4] METAL CASTING PROCESSES 1.1, INTRODUCTION In engineering industries, most of the components are made by ferrous and non-ferrous metals such as iron, steel, aluminium, etc. Some of the complicated shapes may not be produced on the components with conventional machining processes. Metal casting processes are used to manufacture components having complicated shapes. 1.2. SAND CASTING Casting is one of the processes used for making components of complicated shapes in large quantities. It is the process of producing metal parts by pouring molten metal into the mould cavity of the required shape and allowing the metal to solidify. The solidified metal piece is called “casting”. A plant where the castings are made is called “Foundry”. Therefore, it is a collection of necessary materials, tools and equipment to produce castings. 1.3. SAND MOULD Mould is the cavity of the required shape made using moulding sand or other suitable materials. The moulding process consists of all operations done to make a mould.Manufacturing T ; echnology-/ Pattern is the model of the Tequired casting made in we Primarily used to produce the mould cavity in sand, Soc metal OF plastics = The important processes involved in foundry are: a) Pattern making b) Mould making ©) Casting. 1.4, PATTERN AND PATTERN MAKING A pattern is one of the important tools used for making cavities in the mould. In these cavities, molten metal is poured to produce a casting. The model of the part is to be produced with certain essential difference. It is slightly larger than the desired casting due to various allowances which are described in Chapter 1.7. It may also have several projections or bosses called core print. It also has extra projections to produce runners, risers and gates during moulding process. 1.5. TYPES OF PATTERNS Patterns are classified according to the usage and forms of the pattern. The following factors are very useful for the selection of patterns. ¥ Size and complexity of the shape ¥ Number of components to be produced ¥ Method of castings to be used. The following types of patterns are normally used in foundry: 1, Solid or single piece pattern Split pattern Loose piece pattern Match plate pattern Sweep pattern Skeleton pattern Segmental pattern ‘Shall pattern Sr ayreyernrr 1.5.1. Solid Pattern or Single-Piece ‘attern a ‘ypes of patterns are made of single solid piece without joints, partings or loose piece as shown in Figure 1.1. Therefore, it is called sofid or one-piece pattern. it is made exactly into the desired casting to be Produced with some allowances. It Re ; is used for making a few large size simple castings, The removal of pattern from the sand is easy. (a) (b) © Figure 1.1 Solid or One piece pattern 1.5.2. Split Pattern A pattern which is having complex geometry cannot be removed from mould if they are made by 1 single-piece. Generally, split pattern is made into two parts as shown in Figure 1.2. One part is used to produce the lower half of the mould whereas the other part is used to produce the upper half of the mould. These two parts are assembled together in a correct position by pins called dowel pins. The line separating these two parts is called parting line Sometimes, the split pattern is made into three parts as shown in Figure 1.3. If the split patterns are made of three pieces, then it is called three-piece pattern. Upper part Upper die Dowel pin oe a Middle part ie Lower die 5 Lower part Figure 1.2 Split pattern Figure 1.3 Three-piece patternwee arutacturing Tectnoogy 7) Split patterns are used for making symmetrical shaped castings such as sphe Tes, cylinders, bearings and pulleys. 1.6.3. Loose-Piece Pattern Ifa pattern is made from a single piece having projections or back drafts which lie above or below the parting plane, it is impossible to withdraw it from the mould. In such cases, the pattern is built up into solid pattern and loose pieces as shown in Figure 1.4. After making the mould, the solid pattern is first removed and then the loose pieces are removed withou breaking the mould. This is called /oose-piece pattern. Loose pieces are attached to the main body of the pattern by pins. Loose piece a Solid piece Figure 1.4 Loose-piece pattern 1.5.4. Match-Plate Pattern }— Macth plate Figure 1.5 Match-plate pattern A pattern which is made into two halves mounted on both sides of a plate as shown it Figure 1.5 is called match-plate. The match plate is made by aluminium or wood. It is aenese [elaccurately placed between cope and drag flasks by means of locating pins. For small castings, many patterns can be mounted on the same match plate. The runner and gates required for sending the molten metal to the mould are attached in the match plate itself so that a small amount of hard work is required. Match plate patterns are used in machine moulding. This type of pattern is used for small, accurate size and large number of castings. Piston rings of LC engine are produced by this process, 1.5.5. Sweop Pattern Sweep patterns are mainly used to generate the surfaces of revolution such as cylinder, cone aad sphere in large castings. Sweep is a section or board made of wood or metal to the required cross-section that is rotated about one edge / spindle having shapes of rotational symmetry to shape mould cavities, Mould cavity Sweep b4— Spindle Figure 1.6 Sweep pattern A half of the board is fitted at the center spindle as shown in Figure 1.6. The sand is approximately rammed around the mould cavity. The sweep is rotated to form the mould cavity in the sand. Sweep patterns are used for making large and circular castings in loam moulding. 