Preface

This Complete Solutions Manual contains solutions to all of the exercises in Chapters 1–10 of Calculus, First Edition, by Soo T.
Tan. The corresponding Student Solutions Manual contains solutions to only the odd-numbered exercises.
I would like to thank Tao Guo, who contributed to this manual by solving the problems independently; Kevin Charlwood, who
checked all of the solutions for accuracy; and Andy Bulman-Fleming, who typeset this manual. I also want to thank Jerry
Grossman for his help with the accuracy checking of the odd answers for the text. Their efforts played a big role in ensuring
the accuracy of this manual, and I sincerely appreciate their contributions. I also wish to thank our development editor Jeannine
Lawless and our editor Liz Covello of Cengage Learning for their help and patience in bringing this supplement to completion.
Please submit any errors in the solutions manual or suggestions for improvements to me in care of the publisher: Math Editorial,
Cengage Learning, 20 Channel Center Street, Boston, MA 02210.
Soo T. Tan

iii
Contents
0 Preliminaries 1
0.1 Lines 1
0.2 Functions and Their Graphs 7
0.3 The Trigonometric Functions 13
0.4 Combining Functions 19
0.5 Graphing Calculators and Computers 27
0.6 Mathematical Models 31
Chapter 0 Review 35

1 Limits and Continuity 41

1.1 An Intuitive Introduction to Limits 41
1.2 Techniques for Finding Limits 47
1.3 A Precise Definition of Limits 56
1.4 Continuous Functions 59
1.5 Tangent Lines and Rates of Change 68
Chapter 1 Review 74
Challenge Problems 78

2 The Derivative 81
2.1 The Derivative 81
2.2 Basic Rules of Differentiation 92
2.3 The Product and Quotient Rules 100
2.4 The Role of the Derivative in the Real World 111
2.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 117
2.6 The Chain Rule 122
2.7 Implicit Differentiation 136
2.8 Related Rates 144
2.9 Differentials and Linear Approximations 151
Chapter 2 Review 155
Challenge Problems 164
v
vi Contents

3 Applications of the Derivative 167

3.1 Extrema of Functions 167
3.2 The Mean Value Theorem 181
3.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions and the First Derivative Test 188
3.4 Concavity and Inflection Points 200
3.5 Limits Involving Infinity and Asymptotes 211
3.6 Curve Sketching 221
3.7 Optimization Problems 238
3.8 Newton’s Method 254
Chapter 3 Review 259
Challenge Problems 274

4 Integration 279
4.1 Indefinite Integrals 279
4.2 Integration by Substitution 286
4.3 Area 291
4.4 The Definite Integral 300
4.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 309
4.6 Numerical Integration 319
Chapter 4 Review 326
Challenge Problems 330

5 Applications of the Definite Integral 335

5.1 Areas Between Curves 335
5.2 Volumes: Disks, Washers, and Cross-Sections 347
5.3 Volumes Using Cylindrical Shells 357
5.4 Arc Length and Areas of Surfaces of Revolution 366
5.5 Work 372
5.6 Fluid Pressure and Force 376
5.7 Moments and Centers of Mass 381
Chapter 5 Review 392
Challenge Problems 399
 Contents vii

