get their
name from the popping open and closed during
operation
• Intake valves are chrome steel and are cooled by
the incoming air and fuel mixture
• Exhaust valves are also alloy steel but are often
filled with metallic sodium for cooling. Valve faces
may be coated with Stellite to reduce wear and
corrosion
• Valve faces are ground to 30 degrees for intake
(airflow) and 45 degrees (cooling) for exhaust
• Valve Springs
• Inner and outer springs are used to prevent
bounce, provide redundancy, and increase valve
closing pressure
• Held in place by retainer washers on the top and
bottom of the spring
• Split key or “keeper” holds the retainers and
springs in place on the valve stem
• Valve Lifter or Tappet

• May be solid, roller, or hydraulic

• The lifter follows the cam lobes and pushes on the
pushrod
• Solid and roller lifters require adjustable rocker
arms
• Hydraulic type lifters fill with oil and lengthen to
compensate for any clearances in the valve system
• Camshaft
• Turns at 1/2 the speed of the crankshaft
• Must be mechanically coupled to the crankshaft
for timing purposes (gears, belts, chains)
• The camshaft consists of bearing journals and
lobes spaced along the shaft
• Each lobe is positioned to open and close a valve at
a specific time

Lobe
• Pushrod
• transmits push of lifter up to rocker arm
• Hollow to allow oil to flow to the top of the
cylinder for valve part lubrication
• Length can be varied to adjust valve clearance
• Valve clearance is the space between the top of
the valve stem and the rocker arm. This clearance
is to prevent a valve from being held open with the
resulting heat build-up and loss of compression
• valve clearance increases as the engine operates
due to cylinder expansion (solid lifters)
• Hydraulic lifters have a “0” clearance in operation
Valve clearance adjustment

Valve clearance measurement

• Rocker Arm
• Adjustable in solid lifter engines and fixed in
engines with hydraulic lifters
• One end rests on the valve stem and the other on
the pushrod
• Rocking motion opens and closes the valves
• Roller rocker arms incorporate a roller that reduces
friction and are used in some radials and
experimental engines
• Bearings
Must be able to withstand forces inside an
engine with minimal friction and heat build-
up. Must accept radial and thrust loads

• Plain Bearings
• A steel insert with babbitt (lead alloy) bonded to
the bearing surface
• Plain bearings are keyed to keep them in place
• A lip or flange allows the plain bearing to accept
thrust loads
• Commonly used as crankshaft and rod bearings in
opposed engines
• Roller Bearings (antifriction)
• Hard steel rollers captured between an inner
and outer “race” and held in alignment by a
“cage”
• May be tapered to absorb radial and thrust
loads or straight to absorb radial loads only
Parts of a Ball Bearing

BALL

CAGE

INNER RACE

OUTER RACE
• Ball Bearings (antifriction)
• Used for both radial and thrust loads
• Deep grooves in races allow thrust
loads
 Bearing cleaning and safety

• Wash old grease and debris with solvent

• Blow dry with shop air but do not spin the bearing
with the air blast
• Reapply grease or oil immediately to prevent
corrosion
• Protect skin and eyes from solvent contact
• Planetary Gears

• Ring gear, Planet gear, Sun gear

• Large gear reductions possible
• Compact and versatile
• Common in large radials and turbine engines
• Physical principles related to operation
• Basic parts of the engine assembly
• Four stroke operating theory

171
 Physical Principles related to Engine
Operation
• Energy conversion
• Atmospheric pressure
• Vacuum
• Pressure
• The relationship between temperature,
pressure and volume.
• The three states of matter.

172
Energy Conversion
• Engines take heat
energy and convert it
into mechanical energy.
• Motors take electrical
energy and convert it
into mechanical energy.

173
Basic Parts of the Gasoline Engine
• Cylinder block • Cylinder head
• Piston • Intake valve
• Piston rings • Exhaust valve
• Piston pin • Camshaft
• Connecting rod • Timing gears
• Crankshaft • Spark plug

174
 Cylinder Block

• Basic frame of
gasoline engine.
• Contains the cylinder.

175
Piston

• A sliding plug that

harnesses the force of
the burning gases in
the cylinder.

176
 Piston Rings
• The rings seal the
compression gases
above the piston keep
the oil below the
piston rings.

177
Piston Pins
• Also known as the wrist
pin, it connects the
piston to the small end
of the connecting rod.
• It transfers the force
and allows the rod to
swing back and forth.

178
 Connecting Rod
• Connects the piston
and piston pin to the
crankshaft.

179
Crankshaft
• Along the the piston
pin and connecting
rod it converts the up
and down motion
(reciprocating) of the
engine to spinning
(rotary) motion.

180
 Flywheel
• Carries the inertia
when there is no
power stroke.

181
Lower End Action

182
Cylinder Head
• Forms the top of the
combustion chamber.
• Contains the valves,
the passageways for
the fuel mixture to
move in and out of
the engine.

183
W Head

184
 Intake and Exhaust Valves
• Doorway that lets the
gases in and out of the
engine.

185
Camshaft
• Through the use of an
eccentric the cam
lobes push the valves
open.
• The valve springs
close them.

186
 Timing Gears

• These gears drive the

camshaft from the
crankshaft.

187
Spark Plug
• Electric match used to
begin the combustion
process of burning air
and gasoline to create
heat.

188
 Engine Related Terms
• TDC (top dead center)
• BDC (bottom dead center)
• Stroke
• Bore
• Revolution
• Compression Ratio
• Displacement
• Cycle
• Engine Capacity
• Mean Effective pressure
• Power
• Indicated Power
• Brake Power
• Engine Torque

189
 Four Stroke Cycle
• Intake
• Compression
• Power
• Exhaust

190
 Intake Stroke
• Intake valve opens.
• Piston moves down, ½
turn of crankshaft.
• A vacuum is created in the
cylinder.
• Atmospheric pressure
pushes the air/fuel
mixture into the cylinder.

191
Compression Stroke
• Valves close.
• Piston moves up, ½ turn
of crankshaft.
• Air/fuel mixture is
compressed.
• Fuel starts to vaporize
and heat begins to
build.

192
 Power Stroke
• Valves remain closed.
• Spark plug fires
igniting fuel mixture.
• Piston moves down, ½
turn of crankshaft.
• Heat is converted to
mechanical energy.

193
Exhaust Stroke
• Exhaust valve opens.
• Piston move up,
crankshaft makes ½
turn.
• Exhaust gases are
pushed out polluting
the atmosphere.

194
Four Stroke Cycle Animation

195
Two Stroke Animation

196
Rotary Engine

197
Diesel Animation

198
Diesel 2 stroke

199
 A TURBOCHARGER IS AN…

…“AIRPUMP”
powered by the
unused heat
energy normally
wasted out the
exhaust.
 Routing of exhaust and compressor discharge air

Filtered air
air inlet

Spent exhaust Compressor

gases outlet
overboard
Exhaust gas inlet from the
combustion process
1650° F

As high as
125,000 RPMs!
TURBOCHARGING DEFINITIONS

• Turbo-charging
BOOSTED – HP increase

• Turbo-Normalizing
NORMALIZED – Maintains sea-level
performance at altitude.
 TURBOCHARGING DEFINITIONS
• Upper Deck Pressure
– From compressor discharge to the throttle
plate.

• Manifold Pressure
– From the throttle plate to the cylinder intake
port.
 Sludge build-up in
the “wedge” can
decrease the oil
pressure feeding
into the bearing
and shaft

AME Maintenance Seminar

 TURBO COMPONENTS:
CENTER HOUSING – home of:
• BEARINGS
– For locating the turbine shaft

• SEALS (Piston Rings)

– Prevents high-pressure gases from entering
the center housing and therefore the
crankcase.
– To keep air and exhaust out of the oil.
 30-60
PSI

Piston rings keep air and exhaust

pressures out of the center housing
 TURBO COMPONENTS:
COMPRESSOR STAGE (Cold Side)

Discharge Air

Volute shape – converts

velocity energy into
pressure energy

Turbo Talk Forum

4 BASIC SYSTEM COMPONENTS
• Turbocharger

• Controller

• Wastegate

• Absolute Pressure Relief Valve (PRV)

Turbo output pressures
must be regulated.

Without a control system, the

turbocharged engine would Be
extremely unstable.
 Why Use an Intercooler?
• The compressor wheel spins faster at
altitude producing a hotter charge to the
cylinders.
• Decreasing adiabatic efficiency.
 TURBOCHARGERS ARE
SENSITIVE TO:
• Insufficient lubrication

• Foreign object damage

• Extreme temperatures
INSUFFICIENT LUBRICATION…
• …RESULTS IN:
– Bearing damage that causes an increase in
the orbital motion of the turbine shaft.

– Turbine and compressor wheels begin to

contact their respective housings.
 CONTAMINATED LUBRICATION
RESULTS IN:
• Damage to bearing(s)
• Collateral damage to turbine and
compressor housings
• Full floating bearings require 30 PSI
minimum at inlet

 Engine Oil should be changed every 25-35 hours in a turbocharged

engine.
VERIFY TURBO CONDITION
• Does the shaft spin freely?
 VERIFY TURBO CONDITION
• Wheels should not contact housing.
VERIFY TURBO CONDITION
Use a light source to carefully Check inducer
examine the condition of the blades for
leading edges of the Turbine Wheel damage
blades.
 FOREIGN OBJECT DAMAGE
• Bolts, valves, and rocks will break pieces
from the blades or “machine” them down.
• Abrasive matter (sand, dirt) will wear
away the underside of the blades.
• Soft material (shop rags) will bend the
compressor blades backwards.

Avoiding Turbo Oil Leaks

CHECKING BEARING CLEARANCES

Radial Bearing Check

0.003-0.007

0.004-0.009

Axial End Play Bearing

Check
Maintenance of Turbo System

50 and 100 hour inspections:

Inspect the torque on all

V-band clamps
Rotary engine theory
 Rotary Combustion Engines:
• Introduction: (5)
Rotor Visual & Explanation
Anatomy Continued
 Rotary Combustion Engines:
• Phases: (4)
• Phase Breakdown: (9)
– Intake:
– Compression:
– Power:
– Exhaust:
Intake:

B
 Compression:

A
 Power:

A
Exhaust:

B
Rotary Combustion Engines:
 Gas Turbine
• Uses burning and expanding fuel vapor to
spin fan-type blades
• Blades are connected to a shaft that can be
used for power output
• Expensive to manufacture because of
special metals, ceramics, and precision
machining required
Principle of operation of gas turbine for
Automotive use
Use of heat exchanger with automotive
gas turbine
The Fuel System
Introduction

The Formation of Fuels

• Solar energy is converted to
chemical energy through photo-
synthesis in plants
• Energy produced by burning wood or
fossil fuels
• Fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas

2
Type of Fuels

Liquid Fuels
 Usage
• Used extensively in industrial applications

 Examples
• Furnace oil
• Light diesel oil
• Petrol
• Kerosene
• Ethanol

3
Type of Fuels

Liquid Fuels
 Density
• Ratio of the fuel’s mass to its volume at 15 oC,
• kg/m3
• Useful for determining fuel quantity and quality

4
Type of Fuels

Liquid Fuels
 Specific gravity
• Ratio of weight of oil volume to weight of same
water volume at a given temperature
• Specific gravity of water is 1
• Hydrometer used to measure
Table 1. Specific gravity of various fuel oils (adapted
from Thermax India Ltd.)

Fuel oil LDO Furnace oil LSHS (Low Sulphur

type (Light Diesel Oil) Heavy Stock)
Specific 0.85-0.87 0.89-0.95 0.88-0.98
Gravity
5
Type of Fuels

Liquid Fuels
 Viscosity
• Measure of fuel’s internal resistance to flow
• Most important characteristic for storage and use
• Decreases as temperature increases

 Flash point
• Lowest temperature at which a fuel can be heated
so that the vapor gives off flashes when an open
flame is passes over it
• Flash point of furnace oil: 66oC
6
Type of Fuels

Liquid Fuels
 Pour point
• Lowest temperature at which fuel will flow
• Indication of temperature at which fuel can be
pumped

 Specific heat
• kCal needed to raise temperature of 1 kg oil by
1oC (kcal/kgoC)
• Indicates how much steam/electricity it takes to
heat oil to a desired temperature
Type of Fuels

Liquid Fuels
 Calorific value
• Heat or energy produced
• Gross calorific value (GCV): vapour is fully
condensed
• Net calorific value (NCV): water is not fully
condensed

Fuel Oil Gross Calorific Value (kCal/kg)

Kerosene 11,100
Diesel Oil 10,800
L.D.O 10,700
Furnace Oil 10,500
LSHS 10,600 8
Type of Fuels

Liquid Fuels
 Sulphur content
• Depends on source of crude oil and less on the
refining process
• Furnace oil: 2-4 % sulphur
• Sulphuric acid causes corrosion

 Ash content
• Inorganic material in fuel
• Typically 0.03 - 0.07%
• Corrosion of burner tips and damage to materials
/equipments at high temperatures 9
Type of Fuels

Liquid Fuels
 Carbon residue
• Tendency of oil to deposit a carbonaceous solid
residue on a hot surface
• Residual oil: >1% carbon residue

 Water content
• Normally low in furnace oil supplied (<1% at
refinery)
• Free or emulsified form
• Can damage furnace surface and impact flame
10
Type of Fuels

Liquid Fuels
 Storage of fuels
• Store in cylindrical tanks above or below the ground
• Recommended storage: >10 days of normal
consumption
• Cleaning at regular intervals
 Type of Fuels

Liquid Fuels
Typical specifications of fuel oils
(adapted from Thermax India Ltd.)

Properties Fuel Oils

Furnace Oil L.S.H.S L.D.O
Density (Approx. 0.89-0.95 0.88-0.98 0.85-0.87
g/cc at 150C)
Flash Point (0C) 66 93 66
Pour Point (0C) 20 72 18
G.C.V. (Kcal/kg) 10500 10600 10700
Sediment, % Wt. 0.25 0.25 0.1
Max.
Sulphur Total, % < 4.0 < 0.5 < 1.8
Wt. Max.
Water Content, % 1.0 1.0 0.25
Vol. Max.
12
Ash % Wt. Max. 0.1 0.1 0.02
Type of Fuels

Solid Fuels
 Coal classification
• Anthracite: hard and geologically the oldest
• Bituminous
• Lignite: soft coal and the youngest
• Further classification: semi- anthracite, semi-
bituminous, and sub-bituminous
Type of Fuels

Solid Fuels
 Physical properties
• Heating or calorific value (GCV)
• Moisture content
• Volatile matter
• Ash

 Chemical properties
• Chemical constituents: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
sulphur
Type of Fuels

Solid Fuels (Physical properties)

 Heating or calorific value
• The typical GVCs for various coals are:

Parameter Lignite Indian Indonesian South

(Dry Coal Coal African
Basis) Coal

GCV 4,500 4,000 5,500 6,000

(kCal/kg)

15
© UNEP 2006
Type of Fuels

Solid Fuels (Physical properties)

 Moisture content
• % of moisture in fuel (0.5 – 10%)
• Reduces heating value of fuel
• Weight loss from heated and then cooled powdered
raw coal

 Volatile matter
• Methane, hydrocarbons, hydrogen, CO, other
• Typically 25-35%
• Easy ignition with high volatile matter
• Weight loss from heated then cooled crushed coal
16
 Type of Fuels

Solid Fuels (Physical properties)

 Ash
• Impurity that will not burn (5-40%)
• Important for design of furnace
• Ash = residue after combustion

 Fixed carbon
• Fixed carbon = 100 – (moisture + volatile matter + ash)
• Carbon + hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen
residues
• Heat generator during combustion 17
Type of Fuels

Solid Fuels (Physical properties)

 Proximate analysis of coal
• Determines only fixed carbon, volatile matter,
moisture and ash
• Useful to find out heating value (GCV)
• Simple analysis equipment

 Ultimate analysis of coal

• Determines all coal component elements: carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, other
• Useful for furnace design (e.g flame temperature,
flue duct design)
• Laboratory analysis
Type of Fuels

Solid Fuels (Physical properties)

 Proximate analysis
Typical proximate analysis of various coals (%)

Indian Indonesian South African

Coal Coal Coal
Moisture 5.98 9.43 8.5

Ash 38.63 13.99 17

Volatile 20.70 29.79 23.28

matter
Fixed Carbon 34.69 46.79 51.22
Type of Fuels

Solid Fuels (Chemical Properties)

 Ultimate analysis
Typical ultimate analysis of coal (%)

Parameter Indian Coal, % Indonesian Coal, %

Moisture 5.98 9.43
Mineral Matter (1.1 x Ash) 38.63 13.99
Carbon 41.11 58.96
Hydrogen 2.76 4.16
Nitrogen 1.22 1.02
Sulphur 0.41 0.56
Oxygen 9.89 11.88

GCV (kCal/kg) 4000 5500

20
Type of Fuels

Gaseous Fuels
 Advantages of gaseous fuels
• Least amount of handling
• Simplest burners systems
• Burner systems require least maintenance
• Environmental benefits: lowest GHG and other
emissions
Type of Fuels

Gaseous Fuels
 Classification of gaseous fuels
(A) Fuels naturally found in nature
-Natural gas
-Methane from coal mines
(B) Fuel gases made from solid fuel
-Gases derived from coal
-Gases derived from waste and biomass
-From other industrial processes
(C) Gases made from petroleum
-Liquefied Petroleum gas (LPG)
-Refinery gases
-Gases from oil gasification
(D) Gases from some fermentation
 Type of Fuels

Gaseous Fuels
 Calorific value
• Fuel should be compared based on the net
calorific value (NCV), especially natural gas

Typical physical and chemical properties of various gaseous fuels

Fuel Relative Higher Heating Air/Fuel Flame Flame
Gas Density Value kCal/Nm3 ratio m3/m3 Temp oC speed m/s
Natural 0.6 9350 10 1954 0.290
Gas

Propane 1.52 22200 25 1967 0.460

Butane 1.96 28500 32 1973 0.870

23
Type of Fuels

Gaseous Fuels
 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
• Propane, butane and unsaturates, lighter C2
and heavier C5 fractions
• Hydrocarbons are gaseous at atmospheric
pressure but can be condensed to liquid state
• LPG vapour is denser than air: leaking gases
can flow long distances from the source

24
Type of Fuels

Gaseous Fuels
 Natural gas
• Methane: 95%
• Remaing 5%: ethane, propane, butane, pentane,
nitrogen, carbon dioxide, other gases
• High calorific value fuel
• Does not require storage facilities
• No sulphur
• Mixes readily with air without producing smoke or
soot
25
Type of Fuels

Comparing Fuels
Fuel Oil Coal Natural
Gas
Carbon 84 41.11 74
Hydrogen 12 2.76 25

Sulphur 3 0.41 -
Oxygen 1 9.89 Trace
Nitrogen Trace 1.22 0.75
Ash Trace 38.63 -
Water Trace 5.98 -
26
© UNEP 2006
Performance Evaluation

Principles of Combustion
• Combustion: rapid oxidation of a fuel
• Complete combustion: total oxidation of fuel (adequate
supply of oxygen needed)
• Air: 20.9% oxygen, 79% nitrogen and other
• Nitrogen: (a) reduces the combustion efficiency (b) forms
NOx at high temperatures
• Carbon forms (a) CO2 (b) CO resulting in less heat
production

27
Performance Evaluation

Principles of Combustion
• Control the 3 Ts to optimize combustion:

1T) Temperature
2T) Turbulence
3T) Time

• Water vapor is a by-product of burning fuel that contains

hydrogen and this takes heat from the flue gases

28
Performance Evaluation

Principle of Combustion
Oxygen is the key to combustion
Performance Evaluation

Stochiometric calculation of air

required
 Stochiometric air needed for combustion of furnace oil
 Theoretical CO2 content in the flue gases
 Actual CO2 content and % excess air
 Constituents of flue gas with excess air
 Theoretical CO2 and O2 in dry flue gas by volume
Performance Evaluation

Draft System
 To exhaust combustion products to
atmosphere
 Natural draft:
• Caused by weight difference between the hot gases
inside the chimney and outside air
• No fans or blowers are used

 Mechanical draft:
• Artificially produced by fans
• Three types a) balanced draft, b) induced draft and c)
forced draft
The crude oil refining process showing most of the major steps and processes.
 Fuels
•Internal Combustion engines can be
operated on different types of fuels such
as
Liquid Fuels
Gaseous Fuels
Solid Fuels
The design of the engine usually
depend upon the type of fuel used
 FUEL DELIVERY SYSTEM
• Creating and maintaining a correct air–fuel mixture requires a
properly functioning fuel and air delivery system.
• Fuel delivery (and return) systems use many if not all of the
following components to make certain that fuel is available under
the right conditions to the fuel-injection system:
– Fuel storage tank, filler neck, and gas cap
– Fuel tank pressure sensor
– Fuel pump
– Fuel filter(s)
– Fuel delivery lines and fuel rail
– Fuel-pressure regulator
– Fuel return line (if equipped with a return-type fuel delivery system)
• The basic fuel supply system in an automobile with petrol
engine consists of fuel tank, fuel line, fuel pump, fuel filter
, air cleaner, carburetor, inlet manifold and supply and ret
urn pipes.
• Following are the types of system which have been used f
or the supply of fuel from the fuel tank to engine cylinder
• Gravity system
• Pressure system
• Vacuum system
• Pump system
• Fuel injection system
 FUEL TANKS
• A vehicle fuel tank is made of corrosion-resistant
steel or polyethylene plastic.
• Some models, such as sport utility vehicles (SUVs)
and light trucks, may have an auxiliary fuel tank.
• Tank design and capacity are a compromise
between available space, filler location, fuel
expansion room, and fuel movement.
• Some later-model tanks deliberately limit tank
capacity by extending the filler tube neck into the
tank low enough to prevent complete filling, or
by providing for expansion room.
 FUEL TANKS

FIGURE 26–1 A typical fuel tank installation.

