Accepted Manuscript

Longitudinal relations of mental health and motivation among elite student-athletes

across a condensed season: Plausible influence of academic and athletic schedule

Rachel B. Sheehan, Matthew P. Herring, Mark J. Campbell

PII: S1469-0292(17)30655-6
DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.03.005
Reference: PSYSPO 1341

To appear in: Psychology of Sport & Exercise

Received Date: 26 September 2017

Revised Date: 15 March 2018
Accepted Date: 15 March 2018

Please cite this article as: Sheehan, R.B., Herring, M.P., Campbell, M.J., Longitudinal relations of
mental health and motivation among elite student-athletes across a condensed season: Plausible
influence of academic and athletic schedule, Psychology of Sport & Exercise (2018), doi: 10.1016/
j.psychsport.2018.03.005.

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to
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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Title Page

Longitudinal relations of mental health and motivation among elite student-athletes across a

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condensed season: Plausible influence of academic and athletic schedule

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Rachel B. Sheehan1*, Matthew P. Herring1,2, Mark J. Campbell1

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1 Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Limerick, Ireland.
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2 Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Ireland
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*Correspondence: Rachel B. Sheehan, Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences,

University of Limerick, Ireland; phone: +353-87-9141972; email: [email protected]

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Abstract:

Objectives: This study characterised mental health, motivation, and their interrelations among

38 elite student-athletes over a 13-week season, while monitoring and considering the

influence of their athletic and academic schedules.

Design: Longitudinal

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Method: Electronically-administered questionnaires measured total mood disturbance and

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depressive symptoms (weekly), sleep quality and trait anxiety (monthly), and motivation,

basic needs satisfaction and motivational climate (weeks one and 13).

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Results: Thirty-seven percent of athletes reported scores indicative of mild-to-moderate

depression, 32% were poor sleepers, and 8% were high trait anxious. These outcomes

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significantly improved over time, whereas the motivation-related variables remained stable.
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The athletes were predominantly intrinsically motivated, and reported high satisfaction of
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basic psychological needs. Task climate exceeded its ego counterpart. There were no

significant sex-related differences for any mental health outcome at week one; however,
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autonomy and relatedness were significantly higher among females.

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Conclusions: Collectively, these findings suggest that psychological monitoring of student-

athletes, particularly over intense athletic and academic periods, is a powerful tool for
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identifying potential mental health and/or motivation-related issues that may influence
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performance and well-being.

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1 Introduction

2 Mainstream and academic interest in athlete mental health has continued to grow,

3 both because more athletes have anecdotally reported psychological struggles, and because

4 there is increasing awareness of the potential psychological risks associated with athletic

participation (e.g., Doherty, Hannigan, & Campbell, 2016). Despite the well-established

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6 benefits of physical activity for mental health (Office of Disease Prevention and Health

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7 Promotion, 2008), sport involvement does not guarantee protection from mental health issues.

8 High-level athletes experience extreme training loads, saturated competition schedules, and

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9 heightened pressure both on and off the field (Rice et al., 2016). Notably, university students

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10 are also vulnerable to mental health difficulties, with the transition away from home, lack of
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11 traditional social support, and increasing academic stress being examples of contributing

12 factors (Castillo & Schwartz, 2013). With this in mind, the demands may be even more
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13 intense for student-athletes, given the fact that athletic and academic workloads must be

14 balanced (Brown et al., 2015).

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15 Available evidence supports a link between mental health and motivation (Stenling,

16 Lindwall, & Hassmén, 2015). Myriad theories, antecedents, and consequences have been
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17 investigated to elucidate the internal and external reasons for why people initiate and sustain

18 effort (Ryan & Deci, 2007). The evidence regarding the motivation of competitive athletes is
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19 somewhat mixed; some studies report predominantly intrinsic motivation (Halldorsson,

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20 Helgason, & Thorlindsson, 2012), and others report extrinsic motivation (Chantal, Guay,

21 Dobreva-Martinova, & Vallerand, 1996). Compared to full-time athletes, sport-related

22 motivation may be particularly high among student-athletes to manage the dual roles they

23 must balance in university (Gaston-Gayles, 2005), though the motivation profiles of student-

24 athletes, and the potential influence of mental health on motivation, are not well known.

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25 Mental Health

26 University student-athletes may be at-risk for impaired mental health, including

27 disturbed mood, depression, anxiety, and poor sleep quality, due to their demanding lifestyles

28 (Brown, Goehlert, Director, Graphics, & Seifert, 2014). Indeed, the well-established link

between subjective well-being and an athlete’s training response (Saw, Main, & Gastin,

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30 2015) highlights the importance of monitoring athlete mental health. Perhaps equally

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31 important are the associations between performance, and mood (Beedie, Terry, & Lane,

32 2000), depression (Newman, Howells, & Fletcher, 2016), sleep (Gupta, Morgan, & Gilchrist,

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33 2016), and anxiety (Woodman & Hardy, 2003). Notably, there is also an abundance of

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34 evidence regarding the protective effects of engaging in sport (e.g., reduced stress and
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35 distress, lower depression, increased life satisfaction and vitality; Eime, Young, Harvey,

36 Charity, & Payne, 2013) and exercise (e.g., reduced all-cause mortality, cardiovascular
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37 disease and type II diabetes; Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 2008),

38 potentially offsetting some of the challenges encountered by student-athletes.

