Sustainable Cities and Society 84 (2022) 104004

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Sustainable Cities and Society

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scs

Data Analytics and Information Technologies for Smart Energy Storage

Systems: A State-of-the-Art Review
Fuzhan Nasiri a, *, Ryozo Ooka b, Fariborz Haghighat a, Navid Shirzadi a, Mariagrazia Dotoli c,
Raffaele Carli c, Paolo Scarabaggio c, Amirmohammad Behzadi d, Samira Rahnama e,
Alireza Afshari e, Frédéric Kuznik f, Enrico Fabrizio g, Ruchi Choudhary h, Sasan Sadrizadeh d
a
Department of Building, Civil, and Environmental Engineering, Concordia University, Montreal, QC, Canada
b
Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
c
Department of Electrical and Information Engineering, Politecnico di Bari, Bari, Italy
d
Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
e
Department of the Built Environment, Aalborg University, Copenhagen, Denmark
f
Institut National des Sciences Appliquées de Lyon (INSA) Lyon, France
g
Department of Energy, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy
h
Engineering Department, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This article provides a state-of-the-art review on emerging applications of smart tools such as data analytics and
Energy Storage smart technologies such as internet-of-things in case of design, management and control of energy storage sys­
Smart Systems tems. In particular, we have established a classification of the types and targets of various predictive analytics for
Artificial Intelligence
estimation of load, energy prices, renewable energy inputs, state of the charge, fault diagnosis, etc. In addition,
Renewable Energy Intermittency
Data Analytics
the applications of information technologies, and in particular, use of cloud, internet-of-things, building man­
Information Technology agement systems and building information modeling and their contributions to management of energy storage
systems will be reviewed in details. The paper concludes by highlighting the emerging issues in smart energy
storage systems and providing directions for future research.

when there are time-of-use tariffs and highly varied behavior of the users
1. Introduction and seasonality creating risk of shortage during the peak times (Sun
et al., 2018b).
Demand for reliable electricity with constant voltage and frequency Although there are several ways to classify the energy storage sys­
is increasing worldwide due to the economic growth, population rise, tems, based on storage duration or response time (Chen et al., 2009; Luo
and considerable changes in quality of life. Demand could have signif­ et al., 2015), the most common method in categorizing the ESS tech­
icant variation at different times due to unexpected behavior of the users nologies identifies four main classes: mechanical, thermal, chemical,
(Akbari and Haghighat 2021), at certain times, leading to its imbalance and electrical (Rahman et al., 2012; Yoon et al., 2018) as presented in
with electricity production (AL Shaqsi et al., 2020). Therefore, to ensure Fig. 1. Mechanical storage systems store the energy in two different
maintaining the balance between demand and supply and avoid eco­ forms, potential and kinetic (Evans et al., 2012). Examples of potential
nomic losses, shortages as well as damages caused by such instabilities energy storage are compressed energy storage (CAES) and pumped
between demand and supply, use of energy storage systems (ESS) has hydro, while flywheels could be also considered for storing kinetic en­
emerged as a solution. The importance of energy storage systems rises ergy. Thermal energy storage systems are grouped based on their tem­
further when all or part of the energy source on the supply side comes perature mode: high or low (Gomez et al., 2011). An example of a
from renewable resources due to the high intermittent characteristic of low-temperature method used for electricity generation is cryogenic
renewable energies such as solar or winds (Shirzadi et al., 2021) and energy storage (Wen et al., 2006). On the other hand, sensible or latent
their varying potentials in offsetting carbon emissions (Rezaei, et al., heat storages are two types of low-temperature energy storage (Gil et al.,
2021). In addition, energy storage systems are used a peak-shaving tool 2010; Bastani et al., 2014).

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (F. Nasiri).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2022.104004
Received 22 March 2022; Received in revised form 6 June 2022; Accepted 14 June 2022
Available online 16 June 2022
2210-6707/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F. Nasiri et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 84 (2022) 104004

Nomenclature IoT Internet of Things

LSTM Long Short-term Memory
AI Artificial Intelligence MCFC Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells
ANN Artificial Neural Network PEMFC Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
BIM Building Information Modeling RES Renewable Energy System
BMS Building Management System RNN Recurrent Neural Network
CAES Compressed Air Energy Storage RUL Remaining Useful Lifetime
CES Cloud Energy Storage SOC State of Charge
CNN Convolutional Neural Network SOFC Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
DES Distributed Energy Storage SOH State of Health
DNN Deep Neural Network SVM Support Vector Machines
ESS Energy storage system V2H Vehicle-to-Home
EV Electric Vehicle V2G Vehicle-to-Grid
HVAC Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning WSN Wireless Sensor Network