6 The Transcendental Functions 403

6.1 The Natural Logarithmic Function 403

6.2 Inverse Functions 414

6.3 Exponential Functions 420

6.4 General Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 434

6.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 440

6.6 Hyperbolic Functions 451

6.7 Indeterminate Forms and l’Hôpital’s Rule 457

Chapter 6 Review 465

Challenge Problems 474

7 Techniques of Integration 479

7.1 Integration by Parts 479

7.2 Trigonometric Integrals 489

7.3 Trigonometric Substitutions 498

7.4 The Method of Partial Fractions 515

7.5 Integration using Tables of Integrals and a CAS; a Summary of Techniques 533

7.6 Improper Integrals 545

Chapter 7 Review 556

Challenge Problems 565

8 Differential Equations 571

8.1 Differential Equations: Separable Equations 571

8.2 Direction Fields and Euler’s Method 581

8.3 The Logistic Equation 588

8.4 First-Order Linear Differential Equations 593

Chapter 8 Review 599

Challenge Problems 605

viii Contents

9 Infinite Series 609

9.1 Sequences 609

9.2 Series 616

9.3 The Integral Test 625

9.4 The Comparison Tests 633

9.5 Alternating Series 639

9.6 Absolute Convergence: The Ratio and Root Tests 646

9.7 Power Series 651

9.8 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 662

9.9 Approximation by Taylor Polynomials 674

Chapter 9 Review 683

Challenge Problems 690

10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates 693

10.1 Conic Sections 693
10.2 Plane Curves and Parametric Equations 708

10.3 The Calculus of Parametric Equations 716

10.4 Polar Coordinates 730

10.5 Areas and Arc Length in Polar Coordinates 740

10.6 Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates 753

Chapter 10 Review 759

Challenge Problems 769

 0 Preliminaries

0.1 Self-Check Diagnostic Test

−4 − 3 7
1. The slope of the line is m = = − . Using the point-slope form of the equation of a line, we have
2 − (−1) 3
y − 3 = − 73 (x + 1), or y = − 73 x + 23 .
2. Putting the given equation in slope-intercept form, we have 2x + 3y = 6 ⇒ 3y = −2x + 6 ⇒ y = − 23 x + 2. Then
1 1 3
the slope of the required line is − = − 2 = . Using the point-slope form of the equation of a line, we have
m1 − 2
3
y + 2 = 32 (x − 3) ⇔ y = 32 x − 13 2.
3. We first find the equation of the line passing through A (−1, 4) and B (1, 1). Using the point-slope form of an equation of a
1−4 = − 3 and the point B (1, 1), we have y − 1 = − 3 (x − 1), or y = − 3 x + 5 . If C (3, −4)
line with slope m = 1−(−1) 2 2 2 2
satisfies this equation, it lies on the line. We find that − 32 (3) + 52 = −2 = −4, so C does not lie on the line.
6−0 3
4. Using the points (4, 0) and (0, 6), we find that the slope of the line is m = = − . Using the slope-intercept form of
0−4 2
the equation of a line, we have y = − 32 x + 6.
⎧ 4x − 5y = 1
⎨ 4x − 5y = 1
5. Find the intersection: Multiply the second equation by 2: (−) 4x + 6y = −10 ⇒
⎩ 2x + 3y = −5
−11y = 11
y = −1 ⇒ 4x − 5 (−1) = 1 ⇒ 4x = −4 ⇒ x = −1. So (−1, −1) is the point of intersection.
Since 3x + 4y = 6, we find that 4y = −3x + 6, and y = − 34 x + 32 . Since the required line is parallel to this line, its slope
is − 34 . Using the point-slope form of the equation of a line, we have y + 1 = − 34 (x + 1), or y = − 34 x − 74 .

0.1 Lines
4 − (−2) 3 − (−2) 5
1. m = =6 2. m = =
2−1 (−1) − (−4) 3
√
1.4 − 3.6 −2.2 3 − (−3)
3. m = = = −1.1 4. m = . The denominator is 0, so the slope is
3.2 − 1.2 2 (−3) − (−3)
undefined.
4−1
5. a. m 1 > 0, m 2 > 0, m 3 = 0, m 4 < 0 6. L 1 : (−3, 1) and (0, 4), so m 1 = = 1.
0 − (−3)
b. L 4 , L 3 , L 2 , L 1 1−2 1
L 2 : (1, 2) and (3, 1), so m 2 = =− .
3−1 2
2−1
L 3 : (6, 1) and (5, 2), so m 3 = = −1.
5−6
a−3 3−a
7. 5 = ⇒ −25 = a − 3, so a = −22. 8. −3 = ⇒ 33 = 3 − a, so a = −30.
−4 − 1 −9 − 2
1
2 Chapter 0 Preliminaries

9. m = tan 45◦ = 1 10. m = tan 135◦ = −1

√
11. m = tan 30◦ = 33 12. m = tan π
4 =1
√ √
13. m = tan π3 = 3 14. m = tan 23π = − 3