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39 Motivation

40 Self Determination Theory (SDT) addresses the types, antecedents, and outcomes of
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41 motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000), and is the most influential theory in the area of competitive
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42 sport motivation (Clancy, Herring, MacIntyre, & Campbell, 2016). It posits that self-
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43 determined motivation (intrinsic motivation, and some forms of extrinsic motivation) is

44 associated with adaptive (positive) outcomes, whereas non-self-determined motivation

45 (remaining forms of extrinsic motivation, and amotivation) is associated with maladaptive

46 (negative) outcomes (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Intrinsic motivation involves doing an action for

47 the inherent pleasure, satisfaction or challenge, whereas extrinsic motivation involves doing

48 an action in order to obtain a separable outcome. According to SDT, people behave in ways

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49 that satisfy their basic psychological needs for competence (belief you can successfully

50 accomplish a task), autonomy (choosing actions that align with your values), and relatedness

51 (having a connectedness with others; Deci & Ryan, 2000), which are associated with adaptive

52 outcomes (e.g., well-being; Reinboth & Duda, 2006). Motivation is also influenced by social-

53 environmental factors (Ames, 1992), such that a task motivational climate (which focuses on

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54 the process and self-comparison) is associated with competence, intrinsic motivation, and

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55 performance, and an ego motivational climate (which focuses on the outcome and normative

56 comparison) is associated with extrinsic motivation, amotivation, and antisocial attitudes

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57 (Harwood, Keegan, Smith, & Raine, 2015).

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58 The Current Study
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59 University student-athletes face significant challenges due to the academic and

60 athletic demands they must balance (Kaiseler, Poolton, Backhouse, & Stanger, 2017). The
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61 burden on elite student-athletes within the national sport of Gaelic games in Ireland is
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62 magnified because there is often an expectation for these athletes to play for their university,
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63 their club, and their county (region), with the staggered nature of the seasons resulting in

64 little, if any, time off (Turner & Moore, 2016). Athletes frequently play two codes of Gaelic
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65 games (e.g., Gaelic football and hurling), with overlapping seasons due to the lack of an

66 official off-season resulting in potentially six teams demanding the services of a single athlete
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67 (Turner & Moore, 2016). Although Gaelic games are technically amateur sports, they have
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68 reached a professional level in terms of resources, commitment, and expectations.

69 Furthermore, they are accompanied by an intense community and national pride. As such,

70 research in Gaelic games may have implications for other competitive sports, particularly

71 those with a strong university (e.g., basketball in the United States) or community (e.g.,

72 football in the United Kingdom) presence, or those with brief competition periods (e.g.,

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73 tennis and lacrosse in the United States, and cricket and basketball in the United Kingdom).

74 Given the congested, multi-team athletic schedule many Gaelic games student-athletes face,

75 coupled with the necessity to prioritise and meet academic goals, it is unsurprising that 52.5%

76 of hurlers and 51.9% of Gaelic footballers aged 16 years and above drop out of sport, with

77 17-19 years olds being most at risk (Lunn, Kelly, & Fitzpatrick, 2013). Notably, this

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78 demanding context likely exists in other sports, and may also have implications for mental

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79 health and motivation, particularly given recent supportive evidence of the relationship

80 between these factors among team-sport athletes (Sheehan, Herring, & Campbell, 2018).

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81 Previous findings regarding student-athlete mental health and motivation are not

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82 definitive. Student-athletes may be susceptible to poor mental health (Brown et al., 2014),
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83 though highly motivated in order to manage their dual roles (Gaston-Gayles, 2005). Research

84 has also shown that motivation and mental health are related, with motivation-related
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85 variables affecting later mental health (e.g., Stenling et al., 2015). To the authors’ knowledge,

86 however, no other study has longitudinally investigated mental health, motivation, and their
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87 interrelations, while simultaneously monitoring and considering the influence of athletic and
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88 academic schedules, among elite Gaelic games student-athletes over a condensed season.
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89 Therefore, the key objectives of this study were to characterise the mental health and

90 motivation profiles of an elite student-athlete sample across a 13-week season, and to explore
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91 the influence of academic and athletic schedules on these profiles. The authors hypothesised
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92 that (i) scores for intrinsic motivation and task climate would exceed extrinsic

93 motivation/amotivation and ego climate, respectively, and that motivation-related variables

94 would remain relatively stable over time; and, (ii) student-athletes would report high

95 satisfaction (e.g., scores above the midpoint) of their basic needs. Given the mixed findings in

96 the literature regarding athlete mental health, investigations of mood, depressive symptoms,

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97 sleep quality, and trait anxiety, along with their associations with motivation-related

98 variables, were exploratory.

99 Methods

100 Participants and Procedure

The University Ethics Committee approved the current study protocol, and all

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102 participants provided written informed consent prior to participation. Given 13 time points

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103 and a correlation of 0.5 between repeated measures, an a priori power analysis indicated that

104 14 participants would be needed to have 95% power for detecting a medium sized effect (g =

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105 0.3) when using the traditional .05 criterion of statistical significance (Faul, Erdfelder, Lang,

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106 & Buchner, 2007). Four teams within one university were recruited for this study in order to
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107 represent the four codes of Gaelic games (football, ladies football, hurling, camogie).

108 However, one team (camogie) could not participate, resulting in 45 student-athletes (three
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109 teams of 15 athletes) being included. Following attrition, the final sample size consisted of 38

110 student-athletes across four academic years (males = 20, females = 18; mean age =
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111 19.97±1.60 years; mean Gaelic games experience = 13.81±2.87 years), which, given the
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112 power analysis, was deemed more than adequate for the main objectives of this study. The
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113 sample was 100% Caucasian, and represented non-scholarship student-athletes only due to

114 the absence of scholarships for Gaelic games. Based on eliteness calculations (Swann,
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115 Moran, & Piggott, 2014), the teams were categorised as “semi-elite,” meaning their level of
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116 participation is below the top standard in their sport. Though many individual student-athletes

117 also compete at the highest standard in Gaelic games, the calculations took place at the team

118 level.