risk of power supply loss and increase the reliability of energy systems.
Furthermore, adding an energy storage system could improve the sys­
tem’s ability to withstand the disturbances (in case of disruptions or
shortages) and quickly return to a normal state (Mehrjerdi, 2021);
therefore, increasing the system’s resilience.
In the light of the above benefits, it shall be mentioned that the high
intermittent nature of renewable energies and fluctuations in building
occupants’ energy consumption, while using energy storage, could still
lead to operational safety and power quality issues (Ali et al., 2020). One
of the major solutions to deal with this issue is to ensure a data-driven
(predictive) control of the energy storage systems by implementing
artificial intelligence (AI) techniques to anticipate and incorporate the
intermittency of renewable sources. AI could be implemented as a pre­
dictive tool for demand, supply, and storage stages. For example, the
state of charge of the battery could be estimated using the reinforcement
learning method (Kim et al., 2018a), while the uncertainties related to
the unexpected fluctuations of the load demand could be addressed by
employing machine learning prediction techniques (Shirzadi et al.,
2021). Moreover, AI could be used to predict wind speed and solar
irradiance to diminish the supply side inaccuracies in establishing
optimal control solutions (Hu et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2016a).
Furthermore, the recent development in Internet of Things (IoT),
Fig. 1. A taxonomy of energy storage technologies (Rahman et al., 2012; Yoon advancement of the digital twin concept, and cloud battery management
et al., 2018). have had a considerable impact on improving the storage systems’
reliability, safety, and durability (Li et al., 2020).
Chemical energy storage comprises regular batteries such as lithium- This paper aims at providing a state-of-the-art review of smart energy
ion, lead-acid, and flow batteries (such as vanadium redox and metal-air storage concepts and its integration into energy management practices.
batteries). There are other forms of chemical storage that are called In doing so, we will provide a review of the applications of AI and in­
electrochemical storages and thermochemical storages. Fuel cells such formation technologies (as organized in Fig. 2) in establishing smart
as proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), molten carbonate fuel energy storage systems.
cells (MCFC), and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) are considered as other Despite a parallel approach in conduct of the literature review (as
forms of electrochemical storage while solar hydrogen and solar presented in Fig. 2), this review highlights the interconnections and
ammonia are two examples of thermochemical storage. integration of these smart tools and technologies in management of ESS,
Electrical energy storage consists of two main types of storage, including data analytics (energy supply and demand predictions), IoT
electrostatic and magnetic. Capacitors and ultra-capacitors are two main (monitoring and tracking of ESS), and BMS/BIM (operation and control
types of the electrostatic energy storage (Fang et al., 2011) while of ESS).
superconducting magnetic energy storage is an example of the magnetic The review of articles cited in this paper is also done to identify the
method of energy storage (Boudia et al., 2021). advantages and usefulness as well as the limitations of adopting “smart”
Energy storage systems are to play a vital role in integration of tools and technologies in management of energy storage systems. The
renewable energy systems with direct impact on the cost, reliability, and remainder of the paper is classified into four main sections. Section 2
resilience of energy supply. This role is even more magnified in represents a review of data analytics and AI techniques used for storage
distributed generation systems where buildings act as prosumers. Stor­ energy management. Section 3 describes smart technologies such as IoT,
age systems could reduce the cost by decreasing the operational cost (in building management systems (BMS), and building information
comparison with energy supplied from the conventional grid), storing modeling (BIM). Finally, a conclusion providing a summary of the article
the low price energy during off-peak, and using it during peak, reducing and suggestions for future research is discussed in section 4.
the indirect costs associated with power outages and saving money by
participating in demand response programs. Acting as a backup in power
outages situations and providing uninterrupted power can decrease the

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Fig. 2. Structure of the literature review

2. Smart Energy Storage Systems: Data Analytics intermittent behavior of energy consumers due to various factors, that
can be classified in economic, time/seasonal factors, and weather ef­
ESSs are nowadays recognized as an important element that can fects. Indeed, the economic framework has a clear effect on demand
improve the energy management of buildings, districts, and commu­ patterns, while seasonal effects, weekly daily cycle, legal, religious and
nities. Their use becomes essential when renewable energy sources holiday periods play an important role in influencing load consumption.
(RESs) are involved due to the volatile nature of these sources. In order Also in the case of load forecasting, meteorological conditions are
to design an accurate model of the system and to select effective control responsible for significant variations, since several loads - such as
strategies for the ESSs deployment, accurate data analytics tools are heating, air conditioning, and agricultural irrigation - are
necessary. Data analytics is the use of data and predictive techniques to weather-sensitive. For a long time, the energy industry has been
estimate or predict future outcomes. Fig. 3 shows a classification of data considered by economists as a standard commodity; conversely, energy
analytics applications in energy storage systems, which will be discussed is indeed different from most other commodities, and the energy market
in the following sections. has its own peculiar complexities. As matter of fact, energy cannot be
appreciably stored, and the power system stability requires constant
balance between supply and demand. Hence, the energy price may
2.1. Renewable energy production, load demand, and energy price change hour by hour and these changes typically reflect the variations in
estimation the availability of generation resources, fuel costs, and demand curve.
It is worthwhile noting that, on the one hand, accurate forecasting
The successful deployment of ESSs is mainly based on the effec­ methods are necessary to meet generation and demand in an effective
tiveness of the employed operational control approaches. In fact, for an and safe way (Khalid et al. 2018). On the other hand, it is apparent that
effective and efficient ESS management system, it is crucial to adjust the RESs production, load consumption, and energy prices forecasting are
charging and discharging operation based on the estimated needs, while intrinsically correlated, even though they require different adjustments
maximizing the corresponding performance, i.e., maximizing profits, and assumptions to be made. There is a large number of publications in
minimizing operational costs, and prolonging the predicted device’s this area (Hong et al. 2020); in particular, we can classify forecasting
lifetime (Al-Ghandoor et al. 2009). This should be done in accordance methods into probabilistic, data-based, ensemble and hierarchical
with the expected RESs energy production, energy demand, and energy approaches.
price. These three features are usually referred to together as energy Due to the inherent stochastic yet recurrent or cyclic nature of loads
forecasting. and RESs, the simplest approach is to analyse these patterns and define
As for RESs, their key characteristics are the limited controllability, the underlying probability distribution to predict future behaviours
scarce predictability, and power output variability, as they completely (Scarabaggio et al. 2021). Probabilistic approaches are deeply used for
rely upon environmental factors like solar irradiance, temperature, hu­ load (Gan et al. 2018; Xie and Hong 2016, 2017) and RES prediction
midity, and wind speed (Scarabaggio et al. 2021). Large fluctuations in (Chen et al. 2018; Gallego-Castillo et al. 2016; Scarabaggio et al. 2021;
RESs production introduce several challenges, including voltage regu­ Yuan et al. 2018) due to their straightforwardness. Compared to the
lations as well as reserve power flow problems and power distribution probabilistic RESs and load forecasting that leverage on the
issues (Nowotarski et al. 2018). Similarly, the demand side exhibits

Fig. 3. Classification of data analytics for smart energy storage.