1.5.6. Skeleton Pattern For large casting of a simple shape, if a solid pattern is made of wood, it requires a large amount of wood. Hence, it is very expensive. In such cases, a skeleton pattern is used instead= Monufacturing Technology 1 sh full Pattern. A skeleton pattern is a ribbed frame of a desired casting. This shape is made wooden strips with a lot of openings and fitted to end Supports as shown in Pigure 1,7. First, the skeleton pattern is filled with | . " loam sand. Ramming is done inside the as pattern, A strickle board is used to remove excess sand and to give the alts joulds for water pipes, turbine castings and pipe bends are made by a skeleton pattern. For round shapes, the pattern is made into two halves which are joined together by means of screws. Ribs Loam sand ay [roel bee | Figure 1.7 Skeleton pattern 1.5.7. Segmental Pattern A segmental pattern is a segment of whole pattern as shown in Figure 1.8. This pattern is also called part pattern. A portion of mould made first Green sand ; Segmental pattern Pivot or spindle Figure 1.8 Segmental patternThis pattern is used for forming, circular moulds. When making the mould using this pattern, a vertical spindle is fixed at the center of the drag box. The bottom of the mould is rammed and leveled. Then, the pattern is attached to the spindle. Moulding sand is filled and rammed on the inner and outer sides of the pattern but not at the ends of a pattern. After ramming, the pattern is moved to form the next segment. Thus, the full mould is completed. ‘This pattern is used for casting circular components such as rings, wheel rims, gear blanks etc. 4.5.8. Shell Pattern Shell pattern is a hollow pattern. Its outer shape is used for making the mould. The core is prepared using the inner surface of the pattern itself. It is also known as block pattern. These patterns are usually made of metal. The pattern is made into two halves and joined accurately by dowels. These patterns are mainly used for making drainage fittings and pipe work such as short bends as shown in Figure 1.9. Figure 1.9 Shell pattern PATTERN MATERIALS ‘The following factors are to be considered for the selecting pattern materials. __- > Design of casting _ > Number of castings to be produced > Degree of accuracy and surface finish required ‘Shape, complexity and size of the castings g or moulding method adopted.a Manufacturing Technology1 Patterns are made by different materials wi hich have thei and their field of applications, Sea ee imitations The commonly used pattern making materials are given below 1, Wood - Teak wood, mahogany, white Pine, etc, 2. Metals — Cast iron, brass, aluminium, white metal etc, 3. Plaster 4. Plastics 5. Wax. 1.6.1. Wood Wood is the material commonly used for pattern making. Generally, teak wood, mahogany, white pine, rosewood are used for making patterns. The laminated wooden sheets are also used for getting accuracy, surface finish and long life. These woods should not contain more than 10% moisture to avoid wrapping and distortion during subsequent drying, Metal spray coating up to 0.25 mm thick may be given on wooden pattern. Zinc and aluminium are used for coating the metals on the wooden surface to avoid moisture absorption and good surface finish. Advantages: 1. It is light in weight, cheap and easily available. 2. It is easy to work, easy to cut and easy to fabricate. 3. It can easily be repaired. 4. Itcan easily be smoothened by varnishes and paints. 5. Good surface finish can be obtained. Limitations: 1. It absorbs water from sand and changes its shape. 2. It has non-uniform structure. 3. It has high wear and tear by sand. Hence, it cannot be used for mass production. 4. It cannot be used in machine moulding. 5. It is not possible to produce moulding of high accuracy.1.6.2, Metals The metal pattern is used when a larger number of castings are to be made, Metal patterns can either be cast from a masterpiece or may be machined by the usual method of machining. These patterns are generally used in machine moulding. Advantages: 1, Ithas long life and accurate in size. It has smooth surface. Mass production is possible. It does not absorb moisture and deform in size. It can be used for rough handling. ay aen It is resistance to wear, tear, abrasion and corrosion. Disadvantages: It is costlier and heavier than wood. It cannot be easily repaired. wpe Ferrous patterns can get rusted. 4. It is difficult to make the required shape. The materials commonly used for pattern making are as follows: 1. Cast iron: Cast iron having fine grain can be used as a pattern material. It has high resistance to sand abrasion and has smooth surface but it is heavier and difficult «© work. Its cost is less and more durable than other metals. It is brittle and can be easily broken, It will get rusted by moisture unless it is protected. 2. Brass: It may be easily worked and built up by soldering or brazing. It is used only for small size patterns because of high cost. It is very strong and not affected by moisture. It provides a very good surface finish and withstands wear and tear, The product can be made with very high accuracy. 