15. θ = tan−1 (−1) = 135◦ 16. θ = tan−1 12 ≈ 26.6◦

√
17. θ = tan−1 3 = 60◦ 18. θ = tan−1 (10) ≈ 84.3◦

19. θ = tan−1 − √1 = 150◦ 20. θ = tan−1 (20) ≈ 87.1◦

3
3 −2
21. (1, 2): m = 3 = 22. (2, 3): m = −2 =
1 1
y y

(2, 5) 1
(1, 5)
_2
3
(1, 2) (2, 3)
1 1 1
0 1 x 0 1 x

−1 4
23. (−1, −2): m = −1 = 24. (−2, 3): m = 4 =
1 1
y y

1 (_1, 7)
0 1 x
1 4
(_1, _2) _1
(_2, 3)
(0, _3)
1
1
0 1 x

−10 − (−2) −2 − 6
25. m 1 = =2 26. m 1 = , undefined
−3 − 1 4−4
1−5 8−5
m2 = =2 m2 = , undefined
−1 − 1 −1 − (−1)
Since m 1 = m 2 , these two lines are parallel. These two lines are vertical lines, so they are parallel.
2−5 1 4 − (−2) 3
27. m 1 = =− 28. m 1 = =
4 − (−2) 2 3 − (−1) 2
6 − (−2) −2 − (−6) 2
m2 = =2 m2 = =−
3 − (−1) 3−9 3
Since m 1 · m 2 = −1, these two lines are perpendicular. Since m 1 · m 2 = −1, these two lines are perpendicular.
−1 − a (a + 2) − 6 −1 − a a−4
29. m 1 = and m 2 = . The two lines are parallel if and only if m 1 = m 2 , so = ⇒
3 − (−1) −5 − 3 4 −8
2 + 2a = a − 4, or a = −6.
a−4 −4 − 8
30. m 1 = and m 2 = . The two lines are perpendicular if and only if m 1 · m 2 = −1, so
1 − (−2) 3 − (a + 4)
a−4 −12 (a − 4) (−4)
· = −1. (−1 − a) = −1 (−1 − a) ⇒ −4 (a − 4) = 1 + a ⇒ −4a + 16 = 1 + a ⇒ 15 = 5a,
3 −1 − a −1 − a
or a = 3.
 Section 0.1 Lines 3

k −3 k−3
31. m 1 = , m 2 = 3. Two lines are perpendicular if and only if m 1 · m 2 = −1, so · 3 = −1.
−5 − 1 −6
k−3
(−2) = −1 (−2) ⇒ k − 3 = 2, or k = 5.
−2
2 − (−8) 5 4−2 2 −8 − 4
32. m AB = = , m BC = = ,m = = −12. Since m AB · m BC = 52 · −5
2 = −1,
2 − (−2) 2 −3 − 2 −5 C A −2 − (−3)
side AB and side BC are perpendicular. This proves that triangle ABC is a right triangle.
−1 + 3 1 + 9 9−1
33. Midpoint M , = (1, 5). The slope of the line passing through (−1, 1) and (3, 9) is m 1 = = 2;
2 2 3 − (−1)
5−4 1
the slope of the line passing through (3, 4) and (1, 5) is m 2 = = . Since m 1 · m 2 = 2 · − 12 = −1, the line
1−3 −2
passing through (3, 4) and (1, 5) is perpendicular to the line segment.
7−1 13 − 7
34. m AB = = 2, m BC = = 2. m AB = m BC implies that the line AB and the line BC are parallel. Since the
1 − (−2) 4−1
lines have the same slope and common point B, the points A, B, and C lie on the same line.
35. Since m AB = − 12 = −1 = m BC , the line AB is not parallel to the line BC, so the points A, B, and C do not lie on the
same line.
36. −3y = 12 − 2x 37. 4y = 3x + 8
y = 23 x − 4 y = 34 x + 2

m = 23 , b = −4 m = 34 , b = 2

38. y = −4 39. By = −Ax + C

m = 0, b = −4 A C
y=− x+
B B
A C
m =− ,b=
B B
y x √ √
40. =1− 41. 2x − 4 = 3y
4 3 √ √ √
y = − 43 x + 4 y = √2 x − √4 = 36 x − 4 3 3
3 3
√ √
m = − 43 , b = 4 m = 36 , b = − 4 3 3
√
42. 4x − 8 = 7y 43. 3x + 4 = y
√ √
y = 47 x − 87 , so m = 47 . m = 3, tan−1 3 = 60◦ , so θ = 60◦ .

tan−1 47 ≈ 30◦ , so θ ≈ 30◦ .