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well-established meteorological forecasting, the literature on probabi­ (Lashway and Mohammed 2016; Wei et al. 2017), extended Kalman
listic energy price forecasting is relatively scarce (Nowotarski et al. filters (Lee et al., 2017; Pan et al. 2017), and other Kalman filters (Barz
2018; He et al. 2014; Ziel et al. 2018). et al. 2018; Pernsteiner et al 2021; Aung and Low 2015; Bi and Choe
A more advanced class of forecasting tools are data-based ap­ 2020; Chen et al. 2019; Jiang et al. 2019; Zhu et al. 2019). A more recent
proaches that can generate reliable energy forecasting from a set of input and performant class of SOC estimation are the data-driven techniques.
parameters. The simplest methods are linear regression, multiple linear These approaches can estimate the SOC employing all the characteristics
regression, and polynomial regressions (Bissing et al., 2019; Ren et al., in a self-learning algorithm. The SOC estimation within the so-called
2016; Yang et al., 2016). Various advanced machine learning techniques data-driven approaches is usually done with regression methods
such as artificial neural network (ANN) with different setups such as (Richardson et al. 2018; Sahinoglu et al. 2018; Hrisko et al. 2021). In
single-layer network (Khodayar et al., 2017; Wu and Peng, 2017), addition to these approaches, ANN-based models are widely used for
recurrent neural network (RNN) (Kong et al., 2017; Nazaripouya et al., SOC estimation showing high accuracy in the prediction (Chemali et al.
2016; Shi et al., 2017), deep neural network (DNN) (Shi et al., 2017; 2018; Tong et al., 2016; Zhou et al. 2020).Convolutional neural net­
Wang et al., 2016b), reinforcement learning (Zhang et al. 2020), and works (CNNs) and recurrent neural networks (RNNs) are used to esti­
transfer learning networks (Cai et al., 2020) have been employed. mate the ESS’s SOC based on complex feature datasets with time-series
Differently from probabilistic models, data-based approaches usually characteristics (Shen et al. 2020; Song et al. 2019; Xiao et al., 2019; You
offer more accuracy due to their advanced data mining and feature et al., 2017).
extraction capabilities. Discovering the patterns or hidden information
from historical data is the key advantage of these classes of methodol­ 2.2.2. State of health estimation and remaining useful lifetime prediction
ogies that are therefore able to accurately forecast RES production, load Among the various available energy storage solutions, chemical en­
consumption, and energy prices. Nevertheless, in general, the training ergy storage systems, and in particular lithium-ion batteries, are widely
process required by these methodologies is far more complex and regarded as promising candidates for various applications due to their
time-consuming than simpler models. It is worthwhile noting that the advantages of high energy density and low self-discharge (Wang et al.,
use of these approaches requires including the physical characteristics of 2021). Nevertheless, the life span of chemical energy storage systems is
the involved processes, both for modeling and variable selection. not unlimited. Indeed, their performance decreases with time and their
Finally, combining different forecasting approaches is being widely operation (Liu et al., 2019).
recognized as one of the best practices for forecasting many phenomena In general, a chemical energy storage system reaches the end of its
and systems in nature (Nowotarski et al., 2016). Hence, ensemble and service life when its maximum capacity drops to a certain percentage of
hierarchical forecasting technique, which reconciles forecasts generated the initial value. Therefore, estimating when this will occur is a crucial
individually at different levels, are the most promising approaches also and challenging problem in a battery management system. This is usu­
for the energy forecasting (Hubicka et al., 2018; Hyndman et al., 2016; ally referred to as health estimations and can be done by defining several
Qin et al., 2019; Nowotarski et al., 2016; Wang et al. 2018). different indicators available in the literature. Nevertheless, to forecast
the health conditions and provide a tool for the replacement of a device
2.2. ESS state estimation the state of health (SOH) and the remaining useful lifetime (RUL) are
widely used. However, the SOH and the RUL are not uniquely defined in
Storage devices are complex systems with several variables whose the related literature (Zhang et al. 2019). Usually, the SOH is defined as
state is most of the time unknown (Del Pero et al., 2018). Hence, ac­ the ratio of the original capacity of the device and the actual one (Hu
curate state estimation is necessary for effective control of the device. In et al. 2021), while the RUL is typically quantified by the time or cycling
particular, essential tasks are monitoring and estimating the status of the number when the capacity or SOH decreases to a threshold value (Li
device and predicting the lifespan and remaining capacity. et al. 2019b). Accurately predicting the SOH/RUL is critical to adjust its
controlling strategy to ensure the performance, safety, and lifetime.
2.2.1. State of charge estimation Besides, accurate estimation and prediction, the RUL is vital in guiding
For the effective management and control of ESSs it is crucial to device reuse or recycling. The SOH/RUL estimation methodologies can
estimate the state of charge (SOC), which is quantified by the ratio of the be categorized into measurement-based, Kalman filter, and data-based
releasable capacity of an ESS over its rated capacity. This information approaches (Sarmah et al. 2019). The measurement-based approaches
allows estimating how long the storage can continue to supply or store aim to predict the SOH/RUL directly from specific measures. These
energy at a given operating condition. Indeed, the SOC depends on the approaches are the most straightforward; however, their accuracy is
operating conditions, while its definition is most of the time not low. The inputs used in the lifetime prediction are various since they
unambiguously defined. Moreover, different storage technologies range from charging voltage curve, trend surface temperature (acquired
require the measurement and estimation of different variables. From a from the infrared images), electrical information (incremental cur­
system point of view, for any type of storage technology, the methods rent/voltage data) (Weng et al. 2013; Zhou et al. 2017) and electro­
used for SOC estimation can be classified into look-up tables, integral, chemical impedance spectroscopy (Galeotti et al. 2014). As for the SOC
Kalman filters, and data-driven approaches (Wang et al. 2020). The estimation, the model-based approaches employing the Kalman filter
look-up table approach is the simplest one, since it requires only a have in general better results (Wassiliadis et al. 2018; Yan et al. 2018).
mapping between the ESS’s SOC and the characteristic parameters, such The latter category is based on machine learning methods applied to
as the internal resistance (Yao et al., 2018), open-circuit voltage (Dong predict the SOH/RUL starting from a set of complex input features (Tang
et al. 2016; Zhu et al. 2015), impedance (Bao et al., 2018; Zheng et al. et al. 2020). Regression algorithms are often used to estimate and pre­
2016), or temperature (Chirino et al. 2018). Nevertheless, these ap­ dict SOH/RUL with their linear version (Severson et al. 2019), Gaussian
proaches can be therefore used only for static analysis and cannot be processing regression (Liu and Chen 2019; Sahinoglu et al. 2018) or with
used in real-time applications (How et al., 2019). Another widely used kernel-ANN regression algorithm (Zhou, Huang, and Pecht 2020). Be­
approach is based on the integral counting approach of the current sides the regression approach, decision trees (Zhu, Zhao, and Sha 2019)
(Lashway and Mohammed 2016; Zhang et al. 2014). If this approach is and support vector machines (SVM) are used to predict SOH/RUL (Liu
used in an open-loop fashion it may lead to the accumulation of pre­ et al. 2015; Patil et al. 2015; Zhou et al. 2016). When handling dataset
diction errors (Wang et al. 2020). A better approach, is adapting the with complex time-series characteristics various ANN-based models are
well-known Kalman filter. In fact, when a model of the ESS is available applied for SOH/RUL prediction (Pan et al. 2018; Tong, et al., 2016; Wu,
the Kalman filter can be used to reconstruct its state. The literature et al., 2016), such as DNN (Khumprom & Yodo, 2019; Srivastava et al.
presents a large number of contributions employing linear Kalman filters 2014), RNN (You et al., 2017) and long short-term memory (LSTM)