119 Seven questionnaires were electronically administered over the condensed university

120 season, from December 1st to February 23rd, which coincided with end-of-semester exams

121 and Christmas break (Table 1). Based on the established recall period for the four mental

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122 health inventories, total mood disturbance (TMD) and depressive symptoms were measured

123 weekly, and sleep quality and trait anxiety were measured monthly. Previous research has

124 measured motivation ten weeks apart at its most frequent (Stenling, Ivarsson, Hassmén, &

125 Lindwall, 2016), though intervals of six months and beyond are more common (Vink,

126 Raudsepp, & Kais, 2015). To this end, the three motivation-related variables were measured

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127 at baseline, and after 13 weeks. The questionnaires were combined into a single packet and

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128 completed unsupervised on the same day each week. That is, student-athletes were given a

129 24-hour window during which to complete the packet at their own convenience, which aided

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130 in recruitment and compliance. Questionnaire completion required 5-10 minutes most weeks,

131 increasing to approximately 18 minutes at weeks one and 13. Missing data were imputed

132
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using Last Value Carried Forward imputation (Twisk & de Vente, 2002).
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133 INSERT TABLE 1
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134 Measures

135 Mental Health

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136 TMD was measured using the Profile of Mood States – Brief (POMS-B; McNair,
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137 Lorr, & Droppleman, 1971). The POMS-B consists of 30 adjectives describing how the

138 respondent may be feeling right at this moment for five negative (tension, depression, anger,
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139 fatigue, and confusion) and one positive mood state (vigour), with scores ranging from -20 to
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140 100 (higher scores indicate more disturbed mood). The subscales of the POMS-B have
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141 demonstrated acceptable reliability (.71-.88; Yeun & Shin‐Park, 2006).

142 Depressive symptom severity was assessed using the 16-item Quick Inventory of

143 Depressive Symptomatology – Self Report (QIDS-SR; Rush et al., 2003). Respondents were

144 asked to rate symptoms corresponding to nine core dimensions of depression from the prior

145 seven days. Depressive symptom severity was classified as: none (0-5), mild (6-10),

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146 moderate (11-15), severe (16-20), and very severe (21 and over). A high reliability coefficient

147 (.86) has been reported for the QIDS-SR (Rush et al., 2003).

148 Sleep quality was measured using the 19-item Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI;

149 Buysse, Reynolds III, Monk, Berman, & Kupfer, 1989). The PSQI generates seven

150 component scores that quantify overall sleep quality for the preceding month (good quality =

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151 0-5; poor quality = >5): subjective sleep quality, sleep latency, sleep duration, habitual sleep

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152 efficiency, sleep disturbances, use of sleeping medication, and daytime dysfunction. The

153 component scores of the PSQI have a reliability coefficient of .83 (Buysse et al., 1989).

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154 Anxiety symptoms were measured using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory – Y2

155 (STAI-Y2; Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1983). Respondents rated how they generally

156
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feel in response to 20 items. Scores greater than one-standard deviation above the age-related
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157 norm (≥50) were classified as high trait anxious (Spielberger et al., 1983). A reliability
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158 coefficient of .90 has been reported for the STAI-Y2 (Spielberger et al., 1983).

159 Motivation
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160 Motivation was measured using the 18-item Sport Motivation Scale II (SMS-II;
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161 Pelletier, Rocchi, Vallerand, Deci, & Ryan, 2013). The SMS-II asks athletes “why do you

162 practice your sport?” and provides scores for intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and
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163 amotivation. The subscales have reliability coefficients ranging from .73 to .86 (Pelletier et
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164 al., 2013).

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165 Athletes’ perceptions of competence, autonomy, and relatedness were measured

166 using the Basic Need Satisfaction in Sport Scale (BNSSS; Ng, Lonsdale, & Hodge, 2011).

167 This 20-item scale asks athletes how they feel when participating in their main sport,

168 provides a seven-point Likert scale for responses, and has reliability coefficients of .61-.82

169 for the five subscales (Ng et al., 2011).

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170 Athletes’ perceptions of the motivational climate typically experienced on their teams

171 were assessed using the 33-item Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire II

172 (PMCSQ-II; Newton, Duda, & Yin, 2000). The PMCSQ-II uses the stem “On this team…”

173 and provides scores for perceived task- and ego-involving climates. Reliability coefficients of

174 .88 and .87 have been reported for task and ego climates, respectively (Newton et al., 2000).

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175 Data Analysis

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176 Descriptive statistics, prevalence, and Pearson’s correlation coefficients were

177 calculated. Paired t-tests and repeated measures ANOVAs examined differences in each

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178 outcome over time. Hedges’ g effect sizes and associated 95% confidence intervals (95% CI)

179 were calculated to quantify the magnitude of change in each variable across the 13 weeks.

180
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For each measure, the change in score from week one to 13 was divided by the pooled week
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181 one standard deviation, and effect sizes were calculated such that an improvement (e.g.,
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182 reduction in depressive symptoms) resulted in a positive effect size (Hedges & Olkin, 1985).

183 Independent t-tests examined sex-related differences in each outcome at weeks one and 13.
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184 Chi-squared tests assessed sex-related differences in depression, poor sleep quality, and high
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185 trait anxious status. In addition to the large sample size and length of data collection

186 increasing the precision of analyses, Bonferroni correction of the significance level was used
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187 to control for Type I errors when making multiple between-groups comparisons and
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188 correlations (Vincent & Weir, 1999).

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189 Results

190 Descriptive Statistics

191 Table 2 presents descriptive statistics for the mental health and motivation-related

192 variables at weeks one and 13, and Hedges’ g effect sizes and associated 95% CI for change

193 across time. See Supplementary Table 1 for weekly data.