√
44. 3y = 5 − x 45. y = 8 − x
√
y = − √1 x + √5 , m = − 33 m = −1, tan−1 (−1) = −45◦ , so θ = 135◦ .
3 3
√
tan−1 3
− 3 = −30◦ , so θ = 150◦ .

46. x = π 47. y + 3 = 2 (x − 4)
y = 2x − 11
8−4
48. y − 3 = 0 (x + 3) 49. m = =4
3−2
y=3
y − 4 = 4 (x − 2)
y = 4x − 4
4 Chapter 0 Preliminaries

−4 − (−2) 1 28 − 5
50. m = =− 51. m = . Since m is undefined, the equation is that of
3 − (−1) 2 2−2
y + 2 = − 12 (x + 1) the vertical line passing through the two points, or x = 2.

y = − 12 x − 52

52. y = −2x + 3 53. y = 3x − 5

54. The slope of the line passing through (3, 0) and (0, −5) is 55. 3y = −2x + 12, m = − 23
−5 − 0 5 y + 5 = − 23 (x − 3)
m= = . The y-intercept is −5, so y = 53 x − 5.
0−3 3
y = − 23 x − 3

56. The slope of the line with equation y = −3x − 5 is 57. The slope of the line with equation y = 3x − 4 is m 1 = 3,
m 1 = −3, so the slope of the required line is so the slope of the required line is m 2 = − m11 = − 13 , and
m 2 = − m11 = 13 and its equation is y = 13 x + 7.
its equation is y + 4 = − 13 (x + 2), or y = − 13 x − 14
3 .
6−2 1 √
58. m 1 = = 1 and m 2 = − = −1, so 59. m = tan π
6 = 3
3
3 − (−1) m1 √
y + 4 = −1 (x − 3), or y = −x − 1. y − 3 = 33 (x − 2)
√ √
y = 33 x + 3 − 2 3 3

60. 3x − 8 = 4y, y = 34 x − 2, so m 1 = 34 . 6x − 10 = 8y, y = 34 x − 54 , so m 2 = 34 . Since m 1 = m 2 , the two lines are parallel.

61. Since x = 3 is the equation of a vertical line and y = 5 is that of a horizontal line, the two lines are perpendicular.
62. 2x − 12 = 3y, y = 23 x − 4, so m 1 = 23 . 2y = 6 − 3x, y = − 32 x + 3, so m 2 = − 32 . Since m 1 · m 2 = −1, these two lines
are perpendicular.
y x b b x y a a
63. = 1 − , y = − x + b, so m 1 = − . − 1 = , y = x − a, so m 2 = . Since m 1 · m 2 = −1, these two lines are
b a a a b a b b
perpendicular.
⎧
⎨ 2x − y = 1
64. Multiplying the first equation by 2 and then adding the two equations gives ⇒ 7x = 14 ⇔ x = 2.
⎩ 3x + 2y = 12

Substituting x = 2 into the first equation gives y = 3. Intersection: (2, 3)

⎧
⎨ x − 3y = −1
65. Adding these equations gives ⇒ 5x = 10 ⇔ x = 2. Substituting x = 2 into the first equation gives
⎩ 4x + 3y = 11

−3y = −3 ⇒ y = 1. Intersection: (2, 1)

√
66. a. Using the distance formula, we find that (4 − 1)2 + (7 − 3)2 = 32 + 42 = 25 = 5.
√
b. Using the distance formula, we find that (4 − 1)2 + (4 − 0)2 = 32 + 42 = 25 = 5.
√ √
c. Using the distance formula, we find that (4 − (−1))2 + (9 − 3)2 = 52 + 62 = 25 + 36 = 61.
√ √
d. Using the distance formula, we find that (10 − (−2))2 + (6 − 1)2 = 122 + 52 = 144 + 25 = 169 = 13.
2
67. a. The equation of the circle with radius 5 and center (2, −3) is given by (x − 2)2 + y − (−3) = 52 , or
(x − 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 25.
b. The distance between the center of the circle and the point (2, 3) on the circumference of the circle is given by
√ √
d = (2 − 0)2 + (3 − 0)2 = 13. Therefore r = 13 and the equation of the circle centered at the origin and passing
through (2, 3) is x 2 + y 2 = 13.
 Section 0.1 Lines 5