 FUEL TANKS
• Regardless of size and shape, all fuel tanks
incorporate most if not all of the following
features:
– Inlet or filler tube through which fuel enters the tank
– Filler cap with pressure holding and relief features
– An outlet to the fuel line leading to the fuel pump or
fuel injector
– Fuel pump mounted within the tank
– Tank vent system
– Fuel pickup tube and fuel level sending unit
 FUEL TANKS
• TANK LOCATION AND MOUNTING
• FILLER TUBES
• PRESSURE-VACUUM FILLER CAP
• FUEL PICKUP TUBE
• TANK VENTING REQUIREMENTS
 FUEL TANKS

FIGURE 26–2 A three-piece filler tube assembly.

 FUEL TANKS

FIGURE 26–3 A view of a typical filler tube with the fuel tank
removed. Notice the ground strap used to help prevent the
buildup of static electricity as the fuel flows into the plastic tank.
The check ball looks exactly like a ping-pong ball.
 FUEL TANKS

FIGURE 26–4 Vehicles equipped with onboard refueling vapor recovery usually have a
reduced-size fill tube.
FUEL TANKS

FIGURE 26–5 The fuel pickup tube is

part of the fuel sender and pump
assembly.
 ROLLOVER LEAKAGE PROTECTION

• All vehicles have one or more devices to

prevent fuel leaks in case of vehicle rollover or
a collision in which fuel may spill.
• Variations of the basic one-way check valve
may be installed in any number of places
between the fuel tank and the engine.
• The valve may be installed in the fuel return
line, vapor vent line, or fuel tank filler cap.
 ROLLOVER LEAKAGE PROTECTION

• In addition to the rollover protection devices,

some vehicles use devices to ensure that the fuel
pump shuts off when an accident occurs.
• Some pumps depend upon an oil pressure or an
engine speed signal to continue operating; these
pumps turn off whenever the engine dies.
• On some air vane sensors, a microswitch is built
into the sensor to switch on the fuel pump as
soon as intake airflow causes the vane to lift from
its rest position.
 ROLLOVER LEAKAGE PROTECTION

FIGURE 26–6 On some vehicles equipped with an airflow sensor, a switch is

used to energize the fuel pump. In the event of a collision, the switch opens
and the fuel flow stops.
 ROLLOVER LEAKAGE PROTECTION

FIGURE 26–7 Ford uses an inertia switch to turn off the electric fuel pump
in an accident.
 FUEL LINES
• Fuel and vapor lines made of steel, nylon tubing, or fuel-
resistant rubber hoses connect the parts of the fuel system.
• Fuel lines supply fuel to the throttle body or fuel rail.
• They also return excess fuel and vapors to the tank.
• Depending on their function, fuel and vapor lines may be
either rigid or flexible.
• Fuel lines must remain as cool as possible.
• If any part of the line is located near too much heat, the
gasoline passing through it vaporizes and vapor lock occurs.
• When this happens, the fuel pump supplies only vapor that
passes into the injectors.
• Without liquid gasoline, the engine stalls and a hot restart
problem develops.
 FUEL LINES
• RIGID LINES
• FLEXIBLE LINES
• FUEL LINE MOUNTING
• FUEL-INJECTION LINES AND CLAMPS
• FUEL-INJECTION FITTINGS AND NYLON LINES
• FUEL LINE LAYOUT
 FUEL LINES

FIGURE 26–8 Fuel lines are routed along the frame or body and
secured with clips.
 FUEL LINES

FIGURE 26–9 Some Ford metal line connections use springlocks and
O-rings.
FUEL LINES

FIGURE 26–10 Ford spring-lock connectors

require a special tool for disassembly.
 FUEL LINES

FIGURE 26–11 Typical quick-connect steps.

 MECHANICAL FUEL PUMPS
• Operates off eccentric on camshaft.
• Return spring keeps fuel pump arm in contact
with camshaft.
• Two check valves
– Inlet
– Outlet
• Diaphragm spring determines fuel pressure.
FUEL PUMP OPERATION
 ELECTRIC FUEL PUMPS
• The electric fuel pump is a pusher unit.
• When the pump is mounted in the tank, the
entire fuel supply line to the engine can be
pressurized.
• Because the fuel, when pressurized, has a
higher boiling point, it is unlikely that vapor
will form to interfere with fuel flow.
• Most vehicles use the impeller or turbine
pumps.
ELECTRIC FUEL PUMPS

FIGURE 26–12 A roller cell-type

electric fuel pump.
 ELECTRIC FUEL PUMPS
• POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMP
• HYDROKINETIC FLOW PUMP DESIGN
• MODULAR FUEL SENDER ASSEMBLY
• ELECTRIC PUMP CONTROL CIRCUITS
– CHRYSLER
– GENERAL MOTORS
– FORD
• PUMP PULSATION DAMPENING
• VARIABLE SPEED PUMPS
ELECTRIC FUEL PUMPS

FIGURE 26–13 The pumping action of an impeller or rotary vane pump.

 ELECTRIC FUEL PUMPS

FIGURE 26–14 An exploded view of a gerotor electric fuel pump.

 ELECTRIC FUEL PUMPS

FIGURE 26–15 A cutaway view of a typical two-stage turbine electric fuel pump.
ELECTRIC FUEL PUMPS

FIGURE 26–18 A typical fuel pulsator used

mostly with roller vane-type pumps to
help even out the pulsation in pressure
that can cause noise.
 FUEL FILTERS
• Despite the care generally taken in refining,
storing, and delivering gasoline, some
impurities get into the automotive fuel
system.
• Fuel filters remove dirt, rust, water, and other
contamination from the gasoline before it can
reach the fuel injectors.
• Most fuel filters are designed to filter particles
that are 10 to 20 microns or larger in size.
 FUEL FILTERS
• In addition to using several
different types of fuel filters,
a single fuel system may
contain two or more filters.
• The inline filter is located in
the line between the fuel
pump and the throttle body
or fuel rail.

FIGURE 26–19 Inline fuel filters are usually attached to

the fuel line with screw clamps or threaded
connections. The fuel filter must be installed in the
proper direction or a restricted fuel flow can result.
Be Sure That the Fuel Filter Is Installed Correctly

• The fuel filter has flow direction and if it is installed

backwards, the vehicle will most likely have a restricted
exhaust (low power at higher engine speeds and loads).
• All injectors, throttle body or port, are fitted with one or
more filter screens or strainers to remove any particles
(generally 10 microns or 0.00039 in.) that might have
passed through the other filters. These screens, which
surround the fuel inlet, are on the side of throttle-body
injectors and are inserted in the top of port injectors.
Be Sure That the Fuel Filter Is Installed Correctly

FIGURE 26–20 The final filter, also

called a filter basket, is the last
filter in the fuel system.
 FUEL-PUMP TESTING
• Fuel-pump testing includes many different
tests and procedures.
• Even though a fuel pump can pass one test, it
does not mean that there is not a fuel-pump
problem.
– For example, if the pump motor is rotating slower
than normal, it may be able to produce the
specified pressure, but not enough volume to
meet the needs of the engine while operating
under a heavy load.
 FUEL-PUMP TESTING
• TESTING FUEL-PUMP PRESSURE
• REST PRESSURE TEST
• DYNAMIC PRESSURE TEST
• TESTING FUEL-PUMP VOLUME
 The Ear Test

• No, this is not a test of your hearing, but

rather using your ear to check that the
electric fuel pump is operating. The electric
fuel pump inside the fuel tank is often
difficult to hear running, especially in a
noisy shop environment. A commonly used
trick to better hear the pump is to use a
funnel in the fuel filter neck.
 The Ear Test

FIGURE 26–21 (a) A funnel helps in hearing if the electric fuel pump inside the gas tank is working. (b) If the
pump is not running, check the wiring and current flow before going through the process of dropping the fuel
tank to remove the pump.
 FUEL-PUMP TESTING

FIGURE 26–22 The Schrader valve on this General Motors 3800 V-6 is
located next to the fuel-pressure regulator.
 The Rubber Mallet Trick

• Often a no-start condition is due to an

inoperative electric fuel pump. A common
trick is to tap on the bottom of the fuel
tank with a rubber mallet in an attempt to
jar the pump motor enough to work.
Instead of pushing a vehicle into the shop,
simply tap on the fuel tank and attempt to
start the engine. This is not a repair, but
rather a confirmation that the fuel pump
does indeed require replacement.
FUEL-PUMP TESTING

FIGURE 26–23 The fuel system

should hold pressure if the system is
leak free.
FUEL-PUMP TESTING

FIGURE 26–24 If the vacuum hose is removed

from the fuelpressure regulator when the engine
is running, the fuel pressure should increase. If it
does not increase, then the fuel pump is not
capable of supplying adequate pressure or the
fuel-pressure regulator is defective. If gasoline is
visible in the vacuum hose, the regulator is
leaking and should be replaced.
 The Fuel-Pressure Stethoscope Test

• When the fuel pump is energized and the

engine is not running, fuel should be heard
flowing back to the fuel tank at the outlet
of the fuel-pressure regulator. If fuel is
heard flowing through the return line, the
fuel-pump pressure is higher than the
regulator pressure. If no sound of fuel is
heard, either the fuel pump or the fuel-
pressure regulator is at fault.
The Fuel-Pressure Stethoscope Test

FIGURE 26–25 Fuel should be heard

returning to the fuel tank at the fuel
return line if the fuel pump and fuel-
pressure regulator are functioning
correctly.
FUEL-PUMP TESTING

FIGURE 26–26 A fuel-pressure reading

does not confirm that there is enough
fuel volume for the engine to operate
correctly.
 FUEL-PUMP TESTING

FIGURE 26–27 A fuel system tester connected in series in the fuel system
so all of the fuel used flows through the meter which displays the rate-of-
flow and the fuel pressure.
 FUEL-PUMP CURRENT DRAW
TEST
• Another test that can and
should be performed on a
fuel pump is to measure the
current draw in amperes.
• This test is most often
performed by connecting a
digital multimeter set to read
DC amperes and test the
current draw.

FIGURE 26–29 Hookup for testing fuel-

pump current draw on any vehicle
equipped with a fuel-pump relay.
FUEL-PUMP CURRENT DRAW TEST
 FUEL-PUMP REPLACEMENT
• The following recommendations should be
followed whenever replacing an electric fuel
pump:
– The fuel-pump strainer (sock) should be replaced with
the new pump.
– If the original pump had a defector shield, it should
always be used to prevent fuel return bubbles from
blocking the inlet to the pump.
– Always check the interior of the fuel tank for evidence
of contamination or dirt.
– Double-check that the replacement pump is correct
for the application.
– Check that the wiring and electrical connectors are
clean and tight.
FUEL-PUMP REPLACEMENT
Fuel System Fundamentals
 Fuel System
• Fuel delivery system components
– Storage tank
– Pump
– Pressure regulator
– Filters
– Fuel lines
– Hoses
• Fuel induction system
– Provides correct mixture of burnable air-fuel mixture
 Fuel Tanks
• Fuel tanks:
– Corrosive-resistant galvanized steel or plastic
– Baffle prevents fuel sloshing in tank
– Fuel pickup tube is installed through a hole in
bottom of tank
– Cluster assembly includes pickup tube, fuel gauge,
fuel pump
– In-tank filter is installed at end of pickup tube
– Tank has expansion and overfill protection
 Fuel Lines, Hoses, and Fittings
• Steel lines made of seamless tubing
– Run the length of the frame
– Transport fuel from tank to engine
• Hoses
– Used for flexible connections
 Fuel Pumps
• Fuel from pump flows in a fuel rail loop between
engine and fuel tank
– Pressure regulator controls system pressure
• Electric fuel pump has one-way check valve that
maintains pressure when engine is off
– Submerged in well of fuel so cannot spark
• Fuel pump electrical circuit
– Electric fuel pumps on modern vehicles: computer
controlled
• Remain on when engine is cranking or running
 Fuel Filters
• Located in fuel line or tank
– Outlet filters: installed on outlet side of fuel pump
• Fuel injection systems
– Require large, heavy-duty filters
• Filter out smaller particles of dirt while allowing pump
to supply fuel
 Fuel Injection and Carburetion
• Atomization: fuel suspended in air in tiny
drops
• Vaporization: atomized fuel turns into gas
• Modern vehicles use fuel injections
– Older vehicles use carburetors
• Atomize air and fuel
• Mounted on top of intake manifold
• Venturi restricts airflow
• Fuel is drawn into stream of air flowing through the
carburetor
 Fuel Injection and Carburetion
(cont'd.)
• Airflow is changed by opening the throttle plate
– Butterfly valve in bottom of carburetor
– Opens when accelerator depressed
• Float circuit:
• Main jet: provides opening to meter fuel amount
• Idle port: allows a small amount of air and fuel to be
metered into the intake manifold
• Accelerator pump: provides extra fuel when car is
accelerated quickly
• Power valve: allows extra fuel to bypass main jet
• Choke: restricts incoming air
The carburetor
• The principles of carburetion are presented so
you may better understand the inner workings
of a carburetor and how the other components
of the fuel system function to provide a
combustible mixture or air and fuel to the
engine cylinders.
• EVAPORATION
is the changing of a liquid to a vapor.

*The rate of evaporation is dependent on the following

1- TEMPERATURE.
2- ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
3- VOLATILITY.
4- ATOMIZATION
 1-TEMPERATURE.

The rate of movement of the molecules increase

with temperature. Because of this, the amount of
molecules leaving the liquid for a given time will
increase, as the temperature increases.
 2-ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
As atmospheric pressure increases, the
amount of air molecules present over the
liquid also increases. The increased presence
of air molecules will slow the rate of
evaporation. This is because the molecules of
liquid will have more air molecules to collide
with. In many cases, they will fall back into
the liquid after the collision
 3-VOLATILITY.
• The term volatility refers to how fast a
liquid vaporizes. Some liquid vaporizes
easily at room temperature. Alcohol, for
instance, vaporizes more easily than water.
A highly volatile liquid is one that is
considered to evaporate easily.
 4-ATOMIZATION

• Atomization is the process of

breaking up a liquid into tiny
particles or droplets.
• When a liquid is atomized, the
droplets are all exposed
individually to the air.
• For this reason, atomization
greatly increases evaporation by
increasing the exposed surface area
of the liquid.
• A carburetor is basically a device for mixing air
and fuel in the correct amounts for efficient
combustion. The carburetor bolts to the engine
intake manifold. The air cleaner fits over the
top of the carburetor to trap dust and dirt.
Basic carburetor consists of the following
parts
1-Carburetor body
2-Air horn
3-Throttle valve
4-Ventur
5-Main discharge tube
6-Fuel bowl
1-Carburetor body
 2-Air horn
• The air horn is also called the throat or barrel.
The parts which often fasten to the air horn body
are as follows: the choke, the hot idle
compensator, the fast idle linkage rod, the choke
vacuum break, and sometimes the float and
pump mechanisms.
 3-Throttle valve

• This disc-shaped valve

controls air flow through
the air horn.

• When closed, it restricts

the flow of air and fuel into
the engine, and when
opened, air flow, fuel flow,
and engine power increase.
 4-Ventur
• The venturi produces
sufficient suction to
pull fuel out of the
main discharge tube
 5-Main discharge tube

• The main discharge tube

is also called the main fuel
nozzle

 It is a passage that
connects the fuel bowl to
the center of the venturi.
 6-Fuel bowl

• The fuel bowl holds

a supply of fuel that
is NOT under fuel
pump pressure
The seven basic carburetor systems are
the following:

1. Float system
2. Idle system
3. Off idle system
4. Acceleration system
5. High-speed system
6. Full-power system
7. Choke System
Float system
• The float system maintains a steady working
supply of gasoline at a constant level in the
carburetor. This action is critical to the proper
operation of the carburetor. Since the
carburetor uses differences in pressure to force
fuel into the air horn,
The float system keeps the fuel pump from
forcing too much gasoline into the carburetor
bowl
An excessively high float level will cause fuel
to flow too freely from the discharge tube,
causing an overly rich mixture

whereas an excessively low float level will

cause an overly lean mixture
The basic parts of the float system are
the fuel bowl, the float, the needle
valve, the needle seat, the bowl vent
 The carburetor float rides on top of the fuel in the
fuel bowl to open and close the needle valve.
 It is normally made of thin brass or plastic. One
end of the float is hinged to the side of the
carburetor body and the other end is free to swing
up and down.
* The needle valve is usually made of brass
Idle system
 Off idle system
• The off idle, also known as the part throttle, feeds
more fuel into the air horn when the throttle plate is
partially open. It is an extension of the idle system. It
functions above approximately 800 rpm.
• Without the off idle system, the fuel mixture would
become too lean slightly above idle. The idle system
alone is not capable of supplying enough fuel to the
air stream passing through the carburetor. The off idle
system helps supply fuel during the change from idle
to high speed.
 Acceleration system
The carburetor acceleration system, like the off idle system,
provides extra fuel when changing from the idle system to
the high-speed system. The acceleration system squirts a
stream of fuel into the air horn when the fuel pedal is
pressed and the throttle plates swing open.
Without the acceleration system, too much fuel would rush
into the engine, as the throttle quickly opened. The mixture
would become too lean for combustion and the engine
would stall or hesitate. The acceleration system prevents a
lean air-fuel mixture from upsetting a smooth increase in
engine speed.
 High-Speed System
The, high-speed system, also called the main
metering system, supplies the engine air-fuel
mixture at normal cruising speeds.
This system begins to function when the throttle
plate is opened wide enough for the venturi action.
Air flow through the carburetor must be relatively
high for venturi vacuum to draw fuel out of the
main discharge tube.
The high-speed system provides the leanest, most
fuel efficient air-fuel ratio. It functions from about
20 to 55 mph or 2,000 to 3,000 rpm.
 Full-Power System
The full-power system provides a means of
enriching the fuel mixture for high-speed, high-
power conditions.
This system operates, for example, when the driver
presses the fuel pedal to pass another vehicle or to
climb a steep hill.
The full-power system is an addition to the high-
speed system. Either a metering rod or a power
valve (jet) can be used to provide variable, high-
speed air-fuel ratio.
 Choke System

When the engine is cold, the fuel tends to condense

into large drops in the manifold, rather than
vaporizing. By supplying a richer mixture (8:1 to
9:1), there will be enough vapor to assure complete
combustion.
The carburetor is fitted with a choke system to provide
this richer mixture.
The choke system provides a very rich mixture to start
the engine and to make the mixture less rich
gradually, as the engine reaches operating
temperature. The two types of choke systems are the
manual and automatic
 COMPUTER-CONTROLLED
CARBURETORS
A computer-controlled carburetor uses a solenoid-
operated valve to respond to commands from
the microcomputer (electronic control unit). The
system uses various sensors to send information
to the computer that calculates how rich or lean
to set the carburetor air-fuel mixture.
The system is also known as a computer
controlled emission system which consists of the
following: oxygen sensor, temperature sensor,
pressure sensor, electromechanical carburetor,
mixture control solenoid, computer, and idle
speed actuator
1-The oxygen sensor, or exhaust gas sensor, monitors
the oxygen content in the engine exhaust

2-The temperature sensor detects the operating

temperature of the engine

3-The manifold pressure sensor (MAP) measures intake

manifold vacuum and engine load.

4-The computer, also called the electronic control unit

(ECU), uses sensor information to operate the
mixture control solenoid of the carburetor
 CARBURETOR TROUBLES
1-EXCESSIVE FUEL CONSUMPTION
2-A SLUGGISH ENGINE
3-POOR IDLING
4-FAILURE OF THE ENGINE TO START
5-HARD STARTING OF A WARM ENGINE
6-SLOW ENGINE WARM-UP
7-A BACKFIRING ENGINE
CARBURETOR ACCESSORIES
There are several devices used on carburetors to
improve drivability and economy.
These devices are as follows:
The fast idle solenoid, the throttle return
dashpot, the hot idle compensator, and the
altitude compensator. Their applications vary
from vehicle to vehicle
 Overview

• Purpose of Carburetor

• Types of Carburetors

• Gas, Oil, & Air

 The “BIG” Picture
• One of the “Big 3” systems
– Ignition

– Compression

– Carburetion
 Purpose of the Carburetor
• One main purpose...

• Secondary Purposes & Requirements

 Carburetor Theory
• Atmospheric Pressure
– a constant downward force of air on the Earth

– usually varies between 13 and 15 lbs per sq. in.

– areas of low pressure must be created in the

carburetor to create air flow
 Carburetor Theory (con’t)
• Airfoil

low pressure

airfoil

high pressure
 Carburetor Theory (con’t)
• All carburetors work basically the same:
– As piston moves from TDC to BDC on the intake
stroke, the intake valve opens, air is “sucked”
through the air cleaner into the airhorn and . . .
– Venturi creates an area of low pressure that draws
fuel from the fuel supply through the main
discharge nozzle.
• Venturi also causes the air flow to rapidly accelerate--
thus vaporizing and mixing air and fuel together very
efficiently.
 Carburetor Theory (con’t)
• Because the main discharge nozzle is extended into the
airstream, an airfoil is also created, further lowering the
pressure “above” the nozzle.

– If an engine ran at only one speed under ideal

conditions, the story of carburetion would end
here.
 Carburetor Theory (con’t)
– The carburetor must be able to adjust the air/fuel
mixture to the conditions presented.
– It must run smoothly and economically at widely
varying speeds.

– Richer mixture--more gas added to mixture.

– Leaner mixture--less gas added to mixture.
• To make these adjustments, a threaded needle valve is
added at the bottom of the main discharge nozzle.
– This regulates the amount of fuel that gets to the venturi
 Carburetor Theory (con’t)
• To further regulate the mixture, two “air regulators” or
butterfly valves are also added:
– These restrict the amount of air flow through the carburetor--
either manually or automatically.
» This action decreases the power and speed and the
richness of the mixture within the engine.