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194 INSERT TABLE 2

195 Total mood disturbance (F(3, 35) = 5.81, p ≤ 0.002), depressive symptoms (F(3, 35) =

196 22.04, p < 0.0001), and sleep quality (F(3, 35) = 8.86, p < 0.0001) significantly improved

197 over the 13 weeks. The magnitude of change was large for TMD (g = 0.72) and depressive

symptoms (g = 1.10), and moderate for sleep quality (g = 0.40). There were no sex-related

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198

199 differences in mental health status.

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200 There were no significant changes in any motivation-related outcome from week one

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201 to 13. Mean intrinsic motivation was significantly higher than extrinsic motivation (t(37) =

202 4.780, p < 0.0001) and amotivation (t(37) = 16.842, p < 0.0001). Task climate was

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203 significantly higher than ego climate (t(37) = 13.551, p < 0.0001). Autonomy (t(36)= - 2.10, p
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204 ≤ 0.043) and relatedness (t(36) = -2.67, p ≤ 0.011) were significantly higher among females

205 than males at week one, and there were no significant sex-related differences at week 13.
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206 Prevalence
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207 The number of athletes with scores indicative of depression, poor sleep quality, and
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208 high trait anxious status are provided in Table 3. Thirty-seven percent of the athletes reported

209 scores indicative of mild-to-moderate depression at week one, which decreased to 11% at
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210 week 13. Seventy-nine percent of athletes who initially reported scores indicative of
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211 depression did not report such scores 13 weeks later. Three athletes’ status remained
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212 unchanged over the season, and one athlete reported scores indicative of mild depression only

213 at week 13. At week one, the mean PSQI score was above the cut-off score for poor sleep,

214 with 32% of the athletes categorised as poor sleepers; this decreased to 26% at week 13. One-

215 quarter of athletes who were categorised as poor sleepers at baseline changed to good

216 sleepers 13 weeks later; three-quarters reported poor sleep quality at both time points, and

217 one athlete reported poor sleep quality only at week 13.

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218 INSERT TABLE 3

219 Correlations

220 Supplementary Table 2 illustrates significant correlations between mental health

221 variables and motivation-related variables at and between weeks one and 13. When adjusted

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222 for potential Type I error of multiple testing, significant moderate-to-large, negative

223 correlations were found between anxiety symptoms and relatedness (week one, r = -0.474, p

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224 ≤ 0.003), and task climate (week one, r = -0.480, p ≤ 0.002; week 13, r = -0.488, p ≤ 0.002).

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225 Anxiety symptoms were positively correlated with ego climate (week one, r = 0.452, p ≤

226 0.004; week 13, r = 0.520, p ≤ 0.001). At week 13, significant moderate-to-large, negative

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227 correlations were found between anxiety symptoms and intrinsic motivation (r = -0.478, p ≤
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228 0.002), extrinsic motivation (r = -0.458, p ≤ 0.004), competence (r = -0.671, p < 0.0001), and

229 autonomy (r = -0.601, p < 0.0001). Positive, moderate-to-large correlations were found
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230 between week one ego climate and week 13 TMD (r = 0.542, p < 0.0001), and anxiety (r =
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231 0.559, < 0.0001).

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232 Discussion

233 Consistent with study hypotheses, the current findings supported adaptive
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234 motivational patterns among elite student-athletes over a 13-week season. Intrinsic
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235 motivation slightly exceeded extrinsic motivation, which in turn greatly exceeded
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236 amotivation. In addition, athletes reported high satisfaction of basic needs, and task climate

237 exceeded ego climate. Despite the well-established benefits of intrinsic motivation over

238 extrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000), the blend in the current study appears to be typical

239 among competitive athletes because of the simultaneous emphases on enjoyment/challenge

240 and competition/winning (Clancy et al., 2016). Exploratory analyses indicated that this elite

241 student-athlete sample was not immune to mental health impairments. Almost 40% of the

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242 sample reported scores indicative of mild-to-moderate depression at week one, and

243 approximately one-third were poor sleepers. However, across the season, there were

244 significant improvements in TMD, depressive symptoms, and sleep quality, and non-

245 significant improvements in anxiety symptoms. Overall, the potential athletic, academic, and

246 social challenges of a condensed season did not undermine the athletes’ motivation or mental

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247 health, which bodes well for other university sports with accelerated schedules. In fact, sport

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248 involvement seemed to provide a buffer for the student-athletes, such that the progressing

249 season actually improved mental health, even in the face of potential life stressors.

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250 To place these preliminary findings in context, the present sample’s mean TMD was

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251 lower than that for other Irish team sport athletes (Sheehan et al., 2018), and for similarly-
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252 aged Americans (Yeun & Shin‐Park, 2006). Although there was a large, significant decrease

253 (improvement) in TMD over time, there were five weeks during which TMD increased. The
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254 first instance was when exams began, and the third instance was when semester re-started

255 after Christmas, which is consistent with previous research on the acute effect of academic
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256 time on mood (Greene & Maggs, 2017). The second instance followed a friendly game for
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257 two of the teams, and the fourth and fifth instances were following season-ending games for
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258 two of the teams, which can potentially be attributed to game outcome (Jones & Sheffield,

259 2007). Given the link between mood and performance (Beedie et al., 2000), among other
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260 critical sport outcomes, it is important for athletes and coaches to be aware of potential mood
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261 fluctuations in response to academic commitments and game outcome, particularly among

262 student-athletes who compete for multiple teams. Such knowledge may allow athletes and

263 coaches to engage in and promote mood-regulating strategies (e.g., use relaxation techniques;