√
c. The distance between the points (5, 2) and (2, −3) is given by d = (5 − 2)2 + (2 − (−3))2 = 32 + 52 = 34.
√ 2
Therefore r = 34 and the equation of the circle passing through (5, 2) and (2, −3) is (x − 2)2 + y − (−3) = 34, or
(x − 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 34.
d. The equation of the circle with center (−a, a) and radius 2a is given by [x − (−a)]2 + (y − a)2 = (2a)2 , or
(x + a)2 + (y − a)2 = 4a 2 .
a
68. The slope of the line with equation a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 is m 1 = − 1 and that of the equation a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0 is
b1
a2 a a
m 2 = − . These two lines are parallel if and only if m 1 = m 2 . So − 1 = − 2 , or a1 b2 = a2 b1 , and a1 b2 − a2 b1 = 0.
b2 b1 b2
b−0 b
69. The slope of the line passing through (a, 0) and (0, b) is m = = − . Using the point-slope form of the equation of a
0−a a
b b b x y
line, we have y − 0 = − (x − a), or y = − x + b. So x + y = b, or + = 1.
a a a a b
x y
70. By the result of Exercise 69, an equation of the line with x-intercept 2 and y-intercept 5 is + = 1.
2 5
x y
71. By the result of Exercise 69, an equation of the line passing through (−4, 0) and (0, −1) is + = 1.
−4 −1
−1 + 3 1 + 9 2−5 3
72. M , = (1, 5). The slope is m = = − . An equation of the line is y − 5 = − 34 (x − 1), or
2 2 5−1 4
y = − 34 x + 23
4 .
73. Since y = 2x + 3, the slope of the given line is 2. The line perpendicular to this line passing through (5, 3) has
⎧
⎨ 2x − y = −3
slope − 12 and equation given by y − 3 = − 12 (x − 5), or x + 2y = 11. Solving the equations
⎩ x + 2y = 11

simultaneously, we find that the point of intersection is (1, 5). Thus, the distance between (5, 3) and (1, 5) is
√ √
d = (1 − 5)2 + (5 − 3)2 = 16 + 4 = 2 5.
√
y 3 7 9−0 √ 63 √
74. = ⇔ −3 7a = 63 ⇔ a = √ = −3 7
(0, 9) 7 0−a −3 7
√ 2 √
L= 0 + 3 7 + (9 − 0)2 = 63 + 81 = 12 ft
L

(a, 0) 0 x

75. tan θ = 1000 1

6000 ⇒ θ = arctan 6 ≈ 9.5
◦
¬
1000 ft
¬
6000 ft
1000 1000
76. = tan θ = 0.22, d = ≈ 4545 ft
1000 ft d 0.22
¬
d
77. The coordinates of the points O, A, B, C, and D in the figure are O (0, 0), A (3.5, 0), B (9.5, 0), C (6, 3), and D (1.75, 3).
3−0 12
a. m O D = = . y = 12
7 x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.75.
1.75 − 0 7
0−3 12
b. m AD = = − . y − 0 = − 12 12
7 (x − 3.5) or y = − 7 x + 6, 1.75 ≤ x ≤ 3.5.
3.5 − 1.75 7
3−0
c. m AC = = 1.2. y − 0 = 1.2 (x − 3.5) or y = 1.2x − 4.2, 3.5 ≤ x ≤ 6.
6 − 3.5
6 Chapter 0 Preliminaries

0−3 6
d. m BC = = − . y − 0 = − 67 (x − 9.5) or y = − 67 x + 57
7 , 6 ≤ x ≤ 9.5.
9.5 − 6 7
78. a. F b. m = 95 indicates that for each one degree increase in ◦ C, there is an
40
◦
increase of 95 F.
(5, 41)
30 (0, 32)
c. The F-intercept is 32. It represents the temperature in Fahrenheit
20
degrees that corresponds to 0◦ C.
10