3. Aluminium: ‘Aluminium is the best material because it is light in weight, strong and easily machined. It can be made with high accuracy and good surface finish. It is not affected by moisture and 4cnmenuning Technology.) gets rusted and also melts at low temperature. It is very soft and ania easil surfaces. It is subjected to shrinkage and also wears My damaged by rough by abrasion, 1.6.3. Plaster Plaster of paris or gypsum cement is used for Preparing hollow boards for moulding the work. Plaster can be easily made into difficult shapes i.e. easily worked It has high compressive strength. It is used only for small patterns, It is affected by moisture. 1.6.4, Plastics A plastic pattern has many advantages over other materials. The Plastic pattern is cast from a wooden pattem called master Pattern. It is light in weight but strong. It is not affected by moisture and more resistant to wear. It has very smooth glassy surface. It does not shrink much, it has high dimensional accuracy and it is more economical than other metals, The following plastics are widely used for pattern making with the composition based on epoxy, phenol formaldehyde and polyester resins. > Poly acrylates > Poly ethylene > Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) ete. 1.6.5. Wax Wax pattern is primarily used in investment castings. The commonly used waxes are paraffin wax, shellac wax and microcrystalline wax. It has good surface finish and high dimensional accuracy. It will not absorb moisture and easy to work. The cost is low but it can be used for making small patterns only. 1.7. PATTERN ALLOWANCES Patterns are not made into the exact size of the castings to be produced. Patterns are made slightly larger than the required castings. This extra size given on the pattern is called Pattern allowance. The pattern allowances are given for the purpose of compensating the metal shrinkage to provide extra metal which is to be removed in machining, to avoid metal distortion, for easy withdrawal of pattern from mould and for rapping. If allowances are not given on the pattern, the casting will become smaller than the required size. 625i deme beet rraaipii i beMetal Lessing + +~-—— ‘The various types of allowances normally provided on the pattern are 1. Shrinkage allowance Machining or finish allowance Draft of taper allowance Distortion or camber allowance prey Rapping or shake allowance 4.7.1. Shrinkage Allowance ‘The metals shrink on sol idification and contracts further on cooling to room temperature, To compensate it, the pattern is made larger than the required casting. This extra size provided on the pattern for metal shrinkage is called s/ smaller after it is cooled. The typical value shrinkage allowance. If it is not given, the casting will become s of shrinkage allowance for various metals are given in Table 1.1. Table 1.1 Typical shrinkage Allowances Materials Shrinkage Allowance Ci 10.4 mmim Aluminium 17 mmim Brass 15.3 mmlm Steel 20.8 mm/m Zinc, Lead 25 mm/m | 4.7.2. Machining or Finishing Allowance the required surface finish on the metal. During from the casting. For this purpose, the pattern is is extra size given to the pattern for machining, All castings are to be machined to get machining, some of the metals are removed made larger than the required casting. Thi purpose is called machining or finishing allowance. material of the casting, size of casting, The amount of finish allowance depends on the guration of the casting, method of volume of production, method of moulding, confi; ining, degree of finishing etc. Machining allowance is always larger for hand moulding compared to machine moulding.—— Manufacturing Technology.; Table 1.2 gives an idea of the machining allowance for vario us materials, Table 1.2 Typical machining allowances Materials Machining allowance 0-300 mm 9-600 mm Cast iron 2.5 mm 4.0 mm Aluminium 1.6 mm 3.2mm Bronze 1.6mm 3.2 mm ee Brass 1.6mm 3.2 mm aie Cast steel 3mm 4.5 mm 1.7.3. Draft or Taper Allowance If the vertical faces of Pattern are perpendicular to the Parting line, may be damaged when the Pattern is removed from the sand, Hence, made into taper for €asy removal of pattern. This slight taper provided on the vertical sides of Pattern is called draft allowance. the edges of mould the vertical faces are }*— Draft allowance Figure 1.10 Draft or taper allowance The amount of taper depends upon the following factors, ha ® Height and size of pattern ia}[Metal Casting Processes (b) Moulding method, and (c) Mould materials The common draft provided on the pattern is 1° to 3°. Otherwise, For taper on external surface, 10 to 25 mm / m is provided. For taper on internal surface, 40 to 65 mm / m is provided. 4.7.4. Distortion or Camber Allowance The casting may distort or wrap during cooling if it is an irregular shape, flat long casting surface and U or V shape. All surfaces do not shrink uniformly. The arms having unequal thickness are also the reason for distortion. Due to distortion, the casting will not get the required shape. It may bend. To avoid this, the shape of the pattern is slightly bent to the opposite direction. So, the casting neutralizes the initial distortion given on the pattern and gets the correct shape after cooling. For example, a casting of U shape may distort and legs become divergent instead of being parallel. To avoid this, the legs are made convergent as shown in Figure 1.11 instead of being parallel. So, the legs are become parallel after cooling. Figure 1.11 Distortion or camber allowance a5. Rapping or Shake Allowance . To remove the pattern out of mould cavity, it is slightly rapped or shaked to detach it cavity. This is called rapping. Due to rapping, the mould cavity a became To avoid this, the pattern is made slightly smaller than the required casting. This