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neural networks (Ma et al. 2019). detailed forecasting approach that resembles the physics of such me­
chanical processes to forecast the state of charge at any given time in
2.2.3. Fault and degradation analysis future. The other emerging issue in data analytics application for energy
An important issue in the management of ESSs is the detection of storage systems relates to prediction of failure and degradation under
defects, as well as the detection of abnormal behaviours, to ensure the extreme operational pressure. Most of the failure prediction models
future availability of the device. Most of the approaches used to detect formulate over-time degradation of these systems with limited studies
anomalies are based on machine learning techniques since faults are on impact of sudden changes in operational requirements due to dis­
usually the results of a series of complex interactions between different ruptions caused by extreme events. There is an emerging trend towards
factors. Several machine learning algorithms are applied to classify the combining resilience assessment models with failure prediction (Ameli
unbalance and damage of battery cells including logistic regression et al., 2021).
ANN, kernel-SVM (Dong et al. 2016; Kim, Lee, and Cho 2012; Ortiz et al.
2019). Classical regression techniques such as the Gaussian process 3. Smart Energy Storage Systems: Smart Technologies
regression (Lucu et al. 2020) and deep learning approaches are also
gaining significant attention (Li, et al. 2019b; Liu et al. 2018; Yao et al. The integration of energy storage into energy systems could be
2020; Zhao et al. 2017). In some applications, the input to the machine facilitated through use of various smart technologies at the building,
learning models is in the form of images, such as the snapshots of the district, and communities scale. These technologies contribute to intel­
battery electrode microstructure. Under this circumstance, CNN, which ligent monitoring, operation and control of energy storage systems in
is highly capable of extracting the features of images, can be utilized line with supply and demand characteristics of energy systems.
(Badmos et al. 2020; Wang et al. 2019). The estimation of the device’s
degradation is a very complex issue since the cycle-based degradation
depends on the charge/discharge sequence and on natural factors that 3.1. IoT and smart energy storage
contribute to the degradation such as ambient temperature, humidity,
and storage technology. The degradation analysis aims to predict the IoT addresses the needs of the energy sector to move forward to­
future SOH/RUL based on the predicted operating conditions. In fact, a wards a promoting efficient and sustainable use of natural resources. In
vital aspect of energy storage operation is to accurately model the order to achieve this, the concept of IoT proposes the development of a
operational cost, which for many devices mainly comes from the loss of smart industrial platform enables to improve the efficiency and sus­
energy capacities under repeated cycling (Xu et al., 2017). Hence, pre­ tainability of system operations and to predictive maintenance by con­
dicting the impact of different charging/discharging processes on the necting cyber and physical systems. Therefore, IoT is the fundamental
ESS’s health state can be useful to select the best performing control technology for realization of smart power and energy systems with en­
inputs (Zhou et al., 2011). Several ESSs studies include degradation ergy storage. Such smart systems require bidirectional information ex­
models either based on battery charging/discharging power or energy change among different segments that can be provided with IoT-based
throughput (Ortega-Vazquez, 2014). These degradation models are technologies. IoT is not a single technology, but an interconnected
convenient to be incorporated in existing optimization problems, at a network comprises of several technologies enabling communication of
cost of losing accuracy in quantifying the actual degradation cost. The physical objects (Things) via the Internet in real time. The key elements
capacity fading can be properly described in terms of the fatigue process of IoT technologies are, IoT devices embedded with sensors and software
since mechanical stress plays a key role in the degradation of the device for collecting real-time information, IoT networks and gateways for
performances (Xu et al., 2017). The similarities of the storage devices’ secure transmission of sensors data and an IoT management platform
degradation with the classical approach for the ageing of mechanical with several functions such as data storage management, data analytics
systems subject to fatigue cycle loading led many papers to select this as and application enablement (Patel et al., 2016; Presser et al., 2018). In
the most appropriate model for describing the performance deteriora­ energy sector, the advancement of IoT technologies support a wide
tion (Laresgoiti et al., 2015; Shi, et al. 2018; Xu et al., 2017). The battery range of applications, along with Smart Grid concept, in power gener­
ageing process is fundamentally described by a set of partial differential ation, transmission, distribution and consumption, including smart
and algebraic equations, however, they are in some sense too detailed deployment of energy storage systems in buildings, districts and
and thus semi-empirical degradation models are often used. These ap­ communities.
proaches define a relation between cycle depth and battery degradation,
and the loss of battery life is the accumulation of degradation from all 3.1.1. Cloud computing and fog computing technologies
cycles. To count these cycles several algorithms for cycle identification The value of IoT is in the ability to process and analyse massive data
in material fatigue analysis as well as for battery degradation (Muenzel streams in real time in order to make optimized informed decisions. This
et al. 2015; Shi et al. 2018; Xu et al. 2016) can be used. necessitates advanced data processing approaches, instead of storing
The literature review on data analytics applications in ESSs high­ and processing data only on local hard drives. Cloud computing and fog
lighted a number of limitations in applications of data analytics ap­ computing are the two well-accepted computing platforms for IoT ap­
proaches in management of energy storage systems, prompting avenues plications (Motlagh et al., 2020). Cloud computing platforms provide
for future research. A major challenge rests in forecasting of highly on-demand services including data storage, data processing and
uncertain (and sometimes) chaotic phenomenon such as wind speed computation without owning the hardware systems through the
used to predict wind energy generation potentials as a basis for energy Internet. This allows access to heterogeneous data shared among
storage scheduling. The existing probabilistic, data-driven, and even different sectors anywhere and anytime, while reducing the costs of
ensemble approaches models have deficiency in generating forecasts hardware and maintenance and enhancing the computational power
when facing such an extremely uncertain phenomenon. There exists an and storage capacity.
opportunity to integrate such a dynamism into energy storage sched­ However, such a centralized computing approach cannot satisfy all
uling through environment-based learning approaches (Zhou et al., IoT applications, particularly latency sensitive applications with widely
2022). In contrary to batteries, in case of mechanical energy storage geo-distributed IoT devices (Rani et al., 2021). Fog computing, also
systems, such as compressed air energy storage, there unsteady char­ known as edge computing, is a distributed computing approach, which
acteristics such as lags in charging and discharging phases (Guo et al., extends cloud computing to the edge of network. That can be using any
2022), which needs to be incorporated into state of charge forecasting IoT devices with storage and computing capabilities for data processing
models (in particular when there are exchanges with the grid) as a delay instead of sending the data to the Cloud. Fig. 4 shows the cloud and fog
factor. This phenomenon could be formulated through adopting a more computing architecture for IoT applications.