– Throttle valves restrict air movement at all speeds and are

generally manually controlled.
– Choke valves restrict air movement at start-up to allow for a
richer mixture and can be manually or automatically engaged.
 Carburetor Theory (con’t)
– To further regulate the air/fuel mixture at lower
speeds, another threaded needle valve is added.
• This allows the engine to run smoothly and
economically at very low speeds by allowing a slight bit
of fuel to slip past the throttle valve.
 Types of Carburetors
• Gravity Feed
– called a “Flo-Jet” by Briggs & Stratton
• Vacuum Feed
– called “Vacu-Jet”
• Pulse Feed
– called “Pulsa-Jet”
 Flo-Jet Carburetors
• Gravity feed system

• fuel flows by gravity to the carburetor

• gas tank must have a vent hole to provide atmospheric
pressure to “push” fuel to carburetor

• The float is found in the bowl.

– As fuel flows into the bowl, it raises and lowers the float.
 Flo-Jet Carburetors (con’t)
• The float is attached to a needle valve.
– The needle, along with its seat, work together to turn on and
off fuel flow to the main discharge nozzle.
• Float level
– should be high enough to allow an ample supply of fuel at full
throttle, yet remain low enough to prevent flooding and/or
leaking.
– should be set at 5/16 of an inch on our engines.
 Vacu-Jet Carburetors
• Fuel tank is below the carburetor

• Again, atmospheric pressure is employed to help

get the fuel to the carburetor.
– Air pushes down on the fuel in the tank, when the piston
starts downward on the intake stroke, it creates an area
of pressure that is lower than that of the atmospheric
pressure. This causes the fuel to rise through the pickup
tube and travel toward the main discharge nozzle.
 Vacu-Jet Carburetors (con’t)
– Vacu-Jet carburetors require a richer mixture
setting because the fuel system “lags” behind the
fuel requirements of the engine at the high speeds
that most small engines run at.
–
• As the throttle closes to idle, the leading edge takes a
position between 2 different sized discharge holes that
are found on the main discharge nozzle.
• The larger of the holes now becomes an area of high air
pressure and the flow of fuel ceases.
 Vacu-Jet Carburetors (con’t)
– The smaller hole now becomes an area of lower pressure and
fuel continues to flow--just enough for the engine to idle.
– Choke valve is also different:

• There are many problems with this choke system

including sticking open and closed, especially when
remotely controlled.
 Pulsa-Jet Carburetors
• Only “true” fuel system
– contains a diaphragm type fuel pump and a
“constant level” fuel chamber
• Newest design of carburetors for small
engines
– can obtain just as much (or more) horsepower as
older, more complicated float-type carburetors
• This is due to the fact that it provides a constant fuel
level directly below the venturi
– very little “lift” is needed to get the fuel to the carburetor
Pulsa-Jet Carburetors (con’t)
– The venturi can be made larger, allowing more air/fuel
mixture into the engine allowing an increase in horsepower
within the same sized engine.
 Carburetor Adjustments
• Adjustment of the needle valve for maximum
power

• Causes overheating, early or late detonation, and short valve

life
• No accelerator pump in Flo-Jet and Vacu-Jet models so
engine will “kill” if throttle is opened suddenly.

• “Floods” the engine causing “raw” fuel into the combustion

chamber (cylinder).
– dilutes the crankcase oil washing away the film on the cylinder
wall causing “scuffing”and lost compression.
 Carburetor Adjustments (con’t)
• Throttle Adjustment
– To adjust for maximum power and efficiency:

– This indicates a lean mixture.

– This indicates a rich mixture.

Carburetor Adjustments (con’t)
• Slowly turn the main needle valve back clockwise to a
point midway between the 2 readings

• This method can also be used to set the maximum

speed the engine will run by first opening the throttle
all the way.
 Carburetor Adjustments (con’t)
• Idle Speed Adjustment
– Very similar to Throttle Adjustment

• IS NOT necessarily the slowest speed at which the

engine will run.
– Can be any speed you choose
Carburetor Adjustments (con’t)
• Again, turn the screw in (clockwise) until the engine
speed decreases.
– Lean mixture

• Turn the screw out (counter-clockwise) until the speed

increases and again decreases
– Rich mixture

• Usually, the idle adjustment needs to be reset with

each new application of the engine.
 Gas, Oil, & Air
• Gas--
– use fresh, clean, unleaded gasoline with a
minimum of 77 octane
• In Minnesota, the minimum octane allowed by law is
87.
• Purchase an amount that can be used up within 30
days.
• Ethanol an/or methanol is fine to use in today’s small
engines.
 Gas, Oil, & Air (con’t)
• Oil--

• Detergent oils keep the engine free of gum and varnish

deposits and generally keep the engine cleaner.
• No other additives should be used in the oil.
 Gas, Oil, & Air (con’t)
• Air--
– Clean air is an extremely important part of the
carburetion system.

• New technologies in foam materials make these air

cleaners somewhat obsolete.
 Fuel Supply to S. I. Engines(Carburetion)
 In petrol engine, the air and fuel is mixed outside the engine
and partly evaporated mixture is supplied to the engine.

 The fuels such as petrol, benzol, and alcohol used in S.I.

engine vaporises easily if injected in the flow of air, therefore,
the engine suction is sufficient to create the air flow and fuel
injected easily evaporates.

 The oil fuels which are used in C.I. engines do not vaporises
easily. Therefore a separate injection system is used.
 Fuel Supply to S. I. Engines(Carburetion)

The vaporisation process of the fuel in the

current of air depends mainly upon,
The physical properties of fuel,
The temperature of incoming air in the intake
manifold,
The pressure difference causing the flow of
fuel in the air,
Design of intake manifold,and
Time available for evaporation
 Fuel Supply to S. I. Engines(Carburetion)
 During the suction, the air is sucked as vacuum is
created inside the engine cylinder.

 The fuel is injected in the air from the carburettor

and a mixture is supplied to the engine cylinder.

 It is desirable to have a complete vaporised mixture

in the engine cylinder but some of the larger droplet
may reach the cylinder in the form of liquid and they
are mixed and vaporised during compression stroke.
 Fuel Supply to S. I. Engines(Carburetion)
 The time available for atomization, mixing and vaporisation is
to small.(0.02 second when engine running at 3000 RPM )

 The design of the system becomes more difficult.

 Temperature is one of the factors which accelerates

vaporisation but this would reduce the power output due to
reduction in mass flow.

 The design of carburettor is difficult and complicated as the

requirements by the engine for A:F ratio vary from 1:1 to 15:1
under different operating conditions.
 Mixture Requirements
 Engine induction and fuel system must prepare a fuel-
air mixture that satisfies the requirements of the
engine over its entire operating regime.

 Optimum air-fuel ratio for an SI engine is that which

gives
(1)Required power output
(2)With lowest fuel consumption
(3)Consistent with smooth and reliable operation
 Mixture Requirements (Continued)
The constraints of emissions may dictate a
different air-fuel ratio and also require
recycling some exhaust gas.(EGR)

Relative proportions of fuel and air that give

the above requirements depend on engine
speed and load.

Mixture strength is given in terms of air-fuel

or fuel-air ratio or equivalence ratio.
 Mixture Requirements (Continued)
 Mixture requirements are different for full load
(wide-open throttle ( WOT) and for part-load
operation.

 At full load, complete utilization of inducted air to

obtain maximum power for a given displaced volume
is the critical issue.

 At part-load at a given speed, efficient utilization of

fuel is the critical issue.
 Mixture Requirements (Continued)
 At part-load (or part-throttle) it is advantageous to dilute the
fuel-air mixture with excess air or with recycled exhaust gas.
This dilution improves fuel conversion efficiency for three
reasons:
1. The expansion stroke work is increased for a given expansion
ratio due to the change in thermodynamic properties,

2. For a given mean effective pressure, the intake pressure

increases with increasing dilution, so pumping work
decreases,

3. Heat losses to the walls are reduced because the burned gas
temperatures are lower.
In the absence of strict NOx emission control, excess air is the
obvious diluent at part load and the engine runs lean.
 Requirements with emission control
 For control of NO, HC and CO, operating the engine with
stoichiometric mixture is advantageous so that a three-way
catalyst can be used for emission control. In such a case, for
further decrease in NO the diluent used is EGR.
 Amount used will depend on the EGR tolerance of the engine
at a given speed and load based on the details of the engine
combustion process.
 Increasing excess air or EGR will slow down the combustion
process and increase combustion variability so as load
decreases, less dilution must be provided and at idle, no EGR
may be used and mixture will have to be made rich.
 What is carburetion?
 The process of formation of a combustible fuel-air mixture by
mixing the proper amount of fuel with air before it is admitted
into the engine cylinder.

 It is the process of preparing air-fuel mixture in S.I. engine

outside the engine cylinder.

 The device used for this purpose is known as Carburettor.

 Comes from the words “car” and “burette” because the

carburetor “meters” the appropriate quantity of liquid fuel
(like a burette) and mixed it with air before sending the
mixture into the engine cylinder.
 Factors affecting Carburetion
1. Engine speed. In a 4-stroke engine running at 3000 rev/min,
the intake will take about 10 ms during which the fuel has
to evaporate, mix with air and be inducted into the engine.

2. Vaporization characteristics of the fuel. Will require a

volatile fuel for quick evaporation and mixing with air.

3. The temperature of the in coming air. Must be high enough

to be able to evaporate the fuel and yet not too high as to
reduce mass of fresh charge.

4. Design of the carburetor. This will help in proper

introduction of fuel into the air stream and provide proper
distribution of the mixture to the various cylinders.
Essential Parts of Modern Carburetor
(i) Float Chamber
(ii) Strainer
(iii) Throttle
(iv) Choke
(v) Metering system
(vi) Idling system
(vii) Acceleration system
(viii)Economizer system
 (i) Float Chamber
• The function of float chamber in a carburettor
is to supply the fuel to the nozzle at a constant
pressure head.
 (ii) The fuel Strainer
• To prevent possible blockage of the nozzle by
dust particles, the gasoline is filtered by
installing a fuel strainer at the inlet to the float
chamber.
 (iii)Throttle
• The speed and the output of an engine is
controlled by the use of the throttle valve,
which is located on the downstream side of
the venturi.
 (iv)Choke
• A rich mixture is required to start the engine,
specially when the engine is cold.
• To provide this rich mixture a choke valve is inserted
in the air intake passage of the carburetor.
• During starting, this valve is operated to shut off
partially the the supply of air to the carburettor, thus
enriching the mixture supplied to the cylinders by
the carburettor.
• These choke valves are operated automatically by
thermostats in most passenger car carburettor.
 (v) Metering system
• The metering system of the carburettor controls the fuel feed
for cruising and full throttle operations.
• It consist of three principal units:
1) The main metering jet through which fuel is drawn from the
float chamber.
2) The main discharge nozzle
3) The passage leading to the idling system.
Function:
i) To proportion the fuel air mixture.
ii) To decrease the pressure at the discharge nozzle.
iii) To limit the air flow at full throttle.
 (vi)Idling system

• Motor vehicle engines require a rich mixture

for idling and low speed operation, usually
about 12 parts of air by weight to one part of
fuel (12:1 air-fuel ratio).
• To supply this mixture during idling, most
modern carburettors incorporate in their
construction a special idling system consisting
of an idling fuel passage and idling ports.
 (vii) Accelerating system

• The function of an accelerating system is to discharge

an additional quantity of fuel into the carburettor air
stream when the throttle is suddenly opened thus
causing a temporary enrichment of the mixture and
producing smooth and positive acceleration of the
vehicle.
 (viii)Economizer system

• An economizer is a valve which remains closed

at normal operation but is opened to provide
an enriched mixture at full throttle operation.
• It supplies and regulates the additional fuel
required for above the cruising range.
• In other words, an economizer is a device for
enriching the mixture at incresed throttle
opening.
 Different Modern carburetors
Self study Assignments
1) Zenith Carburettor
2) Solex carburettor
3) Carter carburettor
4) S.U. carburettor
 Zenith Carburettor
• This is the oldest and universally used in all types of automobile engines
some 25 years before.
 Solex carburettor
• It is most common type of carburetor which is used in Fiat and standard
cars.
• It is famous for easy starting, good performance and reliability.
• This is also provided with basic jets required for starting and normal
running.
• In addition to this, it is also provided with separate idling jet and
accelerating jet.
 Carter carburettor
• This carburettor is an American make and
generally used in jeeps.
 S.U. carburettor
• It is used in many British cars and was used in
Ambassador car in India.
• The unique feature of S.U. carburettor is that it has
only one jet.
• There is no separate idling or compensating jet.
• Since a constant high velocity across the jet is
maintained even under ideal condition, there is no
necessity to provide a separate idling jet.
 Fuel Injection and Carburetion
(cont'd.)
• Feedback carburetors
– Meter fuel according to how much oxygen is
sensed by an oxygen sensor in engine’s exhaust
• Fuel injection operation
– Fuel injection provides a better means of
controlling exhaust emissions and fuel economy
• Fuel injection system designs
– Many types
 Fuel Injection and Carburetion
(cont'd.)
• Types of fuel injection systems
– Electronic
– Mechanical
– Throttle-body injection (TBI)
– Central fuel injection (CFI)
– Port injection
– Sequential fuel injection
– Multiport fuel injection (MFI)
– Central multiport fuel injection (CMFI)
 Fuel Injection and Carburetion
(cont'd.)
• Port fuel injection systems
• Sequential fuel injection (SFI)
– Opens each injector just before its intake valve
opens
– Each injector has its own computer connection
– Computer completes the ground for each injector
in sequence
 Pressure Regulator Operation
• Fuel pressure regulator
– Controls systems maximum pressure
• Port injectors
– Exposed to intake manifold vacuum
• Return less fuel systems
– Have one fuel line between fuel pump and fuel rail
to injectors
• Excess fuel returns to tank by way of regulator in fuel
gauge sending unit
 Electronic Fuel System Operation
• Fuel injectors
– Electromagnetic solenoid controlled nozzles
– Each is supplied with power when ignition is on
– Computer controls the ground or power to
complete the circuit
• Injector plunger is pulled against spring tension by
magnetic field
– Thermal time switch limits the maximum time the
injector can operate
 Airflow Measurement
• Different ways of determining amount of air
flowing into the engine
– Speed density systems use Manifold Absolute
Pressure sensor (MAP) sensor and engine rpm to
calculate air entering engine
– Airflow density sensors have a sensor that
measures volume of air
• Vane-type mass airflow (MAF) sensor
• Heated resistor MAF sensor
• Hot wire MAF sensor
 Idle Speed Control
• Idle speed is raised to compensate for cold
engine or extra load
– Raised by allowing more air to bypass throttle plate
• Auxiliary air valve, air by-pass valve, or idle speed control
motor
– Sensors: throttle position, coolant temperature, air
charge temperature
• Drive-by-wire throttle bodies
– Used in many newer vehicles
• No throttle linkage is required
 Fuel Pump Control Module
• Provides power to fuel pump
– Uses power transistors
• Like the ones used to control current flow to an air
conditioner blower
– Power is sent through power transistors in a
separate fuel pump driver module
Computer-Controlled Fuel Systems
• Computers meter fuel precisely
• Powertrain control module (PCM)
– Controls engine performance
• Includes fuel system
• Automotive ignition and electronics
 Feedback Fuel Systems
• Computer system components
– Computer, sensors, and actuators
• Engines with computer feedback
– Have oxygen sensor in exhaust manifold
• Feedback fuel system
– Computer makes corrective changes to air-fuel
mixture
• Feedback carburetors
– Used on older cars
 Feedback Fuel Systems (cont'd.)
• Open loop
– Computer does not control the air-fuel mixture
• Oxygen sensor operates at 600°F
• Closed loop
– Occurs when engine reaches operating
temperature and computer acts on information
 Feedback Fuel Systems (cont'd.)
• Wide range oxygen sensor
– Accurately detect air-fuel ratios over wider range
– Two nested zirconia sensors
• Energy difference determines air-fuel ratio
– PCM maintains O2 sensor output at constant
voltage
– Outside sensor measures exhaust oxygen
– Inside sensor samples outside air
 Feedback Fuel Systems (cont'd.)
• Diesel direct injection
– Common rail connects injectors with diesel fuel under
high pressure
• Atomizes diesel, mixing it with air
• Gasoline direct injection systems
– Gasoline is injected directly into combustion chamber
• Runs the engine with a lean mixture
• Increases fuel economy by as much as 30%
• Reduces exhaust emissions
• Require EGR valve to control NOX emissions
FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM
OPERATION
 FUEL INJECTION TYPES
• THROTTLE BODY INJECTION (TBI)
– INJECTED ABOVE THROTTLE PLATES
– SINGLE INJECTOR
• CENTRAL PORT INJECTION (CFI)
– INJECTED ABOVE THROTTLE PLATES
– USUALLY MORE THAN ONE INJECTOR
• PORT FUEL INJECTION (PFI)
– INJECTORS IN INTAKE RUNNERS
 TBI UNIT
(SOMETIMES CALLED CFI)

• FIRST STEP FROM

CARBURETORS
• SOME CARBURETTOR
CHARACTERISTICS
• LOW PRESSURE
• MOVEABLE PINTLE
• PRESSURE IS
FIG 6-40 CLASS
REGULATED
• SERVICEABLE
LOW PRESSURE SYSTEM
FUEL INLET AND OUTLET
LOW PRESSURE FUEL INJECTOR
• 13-16 PSI
• TWO O-RINGS
• BALL PINTLE
• USED ON TBI AND CFI
SYSTEMS
• MESH SCREEN
• EASY TO REPLACE
 • INJECTS AT EACH
CYLINDER
PORT FUEL • HIGHER PRESSURE
INJECTION • FED OFF OF FUEL RAIL
• MORE EFFICIENT
OPERATION
• MODES
– MULTI-PORT
– SEQUENTIAL
PORT FUEL INJECTION
 CENTRAL POINT INJECTION
• GM SYSTEM
• INJECTOR LOCATED IN
LOWER HALF OF INTAKE
MANIFOLD
• POPPET VALVES
• HIGH PRESSURE 60 PSI
 CONTINUOUS
INJECTION

• SPRAYS ALL THE TIME

• MIXTURE CONTROL UNIT
• FUEL DISTRIBUTOR
• CONTROL PRESSURE REGULATOR
FUEL PRESSURE REGULATOR

• Used on TBI systems

• Provides constant fuel
supply
• Fuel pressure on one
side
• Fuel pressure opens
regulator under a
certain pressure.
• Spring is calibrated
INJECTION SYSTEM SERVICE
 SYSTEM CHECKS
• ADEQUATE AIR SUPPLY
• PRESSURIZED FUEL SUPPLY
• ADEQUATE TRIGGER SIGNAL
• NO VACUUM LEAKS
• GOOD IGNITION SYSTEM
• GOOD ENGINE MECHANICAL
• GOOD FUEL QUALITY
• PCM OPERATION
FUEL DELIVERY
• Fuel Pump noises
• Does fuel pump run at
all?
• Fuel filter condition?
• Connections to fuel
pump
 COMPONENT CHECKS
• AIR INDUCTION
• AIR FLOW SENSORS
• THROTTLE BODY
• FUEL SYSTEM CHECKS
• FUEL DELIVERY
• INJECTOR CHECKS
• INJECTOR CLEANING
6-61 LAB
 INJECTOR TESTS
• ELECTRICAL OPERATION
– VOLTAGE SIGNALS
– SCOPE TESTING
• MECHANICIAL OPERATION
– PINTLE OPERATION
– BALANCE TEST
– FLOW
FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS

247
 Types of Fuel Injection Systems

• Port fuel injection. (PFI/MPFI)

• Throttle Body Fuel Injection. (TBI)
• Mechanical or Continuous Injection
System (CIS)injection system.
• 1958 Corvette 1st fuel injection (Manual)

248
 Electronic Injection System

• Electronic Parts
• Mechanical Parts
• Computer (PCM):
• Fuel tank.
– logic device.
• Sensors : • Fuel pump.
– input data to the computer. • Fuel filter and lines.
• Actuators : • Injector or injectors.
– output devices the • Fuel rail.
computer operates.
• Pressure regulator.

249
 Electronic Parts
• Electronic Parts
Computer (PCM) -
logic device.
• Sensors
– input data to the
computer.
• Actuators
– output devices the
computer operates

250
Fuel Filter and Fuel Lines
• Sock on gas pump
• Inline
• Screen in injector

251
Fuel Rail & Pressure Regulator

• The rail - pipe that fills

the injectors.
• Pressure regulator
controls the pressure
to injectors.
• Pressure adjusted for
changes in intake
manifold vacuum.
• Some are mechanical
but newer cars use an
electronic system.252
 Fuel Injectors
• Injectors
– electrically operated valve.
• Fuel pump
– pumps fuel to injector from
fuel tank
– holds pressure against e
injector’s valve.
• Computer triggers valve
with electrical signal called a
pulse.
– (pulse width) 253
Fuel Injector Parts
• “O” Ring seals
– fuel rail
– intake manifold.
• Solenoid inside,
– note electrical
connection.
• Pintle Needle
– at spray end
– where fuel shoots out.

254
 How the Injector Fires

• The computer grounds the injector to turn

it “pulse” -- “Pulse width”
• Pulses timed by crankshaft sensor (CKPS).
And/or camshaft sensor (CPS).
• Three ways to fire the injectors:
• 1. Group
• 2. Gang injection
• 3. Sequential injection
255
Sensors

256
 Electronic Sensors (Inputs)
• MAP Manifold Absolute Pressure
• MAF Mass Air Flow
• ECT Engine Coolant Temperature
• IAT Intake Air Temperature
• TPS Throttle Position Sensor
• VSS Vehicle Speed Sensor
• O2 Exhaust Oxygen Sensor
• CKP Crankshaft Position
• CMP Camshaft Position
• KS Knock or Detonation Sensor

257
 Manifold Absolute Pressure Sensor
(MAP)

• Measures difference
between atmospheric
pressure and intake
manifold vacuum.

258
Mass Air Flow Sensor (MAF)
• Measures mass of air
entering intake
manifold.

259
 Throttle Position Sensor (TPS)
• Measure throttle
angle for PCM.
• Electronically: it’s a
potentiometer.
• The voltage signal
changes as resistance
in pot. changes.

260
Engine Coolant Temperature Sensor
(ECT)
• Measure engines
coolant temperature.
• Sensor mounted in
engines water jacket.