264 Stevens & Lane, 2001).

265 Thirty-seven percent of athletes had mild-to-moderate depressive symptoms at week

266 one. This prevalence is lower than the 45% of Irish athletes reported by Sheehan et al. (2018),

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267 but higher than that reported for similar samples of Australian (Gulliver, Griffiths,

268 Mackinnon, Batterham, & Stanimirovic, 2015) and American (Wolanin, Hong, Marks,

269 Panchoo, & Gross, 2016) athletes. This variability in the reporting of depressive symptoms is

270 also evident among non-athlete samples, where both higher (Mergen et al., 2011) and lower

271 (Gonzalez, Boals, Jenkins, Schuler, & Taylor, 2013) scores than the current study have been

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272 reported for American university students. However, there was a large, significant decrease in

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273 depressive symptoms across the 13 weeks, reinforced by a reduced prevalence of mild-to-

274 moderate depression of 11% at week 13. This echoes previous evidence of the beneficial

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275 effects of sport participation (Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 2008).

276 Scores increased (worsened) at weeks six, nine, 11, and 12, however. Week six took place

277
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immediately following a friendly game for two of the teams, with the three other weeks
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278 coinciding with the return of the spring semester. As with mood, game outcome (Jones &
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279 Sheffield, 2007) and academic time (Greene & Maggs, 2017) may have contributed to these

280 fluctuations. It is also possible that athletes engage in negative behaviours following a loss,
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281 such as excessive alcohol consumption as a means of coping (Martens, Cox, Beck, &
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282 Heppner, 2003), which impact reporting of depressive symptoms.

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283 Almost one-third of athletes were categorised as poor sleepers at week one, with the

284 sample mean exceeding the cut-off score (five) for poor sleep quality. This prevalence is
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285 lower than that previously reported among Irish team sport athletes (Sheehan et al., 2018) and
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286 New Zealand athletes (Swinbourne, Gill, Vaile, & Smart, 2016). Furthermore, over 65% of

287 American university students were found to be poor sleepers (Lund, Reider, Whiting, &

288 Prichard, 2010). The current sample mean was lower than those reported in each of the

289 athlete studies above, though higher than for healthy non-athletes (Backhaus, Junghanns,

290 Broocks, Riemann, & Hohagen, 2002). Though a prevalence of 30% is quite high, the current

291 sample seems to have been better sleepers than previous reported samples. As with

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292 depressive symptoms, there was a significant improvement in sleep quality across the 13

293 weeks. Though university students tend to have high levels of sleep disturbance (Gupta et al.,

294 2016), almost half of the data collection in the current study comprised Christmas break.

295 Thus, this period without academic commitments may have contributed to improved sleep

296 quality due to sleep extension (Mah, Mah, Kezirian, & Dement, 2011). The initial decrease

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297 (improvement) in PSQI scores between weeks one and five, however, was followed by an

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298 increase (worsening) at weeks nine and 13. The return to university at week nine may have

299 contributed to this, as students may have had to adjust to early rises for class (Lund et al.,

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300 2010), and commit time to coursework (Greene & Maggs, 2017).

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301 Three male athletes (less than 8% of the sample) were highly trait anxious at week
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302 one. However, the sample mean was below the cut-off score for high trait anxiety. This

303 prevalence and average is lower than that previously reported among Irish athletes (Sheehan
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304 et al., 2018). Likewise, the average score is lower than that reported for Middle Eastern free

305 diving student-athletes and non-athletes (Alkan & Akış, 2013), and for Japanese rhythmic
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306 gymnastics student-athletes and non-athletes (Akai, Ishizaki, Matsuoka, & Homma, 2010).
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307 Anxiety symptoms did not significantly change across the monitoring period, consistent with
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308 the low and constant prevalence reported among British university student-athletes (van de

309 Pol, Kavussanu, & Kompier, 2015), which is potentially due to the relative stability of trait
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310 anxiety scores across time (Spielberger et al., 1983). Overall, trait anxiety appeared to be the
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311 least problematic mental health outcome measured for the current sample.

312 Scores for intrinsic motivation exceeded their less self-determined counterparts,

313 indicating adaptive motivational patterns. At week one, the current sample means for intrinsic

314 and extrinsic motivation were higher than previously reported by Sheehan et al. (2018).

315 Notably, the scores do not indicate that intrinsic motivation dominates for the current sample;

316 there are high levels of both, with amotivation being low. This supports previous findings

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317 regarding the presence of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations among successful teams (Blegen,

318 Stenson, Micek, & Matthews, 2012). That is, a complementary emphasis on

319 enjoyment/challenge and victory/competition underpins many athletes’ motivation for sport.

320 The associations between baseline amotivation and week 13 TMD and sleep quality are

321 consistent with previous evidence of the maladaptive effects of non-self-determined

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322 motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The association between amotivation and sleep quality was

RI
323 only evident across time points, indicating that non-self-determined motivation may impair

324 future sleep, with no acute effects. The finding that motivation did not significantly change is

SC
325 counter to some previous studies showing an increase in motivation over time (Stenling et al.,

326 2016). This variation, however, was among individual-sport athletes, potentially suggesting

327
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that the presence of teammates may stabilise athletes’ reasons for engaging in sport. Overall,
AN
328 these Gaelic games athletes were characterised by self-determined motivation, which may
M

329 have contributed to their improved mental health across the season (Milyavskaya & Koestner,

330 2011).
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331 The BNSSS scores indicate high satisfaction of the three basic needs, all of which
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332 exceeded those previously reported among a similar Irish sample (Sheehan et al., 2018).
EP

333 Mean scores for competence and autonomy also exceeded those reported for a sample of New

334 Zealand athletes, though relatedness was lower (Ng et al., 2011). This finding may be
C

335 attributed to the transience of university Gaelic games, in that athletes usually play with other
AC

336 teams and, therefore, teammates for a longer period. The expectation that elite Gaelic games

337 athletes play with numerous teams may have contributed to their high competence scores, as

338 such in-demand athletes likely feel very proficient at their sport. The finding that autonomy

339 and relatedness scores were significantly higher for females at week one suggests they value

340 free choice and a sense of connectedness more so than males. This may be attributed to the

341 fact that ladies Gaelic games have fewer support staff, which may foster increased

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342 independence and camaraderie among the athletes. Previous research, however, has found

343 higher relatedness scores for male than female American student-athletes (Stults-

344 Kolehmainen, Gilson, & Abolt, 2013). Overall, the high and unchanging perception of basic

345 needs satisfaction is adaptive in the current study.