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Fig. 4. Cloud and fog computing architecture

3.1.2. IoT-based energy storage systems services, such as load shifting, via controlling IoT enabled building
In industrial energy sector, relying on the IoT cyber-physical network systems and appliances (Sharda et al., 2021).
technology, which provides a bank of information for optimized deci­ The use of IoT technologies enables renewable energy suppliers and
sion, an energy management platform comprising of two main layers; a utilities to efficiently design and operate their storage systems in order
”core cloud” and the ”edge clouds” has been proposed by (Golpîra & to tackle the intermittency of renewable resources hence, promoting the
Bahramara, 2020). At edge clouds, microgrid aggregators solve opti­ sustainability and stability of power grid. The other key advantage of IoT
mization problems to determine the energy balance of each microgrid, is the coordination of distributed energy storage systems such as batte­
whereas, at the core cloud, the distribution system operator solves an ries of EVs to enhance the reliability of grids or local generation ca­
optimisation problem to meet the energy balance of the distribution grid pacities (e.g. renewables). Similar to other technologies, adoption of IoT
with optimal scheduling of energy storage systems. Motivated by technology presents some challenges. Several challenges have been
widespread use of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries as grid-level energy discussed in the literature, for example in relation to network coverage
storage systems, a battery condition monitoring platform has been and bandwidth, interoperability of the system components or data
proposed by (Kim et al., 2018b), which utilizes IoT devices and cloud storage and security (Khatua et al., 2020).
components. The architecture consists of wireless module management IoT technology comprises of numerous IoT devices that consume
systems incorporating IoT devices and a cloud battery management power. Therefore, it is important to have plugged-in IoT devices with
platform with cloud storage, analytics tools, battery algorithms, and low power consumption and remote IoT devices with long battery life­
visualization modules. Critical model parameters of the battery cells and time in order to make IoT solution affordable and sustainable for energy
battery conditions such as state of charge and state of health can be system applications. This has led to the emergence of green IoT tech­
estimated with the proposed platform for the purpose of fault detection nologies. A comprehensive review of the techniques and strategies for
and predicting the remaining useful time of the battery cells. enabling green IoT technologies has been provided in (Almalki et al.,
In domestic energy sector, IoT technologies are the main driver for 2021). Energy harvesting techniques, that is converting ambient energy
integration of distributed energy storage (DES) systems, e.g. battery of sources such as ambient light into electrical energy, has been studied in
electric vehicles (EVs), roof top photovoltaic panels and local solar the literature e.g. in (Adila et al., 2018) as a technique for prolonging the
thermal storage systems in energy systems leading to a more flexible and battery life time of the IoT devices. High energy consumption of
scalable power grid (Ahmad & Zhang, 2021; Bedi et al., 2018). EVs as cloud-based data centers is also a topic of research studies related to the
mobile distributed energy storage devices become an integral part of IoT energy consumption. For instance, a multi-objective optimization
Smart Grid and smart buildings with vehicle-to-grid (V2G) and problem has been formulated in (Guo et al., 2021) for integrated plan­
vehicle-to-home (V2H) technologies (Alsharif et al., 2021; Mehrjerdi, ning the capacity of internet data centers and the battery energy storage
2021). This has led to extensive research studies focused on optimal systems in a coupled smart grid and communication system.
planning for EVs charging/discharging. For instance, based on the Application of IoT devices, especially in residential sector, increases
distributed fog computing technology, three optimization algorithms the risk of privacy violations with sharing smart meters data that can be
have been proposed in (Chekired et al., 2020), for an intelligent translated to behavioral patterns of smart building occupants (Zai­
scheduling of EVs plugin. The system architecture consists of centralized nuddin et al., 2021). Several techniques have been discussed in the
cloud data centers and decentralized fog data centers for real-time in­ literature for preserving the privacy in IoT applications, such as data
formation exchange, such as EVs requests for charging/discharging and anonymization which removes attribute information from the meter
energy prices. A new concept of DES system referring as cloud energy readings (Ren et al., 2021) or data obfuscation which distorts customer
storage (CES) has been proposed in (Liu et al., 2017), which enables energy profile by integrating another energy source e.g. energy storage
residential and small commercial consumers to rent a customized units at the customer premises (Sun et al., 2018a).
amount of energy storage from a so-called CES operator via the Internet, IoT technology connects thousands of physical devices, mostly via
instead of using their own on-site energy storage systems. Different some form of wireless communication. With increasing emergence of
centralized energy storage technologies, such as flow batteries or com­ IoT devices and new technologies, spectrum scarcity has addressed as a
pressed air energy storage can be provided as distributed energy services challenge for wireless transmission, where IoT devices are overlapping
to the users, who aim to reduce their electricity bills considering volatile or close to each other in spectrum (Li et al., 2019). This can cause severe
real-time energy prices by CES technology. Other than electricity storage signal interferences, particularly in industrial environments in energy
systems, IoT-based thermal energy storage systems play an important systems. (Tlake et al., 2021) reviews interference challenges for
role in balancing energy supply and demand in smart cities. Water Narrowband Internet of things (NB-IoT) communication standard. An
storage tank for water heater or thermal mass of buildings are examples unsupervised machine learning framework applying semi-Markov
of thermal energy storage systems that can be utilized for Smart Grid chains and a Poisson-distribution arrival rate has been presented in