261
Intake Air Temperature (IAT)
• Measures -
temperature of intake
air.
• detect intake air
temperature
• Achieving the precise
control of the A/F
ratio.

262
Vehicle Speed Sensor (VSS)
• Monitors VEHICLE
SPEED
• NOT ENGINE SPEED

263
 Oxygen Sensor (O2 or HO2S)

• Measure the amount of

oxygen in the exhaust
stream.
• Low voltage <.45 is a lean
signal.
• High voltage >.45 is a rich
signal.
• 1996 /newer use two O2
sensors.
• Some O2 sensors are
heated. ( HO2S)
264
Crankshaft Position Sensor (CKPS)

• Uses Notches in crankshaft

A crank sensor is an electronic device used in

an internal combustion engine, both petrol
and diesel, to monitor the position
or rotational speed of the crankshaft. This
information is used by engine management
systems to control the fuel injection or
the ignition system timing and other engine
parameters. Before electronic crank sensors
were available, the distributor would have to
be manually adjusted to a timing mark on
petrol engines.
 Camshaft Position Sensor (CMP)
• Camshaft position
sensor is also called
cylinder
identification sensor or
phase detector.

266
Knock Sensor (KS)

• Senses detonation which

the engine is running.
• PCM will retard spark
when detonation is
detected.

267
 Computer Actuators (Outputs)

• Fuel Injectors
• IAC Idle Air Control
• Fuel Pump Relay
• CANP Canister Purge
• EGR Regulator
• Cooling Fan Relay
• Torque Converter
• MIL-Malfunction Indicator
Lamp

268
Air, fuel and exhaust gases circuit of
diesel engine
Air, fuel and exhaust gases circuit of
Petrol engine
Electronic Fuel Injection
 Limitations of Petrol Injection
• High Initial Cost/High Replacement Cost
• Increased Care and Attention/More Servicing
Problems
• Requires Special Servicing Equipment to
Diagnose Faults and Failures
• Special Knowledge of Mechanical and
Electrical Systems Needed to Diagnose and
Rectify Faults
Limitations of Petrol Injection (Continued)

• Injection Equipment Complicated, Delicate to

Handle and Impossible to Service by
Roadside Service Units
• Contain More Mechanical and Electrical
Components Which May Go Wrong
• Increased Hydraulic and Mechanical Noise
Due to Pumping and Metering of Fuel
Limitations of Petrol Injection (Continued)

• Very Careful Filtration Needed Due to Fine

Tolerances of Metering and Discharging
Components
• More Electrical/Mechanical Power Needed to
Drive Fuel Pump and/or Injection Devices
• More Fuel Pumping/Injection Equipment and
Pipe Plumbing Required- May be Awkwardly
Placed and Bulky
Port Fuel Injection System
 Indirect Injection
• Also Called Manifold Injection or Single Point
Injection (SPI) or Throttle Body Injection (TBI)
• Injector Usually Upstream From Throttle (Air
Intake Side) or In Some Cases Placed on the
Opposite Side
• Pressures are Low – 2 to 6 Bar. Maybe
Injected Irrespective of Intake Process
• Cost Would be Low
 Indirect Injection (Continued)
• Has Same Air and Fuel Mixing and
Distribution Problems as Carburetor but
Without Venturi Restriction so Gives Higher
Engine Volumetric Efficiency
• Higher Injection Pressures Compared to
Carburetion – Speeds up Atomization of
Liquid Fuel
 Semi-direct Injection
• Also Called Port Injection or Indirect
Multipoint Injection (IMPI) or Simply Multi-
point Injection (MPI)
• Injectors Positioned in Each Induction
Manifold Branch Just in Front of Inlet Port
• Injection at Low Pressure (2-6 Bar)
• Need Not Be Synchronized With Engine
Induction Cycle
 Semi-direct Injection (Continued)
• Fuel Can Be Discharged Simultaneously to
Each Induction Pipe
• Need Not Be Timed – Requires Low Discharge
Pressures – Injectors Not Exposed to
Combustion Products so Complexity Reduced
– Less Cost
 Semi-direct Injection (Continued)
• No Fuel Distribution Difficulties Since Each
Injector Discharges Directly Into Its Own Port
and Mixture Moves a Short Distance Before
Entering Cylinder
• Induction Manifold Deals Mainly With Only
Inducted Air – So Branch Pipes Can Be
Enlarged and Extended to Maximize Ram
Effect
 Direct Cylinder Injection
• Also Called Direct Multi-point Injection
(DMPI) or Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI)
• Injection May be During Intake or
Compression Process
• Increased Turbulence Required
• To Compensate For Shorter Permitted Time
For Injection/Atomization/Mixing Injection
Pressure Must Be Higher
Direct Cylinder Injection (Continued)
• More Valve Overlap Possible So Fresh Air Can
Be Utilized For Scavenging
• Injector Nozzle Must Be Designed For Higher
Pressure and Temperature So Must Be More
Robust and Will Be Costlier Than Other Types
• Position and Direction of Injection Are
Important – No One Position Will Be Ideal For
All Operating Conditions
Direct Cylinder Injection (Continued)
• Air and Fuel Mixing Is More Thorough in
Large Cylinders Than In Small Cylinders
Because Droplet Size is the Same
• Condensation and Wall Wetting in Intake
Manifold Eliminated But Condensation On
Piston Crown and Cylinder Walls
Major Features With Petrol Injection

• There is Separate Air and Fuel

Metering

• Fuel Metering is Precise Under All

Engine Operating Conditions
Methods of Discharging Fuel Into Air
1. CONTINUOUS INJECTION
Injector Nozzle and Valve are Permanently
Open While Engine is Operating
Amount of Fuel Discharged as a Spray is
Controlled by
a. Varying Metering Orifice, or
b. Varying Fuel Discharge Pressure, or
c. Both
 Methods of Discharging Fuel Into Air
(Continued)
2. INTERMITTENT OR PULSED INJECTION

Fuel is Sprayed at Regular Intervals With

Constant Fuel Discharge Pressure

Amount of Fuel Discharged is Controlled By the

Time Period the Injector Nozzle Valve is Open
 Comparing Pulsed and Continuous
Injection
Assume Engine Operates Between 750 (Idling) and
7500 rev/min (Max. Speed)
(1:10 ratio)
In Continuous Fuel Injection:
• Fuel Flow has to vary by a Factor of 1:50 by
Volume using Variable Area Orifice
• Injection Pressure has to Vary by a
Factor of 1:2500 using Fixed Orifice
Or a Combination of Both Variables
 Comparing Pulsed and Continuous
Injection (Continued)
In Pulsed Fuel Injection:
• Nozzle Valve is Opened For a Short Time
When Fuel Has to Be Sprayed
• Fuel Flow Has to Vary by a Factor of 1:5
(Between Idle and Maximum Speed)
• This Range is Increased Significantly For Cold
Starting Where Control Accuracy
Requirement is Much Reduced
 Types of Injection For MPI
1. Timed Injection
Start of Fuel Delivery For Each Cylinder Occurs
at the Same Angular Point in Engine Cycle –
Could be 60 or 90 Deg. ATDC of Induction
Stroke of Each Cyl.
2. Non-timed Injection
All Injectors Programmed to Discharge Fuel at
Same Time. Each Piston Will be on a
Different Part of the Cycle
 Operation
• Injection System Must Sense Changes to
Influencing Parameters
• Pass Information to a Coordinating System
(Microprocessor or Computer)
• Which In Turn Integrates Individual Signals
and Interprets Fuel Requirements
• Then Signals Injector to Open and Close
 Operation (Continued)

• Needs are Transmitted by Mechanical,

Hydraulic or Electrical Means to Pumping and
Metering Devices Which Supply Correct
Quantity of Fuel to the Appropriate Injector
 Controlling Parameters to Sense
(Some of the Parameters)
1. Engine Speed
2. Amount of Inlet Air (Engine Load)
3. Throttle Position
4. Air Temperature
5. Coolant Temperature
6. Altitude
7. Cranking Speed
8. Exhaust Oxygen Concentration
9. Battery Voltage
 Gasoline Fuel Injection System
Components
1. Electric Fuel Pump
2. Fuel Accumulator – Maintains Fuel Line Pressure
When Engine is Shut Off and Quietens the Noise
Created by the Roller Cell Pump
3. Fuel Filter - A Pleated Paper or Lint-of-fluff Type
Plus Strainer
4. Primary Pressure Regulator – Maintains Output
Delivery Pressure to be About 5 Bar
 Gasoline Fuel Injection System
Components (Continued)
5 Push Up Valve – Prevents Control Pressure Circuit
Leakage.
It is a Non-return Valve Placed at Opposite End of
Pressure Regulator
6. Fuel Injection Valve – Valves are Insulated in
Holders to Prevent Fuel Vapor Bubbles Forming in
the Fuel Lines Due to Engine Heat.
Valves Open at about 3.3 Bar and Spray Fuel.
Valve Oscillates About 1500 cycles per second and
so Helps in Atomization
 K-Jetronic Fuel Injection System (F.I.S.)
(Bosch)
This is a Driverless Mechanical F.I.S.

Fuel is Continuously Metered in Proportion to

Quantity of Air Induced into Engine
Cylinders

“K” Stands for the German Word for

“Continuously”
 K-Jetronic Fuel Injection System
(Continued)

Considered in 3 Parts

1. Air Flow Measurement

2. Fuel Supply

3. Metering and Injection of Fuel

 K-Jetronic Fuel Injection System
(Continued)
1. Air Flow Sensor Measures the Throttle Controlled
Quantity of Air Drawn into the Engine
2. Pressurized Fuel Provided by an Electric Motor
Driven Roller-type Pump Which Delivers Fuel
Through an Accumulator and Filter to the Mixture
Control Distributor Unit. A Pressure Regulator
Maintains the Fuel Entering the Mixture Control
Unit at Constant Pressure
 K-Jetronic Fuel Injection System
(Continued)

3. Amount of Fuel Discharged into Air is

Related to Measured Air Flow Signaled to
Mixture Controlled Unit Whose Function is
to Meter Corresponding Quantity of Fuel
Transferred to Injector
• A.C. Mechanical Petrol Pump
1 Diaphragm 3 Spring 4 Screw 5 Armature Guide 6
Lucar Connector 7 Screw 7 Screw
8 Spring Washer 8 Washer

9 Rocker Spindle 10 SU Fuel Pump Points and Blade 11 Pedestal Electric

Pumps12 Terminal Screw13 Spring Washer 14 Lead Washer
15 Terminal Nut 16 Washer 17 Dished
Washer 18 Screw 19 Spring Washer 20 Screw
21 Shakeproof Washer 22 Lucar Connector 23 Nut 24
Blanking Cap 25 Non Asbestos Gasket 26 Filter 28
Suppresor Assembly29 Valve Assembly 31 Fibre Washer
32 Sealing Plug 33 Cover34 Screw 35 Sealing Plug 36
Diaphragm 37 Washer 38 Washer 39 Cover 40 Washer
41 Washer 42 Cover 45 Washer 46 Screw
Compression Ignition Engines
 Introduction
• Initial CI engines were large and slow.
• Heavy distillate petroleum was forced into the
cylinder using compressed air.
• Robert Bosch began producing injection
systems in 1927.
 CI vs. SI Engines
• SI engines draw fuel and air into the cylinder.
• Fuel must be injected into the cylinder at the desired time
of combustion in CI engines.
• Air intake is throttled to the SI engine -- no throttling in CI
engines.
• Compression ratios must be high enough to cause auto-
ignition in CI engines.
• Upper compression ratio in SI engines is limited by the
auto-ignition temperature.
 CI vs. SI Engines
• Flame in SI engines smooth and controlled.
• CI combustion is rapid and uncontrolled at the
beginning.
Table 7.1: Comparison of SI and CI Engines
Typical Brake Thermal Efficiencies of CI and SI Engines
CI Combustion Chamber Design
 Injection Approaches
• Figures b, c and d are “indirect injection (IDI)”
methods.
• Figure a is “direct injection (DI)”.
• IDI engines are quieter that DI engines.
• Less stress in IDI engines translates to smaller
engines – automotive applications.
 Pre-Combustion Chambers
• Fig. b is a pre-combustion chamber where its
volume is 20-30% of the total clearance
volume.
• Temperature of PC is 600-750 C – much hotter
than the remainder of the chamber.
• Throat causes turbulence which add to mixing
during combustion process.
 Swirl Chamber
• Fig. c illustrates a “swirl chamber” which is
between 50 and 90% of the clearance volume.
• Counterclockwise flow creates high levels of
turbulence.
• Swirl chambers cause extremely complete
combustion with low levels of NOx, smoke and
unburned hydrocarbons in the exhaust.
 Energy Cell
• Fig. d depicts an “energy cell” sized so as to contain
approximately 5 to 15% of the total clearance volume.
• Combustion is initiated in the main chamber, forcing
approximately 60% of the fuel into the “energy cell.”
• Combustion process last longer – indicate thermal
efficiency is lower
 Direct Injection
• Fuel injected into the primary combustion
chamber with “direct injection” (DI).
• DI engines tend to be 8-10% more efficient
than IDI engines.
• Primary engine in the truck, bus, construction
and agriculture industries.
Air Swirl in DI Engine
 Swirl Ratio
• DI engines are designed so that the adequate
mixing of air and fuel is enhanced by a swirling
action within the combustion chamber.
• Engines are designed with a specific swirl ratio
– typically 2.5 (swirling rotation within
cylinder versus engine speed).
Conventional Fuel Systems
 Fuel Flow
• Tank to low pressure fuel pump.
• Fuel pump through filter.
• Filter to injection pump.
• High pressure flow from injection pump to
injectors.
• Fuel injected into cylinder, or
• Low pressure leakage from top of injector is
returned to tank.
In-Line Injection Pumps
 Injection Pump Operation

• Rack is advanced to rotate scroll valves.

• Scroll position corresponds to amount of
fuel to be metered to the injector.
• Plunger is actuated by cam underneath that
is timed to individual cylinders.
• To stop engine rack is closed – covering port
A.
• Fuel to injector metered through port A’.
 Delivery Valve Action
• If pressure of injection lines is permitted to fall
to zero between injections, compressibility of
fuel would cause system injections pressures
to rise too slowly.
• Slow pressure response results in dribbling at
the injector – resulting in poor engine
performance.
Pressure Changes in Injection Lines

• The following relationship can be utilized to investigate

relationship between line volume and pressure changes,

DV Dp

Vt be
• where Vt is the total line volume, DV is the change in volume,
Dp is the change in line pressure, and be is the effective bulk
modulus of the line.
Distributing Injection Pump
 Distributing Injection Pump
• Cheaper to manufacture – fewer parts.
• Vane-type charge pump with pressure regulation supplies
fuel to the rotary metering valve.
• Metering valve limits the flow of fuel into the main pump
(just enough to support the load on the engine), forcing the
pump plungers apart.
• The rollers at the cam force the plungers into the center,
the in-flow ports are blocked, and the fuel is forced to flow
through the rotor to the distributor.
Cam Advance Mechanism
 Cam Advance Mechanism
• When fuel pressure declines – reduced engine
speed – the spring in the piston expands
rotating the cam and retarding the timing.
• At higher engine speeds increased fuel
pressure compresses the spring rotating the
cam to advance the timing.
Conventional Injection Nozzles
Cutaway of Conventional Injection Nozzle
Nozzle Pop Tester
Mechanically Controlled Unit Injectors
 Unit Injectors
• One for each cylinder.
• Actuated by an extra lobe on the camshaft.
• Uses scroll valve – similar to in-line injection
pumps.
• Linkage required for changing scroll valve
position and advancing injection.
Electronic Controlled Unit Injector
Hydraulic Electronic Controlled Unit Injector
(HEUI)
Common Rail Electronic Injection (CREI)
 CREI
• Manifold pressures on 140 MPa.
• ECU regulates pump delivery to maintain
system pressure to within 5 MPa.
• ECU energizes solenoid at injector to begin
injection.
• Small pilot injection is provided in advance of
main injection.
CREI Injector
 Cold Starting of CI Engines
• Engines will typically start at 5 to 10 C and above
without starting aids.
• Sometimes two batteries are connected in series for
24 VDC starting circuits. Most new startesr are 12
VDC.
• Glow plugs are added to the pre-combustion
chambers on IDI engines.
• Ether can be used as a starting aid in DI engines.
• Intake manifold heaters are used in DI engines to
heat incoming air.
• Block heaters are a viable option for starting engines
during extended cold periods.
 Objectives of the Injection System
The injection system of the compression ignition engine should
fulfil the following objectives consistently and precisely:
1. Meter the appropriate quantity of fuel, as demanded by
the speed of, and the load on, the engine at the given time.
2. Distribute the metered fuel equally among cylinders in a
multi-cylinder engine.
3. Inject the fuel at the correct time (with respect to crank
angle) in the cycle.
4. Inject the fuel at the correct rate (per unit time or crank
angle degree).
5. Inject the fuel with the correct spray pattern and sufficient
atomization as demanded by the design of the combustion
chamber, to provide proper penetration also.
6. Begin and end injection sharply without dribbling or after
injection.
To accomplish these objectives, a number of functional elements
are required. These constitute together, the fuel injection
system of the engine. These elements are as follows.
1. Pumping elements to transfer the fuel from the tank to the
cylinder, along with the associate piping and hardware.
2. Metering elements to measure and supply the fuel at the rate
as desired by the speed and load conditions prevailing.
3. Metering controls to adjust the rate of the metering elements
for changes in load and speed of the engine.
4. Distributing elements to divide the metered fuel equally
among the cylinders in a multi cylinder engine.
5. Timing controls to adjust the start and stop of injection.
6. Mixing elements to atomize and distribute the fuel within the
combustion chamber
Fuel Injection in the CI Engine
For the compression ignition engine, it is very
important to promote a means of injecting fuel
into the cylinder at the proper time in the cycle.
This is so because the injection system starts and
controls the combustion process.
 Function of fuel injection equipment
The function of fuel injection equipment is to supply the engine
with fuel in qualities exactly metered in proportion to the
power required and timed with utmost accuracy, so that the
engine will deliver that power within the limits prescribed for
fuel consumption, exhaust smoke, noise and exhaust
emissions.
The fuel must be injected through suitable nozzles at pressures
high enough to cause the required degree of atomization in
the combustion chamber and to ensure that it mixes with
sufficient air for complete combustion in the cycle time
available.
In multi cylinder engines the periods of injection, the timing and
the delivered quantity must be accurately metered to ensure
an even balance between the cylinders.
For an engine developing 3kW at 60rev/s, of cylinder
capacity 0.2 liter the fuel delivery at full load would be
approximately 10mm3 in 1.2ms, repeating this 30 times
every second. At no load the quantity will be reduced
to approximately to 3mm3.
In general terms the injection period and the pressure
increase with engine size: small direct injection (DI)
engines will have a period about 25 degrees crank
travel and an injection pressure exceeding 400bar
whilst large engines may have periods approximating
40degrees with pressures in excess of 1000 bar.
Engines required to meet future limits of exhaust NOx
emissions will need shorter injection periods with
corresponding higher injection pressures.
The equipment for a six cylinder medium-sized high
speed turbo charged vehicle engine developing
110kW at 43.3rev/s will have a full load delivery of
65mm3 with an injection period of approximately
26degrees crank travel. The nozzle will have a total
orifice area of approximately 0.247mm2 (equivalent
to four holes of 0.28mm diameter) and the peak
injection pressure will be about 450 bar. To meet a
NOx emission standard of 10g/kWh the injection
period will have to be reduced to about 23 degrees
crank angle for the same hole diameter. This will
increase the probable peak line pressure to 650 bar.
 Fuel Injection Systems
There are two main classifications for fuel-
injection systems, namely
1. air injection which had become obsolete
but now some interest has been shown by
researchers (however very high pressure is
required for air) and
2. solid (or airless) injection systems.
The airless, mechanical, or solid injection systems
consist of three types.

1. Individual pump system: This consists of a

separate metering and compression pump for each
cylinder.
2. Distribution system: This consists of a single pump
for compressing the fuel (which may also meter),
plus a delivery device for distributing the fuel to
the cylinders (which may also meter).
3. Common rail system: A single pump for
compressing the fuel, plus a metering element for
each cylinder.
Spray Structure
 Fuel Filters
A low pressure (2.5 bar) transfer pump or fuel feed pump is
required to lift the fuel from the tank, to overcome the
pressure drop in the filters, and to charge the metering or
pressuring unit. Three filters are recommended, namely,

1. A primary stage (a metal- edge filter to remove coarse

particles, larger than 25 microns).

2. A secondary stage (a replaceable cloth, paper or lint element

to remove fine particles from about 4 to 25 microns) and

3. Final stage (a sealed, non-replaceable element) to remove

fine particles that escaped the secondary stage.
Diesel Engine operation and diagnosis
 DIESEL ENGINES
• In 1892, a German engineer named Rudolf
Diesel perfected the compression-ignition
engine that bears his name.
• The diesel engine uses heat created by
compression to ignite the fuel, so it requires
no spark ignition system.
 DIESEL ENGINES
• Incoming air is compressed
until its temperature reaches
about 1000°F (540°C).
• This is called heat of
compression.
• As the piston reaches the top
of its compression stroke,
fuel is injected into the
cylinder, where it is ignited
by the hot air.
FIGURE 12-1 Diesel combustion
occurs when fuel is injected into
the hot, highly compressed air in
the cylinder.
 DIESEL ENGINES
• A common diesel engine
uses a fuel system
precision injection pump
and individual fuel
injectors.
• The pump delivers fuel
to the injectors at a high
pressure and at timed
intervals. FIGURE 12-2 A typical
injector-pump-type
automotive diesel fuel
injection system.
 DIESEL ENGINES
Indirect and Direct Injection
• In an indirect injection
(abbreviated IDI) diesel
engine, fuel is injected
into a small prechamber,
which is connected to
the cylinder by a narrow
opening.