The current sample reported significantly higher scores for task climate than ego

PT
346

347 climate, indicating they perceive their coaches to have a largely positive influence on their

RI
348 motivation. These scores are consistent with those reported by Sheehan et al. (2018). Scottish

349 elite athletes also reported higher scores for task than ego climate (Allen, Taylor, Dimeo,

SC
350 Dixon, & Robinson, 2015), though the ego climate scores were significantly higher than

U
351 those for the current sample. In contrast, Poux and Fry (2015) reported moderate levels of
AN
352 both task and ego climate among American team-sport athletes, which reinforces the finding

353 that an ego climate may not be maladaptive when accompanied by task-involving cues
M

354 (Ommundsen & Roberts, 1999). The significant associations between baseline ego climate

355 and the four mental health variables 13 weeks later echo previous reports of the maladaptive
D

356 consequences of such a climate (Harwood et al., 2015). In this case, the low ego climate score
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357 at baseline may account for the fact that the mental health scores improved over time.
EP

358 Overall, the athletes perceived their coaches to act in a consistent manner over time, creating

359 an adaptive motivational environment.

C

360 Implications
AC

361 The study provides several practical lessons for optimising the mental health and

362 motivation of student-athletes. Firstly, coaches could consider conducting in-situ

363 psychological monitoring to ensure that student-athletes are prepared for the athletic and

364 academic demands of university. Despite the overall trends towards improved mental health

365 in the current study, there were weekly fluctuations in the data that are best captured using

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366 continuous application-based monitoring (e.g., Google Forms, Metrifit). Regular monitoring

367 would potentially encourage help-seeking behaviour, and allow at-risk student-athletes to be

368 flagged for support. Secondly, pre-season workshops could be organised to enhance mental

369 health literacy in athletic departments. Despite awareness of its importance, sleep quality

370 appears to be poor among many student-athletes. Thus, the third recommendation is for

PT
371 relevant stakeholders (e.g., Student Sport Ireland) to create a guide for sleep hygiene for both

RI
372 athlete and coaches to implement. Fourthly, university coaches could open communication

373 channels with coaches outside the university to ensure that student-athletes with

SC
374 commitments to more than one team are not overly burdened. Finally, coach-centred

375 workshops could be organised in order to increase knowledge regarding motivation,

376
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particularly the motivational climate. This would equip coaches with the means to encourage
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377 adaptive motivational patterns, which may have subsequent positive effects on mental health.
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378 Limitations
D

379 Although the current study makes a unique contribution to the sport psychology
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380 literature by integrating mental health and motivation-related variables over time among an

381 understudied sample, it has limitations. Firstly, a larger sample size could have been
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382 recruited; therefore, the findings might not be representative of all Gaelic games student-

383 athletes. Secondly, Gaelic games are unique to Ireland, making the findings less generalisable
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384 to other sports and nations. Furthermore, the findings may not be representative of individual
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385 sport athletes. Nevertheless, the student-athlete dual role is common in other countries, which

386 enhances the utility of the current findings in further understanding student-athletes in the

387 United States, the United Kingdom, and elsewhere. Thirdly, it was not possible to account for

388 athletic commitments outside the university Gaelic games schedule. In future, it would be

389 useful to account for club and county Gaelic games teams and alternative sports (e.g.,

390 basketball) in order to obtain further insights into this congested competition period.

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391 Fourthly, self-report measures may be subject to bias; therefore, objective assessments by a

392 clinician and qualitative interviews could be used in future to further substantiate the mental

393 health and motivation findings, respectively.

394 Conclusion

PT
395 Student-athletes who play Gaelic games experience an intense competition period

396 during the winter, which is similar to the accelerated schedules of many other university

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397 sports. As well as completing an entire university athletic season in just over three months,

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398 they must juggle classes and exams, and compete for their club/county. This somewhat

399 overloaded 13-week period is potentially further complicated by the social demands that

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400 accompany the Christmas season. Overall, depressive symptoms and poor sleep quality
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401 appear to affect the student-athletes, with moderately high prevalence rates for both.

402 Fortunately, three of the mental health outcomes significantly improved over time, with the
M

403 fourth (trait anxiety) being at low levels at week one. These trends indicate that sport
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404 involvement imparted mental health benefits on the athletes. Furthermore, the athletes
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405 displayed predominantly adaptive motivational patterns. Consistent perceptions of a task

406 climate and high satisfaction of basic needs likely contributed to and maintained the athletes’
EP

407 self-determined motivation, which comprised elements of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

408 Notably, this blend appears to be typical of many competitive athletes who seek to balance
C

409 their love of sport and desire to win. Baseline amotivation and ego climate, though both at
AC

410 low levels, were associated with poor mental health 13 weeks later, which indicates that

411 motivation-related variables affect later mental health. These findings reinforce the utility of

412 monitoring psychological variables among athletes, particularly those who are balancing

413 athletic and academic commitments over a short timeframe.