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(Homssi et al., 2021) for modelling interference in IoT applications. intelligent BMS model based on the PHP web server monitoring the
Various signal processing techniques or techniques to isolate interfer­ comfort level and occupant behaviors working. According to their re­
ence transmission have been proposed in the literature to manage signal sults, BMS played a critical role as a bridge between the user and smart
interference (Li et al., 2019). grid, leading to 30% higher primary energy saving in a custom building.
The performance of in-home BMS using a wireless sensor network
(WSN) was assessed and compared against the optimization-based
3.2. BMS and Smart Energy Storage
model by Erol-Kantarci and Mouftah (2011), concluding that WSN re­
sults in lower energy cost, peak load, and carbon emission. In a recent
The energy consumed in the building sector has recently grown
study, Chaouch et al. (2021) introduced a new smart BMS approach
considerably. According to the latest reports, 40% of global energy and
driven by fuzzy logic and machine-to-machine communication (see
25% of total electricity demand is associated with buildings (Behzadi &
Fig. 6).
Arabkoohsar, 2020a). More than 84% of this energy is provided by fossil
They revealed that the yearly energy consumption is decreased by
fuels leading to higher CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere and global
about 16% without influencing the occupant’s thermal comfort. Because
temperature increment (Zou et al., 2021). As a result, the need for BMS
keeping the occupant thermally comfortable is more complex in larger
as a promising technique becomes necessary to address these challenges
buildings, they recommend applying other artificial intelligence ap­
and makes a big step toward decarbonization (Iddianozie & Palmes,
proaches to the smaller buildings. In this regard, a multi-model BMS
2020). By definition, BMS is a sophisticated computer-based system
supporting demand response and energy-efficient control simulta­
providing a set of approaches to monitor and control the building’s
neously was proposed and validated by Griful et al. (2016). Tien et al.
mechanical and electrical equipment. Examples of main operational
(2021) investigated a new vision-based BMS approach monitoring and
subsystems monitored by the BMS are heating, ventilation, and air
controlling both the openable windows and HVAC system. They showed
conditioning (HVAC) systems, energy storage units, lighting systems,
that a significantly lower heat loss and annual energy bill are attained
power equipment, and fire systems (Salimi & Hammad, 2019). The most
because of their innovative BMS design. Lately, Salerno et al. (Salerno
important features of BMS are increased energy efficiency, less envi­
et al., 2021) presented an innovative, adaptable BMS for a house in
ronmental effects, lower energy costs, improved standards of building
Montreal, Canada, with no energy transfer from the nearby unit. Their
functioning, and efficient use of staff (see Fig. 5). Higher initial, oper­
results indicated that due to BMS and smart design integration, the
ating, and maintenance costs and the need for an expert operator are the
levelized cost of heating and cooling is reduced by about 35% and 97%,
negative characteristics of a BMS (Dounis & Caraiscos, 2009).
respectively. Also, they showed that the energy consumption would
A BMS is made up of four distinct components, which are as follows:
decrease by more than 49%. They suggested that the feasibility study of
a 3D office building model with a thermal cycle network consisting of all
the proposed smart system on a larger scale in the presence of district
of the characteristics of the materials used in the building; a manage­
heating and cooling networks would be an interesting research topic for
ment system that satisfies the thermal comfort needs of consumers while
future extension of their work.
also reducing energy consumption; and an energy simulation and
The possible mismatch between energy supply and demand and their
comfort study. The ASHRAE Standard 55, widely acknowledged by
intermittency is one of the most critical challenges of building energy
laboratories in Europe and the United States, serves as the foundation for
systems (Behzadi & Arabkoohsar, 2020b). Hernandez et al. (Mariano-­
energy and comfort modeling simulations. Based on the simulation
Hernández et al., 2021) showed that aside from generation, demand
interface tool’s recommended settings, the set zone loads per zone
management, and control and communication, energy storage technol­
considers some criteria, including equipment load, infiltration rate,
ogy is the crucial component of smart houses controlled by BMS. In BMS,
illumination density, the number of people, and ventilation per area/
selecting the appropriate storage type is important to reduce energy
person, as shown in Fig. 6. Moreover, Fig. 6 demonstrates that occu­
consumption and improve the cost-effectiveness and utilization of
pancy, heating and cooling set points, lighting, and equipment are all
renewable energy (if any). While thermal energy storage technologies
included in the one-year schedule program.
are favorable to obtain lower energy costs, batteries are not economi­
With the development of technology, various BMS techniques have
cally suitable due to the high investment cost and payback period.
been accomplished to introduce innovative standards, designs, and web-
Various strategies, intelligent control techniques, and optimization
based services to decrease energy costs, optimize energy use, and
approaches have been applied to energy storage technologies in BMS