FIGURE 12-3 An indirect injection

diesel engine uses a prechamber
and a glow plug.
 DIESEL ENGINES
Indirect and Direct Injection
• In a direct injection
(abbreviated DI) diesel
engine, fuel is injected
directly into the cylinder.

FIGURE 12-4 A direct injection diesel

engine injects the fuel directly into the
combustion chamber. Many designs do
not use a glow plug.
 DIESEL ENGINES
Diesel Fuel Ignition

• Ignition occurs in a diesel engine by injecting

fuel into the air charge, which has been
heated by compression to a temperature
greater than the ignition point of the fuel or
about 1000°F (538°C).
 THREE PHASES OF COMBUSTION
• There are three distinct phases or parts to the
combustion in a diesel engine.
– Ignition delay.
– Rapid combustion.
– Controlled combustion.
 DIESEL ENGINE
CONSTRUCTION
• Diesel engines must be
constructed heavier than
gasoline engines
because of the
tremendous pressures
that are created in the
cylinders during
operation.
DIESEL ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
FIGURE 12-5 The common
rail on a diesel engine. A
high-pressure pump (up
to 30,000 PSI) is used to
supply diesel fuel to this
common rail, which has
cubes running to each
injector. Note the thick
cylinder walls and heavy-
duty construction.
DIESEL ENGINE CONSTRUCTION

FIGURE 12-6 A
rod/piston assembly
from a 5.9-liter
Cummins diesel
engine used in a
Dodge pickup truck.
 FUEL TANK AND LIFT PUMP
• A fuel tank used on a vehicle equipped with a
diesel engine differs from the one used with a
gasoline engine in several ways, including:
– A larger filler neck for diesel fuel.
– No evaporative emission control devices or
charcoal (carbon) canister.
FUEL TANK AND LIFT PUMP

FIGURE 12-7 Using an ice bath

to test the fuel temperature
sensor.
 FUEL TANK AND LIFT PUMP
Injection Pump
• Injection pumps are
usually driven by the
camshaft at the front of
the engine.
• As the injection pump
shaft rotates, the diesel
fuel is fed from a fill port
to a high-pressure
chamber. FIGURE 12-8 A typical
distributor-type diesel
injection pump showing the
pump, lines, and fuel filter.
 FUEL TANK AND LIFT PUMP
Distributor Injection Pump

• A distributor diesel injection pump is a high-

pressure pump assembly with lines leading to
each individual injector.
• The high-pressure lines between the
distributor and the injectors must be the exact
same length to ensure proper injection timing.
FUEL TANK AND LIFT PUMP
Distributor Injection Pump

FIGURE 12-9 A
schematic of a
Stanadyne diesel fuel
injection pump
assembly showing all of
the related
components.
 FUEL TANK AND LIFT PUMP
High-Pressure Common Rail

• Newer diesel engines use a fuel delivery

system referred to as a high-pressure
common rail (HPCR) design.
• Diesel fuel under high pressure, over 20,000
PSI (138,000 kPa), is applied to the injectors,
which are opened by a solenoid controlled by
the computer.
FUEL TANK AND LIFT PUMP
High-Pressure Common Rail

FIGURE 12-10 Overview of a

computer-controlled high-
pressure common rail V-8
diesel engine.
 HEUI SYSTEM
• Ford 7.3- and 6.0-liter diesels use a system
Ford calls a Hydraulic Electronic Unit Injection
system, or HEUI system.
• The components that replace the traditional
mechanical injection pump include a high-
pressure oil pump and reservoir, pressure
regulator for the oil, and passages in the
cylinder head for flow of fuel to the injectors.
HEUI SYSTEM

FIGURE 12-11 A HEUI

injector from a Ford
PowerStroke diesel engine.
The grooves indicate the
location of the O-rings.
 DIESEL INJECTOR NOZZLES
• Diesel injector nozzles are spring-loaded
closed valves that spray fuel directly into the
combustion chamber or precombustion
chamber.
• Injector nozzles are threaded into the cylinder
head, one for each cylinder, and are
replaceable as an assembly.
 DIESEL INJECTOR NOZZLES
• The top of the injector nozzle has many holes
to deliver an atomized spray of diesel fuel into
the cylinder. Parts of a diesel injector nozzle
include:
– Heat shield.
– Injector body.
– Diesel injector needle valve.
– Injector pressure chamber.
 DIESEL INJECTOR NOZZLE OPERATION

• The electric solenoid

attached to the injector
nozzle is computer
controlled and opens to
allow fuel to flow into
the injector pressure
chamber.

FIGURE 12-12 Typical computer-

controlled diesel engine fuel injectors.
 GLOW PLUGS
• A glow plug is a heating element that uses 12
volts from the battery and aids in the starting
of a cold engine.
• Most glow plugs used in newer vehicles are
controlled by the power train control module
(PCM), which monitors coolant temperature
and intake air temperature.
GLOW PLUGS

FIGURE 12-13 A schematic of

a typical glow plug
circuit.Notice that the relay
for the glow plug and intake
air heater are both computer
controlled.
 WHAT ARE DIESEL ENGINE ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES?
• A diesel engine has several advantages
compared to a similar size gasoline-powered
engine including:
– More torque output
– Greater fuel economy
– Long service life
 WHAT ARE DIESEL ENGINE ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES?
• A diesel engine has several disadvantages compared
to a similar size gasoline-powered engine including:
– Engine noise, especially when cold and/or at idle speed
– Exhaust smell
– Cold weather startability
– A vacuum pump is needed to supply the vacuum needs of
the heat, ventilation, and air conditioning system.
– Heavier than a gasoline engine.
– Fuel availability
– Usually turbocharged adding to the number of parts and
increasing the cost of the engine.
WHAT ARE DIESEL ENGINE ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES?

FIGURE 12-14 Roller lifter from

a GM Duramax 6.6-liter V-8
diesel engine. Notice the size
of this lifter compared to a
roller lifter used in a gasoline
engine.
WHAT ARE DIESEL ENGINE ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES?

FIGURE 12-15 All light

diesels built in the last ten
years are turbocharged
with most equipped with
variable vane
turbochargers.
 ENGINE-DRIVEN VACUUM PUMP
• Because a diesel engine is unthrottled, it creates very
little vacuum in the intake manifold.
• Several engine and vehicle components operate
using vacuum, such as the exhaust gas recirculation
(EGR) valve and the heating and ventilation blend
and air doors.
• Most diesels used in cars and light trucks are
equipped with an engine-driven vacuum pump to
supply the vacuum for these components.
 HEATED INTAKE AIR
• Some diesels, such as
the General Motors 6.6-
liter Duramax V-8, use an
electrical heater wire to
warm the intake air to
help in cold weather
starting and running.

FIGURE 12-16 A wire wound electrical

heater is used to warm the intake air on
some diesel engines.
 ACCELERATOR PEDAL POSITION SENSOR

• Some light truck diesel engines are equipped with

an electronic throttle to control the amount of
fuel injected into the engine.
 SOOT OR PARTICULATE MATTER
• Soot particles may come directly from the exhaust
tailpipe or they can also form when emissions of
nitrogen oxide and various sulfur oxides chemically
react with other pollutants suspended in the
atmosphere.
• Particulates are generally categorized as follows:
– TSP, Total Suspended Particulate
– PM10
– PM2.5
DIESEL OXIDATION CATALYST (DOC)
• Diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) consists of a
flow-through honeycomb-style substrate
structure that is washcoated with a layer of
catalyst materials, similar to those used in a
gasoline engine catalytic converter.
 DIESEL EXHAUST PARTICULATE FILTER

• The heated exhaust gas from the Diesel

oxidation catalyst (DOC )flows into the diesel
particulate filter (DPF), which captures diesel
exhaust gas particulates (soot) to prevent
them from being released into the
atmosphere.
 DIESEL EXHAUST PARTICULATE FILTER

• The process of purging

soot from the DPF is
described as
regeneration.

FIGURE 12-18 A diesel

exhaust particulate filter on
a Cummins 6.7-liter diesel
engine.
 DIESEL EXHAUST PARTICULATE FILTER
Exhaust Gas Temperature Sensors
• There are two exhaust gas temperature
sensors that function in much the same way
as engine temperature sensors.
• EGT Sensor 1 is positioned between the DOC
and the DPF where it can measure the
temperature of the exhaust gas entering the
DPF
 DIESEL EXHAUST PARTICULATE FILTER
DPF Differential Pressure Sensor (DPS)
• The DPF differential pressure sensor (DPS)
has two pressure sample lines:
– One line is attached before the DPF,
– The other is located after the DPF,
DIESEL EXHAUST PARTICULATE FILTER
DPF Differential Pressure Sensor (DPS)

FIGURE 12-19 A
differential pressure
sensor showing the two
hoses from the diesel
exhaust particulate filter.
 DIESEL EXHAUST PARTICULATE FILTER
Diesel Particulate Filter Regeneration
• Soot particulates in the gas remain trapped on
the DPF channel walls where, over time, the
buildup of trapped particulate matter will
begin to clog the filter.
• The filter must therefore be purged (physically
remove) periodically to remove accumulated
soot particles.
 DIESEL EXHAUST PARTICULATE FILTER
Diesel Particulate Filter Regeneration
• The ECM monitors:
– Distance since last DPF regeneration
– Fuel used since last DPF regeneration
– Engine run time since last DPF regeneration
– Exhaust differential pressure across the DPF
 DIESEL EXHAUST PARTICULATE FILTER
DPF Regeneration Process
• A number of engine components are required to
function together for the regeneration process to be
performed.
• ECM controls that impact DPF regeneration include
late post-injections, engine speed, and adjusting fuel
pressure.
• Adding late post-injection pulses provides the engine
with additional fuel to be oxidized in the DOC which
increases exhaust temperatures entering the DPF to
about 900°F (500°C) and higher.
 DIESEL EXHAUST PARTICULATE FILTER
Types of DPF Regeneration
• DPF regeneration can be initiated in a number
of ways, depending on the vehicle application
and operating circumstances.
• The two main regeneration types are:
– Passive
– Active
 ASH LOADING
• Regeneration will not burn off ash.
• Only the particulate matter (PM) is burned off
during regeneration.
• Ash is a noncombustible by-product from
normal oil consumption.
 DIESEL EXHAUST SMOKE DIAGNOSIS
Black Smoke

• Black exhaust smoke is caused by incomplete

combustion because of a lack of air or a fault
in the injection system that could cause an
excessive amount of fuel in the cylinders.
 DIESEL EXHAUST SMOKE DIAGNOSIS
White Smoke

• White exhaust smoke occurs most often

during cold engine starts because the smoke is
usually condensed fuel droplets.
• White exhaust smoke is also an indication of
cylinder misfire on a warm engine.
 DIESEL EXHAUST SMOKE DIAGNOSIS
Gray or Blue Smoke

• Blue exhaust smoke is usually due to oil

consumption caused by worn piston rings,
scored cylinder walls, or defective valve stem
seals.
• Gray or blue smoke can also be caused by a
defective injector(s).
 SCAN TOOL DIAGNOSIS
• All light truck diesels
since 1996 have also
adhered to on-board
diagnostic systems
(second generation)

FIGURE 12-20 A scan tool

is used to retrieve
diagnostic trouble codes
and to perform injector
balance tests.
 COMPRESSION TESTING
• A compression test is
fundamental for
determining the
mechanical condition of
a diesel engine.
• Worn piston rings can
cause low power and
excessive exhaust
smoke.
FIGURE 12-21 A compression gauge designed
for the higher compression rate of a diesel
engine should be used when checking the
compression.
 GLOW PLUG RESISTANCE BALANCE TEST

• To test for even cylinder balance using glow

plug resistance, perform the following on a
warm engine.
– Unplug, measure, and record the resistance of all
of the glow plugs.
– With the wires still removed from the glow plugs,
start the engine.
– Allow the engine to run for several minutes to
allow the combustion inside the cylinder to warm
the glow plugs.
 GLOW PLUG RESISTANCE BALANCE TEST

– Measure the plugs and record the resistance of all

of the glow plugs.
– The resistance of all of the glow plugs should be
higher than at the beginning of the test.
– Another test is to measure exhaust manifold
temperature at each exhaust port.
 INJECTOR POP TESTING
• A pop tester is a device
used for checking a
diesel injector nozzle for
proper spray pattern.
• The handle is depressed
and pop off pressure is
displayed on the gauge.

FIGURE 12-22 A typical

pop tester used to check
the spray pattern of a
diesel engine injector.
 DIESEL EMISSION TESTING
Snap Acceleration Test

• In a snap acceleration test, the vehicle is held

stationary with wheel chocks and brakes
released as the engine is rapidly accelerated
to high idle with the transmission in neutral
while smoke emissions are measured.
 DIESEL EMISSION TESTING
Rolling Acceleration Test

• Vehicles with a manual transmission are

rapidly accelerated in low gear from an idle
speed to a maximum governed RPM while the
smoke emissions are measured.
 DIESEL EMISSION TESTING
Stall Acceleration Test

• Vehicles with automatic transmissions are

held in a stationary position with the parking
brake and service brakes applied while the
transmission is placed in “drive.”
• The accelerator is depressed and held
momentarily while smoke emissions are
measured.
 DO NOT SWITCH INJECTORS
• In the past, it was common
practice to switch diesel fuel
injectors from one cylinder
to another when diagnosing
a dead cylinder problem.
• However, most high-pressure
common rail systems used in
new diesels use precisely
calibrated injectors that
should not be mixed up
during service.
FIGURE 12-23 The letters on the
side of this injector on a Cummins
6.7-liter diesel indicate the
calibration number for the
injector.
 SUMMARY
1. A diesel engine uses heat of compression to ignite the diesel fuel when
it is injected into the compressed air in the combustion chamber.

2. There are two basic designs of combustion chambers used in diesel

engines. Indirect injection (IDI) uses a precombustion chamber whereas
a direct injection (DI) occurs directly into the combustion chamber.

3. The three phases of diesel combustion include:

– a. Ignition delay
– b. Rapid combustion
– c. Controlled combustion

4. The typical diesel engine fuel system consists of the fuel tank, lift pump,
water-fuel separator, and fuel filter.
 SUMMARY
5. The engine-driven injection pump supplies high-pressure diesel fuel to
the injectors.

6. The two most common types of fuel injection used in automotive diesel
engines are:
– a. Distributor-type injection pump
– b. Common rail design where all of the injectors are fed from the same fuel
supply from a rail under high pressure

7. Injector nozzles are either opened by the high-pressure pulse from the
distributor pump or electrically by the computer on a common rail
design.

8. Glow plugs are used to help start a cold diesel engine and help prevent
excessive white smoke during warm-up.
 SUMMARY
9. The higher the cetane rating of diesel fuel, the more easily
the fuel is ignited.

10. Most automotive diesel engines are designed to operate on

grade #2 diesel fuel in moderate weather conditions.

11. The API specific gravity of diesel fuel should be 30 to 39 with

a typical reading of 35 for #2 diesel fuel.

12. Diesel engines can be tested using a scan tool, as well as

measuring the glow plug resistance or compression reading
to determine a weak or nonfunctioning cylinder.
END
Cooling System
 Cooling System
• An automotive cooling system must perform
several functions
– 1. Remove excess from the engine
– 2. Maintain a consist engine temperature
– 3. Help a cold engine warm-up quickly
– 4. Provide a means of warming the passenger
compartment
 Consequence of Engine running too
HOT
• Pre-ignition, Detonation/Knock (all result in
very high pressure rise and possible damage
to engine)
• Heat Fatigue of components ( Burnt
Pistons/Burnt Valves)
• Failure of lubrication System ( Oil breakdown/
oil film at cylinder destroyed at 200 oC)
• Warping and facture of Components
 Consequence of Engine running too
COLD
• Unnecessary wear
• Poor Fuel Economy ( Incomplete combustion
/Lower coolant temperature )
• Promotes corrosive conditions in engine
(water of combustion reacts with sulfur oxides
in exhaust /allow water & sludge at
accumulate in crankcase/over time, fuel
dilution the oil will accumulate
Variation of Gas Temperature/Piston
Temperature Distribution
Cooling System Type
Basic Schematic Layout
 Cooling System
• Automotive cooling systems operate around
180-212 degree F
• Engine coolant is used to remove heat from
the cylinder to the radiator where in is then
dissipated.
• Engine coolant mixture should be
approximately a 50/50 mixture of coolant and
water.
 Cooling System
• Water soluble oil is used as a lubricant in all
coolants systems components
• Coolant uses lubricant in coolant to lubricate
the water pump.
• Coolant is a mixture of water and antifreeze.
(Normally 50/50 mixture)
• Some people refer to coolant as antifreeze
 Cooling System
• An automotive radiator is used as a heat
exchanger.
• Hot coolant from the engine is transferred to
the radiator and cooler coolant is transfer to
the engine by heavy duty hoses.
• There are two types of radiators
– Cross flow and Down Flow
 Cooling System
• The cross-flow radiator is normally shorter
than a down flow allowing for shorter hood
lines.
• A down-flow radiator is used on larger
vehicles that requires more cooling capacity.
 Cooling System
• The components that make-up the radiator is
– 1. Radiator core: center section of the radiator
– 2. Radiator Tank: Metal or plastic end that cove
the ends of the core and provide a coolant storage
areas.
 Cooling System
• The thermostat is used to regulate the flow of
coolant thought-out the cooling system.
• It is very important to follow manufacture
instruction when installing and automotive
thermostat.
• Installing a thermostat in the wrong direction
can cause sever engine damage due to
overheating.
 Cooling System
• To maintain proper engine temperature a
thermostat is used.
• Modern engine operate at higher operating
temperature. Therefore most modern
thermostat open around 195 degrees F
• You should never operate a vehicle without a
thermostat.
 Cooling System
• Most cooling system use some type cooling
fan there are 3 types of fans
– A. Electric fan
– B. Clutch type fan
– C. Flex fan
When checking a cooling system its important to
ensure that the fan is not broken or;
A. Engine could vibrate excessively
B. Cause premature water pump bearing failure
C. Overheating because not enough air will be
pulled through the radiator.
 Cooling System
• A flex fan is mounted to the front of the
engine and operates continually when ever
the engine is running.
• A Clutch fan is also mounted to the front of
the engine but will only pull air through the
radiator when the engine is hot
• An electric fan is used on front wheel drive
vehicles and will only operate when
commanded by the Pulse-code modulation
(PCM).
 Cooling System
• A water pump is used to circulate coolant
thought out the cooling system.
• Water pumps consist of
– Water pump impeller
– Water pump shaft
– Water pump seal
– Water pump bearing
– Water pump housing
 Cooling system (Pump)
•It purpose is to circulate the water through the cooling system
•Located on the front part of the engine
•In most of the vehicles it is driven by a belt is attached to the
crankshaft
•As the crankshaft turns the fan belt turns
 Cooling System
• When defective water pumps should be
replaced.
• Water pump seals and bearing normally fail on
water pumps.
 Cooling System
• Radiator caps are design to hold pressure on
modern closed cooling system.
• The higher pressure maintained by the
radiator cap will increases coolant boiling
point.
• Defective radiator pressure cap should be
replaced.
 COOLING SYSTEM PURPOSE AND FUNCTION

• Satisfactory cooling system operation depends on

the design and operating conditions of the
system.
• The design is based on heat output of the engine,
radiator size, type of coolant, size of water pump
(coolant pump), type of fan, thermostat, and
system pressure.
• Unfortunately, the cooling system is usually
neglected until there is a problem.
• Proper routine maintenance can prevent
problems.
Parts of Engine Cooling System
Coolant Flow
Water Jackets
COOLING SYSTEM DESIGN

A modern style
cooling system
showing how the
coolant flows
through the block
first, then through
the cylinder head,
and finally through
the radiator after
the thermostat
opens.
 LOW-TEMPERATURE ENGINE PROBLEMS

• To reduce cold-engine problems and to help

start engines in cold climates, most
manufacturers offer block heaters as an
option.
• These block heaters are plugged into
household current (110/220 volts AC) and the
heating element warms the coolant.
 HIGH-TEMPERATURE ENGINE PROBLEMS

• High coolant temperatures raise the

combustion temperatures to a point that may
cause detonation and preignition to occur.
• These are common forms of abnormal
combustion.
• If they are allowed to continue for any period
of time, the engine will be damaged.
 COOLING SYSTEM DESIGN
• Coolant flows through the engine, where it
picks up heat.
• It then flows to the radiator, where the heat is
given up to the outside air.
• The coolant continually recirculates through
the cooling system.
COOLING SYSTEM DESIGN

FIGURE 8–2 Coolant flow through a typical engine cooling system.