414

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Table 1. Testing, academic and athletic schedule for hurling, freshman hurling, and ladies football teams.
December
Week Mon Tues Wed Thur Fri Sat Sun

PT
1 1*** 2 3 4 Semester ends 5 Exams start 6
2 7 8* 9 10 11 12 13
3 14 15* 16 17 18 Exams end 19 20

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4 21 22* 23 24 25 26 27
5 28 29** 30 31

SC
January
1 2 1st friendly game (H, FrH) 3
6 4 5* 6 7 8 9 10

U
st
7 11 12* 13 14 15 16 1 friendly game (LFB) 17

AN
8 18 19* 20 21 22 23 24
9 25 Semester starts 26** 27 28 29 30 31
February

M
10 1 2* 3 4 5 6 7
11 8 9* 10 11 12 13 14

D
12 15 16* 17 18 FrH finished 19 20 21

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13 22 23*** 24 25 26 27 H finished 28
*POMS-B, QIDS-SR16; **POMS-B, QIDS-SR16, PSQI, STAI-Y2; *** POMS-B, QIDS-SR16, PSQI, STAI-Y2, SMS-II, BNSSS, PMCSQ-II;
H = hurling; FrH = fresher hurling; LFB = ladies football; LFB finished on 12/3
C EP
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Table 2. Mean (standard deviation) for mental health and motivation-related variables (overall and broken down by sex) at weeks one and 13,
plus Hedges’ g effect sizes (95% CI) for change over time.
Week 1 Week 13 Hedges’ g

PT
Total Male Female Total Male Female Total
TMD 6.47 (9.95) 4.80 (8.23) 8.33 (11.52) -0.63 (9.48) -1.80 (9.28) 0.67 (9.80) 0.72 (0.26, 1.18)

RI
Dep 4.76 (2.63) 5.15 (2.83) 4.33 (2.38) 2.13 (2.00) 1.55 (1.47) 2.78 (2.34) 1.10 (0.62, 1.58)
SlQ 5.05 (2.24) 4.95 (2.31) 5.17 (2.23) 4.11 (2.43) 3.80 (1.99) 4.44 (2.85) 0.40 (-0.05, 0.85)

SC
Anx 36.34 (6.94) 37.85 (8.19) 34.67 (4.92) 34.37 (8.98) 33.25 (8.40) 35.61 (9.68) 0.24 (-0.21, 0.69)
IM 5.11 (1.28) 5.08 (1.37) 5.15 (1.21) 4.97 (1.47) 4.82 (1.49) 5.15 (1.46) 0.10 (-0.35, 0.55)
EM 4.34 (1.16) 4.18 (1.09) 4.52 (1.25) 4.09 (0.99) 4.08 (1.05) 4.11 (0.95) 0.23 (-0.22, 0.67)

U
AM 1.28 (0.57) 1.18 (0.28) 1.39 (0.77) 1.39 (0.56) 1.38 (0.50) 1.39 (0.64) -0.19 (-0.63, 0.26)

AN
Com 5.86 (1.05) 5.67 (1.34) 6.08 (0.57) 5.67 (1.12) 5.68 (1.02) 5.67 (1.24) 0.17 (-0.27, 0.62)
Aut 5.73 (0.93) 5.44 (1.12) 6.05 (0.53) 5.57 (0.98) 5.46 (1.05) 5.68 (0.91) 0.17 (-0.28, 0.61)
Rel 5.97 (1.12) 5.54 (1.32) 6.44 (0.58) 5.75 (1.16) 5.46 (1.34) 6.07 (0.87) 0.19 (-0.26, 0.64)

M
TC 4.26 (0.40) 4.19 (0.43) 4.33 (0.36) 4.28 (0.53) 4.17 (0.59) 4.40 (0.43) -0.04 (-0.49, 0.40)
EC 2.38 (0.63) 2.38 (0.57) 2.38 (0.70) 2.25 (0.65) 2.31 (0.58) 2.19 (0.74) 0.19 (-0.25, 0.64)

D
TMD = total mood disturbance; Dep = depressive symptoms; SlQ = sleep quality; Anx = trait anxiety; IM = intrinsic motivation; EM = extrinsic
motivation; AM = amotivation; Com = competence, Aut = autonomy, Rel = relatedness; T/E C = task/ego climate

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Table 3. Number (percentage) meeting cut-off score (overall and broken down by sex) for
depressive symptoms, sleep quality, and trait anxiety for weeks one and 13.

Week 1 Week 13
Caseness cut-off
Overall Males Females Overall Males Females
No Dep 24 (63.2) 10 (50) 14 (77.8) 34 (89.5) 20 (100) 14 (78)
Mild Dep 12 (31.5) 9 (45) 3 (16.7) 4 (10.5) 0 (0) 4 (22)
Moderate Dep 2 (5.3) 1 (5) 1 (5.5) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)
Good SlQ 26 (68.4) 14 (70) 12 (66.7) 28 (73.7) 15 (75) 13 (72)

PT
Poor SlQ 12 (31.5) 6 (30) 6 (33.3) 10 (26.3) 5 (25) 5 (28)
Normal Anx 35 (92.1) 17 (85) 18 (100) 34 (89.5) 18 (90) 16 (89)
High Anx 3 (7.9) 3 (15) 0 (0) 4 (10.5) 2 (10) 2 (11)

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Dep = depressive symptoms; SlQ = sleep quality; Anx = trait anxiety

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Student athlete mental health and motivation

Supplementary Table 1. Mean (standard deviation) for mental health variables for each week. A decrease in score indicates an improvement.
Possible Avg Avg Avg
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
range W2-5 W6-9 W10-13