enhance the quality of living. Kaiwen et al. (2017) proposed an
because they can reduce the energy cost while shaving the peak demand
and improving the flexibility of time-of-use electricity prices. Sharifi and
Maghouli (2019) implemented a novel scheduling method based on an
evolutionary genetic algorithm approach to a smart BMS integrated with
an energy storage device. They demonstrated that the energy bill is
reduced by managing the storage unit, and the peak-to-average ratio is
improved simultaneously. Luo et al. (2020) developed and validated a
model-free self-control strategy for energy storage in building envelope
for peak shifting and heat cost saving potential. Xu et al. (2012) studied
the performance comparison of different energy storage technologies
applying smart BMS. They showed that the existing uncertainties
significantly influence determining the best integration and optimal
operating conditions. In recent research, Aznavi et al. (2020) applied a
new management strategy based on the energy price tag to smart energy
storage units to neutralize the effect of unpredicted intermittency. It was
concluded that the proposed framework keeps the system reliable and
cost-effective due to lower energy bought from the network. In addition,
they recommended that policymakers allocate more subsidies to the
smart management of storage units to stimulate the building owners to
adopt such systems. Yan et al. (2020) studied the feasibility of three
management approaches applied to a novel energy storage system in a
Fig. 5. The most significant features of BMS. building. According to their results, 30% and 16% higher cooling and

7
F. Nasiri et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 84 (2022) 104004

Fig. 6. Outline of BMS design (Chaouch et al., 2021).

power load factors were obtained, indicating long-term and short-term

management effectiveness. They suggested that a comprehensive anal­
ysis of the system’s cost-effectiveness and encouraging policies adopted
by the government are required for future studies. A smart
battery-photovoltaic system handled by an innovative novel optimum
management strategy was proposed by Liu et al. (2020), revealing that
48.6% higher performance efficiency and 34.7% lower carbon dioxide
emissions was attained compared to the same system without smart
configuration. In another work, Ahmad and Khan (2020) introduced a
new algorithm based on real-time joint optimization managing smart
thermal and electrical energy storage units. They concluded that using
the proposed intelligent algorithm leads to 16.37% lower operating
costs while satisfying the comfort requirement.
The literature review on BMS applications in ESSs highlighted a
number of advantages as well as challenges in applications of BMS in
management of energy storage systems. A smart design of an energy
storage system controlled by BMS could increase its reliability and sta­
bility and reduce the building energy consumption and greenhouse gas
emission through smart scheduling of charging and discharging of en­
ergy storage systems. The main challenge of managing ESSs through
BMS rests in the uncertainties arising from unpredicted occupants’
behavior and unexpected changes in the environment (affecting both Fig. 7. The most significant advantages of BIM.
energy demand as well as supply from intermittent renewable sources)
requiring sophisticated control mechanisms which could add consider­ applications, and functions of BIM in smart buildings proposing a
ably to capital and operational costs of building-integrated ESSs. three-dimensional framework based on BIM and smart characteristics
and project phases, as shown in Fig. 8.
In the literature, BIM has been extensively used to assess and
3.3. BIM and Smart Energy Storage
improve the building’s performance metrics from various aspects. Many
researchers have applied BIM to a smart building for safety and equip­
Due to the ever increasing energy demand and environmental
ment control analysis (Chen et al., 2020; Li et al., 2018; Riaz et al.,
contamination, the need for sustainable, energy-efficient, clean, and
2014). Some scholars have studied the numerical and experimental
cost-effective buildings becomes more crystal clear than ever. The last
evaluation of an intelligent green building using BIM to assess the
but not least significant smart technology to overcome these challenges
environmental and sustainability indicators (Azhar et al., 2012; Llatas
and moves toward the green transition is the BIM used by a growing
et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2019). Some have investigated the cost and
number of architecture, engineers, and contractors (Singh & Sadhu,
schedule estimation to enhance the project’s economic benefits (Chen &
2019). BIM is defined as a process equipped with several tools and
Tang, 2019; Li et al., 2017; Marzouk & Hisham, 2014). Others have
technologies generating and managing smart data associated with
carried out the energy and exergy performance simulations and life
physical and functional features of geometry, components, and mate­
cycle assessment through BIM to reduce the building energy consump­
rials (Jalaei & Jrade, 2015).
tion and improve the quality of energy conversion (Mellado & Lou,
According to Fig. 7, BIM provides numerous benefits: greater cost
2020; Rezaei et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2016b).
predictability, improved efficiency and effectiveness, fewer errors,
The depiction of energy storage size and material, the combination
optimized design, and a better understanding of future operating and
and visualization of energy-based information, the calculation of
maintenance. Lately, Yang et al. (2021) studied the benefits,