 COOLING SYSTEM DESIGN
• Its temperature rises as much as 15°F (8°C) as it
goes through the engine; then it recools as it goes
through the radiator.
• The coolant flow rate may be as high as 1 gallon
(4 liters) per minute for each horsepower the
engine produces.
• Hot coolant comes out of the thermostat housing
on the top of the engine.
• The engine coolant outlet is connected to the top
of the radiator by the upper hose and clamps.
 COOLING SYSTEM DESIGN
• The coolant in the radiator is cooled by air
flowing through the radiator.
• As it cools, it moves from the top to the
bottom of the radiator.
• Cool coolant leaves the lower radiator area
through an outlet and lower hose, going into
the inlet side of the water pump, where it is
recirculated through the engine.
 THERMOSTAT TEMPERATURE CONTROL
• There is a normal operating temperature range
between low temperature and high-temperature
extremes.
• The thermostat controls the minimum normal
temperature.
• The thermostat is a temperature-controlled valve
placed at the engine coolant outlet.
• An encapsulated, wax-based, plastic-pellet heat
sensor is located on the engine side of the
thermostatic valve.
• As the engine warms, heat swells the heat sensor.
THERMOSTAT TEMPERATURE CONTROL
THERMOSTAT TEMPERATURE CONTROL
 THERMOSTAT TEMPERATURE CONTROL

FIGURE 8–6 A thermostat stuck in the open position caused the engine to
operate too cold. The vehicle failed an exhaust emission test because of
this defect. If a thermostat is stuck closed, this can cause the engine to
overheat.
 THERMOSTAT TEMPERATURE CONTROL
BYPASS

• A bypass around the closed thermostat allows a

small part of the coolant to circulate within the
engine during warm-up.
• It is a small passage that leads from the engine
side of the thermostat to the inlet side of the
water pump.
• It allows some coolant to bypass the thermostat
even when the thermostat is open.
• The bypass may be cast or drilled into the engine
and pump parts.
 THERMOSTAT TEMPERATURE CONTROL
BYPASS

FIGURE 8–7 This Internal bypass passage in the thermostat housing directs cold
coolant to the water pump.
 THERMOSTAT TEMPERATURE CONTROL
BYPASS

FIGURE 8–8 A cutaway of a small block Chevrolet V-8 showing the

passage from the cylinder head through the front of the intake
manifold to the thermostat.
 TESTING THE THERMOSTAT
• There are three basic methods that can be
used to check the operation of the
thermostat.
– Hot-water method
– Infrared pyrometer method
– Scan tool method
 THERMOSTAT REPLACEMENT
• An overheating engine may result from a faulty
thermostat. An engine that does not get warm
enough always indicates a faulty thermostat.
• To replace the thermostat, coolant will have to be
drained from the radiator drain petcock to lower
the coolant level below the thermostat.
– It is not necessary to completely drain the system.
• The upper hose should be removed from the
thermostat housing neck; then the housing must
be removed to expose the thermostat.
THERMOSTAT REPLACEMENT

FIGURE 8–10 Some thermostats are an integral part of the

housing. This thermostat and radiator hose housing is
serviced as an assembly. Some thermostats simply snap into
the engine radiator fill tube underneath the pressure cap.
 ANTIFREEZE/COOLANT
• Coolant is a mixture of antifreeze and water.
• Water is able to absorb more heat per gallon than any
other liquid coolant.
• Under standard conditions, water boils at 212°F
(100°C) and freezes at 32°F (0°C).
• When water freezes, it increases in volume about 9%.
• The expansion of the freezing water can easily crack
engine blocks, cylinder heads, and radiators.
• All manufacturers recommend the use of ethylene
glycol-based antifreeze mixtures for protection against
this problem.
ANTIFREEZE/COOLANT

FIGURE 8–11 Graph showing the

relationship of the freezing point of the
coolant to the percentage of antifreeze
used in the coolant.
ANTIFREEZE/COOLANT

FIGURE 8–12 Graph showing how

the boiling point of the coolant
increases as the percentage of
antifreeze in the coolant increases.
 HYDROMETER TESTING
• Coolant can be checked using a coolant
hydrometer.
• The hydrometer measures the density of the
coolant.
• The higher the density, the more
concentration of antifreeze in the water.
• Most coolant hydrometers read the freezing
point and boiling point of the coolant.
 RECYCLING COOLANT
• Coolant (antifreeze and water) should be
recycled.
• Used coolant may contain heavy metals, such as
lead, aluminum, and iron, which are absorbed by
the coolant during its use in the engine.
• Recycle machines filter out these metals and dirt
and reinstall the depleted additives.
• The recycled coolant, restored to be like new, can
be reinstalled into the vehicle.
 DISPOSING OF USED COOLANT
• Used coolant drained from vehicles can usually
be disposed of by combining it with used engine
oil.
• The equipment used for recycling the used
engine oil can easily separate the coolant from
the waste oil.
• Check with recycling companies authorized by
local or state governments for the exact method
recommended for disposal in your area.
RADIATOR DESIGN AND FUNCTION
• Two types of radiator cores are in common use in
domestic vehicles—the serpentine fin core and
the plate fin core.
• In each of these types the coolant flows through
oval-shaped core tubes.
• Heat is transferred through the tube wall and
soldered joint to fins.
• The fins are exposed to airflow, which removes
heat from the radiator and carries it away.
RADIATOR DESIGN AND FUNCTION

FIGURE 8–14 The tubes and fins of the radiator core.

 RADIATOR PARTS

FIGURE 8–15 A radiator may be either a down-flow or a cross-flow type.

RADIATOR DESIGN AND FUNCTION

FIGURE 8–17 Many vehicles equipped

with an automatic transmission use a
transmission fluid cooler installed in
one of the radiator tanks.
 PRESSURE CAP
• The filler neck is fitted with a pressure cap.
• The cap has a spring-loaded valve that closes
the cooling system vent.
• This causes cooling pressure to build up to the
pressure setting of the cap.
• At this point, the valve will release the excess
pressure to prevent system damage.
 PRESSURE CAP

FIGURE 8–18 The pressure valve maintains the system pressure and allows excess pressure to
vent. The vacuum valve allows coolant to return to the system from the recovery tank.
Pressure Cap
 SURGE TANK
• Some vehicles use a surge tank, which is located
at the highest level of the cooling system and
holds about 1 quart (1 liter) of coolant.
• A hose attaches to the bottom of the surge tank
to the inlet side of the water pump.
• A smaller bleed hose attaches to the side of the
surge tank to the highest point of the radiator.
• The bleed line allows some coolant circulation
through the surge tank, and air in the system will
rise below the radiator cap and be forced from
the system if the pressure in the system exceeds
the rating of the radiator cap.
 SURGE TANK

FIGURE 8–19 Some vehicles use a surge tank, which is located at the
highest level of the cooling system, with a radiator cap.
 METRIC RADIATOR CAPS
• According to the SAE Handbook, all radiator caps must
indicate their nominal (normal) pressure rating. Most
original equipment radiator caps are rated at about 14
to 16 PSI (97 to 110 kPa).
– However, many vehicles manufactured in Japan or Europe
have the radiator pressure indicated in a unit called a bar.
• One bar is the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level,
or about 14.7 PSI.
• The following conversion can be used when replacing a
radiator cap to make certain it matches the pressure
rating of the original.
 COOLANT RECOVERY SYSTEM
• Excess pressure usually
forces some coolant from the
system through an overflow.
• Most cooling systems
connect the overflow to a
plastic reservoir to hold
excess coolant while the
system is hot.

FIGURE 8–20 The level in the coolant recovery system

raises and lowers with engine temperature.
 TESTING THE COOLING SYSTEM
PRESSURE TESTING

• Pressure testing using a hand-operated

pressure tester is a quick and easy cooling
system test.
• The radiator cap is removed (engine cold!) and
the tester is attached in the place of the
radiator cap.
• By operating the plunger on the pump, the
entire cooling system is pressurized.
 TESTING THE COOLING SYSTEM
PRESSURE TESTING

• If the cooling system is free from leaks, the

pressure should stay and not drop.
• If the pressure drops, look for evidence of leaks
anywhere in the cooling system including:
– Heater hoses
– Radiator hoses
– Radiator
– Heat core
– Cylinder head
– Core plugs in the side of the block or cylinder head
 TESTING THE COOLING SYSTEM
PRESSURE TESTING

• Pressure testing should be

performed whenever there is
a leak or suspected leak.
• The pressure tester can also
be used to test the radiator
cap.
• An adapter is used to
connect the pressure tester
to the radiator cap.
• Replace any cap that will not
hold pressure.

FIGURE 8–22 The pressure cap should be checked for

proper operation using a pressure tester as part of the
cooling system diagnosis.
 TESTING THE COOLING SYSTEM
COOLANT DYE LEAK TESTING

• One of the best methods to check for a coolant

leak is to use a fluorescent dye in the coolant.
• Use a dye designed for coolant.
• Operate the vehicle with the dye in the coolant
until the engine reaches normal operating
temperature.
• Use a black light to inspect all areas of the cooling
system.
• When there is a leak, it will be easy to spot
because the dye in the coolant will be seen as
bright green.
TESTING THE COOLING SYSTEM
COOLANT DYE LEAK TESTING

FIGURE 8–23 Use dye specifically made for

coolant when checking for leaks using a
black light.
 WATER PUMP
OPERATION

• The water pump (also called a coolant pump) is

driven by a belt from the crankshaft or driven by
the camshaft.
• Coolant recirculates from the radiator to the
engine and back to the radiator.
• Low-temperature coolant leaves the radiator by
the bottom outlet.
• It is pumped into the warm engine block, where it
picks up some heat.
• From the block, the warm coolant flows to the
hot cylinder head, where it picks up more heat.
 WATER PUMP
OPERATION

FIGURE 8–24 Coolant flow through the impeller and scroll of a coolant pump for a
V-type engine.
 WATER PUMP
SERVICE

• A worn impeller on a water

pump can reduce the
amount of coolant flow
through the engine.

FIGURE 8–26 This severely corroded water pump could

not circulate enough coolant to keep the engine cool.
As a result, the engine overheated and blew a head
gasket.
 WATER PUMP
SERVICE

FIGURE 8–27 The bleed weep hole in the water pump allows coolant to leak
out of the pump and not be forced into the bearing. If the bearing failed,
more serious damage could result.
 WATER PUMP
SERVICE

FIGURE 8–28 A cutaway of a typical water pump showing the long bearing
assembly and the seal. The weep hole is located between the seal and the
bearing. If the seal fails, then coolant flows out of the weep hole to prevent
the coolant from damaging the bearing.
 THERMOSTATIC FANS
• The thermal fan is designed so that it uses little power
at high engine speeds and minimizes noise.
• The thermal fan has a silicone coupling fan drive
mounted between the drive pulley and the fan.
• A second type of thermal fan has a thermostatic spring
added to the silicone coupling fan drive.
• The thermostatic spring operates a valve that allows
the fan to freewheel when the radiator is cold.
• As the radiator warms to about 150°F (65°C), the air
hitting the thermostatic spring will cause the spring to
change its shape.
 THERMOSTATIC FANS

FIGURE 8–32 The bimetallic temperature sensor spring controls the

amount of silicone that is allowed into the drive unit, which controls the
speed of the fan.
 ELECTRIC COOLING FANS
• Air is forced across the
radiator core by a cooling
fan.
• On older engines used in
rear-wheel-drive vehicles, it
is attached to a fan hub that
is pressed on the water
pump shaft.
• Many installations with rear-
wheel drive and all
transverse engines drive the
FIGURE 8–33 A typical electric cooling fan assembly
fan with an electric motor. after being removed from the vehicle.
 COOLANT TEMPERATURE WARNING LIGHT

• Most vehicles are equipped with a heat sensor

for the engine operating temperature.
• If the “hot” light comes on during driving (or
the temperature gauge goes into the red
danger zone), then the coolant temperature is
about 250°F to 258°F (120°C to 126°C), which
is still below the boiling point of the coolant
(assuming a properly operating pressure cap
and system).
 COMMON CAUSES OF OVERHEATING

• Overheating can be caused by defects in the cooling system.

• Some common causes of overheating include:
– Low coolant level
– Plugged, dirty, or blocked radiator
– Defective fan clutch or electric fan
– Incorrect ignition timing
– Low engine oil level
– Broken fan belt
– Defective radiator cap
– Dragging brakes
– Frozen coolant (in freezing weather)
– Defective thermostat
– Defective water pump (the impeller slipping on the shaft
internally)
 Highway Overheating

FIGURE 8–34 When an engine overheats, often the coolant overflow

container boils.
 COOLING SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
• The cooling system is one of the most
maintenance-free systems in the engine.
• Normal maintenance involves an occasional
check on the coolant level.
• It should also include a visual inspection for signs
of coolant system leaks and for the condition of
the coolant hoses and fan drive belts..
• The coolant-antifreeze mixture is renewed at
periodic intervals.
• Some vehicle manufacturers recommend that
coolant system stop-leak pellets be installed
whenever the coolant is changed.
 FLUSH AND REFILL
• Manufacturers recommend that a cooling system be flushed
and that the antifreeze be replaced at specified intervals.
• Draining coolant when the engine is cool eliminates the
danger of being injured by hot coolant.
• The radiator is drained by opening a petcock in the bottom
tank, and the coolant in the block is drained into a suitable
container by opening plugs located in the lower part of the
cooling passage.
• Water should be run into the filler opening while the drains
remain open.
• Flushing should be continued until only clear water comes
from the system.
 BURPING THE SYSTEM
• In most systems, small air pockets can occur.
• The engine must be thoroughly warmed to
open the thermostat.
– This allows full coolant flow to remove the air
pockets.
– The heater must also be turned to full heat.
 HOSES
• Coolant system hoses are critical to engine
cooling.
• As the hoses get old, they become either soft or
brittle and sometimes swell in diameter.
• Their condition depends on their material and on
the engine service conditions.
• If a hose breaks while the engine is running, all
coolant will be lost.
• A hose should be replaced anytime it appears to
be abnormal.
 CLEANING THE RADIATOR EXTERIOR

• Overheating can result from exterior radiator plugging as well as

internal plugging.
• External plugging is caused by dirt and insects.
• This type of plugging can be seen if you look straight through the
radiator while a light is held behind it.
• It is most likely to occur on off-road vehicles.
• The plugged exterior of the radiator core can usually be cleaned
with water pressure from a hose.
• The water is aimed at the engine side of the radiator.
• The water should flow freely through the core at all locations.
• If this does not clean the core, the radiator should be removed for
cleaning at a radiator shop.
 SUMMARY
1. The purpose and function of the cooling system
is to maintain proper engine operating
temperature.
2. The thermostat controls engine coolant
temperature by opening at its rated opening
temperature to allow coolant to flow through
the radiator.
3. Most antifreeze coolant is ethylene glycol-based.
4. Used coolant should be recycled whenever
possible.
 SUMMARY
5. Coolant fans are designed to draw air
through the radiator to aid in the heat
transfer process, drawing the heat from the
coolant and transferring it to the outside air
through the radiator.
6. he cooling system should be tested for leaks
using a hand-operated pressure pump.
7. The freezing and boiling temperature of the
coolant can be tested using a hydrometer.
LUBRICATION SYSTEM
 Purpose Of Lubrication
• Reduce the frictional resistance of the engine
to a minimum to ensure maximum mechanical
efficiency
• Protect the engine against wear
• Remove all impurities from lubricated region.
• Form a seal between piston rings and the
cylinder walls to prevent blow by.
 Classification of Lubricants
• Animal
• Vegetable
• Mineral
• Synthetic
 Animal Lubricants
• These are highly stable at normal temperatures
• Animal lubricants may not be used for internal combustion
because they produce fatty acids
 Vegetable Lubricants
• Examples of vegetable lubricants are:
– Castor oil
– Olive oil
– Cottonseed oil
• Animal and vegetable oils have a lower
coefficient of friction than most mineral oils
but they rapidly wear away steel
 Mineral Lubricants
• These lubricants are used to a large extent in
the lubrication of internal combustion engines
• There are three classifications of mineral
lubricants:
– Solid
– Semisolid
– Fluid
 Synthetic Lubricants
• Because of the high operating temperatures of
gas-turbine engines, it became necessary to
develop lubricants which would retain their
characteristics at temperatures that cause
petroleum lubricants to evaporate and break
down
• Synthetic lubricants do not break down easily
and do not produce coke or other deposits
 Lubricating Oil Properties
• Gravity • Precipitation Number
• Flash Point • Corrosion and
• Viscosity Neutralization Number
• Cloud Point • Oiliness
• Pour Point • Extreme-Pressure (Hypoid)
• Carbon-Residue Test Lubricants
• Ash Test • Chemical and Physical
Stability
 Gravity
• The gravity of petroleum oil is a numerical
value which serves as an index of the weight
of a measured volume of this product
• There are two scales generally used by
petroleum engineers:
– Specific-gravity scale
– American Petroleum Institute gravity scale
 Flash Point
• The flash point of an oil is the temperature to
which the oil must be heated in order to give
off enough vapor to form a combustible
mixture above the surface that will
momentarily flash or burn when the vapor is
brought into contact with a very small flame
 Viscosity
• Viscosity is technically defined as the fluid
friction of an oil
• To put it more simply, it is the resistance an oil
offers to flowing
• Heavy-bodied oil is high in viscosity and pours
or flows slowly
 Cloud Point
• The cloud point is the temperature at which
the separation of wax becomes visible in
certain oils under prescribed testing
conditions
• When such oils are tested, the cloud point is
slightly above the solidification point
 Pour Point

• The pour point of an oil is the temperature at

which the oil will just flow without
disturbance when chilled
 Carbon-Residue Test
• The purpose of the carbon-residue test is to
study the carbon-forming properties of a
lubricating oil
 Ash Test
• The ash test is an extension of the carbon-
residue test
• If an unused oil leaves almost no ash, it is
regarded as pure
• The ash content is a percentage (by weight) of
the residue after all carbon and all
carbonaceous matter have been evaporated
and burned
 Precipitation Number
• The precipitation number recommended by
the ASTM is the number of milliliters of
precipitate formed when 10 mL of lubricating
oil is mixed with 90 mL of petroleum naphtha
under specific conditions and then centrifuged
 Functions of Engine Oil
• Lubrication, thus reducing friction
• Cools various engine parts
• Seals the combustion chamber
• Cleans the engine
• Aids in preventing corrosion
• Serves as a cushion between impacting parts
 Multiviscosity Oil
• In certain circumstances, all single-grade oils
have short comings
• In cold-weather starts, single grade oil
generally flows slowly to the upper reaches
and vital parts of the engine
• Multigrade oils have viscosity characteristics
that allow for better flow characteristics at
engine start
 Characteristics of Lubrication Systems
• Pressure Lubrication
• Splash Lubrication and Combination Systems
• Principal Components of a Lubrication System
• Oil Capacity
 Pressure Lubrication
• In a pressure lubrication system, a mechanical
pump supplies oil under pressure to the
bearings
• Oil flows into the inlet of the pump through
the pump and into an oil manifold which
distributes it to the crankshaft bearings
 Components of Lubrication Systems
• Plumbing for Lubrication • Oil Separator
Systems • Oil Pressure Guage
• Temperature Regulator (Oil • Oil Temperature Guage
Cooler) • Oil Pressure Pumps
• Oil Viscosity Valve • Scavenge Pumps
• Oil Pressure Relief Valves • Oil Dilution System
Temperature Regulator (Oil Cooler)
• An oil temperature regulator is designed to
maintain the temperature of the oil for an
operating engine at the correct level
• These regulators are often called oil coolers
since cooling of engine oil is one of their main
functions
 Oil Viscosity Valve
• The oil viscosity valve is generally considered a
part of the oil temperature regulator unit and
is employed in some oil systems
• The viscosity valve consists essentially of an
aluminum alloy housing and a thermostatic
control element
• The oil viscosity valve works with the oil cooler
valve to maintain a desired temperature and
keep the viscosity within required limits
 Oil Pressure Relief Valves
• The purpose of the oil pressure relief valve is
to control and limit the lubricating pressure in
the oil system
• This is necessary to prevent damage caused by
excessive system pressure and to ensure that
engine parts are not deprived of fuel due to a
system failure
 Oil Separator
• Air systems where oil of oil mist is present
may require the use of an oil separator
• These are often used on vacuum pump outlets
• The oil separator contains baffle plates which
cause the air to swirl and it deposits on the
baffles
 Oil Pressure Gauge
• An oil pressure gauge is an essential
component of any engine oil system
• These gauges generally use a bourdon tube to
measure the pressure
• They are designed to measure a wide range of
pressures
 Oil Temperature Gauge
• The temperature probe for the oil
temperature gauge in the oil inlet line or
passage between the pressure pump and the
engine system
• On some installations the temperature probe
is located in the oil filter housing
• These are normally electric or electronic
 Oil Pressure Pumps
• Oil pressure pumps may either be of the gear
type or vane type
• The gear type pump is used in the majority of
reciprocating engines and uses close fitting
gears that rotate and push the oil through the
system
 Scavenge Pumps
• Scavenge pumps are driven in the same
manner as the pressure pumps but have a
greater capacity
• This higher capacity is because the oil in the
sump is foamy which means it has a much
greater volume than air-free oil
 Oil Dilution System

• The purpose of the oil dilution system is to

provide thinner oil during engine start
• This allows faster lubrication of engine
components
• Oil dilution is accomplished by pumping a
small amount of fuel into the oil
 Typical Lubrication Systems
• Mist Lubrication system
• Oil System for Wet-Sump Engine
• Oil System for Dry-Sump Engine
(Mist lubrication system is mainly employed in two-
stroke cycle engines, whereas wet and dry sump
systems are used in four-stroke cycle engines. The
wet sump system is employed in relatively small
engines. Such as automobile engines. While the
dry sump system is used in large stationary
Marian and aircraft engines.)
 Mist Lubrication Systems
• In two-stroke engines, the charge is compressed in the
crankcase, and as such it is not suitable to have
lubrication oil in the sump. Therefore. Such engines are
lubricated by adding 3% to 6% oil in the fuel tank itself.
The oil and fuel mixture is inducted through the
carburetor. The fuel gets vaporized and the oil in the
form of mist, goes into the cylinder through the
crankcase. The oil that impinges the crankcase wall
lubricates the main and connecting rod bearings, and
the rest of the oil lubricates the piston, piston rings
and cylinder .The main advantage with this system lies
in the simplicity and low cost as the system does not
require any oil pump, filter etc .
 Lubrication Systems
• Splash
– Dipper
– Slinger
• Force Feed & Splash
• Full Force Feed
Splash Lubrication
 Wet Sump Lubrication Systems
• In the wet sump system, the bottom of the
crankcase contains an oil sump( or pan)that
serves as the oil supply reservoir. Oil dripping
from the cylinders and bearings flows by gravity
back into the wet sump where it is picked up by a
pump and re-circulated through the engine
lubrication system. The type of wet sump systems
used are:
• The Splash and circulating pump system
• The splash and Pressure system
• The full force-feed system
Splash and circulating pump system
Splash and pressure System
Force Feed and Splash
Full Force Feed System
Dry Sump Lubricating System
LUBRICATION SYSTEM
 Purpose of Lubrication System

•Lubricate
Reduces Friction by creating a thin film(Clearance)
between moving parts (Bearings and journals)
 Purpose of Lubrication System

•Seals

The oil helps form a gastight

seal between piston rings
and cylinder walls
(Reduces Blow-By)

Internal oil leak (blow-by) will

result in BLUE SMOKE at the
tale pipe.
 Purpose of Lubrication System

•Cleans
As it circulates through the engine, the oil picks up metal
particles and carbon, and brings them back down to the pan.
 Purpose of Lubrication System

•Cools
Picks up heat when moving through the engine and then
drops into the cooler oil pan, giving up some of this heat.
 Purpose of Lubrication System

•Absorbs shock
When heavy loads are imposed on the bearings, the oil
helps to cushion the load.