PT
6.47 7.16 4.00 3.08 1.21 3.86 2.26 -1.13 -2.13 -0.26 -0.28 -0.61 -1.97 -1.05 -0.63
TMD -20-100
(9.95) (12.90) (12.20) (13.41) (13.44) (10.62) (11.85) (9.00) (8.09) (10.45) (7.51) (9.46) (10.72) (11.64) (9.48)
-1.07 (9.19)
4.76 4.11 3.55 3.45 3.11 3.55 3.32 3.11 2.39 2.42 2.81 1.89 2.21 2.34 2.13
Dep 0-27 2.17 (1.77)

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(2.63) (2.76) (3.15) (3.15) (2.77) (2.47) (3.00) (2.73) (1.64) (2.00) (1.96) (1.74) (2.23) (2.39) (2.00)
5.05 3.18 4.08 4.11
SlQ 0-21
(2.24)
- - -
(2.84)
- - - -
(2.66)
- - - -
(2.43)
-

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36.34 34.68 34.50 34.37
Anx 20-80
(6.94)
- - -
(7.40)
- - - -
(7.76)
- - - -
(8.98)
-

TMD = total mood disturbance; Dep = depressive symptoms; SlQ = sleep quality; Anx = trait anxiety

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Student athlete mental health and motivation

Supplementary Table 2. Correlations for study variables at weeks one and 13.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
TMD1

PT
QIDS1 .375*

PSQI1 .451* .480*

* *

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STAI1 .403* .436* 0.124

IM1 0.042 - 0.114 -

0.005 0.384

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*
EM1 0.034 0.02 0.171 -0.303 .670*
*
AM1 .369* 0.276 0.201 0.163 - 0.212

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0.004
Com1 - -0.11 0.028 -.434* .527* .528* -
0.092 * * 0.043

AN
Aut1 0.068 - - -.434* .574* .535* 0.032 .827*
0.066 0.049 * * *
Rel1 0.12 - 0.123 - .536* .515* 0.071 .796* .834*
0.036 .474* * * * *

M
*
TC1 - - - - .591* .518* 0.05 .627* .612* .547*
0.018 0.261 0.017 .480* * * * * *
*

D
EC1 .407* .400* 0.207 .452* - - .422* - - - -
* 0.078 0.096 0.272 0.271 0.241 .361*

TE
TMD1 .577* .509* 0.313 .358* - - .329* - - 0.001 - .542*
* * 0.087 0.038 0.018 0.045 0.087 *
3
QIDS1 .323* .459* .354* 0.199 - - 0.316 -0.06 - 0.108 - .358* .590*
* 0.094 0.055 0.064 0.218 *
EP
3
PSQI1 .508* .603* .601* 0.25 0.118 0.064 .332* - - 0.108 - .399* .705* .582*
* * * 0.079 0.067 0.061 * *
3
C

STAI1 .502* .413* 0.188 .455* - -0.13 0.319 -0.07 - - - .559* .699* .385* .517*
* * 0.225 0.177 0.094 0.205 * * *
3
AC

IM13 - - - -0.058 .454* 0.248 - - 0.215 0.115 0.219 - - - - -

0.131 0.088 0.107 * 0.088 0.011 0.142 0.211 0.042 0.052 .478*
*
EM13 0.034 - 0.189 -0.152 .586* .537* 0.077 .341* .431* .464* .419* - - - 0.011 - .714*
0.056 * * * 0.114 0.232 0.002 .458* *
*
AM13 0.31 0.082 0.055 0.152 - -0.12 .339* - - - 0.054 0.194 0.103 - 0.055 0.317 - -
0.121 0.076 0.056 0.117 0.078 .352* 0.257
Com1 - - - -0.301 .483* 0.227 - .352* .404* .337* 0.312 - - - - - .686* .660* -

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3 0.272 0.237 0.032 * 0.053 .325* .409* 0.157 0.217 .671* * * .409*
*
Aut13 - - - -0.286 .554* 0.267 - 0.284 .487* .426* .358* - - - - - .759* .760* - .817*
0.086 0.236 0.089 * 0.102 * 0.171 .334* 0.072 0.163 .601* * * .413* *
*
Rel13 -0.03 - - -0.256 .364* 0.159 - 0.219 .415* .501* 0.276 - - 0.131 - -.441* .641* .720* - .617* .836*

PT
0.246 0.113 0.026 * 0.167 0.191 0.009 * * .354* * *
TC13 - - - -0.282 .338* 0.17 0.081 0.099 .375* 0.295 .456* -0.26 - - - - .754* .593* - .650* .744* .754*
0.131 .338* 0.291 * 0.242 0.153 0.104 .488* * * 0.272 * * *
*

RI
EC13 .376* 0.233 .324* 0.27 0.069 0.054 0.14 -0.06 - - - .738* .404* 0.218 0.312 .520* - - 0.159 - - - -
0.215 0.134 0.282 * * 0.286 0.116 .371* 0.257 0.269 .486*
*

SC
**p < 0.004, *p < 0.05; TMD = total mood disturbance; Dep = depressive symptoms; SlQ = sleep quality; Anx = trait anxiety; IM = intrinsic
motivation; EM = extrinsic motivation; AM = amotivation; Com = competence, Aut = autonomy, Rel = relatedness; T/E C = task/ego climate

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Highlights

• Student-athletes experience intense athletic and academic demands in-season.

• Depressive symptoms and poor sleep quality affect Gaelic games student-athletes.

• Despite excessive demands, mental health improves over condensed seasons.

PT
• Gaelic games student-athletes have predominantly adaptive motivational patterns.

• Psychological monitoring is useful over intense athletic and academic periods.

RI
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