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F. Nasiri et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 84 (2022) 104004

Fig. 8. A three-dimensional representational of BIM in smart buildings (Yang et al., 2021).

performance efficiency, and the optimization of energy usage are the environmental quality improvement. In another study, Wu et al. (2015)
key motivations for integrating BIM and energy storage design and introduced an innovative BIM framework integrated with a wireless
analysis. In this regard, BIM can improve energy storage (operation and sensor network to reduce the operating cost while improving the energy
maintenance) by assisting building managers in scanning, analyzing, efficiency of a data power center driven by electrical storage units.
and processing data in a digital 3D environment and finding the best Schlueter and Thesseling (2009) added an advanced tool to BIM soft­
design parameters considering more than one objective at the same ware assessing energy and exergy calculations simultaneously. They
time. Such connection offers more efficient use of energy storage obtained that BIM not only reduces the system’s payback period but also
through a clever interaction between the supply and demand, increased enhances the quality and reliability of thermal and electrical storage
cost-effectiveness, and environmental friendliness by monitoring the units’ controls. Pishdad-Bozorgi et al. (2018) investigated the use of BIM
energy cost to establish efficient demand-side management. It also re­ for developing facilities management of a real project and concluded
sults in increased employee productivity, improved working conditions that the energy storage unit is a vital component that must be tracked in
for tenants, and enhanced the level reliability of thermal comfort for the development and planning operations phases. The combination of
users. BIM and life cycle assessment to mitigate the greenhouse gas emission
In a recent study, Zhuang et al. (2021) proposed a BIM framework for for a residential building located in China was investigated by Yang et al.
a school building equipped with a thermal energy storage unit opti­ (2018), showing that the physical appearance of components, including
mizing energy and environmental metrics simultaneously. They energy storage units, has a considerable contribution to reduce the
demonstrated that BIM application results in a higher indoor environ­ carbon emission footprint.
mental quality of 11.5% and a lower life cycle cost of 36.8%. The per­ The literature review on BIM applications in ESSs highlighted a
formance assessment and maintenance management of a real case study number of benefits and challenges in applications of BIM in management
building located in Aveiro’s University, Portugal, was studied by Matos of energy storage systems. Managing and modeling energy storage
et al. (2021) applying BIM. They concluded that the service life and technology’s physical and operational characteristics through BIM can
operational interruptions of energy storage and HVAC technologies are create more reliability and flexibility and improves cost and energy ef­
improved significantly due to BIM use. Duarte et al. (2021) applied BIM ficiencies. The main challenge is that the digitalization of energy storage
software to optimize the performance efficiency of an educational systems is data-intensive and requires advanced skills both in energy
building heating and cooling system in Brazil. According to their results, management and BIM platforms (Yang et al., 2021).
modeling the building information leads to 12% higher primary energy
saving and 9% lower components’ energy loss in addition to indoor

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F. Nasiri et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 84 (2022) 104004

4. Conclusions interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence

the work reported in this paper.
This article provided several categorizations and detailed review of
the applications of smart tools (with an emphasis on data analytics) and Data availability
smart technologies (focusing on BMS and BIM) in design, operation, and
control of smart ESS. As energy storage systems are complex with several No data was used for the research described in the article.
variables subject to a great extent of variation and uncertainty, the
literature pointed to the importance of accurate estimation of their state
and the trends in their input (supply side) and output (demand side) Acknowledgement
variables, and its necessity to support effective operation and control of
ESS. The state of charge, i.e. the ratio of the releasable capacity of an ESS The authors acknowledge the support and motivations received from
over its nominal capacity, was shown as a key estimation linking the the participants of Annex 37 of International Energy Agency (IEA) ES
supply and demand side variables affecting the operation of an energy TCP on Smart Design and Control of Energy Storage Systems. We are also
storage system. In addition, forecasting the condition and SOH of ESS very much thankful to four anonymous reviewers whose careful com­
has emerged as a means of improving their useful lifetime through ments and suggestions were very helpful in improving the quality of this
systematic detection of defects, as well as the detection of abnormal manuscript.
behaviours as signs of failure and availability issues.
IoT technologies were identified as the main emerging driver for References
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