1 2 3 4 5 C

79. a. y (% of total capacity) b. The slope is 1.9467, and the y-intercept is 70.082.
80 (1, 72.0287) c. At the beginning of 1990, the plants’ output was 70.082% of their
(0, 70.082) total capacity, and their output was increasing (as a proportion of their
60
total capacity) by 1.9467% per year.
40
d. 100 = 1.9467t + 70.082 ⇔ t ≈ 15.37 (years), or sometime during
20
the year 2005.
0 1 2 3 t (years)

80. a. y = 0.0765x
b. The social security contribution will be increased by 7.65c/ per each additional wage dollar.
c. y = 0.0765 (75,000) = $5735.50
81. a. W = 3.51 (80) − 192 = 88.8 (British tons) b. W (tons)

200
150
100
50

0 60 70 80 90 100 L (ft)
0.80 − 0.68 0.12
82. Using the points (0, 0.68) and (10, 0.80), we see that the slope of the required line is m = = = 0.012.
10 − 0 10
Using the point-slope form of the equation of a line, we have y − 0.68 = 0.012 (t − 0), or y = 0.012t + 0.68. If t = 14, we
have y = 0.012 (14) + 0.68 = 0.848, or 84.8%.
83. Suppose the line L passes through the point P1 (x1 , y1 ) and let Q (x, y) be an arbitrary point on the same line. Then these
y − y1
two points uniquely determine a line with slope m = , where x = x1 . Then y − y1 = m (x − x1 ). Therefore, if a
x − x1
point (x, y) satisfies this equation, it lies on the line L passing through the point P1 (x1 , y1 ).
84. Refer to the figure. By Equation 6, m = tan φ. If 90◦ < φ < 180◦ , the slope of L y
(xÁ, yÁ)
is negative, that is, y = y2 − y1 < 0 and x = x2 − x1 > 0. Therefore,
y2 − y1 y y
= = m = tan φ = . (xª, yª)
x2 − x1 x x ú
0 x
L
x
85. True. m = − 12 = ⇒ x = 2. Q
−4
x
P
4
 Section 0.2 Functions and Their Graphs 7

A a
86. True. Since Ax + By + C = 0, we have m = − . Similarly, ax + by + c = 0 ⇒ m = − . Since the two lines are
B b
A a
parallel, −= − and Ab = a B, or Ab − a B = 0.
B b
87. True. Since m 1 · m 2 = −1 and m 1 > 0, it follows that m 2 < 0.
a b
88. True. Since ax + by + c1 = 0, we have m 1 = − . Similarly, bx − ay + c2 = 0 ⇒ m 2 = . Therefore,
b a
a b
m1 · m2 = − · = −1, and these two lines are perpendicular.
b a

0.2 Self-Check Diagnostic Test

√ √ √
1. f (−4) = − (−4) = 2, f (0) = 0 + 1 = 1, f (9) = 9 + 1 = 4

f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)2 + 2 (x + h) − x 2 + 2x
2. =
h h
x 2 + 2xh + h 2 + 2x + 2h − x 2 − 2x 2xh + h 2 + 2h
= = = 2x + h + 2
h h
3. We require that 2x + 1 ≥ 0, or x ≥ − 12 , and x 2 + x − 2 = (x + 2) (x − 1) = 0. Thus, the domain of f (x) is
− 12 , 1 ∪ (1, ∞).
4. The domain is (−∞, ∞). The range is [−1, ∞).
y

1
0 1 x

2 (−x)3 − (−x) −2x 3 + x − 2x 3 − x

5. f (−x) = = = = − f (x). Therefore, f is an odd function.
(−x)2 + 1 x2 + 1 x2 + 1

0.2 Functions and Their Graphs

1. f (0) = 3 (0) + 4 = 4, f (−4) = 3 (−4) + 4 = −8, f (a) = 3a + 4, f (−a) = 3 (−a) + 4 = −3a + 4,
√ √
f (a + 1) = 3 (a + 1)+4 = 3a +7, f (2a) = 3 (2a)+4 = 6a +4, f a = 3 a +4, f (x + 1) = 3 (x + 1)+4 = 3x +7
√ √
2. f − 2 = −2 2 − 1, f (t + 1) = 2 (t + 1) − 1 = 2t + 1, f (2t − 1) = 2 (2t − 1) − 1 = 4t − 3,
x x
f =2 − 1 = x − 1, f (a + h) = 2 (a + h) − 1 = 2a + 2h − 1
2 2
√ √ 2 √ √ 2
3. g (−2) = − (−2)2 + 2 (−2) = −8, g 3 =− 3 + 2 3 = 2 3 − 3, g a 2 = − a 2 + 2a 2 = −a 4 + 2a 2 ,
1 1 1
g (a + h) = − (a + h)2 + 2 (a + h) = −a 2 − 2ah − h 2 + 2a + 2h, = 2
=−
g (3) − (3) + 2 (3) 3