•Absorbs Contaminants
The additives in oil helps in absorbing the contaminants
that enter the lubrication system.
 VISCOSITY

Viscosity is a measure of oil’s resistance to flow.

•A low viscosity oil is thin and flows easily

•A high viscosity oil is thick and flows slowly.

•As oil heats up it becomes more

viscous (Becomes thin)
 VISCOSITY

•If the oil is too thin(has very low viscosity) it will be forced
out from between the moving parts, resulting in rapid wear.

•If the oil is too thick(has very high viscosity) it will flow very
slowly to engine parts, especially when the engine and the oil
are cold, resulting in rapid wear.

Viscosity Index is the measure of how much the viscosity of

an oil changes with temperature. (20 W)

Viscosity number is set by SAE (Society of Automotive

Engineers)
 VISCOSITY
•Single viscosity oils SAE 5W, SAE 10W (Winter) and
SAE 20, SAE30 … (Summer)

•Multiple viscosity oils SAE 10W-30.

This means that the oil is same as SAE 10W when cold
and SAE30 when hot.

The higher the number the higher the viscosity(thickness) of oil.

 Properties of oil
•Corrosion and Rust Inhibitor: Displaces water from
metal surfaces, to prevent corrosion.

•Foaming Resistance: Rotating crankshaft tends to cause

bubbles (Foam) in the oil and bubbles in oil will reduce the
effectiveness of oil to lubricate.

•Synthetic Oils: Made by chemical process and do not

necessarily come from petroleum.
 Service Rating of Oil
SA, SB, SC, SD,…..SJ

SA and SB oils are not recommended for use in today’s

Automobile engines.
 Parts
Oil Pumps Driven by camshaft, crankshaft (Rarely
rebuild by an auto technician)

•Rotor Pump(Two star shaped rotors

pumps the oil)

•Gear oil Pump

 Parts
Oil Pan
Stores the oil and helps in cooling the oil

Pan gasket splits if over tightened.

 Parts

Pressure Relief Valve to prevent the buildup of high

Pressure (Causes the oil filter to bulge, but not a common
problem).

Good oil pressure is

40-60 psi
 Parts

Oil Pressure Indicator

•Light or a Gauge

The light turns on or gauge reads low when

the pressure drops below 10psi.

•Good oil pressure is 40-60 psi.

Common causes of low oil pressure are:

•Low oil level
•Worn out pump

Low oil pressure Safety system will shuts down the car by
cutting the ignition System(Spark).
 Parts

Oil Filter filters the oil

Some particles are too small for the filter Element(paper
in the filter ) to trap.
 Parts
Oil Galleries

Deliver the oil to top

end and returning it
To the oil pan.
 Parts
Positive Crankcase ventilation Valve

•Pollution prevention
•Blow-by back into the intake
•Prevent sludge in the engine.
 Parts

Oil Pressure sending unit electrically sends the

signal to the Light or Gauge mounted on the dash.

If the wires get shorted the light will come on or

the gauge will read high.
 OIL CHANGE

•Every 5000Km

•3 months

Ignoring regular oil change intervals will shorten

engine life and performance.
Positive Crankcase Ventilation

At the edges of the combustion

Chamber of the engine
(above the piston tops), there is a
thin layer of gasoline that does
Not burn up. This gasoline
Constitutes an air pollutant
(what is its classification?)

To keep gasoline from returning to

The air, this gasoline is recirculated
Back into the combustion chamber.
 Functions of Engine Oils
1. Reduce wear
2. Reduce friction
3. Seal Compression
4. Reduce noise
5. Cool engine parts
6. Reduce rust
7. Keep parts clean
Organizations Providing Uniform
Standards for Oil
• S.A.E.
– Society of Automotive Engineers
• A.P.I.
– American Petroleum Institute
• A.S.T.M.
– American Society of Testing & Materials
• American Automobile Manufacturers Association
• Engine Manufacturers Association
• I.S.O.
– International Standards Organizations
 Properties of Motor Oils

• Viscosity
• Viscosity Index (VI)
• Flash Point
• Pour Point
• Per cent sulfated ash
• Per cent zinc.
 Properties of Motor Oils

• Viscosity
• Viscosity Index (VI)
• Flash Point
• Pour Point
• Per cent sulfated ash
• Per cent zinc.
 Viscosity
• Measure of the "flowability“
– Kinematic
– Dynamic
• Property –
– Resistance to flow
– Shearing stress
• High viscosity - thick oils
– Too high viscosity may not reach all parts
• Low viscosity – thin oil
– Too low viscosity may not provide enough strength to keep
parts from wearing
 Weight of oils
• Common term identifying viscosity for oils
• Numbers assigned by the S.A.E.
– correspond to "real" viscosity, as measured by accepted
techniques.
– These measurements are taken at specific temperatures.
– Oils that fall into a certain range are designated 5, 10, 20,
30, 40, 50 by the S.A.E.
– The W means the oil meets specifications for viscosity at
0 F and is therefore suitable for Winter use.
 Properties of Motor Oils

• Viscosity
• Viscosity Index (VI)
• Flash Point
• Pour Point
• Per cent sulfated ash
• Per cent zinc.
 Viscosity index
• The measure of an oil's ability to resist
changes in viscosity when subjected to
changes in temperature.

– As temperature increases
viscosity decreases.
– Low temperatures –
High viscosity
– High temperature –
Low viscosity
 Multi-viscosity/Multi-grade Oil
• Oil meeting SAE requirements for
both low-temperature requirements
of light oil and high-temperature
requirements. Also know as
multiweight oil.
• Oil that meets certain low-
temperature and high-temperature
requirements simultaneously
• (e.g., SAE l0W-40).
 Properties of Motor Oils

• Viscosity
• Viscosity Index (VI)
• Flash Point
– Minimum sample temperature at which vapor is produced
at a sufficient rate to yield a combustible mixture.
• Pour Point
– The lowest temperature at which oil will pour.
• Per cent sulfated ash
• Per cent zinc.
 Properties of Motor Oils

• Viscosity
• Viscosity Index (VI)
• Flash Point
• Pour Point
• Percent sulfated ash
– how much solid material is left when the oil burns.
– A high ash content will tend to form more sludge and
deposits in the engine.
– Low ash content also seems to promote long valve life.
Look for oils with a low ash content.
• Per cent zinc.
 Properties of Motor Oils
• Viscosity
• Viscosity Index (VI)
• Flash Point
• Pour Point
• Per cent sulfated ash
• Percent zinc
– the amount of zinc used as an extreme pressure, anti-
wear additive.
– The zinc is only used when there is actual metal to
metal contact in the engine. Hopefully the oil will do its
job and this will rarely occur, but if it does, the zinc
compounds react with the metal to prevent scuffing
and wear.
– A level of 0.11% is enough to protect an automobile
engine for the extended oil drain interval, under
normal use.
 Common motor oil additives
• Viscosity index improvers
– used to enhance the base qualities of the oil,
and to keep the oil from thinning too much as
heat increases.
• Pour-point depressants
– prevent crystals from forming in extreme cold
conditions, and consequently lower the oil's
pour point (temperature at which it pours).
 Common motor oil additives
• Oxidation inhibitors
– help prevent the oil from oxidizing (in other
words, burning). When oil oxidizes, it loses its
ability to protect the engine. It also produces
sludge deposits and traps corrosive acids.
• Rust-corrosion inhibitors
– help prevent and neutralize water and oxygen
from acid-etching the metals in the engine and
forming rust particles. If this corrosion were to
happen, some complex acids would form and
other sludge problems would occur.
 Common motor oil additives
• Dispersants
– help the oil to absorb and retain contaminants
such as dirt or tiny metal particles (from engine
wear) until the oil passes through the oil filter,
where the contaminants are trapped.
• Detergents
– help to remove contaminants from the engine
components and hold them in the oil until it
reaches a filter, or until it is changed the next time.
They don't only clean up a dirty engine.
 Common motor oil additives
• Friction modifiers/wear inhibitors
– "stick" to engine surfaces better, reducing friction
and improving fuel economy. Oils with the "energy
conserving" labels contain friction modifiers.
• Foam inhibitors (Antifoamants)
– prevent the oil from being whipped into many tiny
air bubbles. Air bubbles don't lubricate. This also
helps prevent sludge formation when the emulsion
process is a possible threat in an engine.
 Types of Motor Oils
• Petroleum Based
– Refined from crude oil
– Supplemented with additives
• Synthetic
– Lubricants chemically engineered from pure chemicals rather than
refined from crude oil.
– Can provide significant advantages over refined oils.
• Longer oil change intervals
• Longer engine life
• Increase gas mileage
– More expensive
Oil Pump
Oil pump intake screen
 Engine Oil Degradation and
Contamination
• Oil thickening
– Oxidation
– Vaporization of lighter
components
• Fuel
– Hydrocarbon compounds
• Combustion Products
– Carbon
– Water
– Sulphur Oxides
– Fuel chemical additives
• Dust and Dirt
• Metal – from wear of
components
 Oil Filtration Systems

• By-Pass
• Full –Flow
Engine
Lubrication
System with both
by-pass and full-
flow filtration
Two filters provide ability to filter smaller
particles
 Filter elements
• Surface
– Pleated paper
– Metal screen
• Depth
– Cotton waste
 Changing oil and filters renews engine
protection
• Dirty oil reduces life of an engine.
• Reduce maintenance and increase engine life by
changing engine oil and filters on a regularly
scheduled basis.
• Interval between changes depends on operating
conditions.
• Oil analysis provides management of oil change
intervals
Oil Pressure – Important Sensor

Low pressure light indicator

 Engine Lubrication And Cooling

• Lubrication Systems

• Wet-Sump System

• Dry-Sump System
 Engine Lubrication And Cooling

• Wet-Sump

• System consist of a sump or pan, in which the oil

supply is contained.

• The sump or pan is attached to the bottom of the

engine case.
 Engine Lubrication And Cooling

• Wet-Sump

What are some of the disadvantages and advantages of

the wet-sump system?
 Engine Lubrication And Cooling
• Wet-Sump
Disadvantages
• Oil supply limited by sump.
• Cooling is difficult.
• Higher operating temperatures.
• Not adaptable to inverted flying
Advantages
• Requires no external parts and fittings to complicate
installation.
• No second (scavenge pump) required.
• Can be operated in much cooler temperatures.
 Engine Lubrication And Cooling

• Dry-Sump

• Oil supply is carried in a separate tank.

• Scavenger pumps used to return the oil to the tank.

• Used in radial engines and engines capable of

sustained inverted flight.
 Engine Lubrication And Cooling
• Lubrication
System
 Engine Lubrication And Cooling
• Engine Cooling Systems

• Why is excessive heat undesirable in internal

combustion engines?
 Engine Lubrication And Cooling
• Engine Cooling Systems

• About one-fourth of the heat released in an engine is

changed into useful power.

• Half of the heat goes out the exhaust, and the other is
absorbed by the engine.

• Oil picks up some heat and transfers it to the

airstream.

• The engine cooling system takes care of the rest.

 Engine Lubrication And Cooling
• Cooling Fins

• Cooling fins increase the surface of a cylinder.

• This arrangement increases the heat transfer by

radiation.

• Cylinders are normally replaced when a specified

number of square inches of fins.
 Engine Lubrication And Cooling
• Cowling and baffles

• Designed to force air over the cylinder cooling fins.

• Direct the air close around the cylinders and prevent it

from forming hot pools.

• Blast tubes direct jets of cooling air onto the bottom

spark plug elbows.
 Engine Lubrication And Cooling
• Temperature Controls

• Controls the air circulation over the engine.

• Keeps the engine from overheating on take off and

getting too cold in high-speed low-power letdowns.
 Engine Lubrication And Cooling
• Cylinder Head Temperature Indicating System

• Consists of and indicator, electrical wiring, and a

thermocouple.

• Thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metals

connected by wiring to an indicating system. A
voltage is produced when the temperature of the
junction is different from the temperature where the
dissimilar metals are connected.
 Engine Lubrication And Cooling
• Thermal Shock

• Occurs when engine parts that are operating at high

temperatures are quickly cooled.

• Idle power, high airspeed, cool or cold air.

• Some parts are cooled much more rapidly then others.

These parts shrink in size faster then the warmer,
surrounding metals.
 Lubricating System Parts

• Oil pan
• Oil pump
• Pick-up screen
• Pressure regulator
• Oil filter
• By-pass valve
• Oil galleries
• Dipstick
• Pressure indicator
 Full Flow Filter Systems
• All oil goes through
filter

103
Oil Level and Pressure Indicators

• Dipstick the most

simple
• Some engines
equipped with an
electrical level
indicator.
• Oil pressure
indicator lamp
• Oil pressure gauge
(electrical or
mechanical)
104
• SA Straight mineral oil no additives.
A.P.I. Ratings
• SB 1930’s motor oil with some detergent.
• SC 1950’s oil more additives.
• SD 1960’s enter multi-viscosity oils.
• SE 1970’s emission controls make heat is problem.
• SF 1980’s improves fuel economy.
• SG Late 1980’s wider viscosity ranges.
• SH 1990’s great stuff.
• SJ Late 1990’s
• SL 2004’s
• SM Current (*Conserving matches ILSAC GF-5 by combining API SN performance with
improved fuel economy, turbocharger protection, emission control system compatibility, and
protection of engines operating on ethanol-containing fuels up to E85.)

105
Oil Viscosity Chart

107
Automatic Transmission Fluid
(ATF)
• Has red color to
identify it from motor
oil.
• Several kinds:
• Dexron/Mercon
• Type FA

108
 Gear Lube

• Used in manual
transmissions and
differentials on rear
drive cars.
• Heavy viscosity 90W.
• Looks like motor oil
but smells real bad!

109
Chassis Grease

• Conventional type of
petroleum grease.
• Grease steering and
suspension parts.

110
 Other Types of Grease

• Lithium grease or
white lube.
• Used on different
parts.

111
Other Lubricants

• WD-40 is a light oil

with graphite.
• Liquid wrench is a
penetrating oil for dry
and rusted bolts.

112
 Non Petroleum Lubricants

• Silicone spray is for

rubber and plastic
parts. Doesn’t work
well on metal.
• Brake cleaner is like
dry cleaning fluid.
Cleans off grease and
evaporates in seconds.

113
Other Useful Fluids

• Carburetor choke and

throttle body cleaner.
Contains toluene.
• Starting fluid. Contains
ether.

114
Oil Contamination
• Blow-by gases add raw
gasoline and water to the
oil causing deterioration.
• Excessive heat can cause
thermal breakdown.
• Excessive cranking can
dilute oil with gasoline.
• Cooling gasket leaks will
ruin oil causing sludge.

115
 Things That Make Oil Deteriorate
Faster
• Short distance driving.
(which is most trips)
• Extensive idling.
• Cold weather
operation.
• Excessive heavy loads
• Dirty and dusty
conditions.

116
 Proper Oil Disposal
• Waste motor oil is a
controlled waste.
• Be sure to properly
dispose of.
• Oil filters too!

117
 Changing Oil
• Find the drain
plug and
remove it.
• Catch the
waste oil and
dispose of it
properly.
• Don’t forget
to reinstall
the plug.

118
Drain Plugs

• Be careful never to
strip out drain plugs.
• Extremely bad form.

119
Changing the Filter
• Remove the filter
with an oil filter
wrench.
• Dispose of the filter
properly.
• Install the new filter
hand tight.

120
 Filter Problems

• Always match the old to the new oil filter. The gasket
and thread must be the same. If you make a mistake
you can pump 5 quarts of oil on the floor in seconds!
121
 Chassis Lubrication & Fluid Checks
• If the vehicle is • Under the car make the
equipped with zerk following checks:
fittings, grease those • Gear lube in the differential
on rear drive cars.
parts using the power
grease gun. • Check tire air pressure. Be
sure to find the proper
• Find and clean the inflation pressure.
fittings first, then inject • Check manual transmission
the grease. One kick fluid if the car is a stick shift.
from the gun is plenty.

122
Refilling Motor Oil
• Find crankcase
capacity in one of
the following
references:
• Owners manual?
• Service manual.
• Repair manual.
• Computerized
specification
system.

123
 Under Hood Checks
• Motor oil level • Good technicians also do
these things:
• Power steering fluid
• Check belt and hose
• Coolant level condition.
• Brake fluid • Inspect the battery
• Automatic transmission terminals.
fluid. (The engine must • Lubricate hood and door
hinges.
be running)
• Look for anything unusual
under the hood.

124
 Changing Transmission Fluid
• Remove transmission oil
pan. This is tricky so be
careful you don’t get an
oil bath.
• Catch oil in motor oil drain
pan with the tranny fluid
basin. Dispose of properly.
• Change the filter, clean
the pan, and reinstall the
pan with a new gasket.

125
Replacing Filter and Pan Gasket

• Buy a filter kit which

gives you a new filter
and gasket.

Treat used tranny filters

as you would an oil filter.
126
‘WET’ SUMP SYSTEM
Engine Block

Pump Filter

SUMP

Common for most vehicles

TYPICAL OIL SYSTEM - PISTON ENGINE

‘DRY’ SUMP SYSTEM
Engine Block

Pump Filter

Tank Scavenge
Pump

SUMP

High Performance/Rally vehicles and Aircraft

TYPICAL OIL SYSTEM - PISTON ENGINE

Let’s take a closer look
at what happens here

TYPICAL OIL SYSTEM – Distribution

 2 3
4
1
No 4
No 3 Piston
No 2 Piston
No 1 Piston
Piston

Rear
Bearing Bearing
Support Support
Bearing
Bearing Support
Support
Front CRANKSHAFT FROM A 4
Bearing CYLINDER ENGINE
Support
TYPICAL OIL SYSTEM – Bearing Locations/Lubrication
 Con Rod
Big End
Oil Oil
Splash Splash

Plain
Bearing
Lubricating
Oil Distribution Oil Film
Groove

Crankshaft Internal
Oil
Oil Feed
Splash Oil
Splash

TYPICAL OIL SYSTEM – Bearing Lubrication

 Pump Assembly – (end plate removed)
Pump
Body

‘Kidney’
Ports

Driven Driving
Gear Gear

Rotating Parts Yellow = Red =

Inlet Flow Outlet Flow
Kidney Ports

TYPICAL OIL SYSTEM - Internal Gear Type Pump

Automobile Electrical System
STARTING SYSTEM
STARTING SYSTEM
 STARTING SYSTEM
Battery provides the current to turn
the starter motor.

Fuse protects the circuit.

Ignition switch closes the circuit.

Relay uses small amount of current to control large amount.

Neutral safety switch opens the circuit until the vehicle is in neutral
(manual transmission), or park (Automatic). (Can be adjusted)

Solenoid does the same thing as relay, but performs

mechanical operation. It is an electromagnetic switch.

Starter motor engages pinion gear to ring gear (mounted on flywheel,

Or torque converter).
 STARTING SYSTEM
•Starting system uses battery power and an electric DC motor to turn
engine crankshaft for engine starting.

•Changes electrical energy to mechanical.

•Provides gear reduction/torque multiplication (16:1 to 20:1).

•When the ignition key is turned on the current flows through the
solenoid coil. This closes the contacts, connecting battery to the
starter motor.
 STARTING SYSTEM
Inside the starter motor.

1. Starter solenoid
2. Starter drive/bendix
3. Starter armature
4. Starter brushes
5. Starter bearings
 STARTING SYSTEM
COMMUTATOR sliding electrical connection between the motor
windings and the brushes.

•Insulated from each other.

•Several loops of wire and a

commutator with many segments
are used to increase motor power
and smoothness.
 STARTING SYSTEM
BRUSHES ride on top of the commutator to carry battery current
to spinning windings.

•Replaced during starter rebuilding.

 STARTING SYSTEM
Starter Armature consists of the armature shaft, armature core,
commutator and armature windings.

•Armature must produce high torque and high speeds.

 STARTING SYSTEM
Field winding is a stationary insulated wire wrapped in a circular
shape. It creates a strong magnetic field around the motor armature.
 STARTING SYSTEM
Pinion Gear is attached to the starter drive and when starting the
vehicle the pinion gear engages with flywheel or
ring gear. It is moved by the YOKE.
 STARTING SYSTEM
Overrunning Clutch Starter

•Locks it in one direction and unlocks it in another.

•It allows the pinion gear to run free when engine begins to run.
 STARTING SYSTEM
Gear Reduction Starter

•Has an extra gear on the armature to further increase the rotating force
•Gear ratio between flywheel and armature is 45:1
•Hence, the armature turns 45 times to turn the flywheel (engine) once.
•This provides high cranking torque for starting.
 STARTING SYSTEM
DC electric motors have three common types of internal connections:

Series-wound motors develop maximum torque at initial start-up.

Torque decreases as motor speed increases.

Shunt-wound motors have less starting torque but more constant

torque at varying speeds.

Compound-wound motors have both series and shunt windings.

They have good starting power with fairly consistent operating speeds.
 STARTING SYSTEM
Starting Solenoid

•Is a high current relay (controlled by

low current)
•Works as an electromagnet switch
•If faulty it will simply make a
clicking sound when one is attempting
to start the vehicle.
 STARTING SYSTEM
Neutral safety switch prevents the vehicle from starting while in
gear. (can be adjusted)

Clutch Safety Switch prevents the vehicle from starting, unless the
clutch pedal is pressed. (adjustable)
 STARTING SYSTEM
When replacing a starter motor, make sure
the spacer shims are of correct thickness
are installed.

•Shims sit in between the starter

housing and the engine block.

If these shims are left out, the pinion

gear may not mesh with the
flywheel gear properly, and might
cause damage to the ring-gear.

•Starter metallic grinding

sound.
 STARTING SYSTEM
QUICK TESTING

No crank with no headlights

•Dead Battery(corroded terminals)

or an open in electrical circuit.

•Burned fuse.

•Burned or broken wire.

 STARTING SYSTEM
QUICK TESTING
Head lights go out when cranking

•Indicates heavy current draw.

•Battery may be weak.

•Starter motor may be shorted.

 STARTING SYSTEM
QUICK TESTING

Lights stay bright but, no crank

•High resistance or an open in starting circuit.

•Possibly Ignition switch

•Wiring , solenoid, cable connections, relay, fuse.

 STARTING SYSTEM
Current Draw Test most of the starters draw over 200 Amps.

•Disconnect Fuel/ignition
•Crank engine for 5-10 seconds and note the voltage.
•Load the battery until same voltage is obtained
and record the Amp.
•The Amps will equal the current drawn by
the starting motor.

4 Cylinder – 150/200 amps

6 Cylinder – 175/250 amps
8 Cylinder – 225/300 amps
 STARTING SYSTEM
Voltage Drop Test checks for high resistance across a cable/connection

•Disable ignition/fuel

•Hook voltmeter between +ve battery post and +ve starter terminal

•Hook voltmeter between -ve battery post and starter ground.

•Crank the engine (5-10Sec.), Voltmeter should not read more
then 1volts.
If greater:
•Loose electrical connections.
•Burned or pitted solenoid contacts.
 Starting Systems

State a major safety precaution when

removing or working around a
starting motor
 Don’t make your starter
an Arc Welder!
Always unhook the battery ground

Before removing the starter motor

 Starting Systems
Identify the following components
Armature
Commutator
Brushes
Pole Shoe
Field Coil
Starter Armatures
The Armature is a rotating
electromagnet
Commutator bars allow current in
and out of the armature
Brushes
Brushesride
transfer
on commutator
electrons from
barsthe stationary field coils to the spinning armature
Insulated Brushes Grounded Brushes
 Field Coils are Stationary Electromagnets

Pole Shoes concentrate the stationary magnetic field

 Starting Systems
Identify the following components
Starter housing or frame
Bushings
Starter Drive Pinion
Over-running clutch
Starter Diagnosis
Worn out bushings...

Allow the armature to drag on the pole shoes

This will slow the starter and INCREASE amp draw

Worn or Dry Armature shaft will INCREASE amp flow
Burned commutator bars
restrict the amp flow
Worn out brushes DECREASE amp flow
Test the Starting System
Check Cranking RPM

Check Cranking Volts

Check Cranking Amps

 Low Cranking RPM
A slow turning starter will pull extra amps

Could be caused by tight engine

(New Engines)

Can be caused by advanced timing

 Low Cranking RPM
Low cranking RPM….

…With low cranking Amps…

Bad Starter

Worn brushes, Bad commutator bars,

open in field or armature
 Low Cranking Volts

Cranking volts at battery should be over 10V

Load test battery if low cranking volts

Excessive amp draw can cause low cranking volts

in a good battery
 High Cranking Amps
Check voltage drop across
STARTER MOTOR

If Battery cranking volt is 1/2 volt more than

Starter volt drop diagnose battery cables and
connections
 If cranking volts are within
1 volt of battery…

Insure engine turns freely

Insure ignition does not cause slow turning engine

Replace Starter Motor

(assuming there are excessive amps)
 Starting Systems
Understand the operation of the two starting
circuits

#1 Starter Control Circuit

#2 Starter Motor Circuit

 Starter Solenoid
Understand the function of the Pull In
solenoid windings….
…and the hold in solenoid windings
 Starter Solenoids
Predict the effect of an open circuit in the
solenoid pull in windings….
….and the solenoid hold in windings
Notice pitted contact ring
 24 Volt Series/Parallel Switch
Understand how 12 volt batteries can be used
to run a 24 Volt starting system
 Series/Parallel Switch
Diagnose a defective series parallel switch
using a volt meter
 Starter Control
Identify variations in starter control circuits
Test the Starting System

The Bottom Line

Test cranking RPM
Test Cranking Volts
Test Cranking Amps
 Starting Systems

State a major safety precaution when

removing or working around a
starting motor
 Self-Study and Assignment

Explain the working principal of 12 volt starting

system and 24 volt starting system in
automobile. Draw a systematic diagram of these
circuit.
Automotive Batteries
 Automotive Batteries
• WHAT AND AUTOMTIVE BATTERY DOES
• A battery supplies power to the starter and
ignition system to start the engine.
• A battery also supplies the extra power
necessary when the vehicle's electrical load
exceeds the supply from the charging system.
 Automotive Batteries
• Automotive batteries acts as a voltage
stabilizer in the electrical system.
• An automotive battery converts chemical
energy into electrical energy
• An automotive battery evens out voltage
spikes and prevents them from damaging
other components in the electrical system
 Automotive Batteries
• What the standby battery does:

• Supplies electrical power to critical systems in

the event of a power outage.
• Acts as a voltage stabilizer, to smooth out
fluctuations in the electrical generation
systems.
• Temporarily holds large electrical loads as
electric utilities switch from one generation
system to another.
 How a Battery is Made
•
How a Battery is Made

• Batteries are made of

five basic components:
• 1. A resilient Plastic
container.
• 2. Positive and negative
internal plates made of
lead.
 How a Battery is Made
• 3. Plate separators made
of porous synthetic
material.
• 4. Electrolyte, a dilute
solution of sulfuric acid
and water better known
as battery acid.
• 5. Lead terminals, the
connection point between
the battery and whatever
it powers.
 How a Battery is Made
• Most automotive battery
containers and their
covers are made of
polypropylene.
• A typical 12-volt car
battery, case is divided
into six sections, or cells
 How a Battery is Made
• A battery must have
positive and negative
plates to conduct a
charge.
• Grids or plates are made
from lead or an alloy of
lead and other metals.
 How a Battery is Made
• A mixture of lead oxide -- which is powdered
lead, sulfuric acid and water is applied to the
grids
• Expander material made of powdered sulfates
is added to the paste to produce negative
plates
• The expander material is not added to the
positive plates.
 How a Battery is Made
• Pasted positive and
negative plates must be
separated to prevent
short circuits.
• Separators are thin sheets
of porous, insulating
material used as spacers
between the positive and
negative plates.
 How a Battery is Made
• Fine pores in the
separators allow electrical
current to flow between
the plates while
preventing short circuits.
 How a Battery is Made
• A positive plate is paired with
a negative plate and a
separator to make an element
• There is one element per
battery cell
• Elements are dropped into
the cells in the battery case
• The cells are connected with a
metal that conducts
electricity.
 How a Battery is Made
• The lead terminals, or
posts, are welded on.
• The battery is then filled
with electrolyte - or
battery acid -- a mixture
of sulfuric acid and water,
and the cover is attached.
 How a Battery is Made
• After a battery is made its is
– Checked for leaks.
– Charged for several hours.
– Labels added
 Battery Operation
• A battery convert chemical energy into
electrical energy
• When an atom loses and electron it become a
positively charge Ion
• When am atom gains an electron it become a
negatively charge ion.
• Battery produce Voltage and Amperage.
– Voltage is defined and electrical pressure
– Amperage is defined as electron flow from one
atom to another.
 Battery Operation
• When you have and abundance of negatively
charge ions and a abundance of positively
charged ions connected together in an
electrical circuit current will begin to flow.
• The larger the difference between the positive
ions and the negative ions the greater the
voltage or electrical pressure difference.
• The greater the flow electrons from one atom
to another the greater the current flow
 Battery Operation
• Battery have two different ratings.
• 1. Cold cranking amperage (CCA): Is the ability
of a battery to maintain 7.3 volts for 30
seconds at 0 degrees F
• 2. Reserve Capacity (RC): Is the ability of a
battery to supply 10.5 volts at 25 amps at 80
degrees F.
 Battery Operation
• A battery stores electricity for future use.
• A battery develops voltage from the chemical
reaction produced when two unlike materials,
such as the positive and negative plates, are
immersed in electrolyte, a solution of sulfuric
acid and water.
• In a typical lead-acid battery, the voltage is
approximately 2 volts per cell, for a total of 12
volts.
 Battery Operation
• Electricity flows from the battery as soon as
there is a circuit between the positive and
negative terminals. This happens when any
load that needs electricity, such as the radio, is
connected to the battery.
Battery Operation
 Battery Operation
• When a battery is discharge the plates have
the same amount of electrical charge.
• As a battery discharges, the lead plates
become more chemically alike, the acid
becomes weaker and less voltage is produced.
 Battery Operation
• You can recharge a discharged battery by
feeding electrical current back into the
battery.
• A full charge restores the chemical difference
between the plates and leaves the battery
ready to deliver its full power.
Battery Operation
 Batteries
• SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Specific gravity means exact weight.
• A "Hydrometer" or a "Refractometer"
compares the exact weight of electrolyte with
that of water.
• Strong electrolyte in a charged battery is
heavier than weak electrolyte in a discharged
battery.
• By weight, the electrolyte in a fully charged
battery is about 36% acid and 64% water.
 Batteries
• The specific gravity of water is 1.000.
• Acid is 1.835 times heavier than water, so its
specific gravity is 1.835.
• The electrolyte mixture of water and acid has
a specific gravity of 1.270, usually stated as
"twelve and seventy."
 Battery Operation
• This unique process of discharging and
charging in the lead-acid battery means that
energy can be discharged and restored over
and over again.
• This is what's known as the cycling ability in a
battery.
 Batteries
• When a battery becomes discharged it must
be recharged.
• A battery can be charged by the vehicle
alternators or by an external battery charger
• When connecting or disconnecting a battery
charger care should be taken not to create a
spark.
 Batteries
• When connecting or disconnecting a battery
charger care should be taken not to create a
spark.
– Hydrogen and oxygen can explode
– Spark will cause a battery to explode
– The gasses created during charging are explosive
 Batteries
• When charging a battery always connect the
positive cable first and the negative cable last
• When removing battery cables disconnect the
Negative cable first and the Positive cable
last.
• Most automotive manufactures recommend
disconnecting a battery before its recharged.
Automotive Ignition Systems
 Ignition System Purpose
• Create a high voltage spark
• Deliver the spark at correct time
 Ignition Timing
• BTDC
• ATDC
• Engine RPM
• Engine Load
• Firing Order
• Retard
• Advance
Firing Order
 Firing Order
• 1,3,4,2

• 1,2,5,4,3,2

• 1,5,6,3,4,2,7,8
Firing Order
 Ignition System Circuits
• Primary Circuit • Secondary Circuit
– (Low Voltage) – (High Voltage)
• Ignition Switch • Coil Secondary Winding
• Resistor • Coil Wire
• Coil Primary Winding • Distributor Cap & Rotor
• Ignition Module • Plug Wires
• Pick-up Assembly • Spark Plugs
CDI
 Ignition Primary Circuit
• Battery
• Ignition Switch
• Resistor
• Coil Winding
• Ignition Module
• Pick-up Assembly
• Low voltage side
Ignition Coils
• Step-up transformer
• Primary winding
• Secondary winding
• Uses electro-magnetic
induction to operate
• Magnetic field must
be built up and then
collapsed
 Ignition Coil

• High Voltage wire

• + Battery
• - ign module
• Primary Windings
• Secondary Windings
Making & Breaking Fields
 Ignition Modules

• Old Systems Used

Breaker Points
• Modules Contain a
Switching Transistor
• Externally Mounted
• Distributor Mounted
 Ignition Pick-up Assemblies
Can be mounted in one of
five different locations:

#1 Distributor
#2 Vibration Damper
#3 Flywheel
#4 Crankshaft
#5 Camshaft
 Distributor
• A mechanical timing
device
• Drives off engine
camshaft
• Can controls both
primary and
secondary circuits
• May contain advance
units
 The Rotor at Work
– Rotates around to
DISTRIBUTE voltage to
each spark plug
Ignition Secondary Circuit
• Coil Winding
• Coil Wire
• Distributor Cap &
Rotor
• Spark Plug Wire
• Spark Plug
 Distributor Cap & Rotor
• Cap fits on top of the
distributor housing
• Made of lexan plastic
• Has an index mark for
proper installation
• Rotor fits on top of
distributor shaft
• Also is indexed
Spark Plug Wires
• Very high resistance
wire 1000 ohms per
inch
• Mostly insulation
material
• Small conductor
material
• Must follow firing
order
Spark Plug Placement
 Spark Plugs

• Shell w/threads
• Ceramic insulator
• Center electrode
• Side electrode
• Plug gap
• Heat range
• Plug designation
Resistor Plugs
 Heat Rages of Plugs

The difference between a

"hot" and a "cold" spark
plug is in the shape of the
ceramic tip.

The carmaker will select the right-temperature plug for each car. Some cars with high-
performance engines naturally generate more heat, so they need colder plugs. If the
spark plug gets too hot, it could ignite the fuel before the spark fires; so it is important to
stick with the right type of plug for your car.
 Spark Plugs tell a story
Minor Melting
Normal Worn Lead Erossion Insulator Breakage

Fuel/Additive
Carbon Deposits
Over Heating Lead Fouled
Oil
Lead Fouled
 Self study and assignment

• By studying the spark plug, how will you check

the condition of engine ? Explain
Old Breaker Point Ignition

• Used 1920’s - 1974

• mechanical switch in
distributor
• build-up - collapse coil
magnetic field
• Points wear out
• Must be replaced
each year
Breaker Point (dwell angle)
Breaker Point Parts
Making & Collapsing field
Electronic Ignition with Distributor
High Energy Ignition (HEI)
• 1970’s
• Transistor in ignition
module turns coil on/
off
• Module mounted
externally or in
distributor
• Pick-up in distributor
 Trigger Wheel

 No Points
 Rotating Reluctor
Wheel
 Fewer Tune-Ups
 More Efficient
 Optical Trigger (Chrysler)

 Photo Electric
Sensor
 (Photo = Light)
 CKPS (crankshaft position sensor)
 Fewer Parts
 No Points
 No Distributor
 No Rotor
 Computer Controlled
 More Efficient
Direct Ignition

• No Distributor
• One Coil for Two
Cylinders
• Waste Spark System
• One Plug Fires
Backwards
 Wasted Spark

• 1st plug fires forward

• 2nd fires backwards
• Sister cylinders
Direct Ignition
Coil Over
 The Ignition System

 Size
 Reach
 Heat Range
 Spark.Air Gap
 Ignition System Maintenance
• Replace Spark Plugs every 30,000mi/36mo
• Inspect Cap and Rotor (replace if necessary)
• Inspect Spark Plug wires (replace if necessary)
• Check Firing Order
• Check Ignition Timing (if necessary)
 Ignition System
•Provides a method of turning a spark ignition engine on & off.

•Operates on various supply voltages (Battery & Alternator)

•Produces high voltage arcs at the spark plug electrode.

•Distributes spark to each plug in correct sequence.

•Times the spark so that it occurs as the piston nears the TDC on the
compression stroke.

•Varies the ignition timing as engine speed, load and other conditions
change.
 Ignition Parts
BATTERY provides power for system.

IGNITION SWITCH allows driver to turn ignition on and off.

IGNITION COIL changes battery voltage to 30,000V during

normal operation and has a potential to produce up to 60,000V.

SWITCHING DEVICE mechanical or electronic switch that operates

Ignition coil(Pick-up coil, Crank sensor, Cam sensor).

SPARK PLUG uses high voltage from ignition coil to produce an arc
in the combustion chamber.

IGNITION SYSTEM WIRES connect components.

 Ignition Circuits
PRIMARY CIRCUIT

•Includes all the components

working on low voltage
(Battery, Alternator).

SECONDARY CIRCUIT

•Consists of wires and points

between coil out-put and the
spark plug ground.
 Ignition Coil
Primary Windings are made up of several
hundred turns of heavy wire wrapped around
or near the secondary windings.

Secondary Windings consist of several thousand

turns of very fine wire, located inside or near
the secondary windings.
 Distributor

•Actuates the on/off cycle of current flow through the ignition coil
primary windings.

•It distributes the coils high voltage to the plugs wires.

 Distributor

•It causes the spark to occur at each plug earlier in the compression
stroke as engine speed increases, and vice versa.

•Changes spark timing.

•Some distributor shafts operate the oil pump.

 Point Ignition System

PARTS Distributor Cam, Breaker Points, and Condenser.

 Point Ignition System

Points are wired in Primary Circuit – When the points are closed,
a magnetic field builds in the coil. When the points open, the field
collapses and voltage is sent to one of the spark plug.
 Electronic Ignition System

•Trigger wheel passes by the pick-up coil.

•# of cylinders = # of teeth.
 Ignition Control Module
•An electronic switch that turns the ignition coil primary current on/off

LOCATION

•Engine compartment

•On the side of distributor

•Inside the distributor

•Under vehicle dash

 Distributor Cap

•Insulated plastic cap

•Transfers voltage from coil (wire) to Rotor.

 Distributor Rotor

•Transfers voltage from the distributor cap

center terminal(coil) to distributor cap
outer terminals(spark plugs).

•Provides spark in the correct Firing Order.

 Ignition Timing
How early or late the spark plug fires in relation to the position of the
engine piston.

Ignition timing must change with the changes in engine speed, load,
and temperature.
 Ignition Timing
Timing Advance occurs when the plug fires sooner on compression
stroke (High engine speed)

Timing Retard occurs when plug fires later on compression stroke

(Lower engine speed)

BASE TIMING Timing without vacuum or computer control.

 Methods of controlling Timing
Distributor Centrifugal Advance
•Controlled by engine speed.
•Consists of two weights and two springs.
•At high speeds the weights fly out(held by the springs), rotating the
cam, hence advancing the timing.
 Methods of controlling Timing
Vacuum Advance

•Controlled by engine intake manifold vacuum and engine load.

•The vacuum diaphragm rotates the pickup coil against the direction
of distributor shaft rotation.
 Methods of controlling Timing
Electronic Advance Sensors input influences the ignition timing.

•Crank shaft Position Sensor (RPM)

•Cam Position Sensor (tells which

cylinder is on compression stroke)

•Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP)

(engine vacuum and load)
 Methods of controlling Timing
Electronic Advance Sensors input influences the ignition timing.

•Intake Air Temperature Sensor

•Knock Sensor (Retards timing when pinging

or knocking is sensed)

•Throttle Position Sensor(TPS)

•Engine coolant Temperature

 Ignition System
Distributor VS Distributor Less Ignition System
 DIS Ignition System

•Less moving parts.

•No Distributor.

•Uses multiple ignition coils.

•Camshaft position sensor is installed in place of ignition distributor.

•ECM fires two coils at the same time.

 Direct Ignition System
Mounted directly on the plugs (Quad-4 )

No Sparkplug wires.
Charging System Fundamentals
 Introduction
• Charging system
– Important part of electrical system
– Allows battery to maintain charge and operate
accessories
 Charging System
• Charging system components
– Alternator and voltage regulator
– Dash light or gauge
– Related wiring
• Charging replenishes the battery
– Output increased when load causes battery voltage to
drop
• Starter motor is a large load on the battery
– AC generator recharges battery and supplies electrical
needs
 Direct Current (DC) Generators
• Older cars used DC generators
– Produces AC
• Output is DC because its commutator has brushes on north
and south poles
• Drawbacks
– More current must flow through brushes
– Brushes wear out
– Speed limited to 10,000 rpm
– Do not produce enough output at slow speeds to
supply electrical accessories
 AC Generator/Alternator
• Alternator is an AC
generator
– Electromagnet
passes across wire to
induce voltage
• Stator: stationary
conductor
• Rotor: rotating
electromagnetic field
 Rotor Construction
• Rotor: magnetic field that rotates within the
stator’s wire windings
– Very little clearance to maintain strong field
– Field coil has electrical wire wound around a shaft
– Poles fit into each other
• Make several pairs of north and south poles
• Increases magnetic flux
– Average rotor can spin at about 13,500 rpm
 Stator Windings
• Three sets of
windings wrapped
around slots in
laminated round
iron frame (i.e.,
core)
– Each winding has
two leads: one for
current to enter and
one to exit
 Rectifier Construction
• Diode rectifier converts AC to DC
– When AC current reverses, the diode blocks
– A pair of diodes is used for each stator winding
– Three positive diodes are mounted in a heat sink
– Three negative diodes mounted in the alternator
frame
• Three phases of AC are rectified
– Result is almost uniform DC voltage
 AC Generator Bearings
• Rotor is supported in alternator housing using
ball or roller bearings
– Bearings are usually sealed and packed with
grease
– Front bearing fits into indent in the case
– Rear bearing is pressed-fit into the case
– Rotor shaft slides into rear bearing
• AC generator fan
– Cooling fan draws air into AC generator
 Voltage Regulator
• Controls current passing through windings of
electromagnetic field in the rotor
– Determines amount of current produced in stator
– Increases current output when charging system
voltage is low
• Electronic voltage regulators
– No moving parts or contacts: very reliable
– Zener diode conducts electricity when a certain
voltage is reached
 Voltage Regulator (cont'd.)
• Computer voltage regulation/pulse
– Voltage regulation on late-model vehicles is done
by the on-board computer, or powertrain control
module
– Electronic voltage regulation: can cycle 10-7,000
times per second
– Pulse width modulation: turning alternator on and
off rapidly
 Charging System Indicators
• Charge indicators
– Warning light
– Voltmeter
– Ammeter
• AC generator warning light
– Wired into charging circuit
• Voltmeter indicator
– Shows system voltage when engine is running
• Ammeter indicator
– Gives current amount flowing to or from battery
 High-Voltage Charging Systems
• Important dates and concepts
– 1970: automobile required about 500 watts
– 2008: vehicle requires about 4,000 watts
– 2020: BAS systems will be included on all internal
combustion engine vehicles
• BAS systems use 42-volt electrical systems with a 36-
volt battery pack
• BAS motor/generator: larger than conventional AC
generator
 High-Voltage Charging Systems
(cont'd.)
• Hybrid vehicles
– More electrically powered
components
– Use a generator with
inverter/converter
• Converts battery pack voltage
to low voltage to power the
computer and accessories