2 22 2 (x + 1)2 2x 2 + 4x + 2 2 (2x − 1)2 8x 2 − 8x + 2

4. f (2) = √ = 8, f (x + 1) = √ = √ , f (2x − 1) = √ = √
2−1 (x + 1) − 1 x (2x − 1) − 1 2x − 2
8 Chapter 0 Preliminaries

3 √ √ 3 √ √ √
5. f (−1) = 2 (−1)3 −(−1) = −1, f (0) = 0, f x 2 = 2 x 2 − x 2 = 2x 6 − x 2 , f x =2 x − x = 2x x − x,

1 1 3 1 2 1
f =2 − = 3 −
x x x x x
√ √ √
4 2 x +h x +h
6. f (4) = = , f (x + h) = = ,
42 + 1 17 (x + h)2 + 1 x 2 + 2xh + h 2 + 1
√ √ √ √
x −h x −h x + 2h x + 2h
f (x − h) = = , f (x + 2h) = =
(x − h)2 + 1 x 2 − 2xh + h 2 + 1 (x + 2h)2 + 1 x 2 + 4xh + 4h 2 + 1
√
7. f (−2) = (−2)2 + 1 = 5, f (0) = 02 + 1 = 1, f (1) = 1 = 1
−2 √ √
8. f (−2) = = 2, f (−1) = 1 + −1 + 1 = 1, f (0) = 1 + 0 + 1 = 2
−2 + 1
f (x) − f (1) x2 − 1
9. f (x) = x 2 , so = = x + 1.
x −1 x −1

f (1 + h) − f (1) 2 (1 + h)2 + 1 − 2 · 12 + 1 2 + 4h + 2h 2 + 1 − 3 h (4 + 2h)

10. = = = = 2h + 4
h h h h

f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h) − (x + h)2 − x − x 2
11. =
h h
x + h − x 2 − 2xh − h 2 − x + x 2 h − 2xh − h 2
= = = 1 − 2x − h
h h
√ √ √ √ √ √
f (a + h) − f (a) a+h− a a+h− a a+h+ a
12. = = √ √
h h h a+h+ a
a+h−a 1
= √ √ =√ √
h a+h+ a a+h+ a

13. a. 3 = 12 − 2 · 1 + k, so k = 4. b. 0 = |−1 − 1| + k, so k = −2.

⎧
⎨ 1= a+b
14. Given f (1) = a + b = 1 and f (2) = a (2)3 + b = 15, we establish a system of equations Subtracting
⎩ 15 = 8a + b

the second equation from the first gives −14 = −7a ⇒ a = 2. Substituting a = 2 into the first equation gives b = −1.
15. f (x) is not defined at 0, so the domain of f is (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).
16. f (x) is not defined at 1, so the domain of f is (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞).
t +1
17. g (t) = is defined for t = − 12 and t = 1, so the domain is −∞, − 12 ∪ − 12 , 1 ∪ (1, ∞).
(2t + 1) (t − 1)
√
18. h (x) = 2x + 3 is defined for 2x + 3 ≥ 0, or x ≥ − 32 , so the domain is − 32 , ∞ .

19. f (x) = 9 − x 2 is defined for 9 − x 2 ≥ 0, or −3 ≤ x ≤ 3, so the domain is [−3, 3].

20. F (x) = x 2 − 2x − 3 is defined for x 2 − 2x − 3 = (x − 3) (x + 1) ≥ 0, so the domain is (−∞, −1] ∪ [3, ∞).
√ √
21. f (x) = x − 2 + 4 − x is defined for x − 2 ≥ 0 and 4 − x ≥ 0 ⇔ x ≥ 2 and x ≤ 4, so the domain is [2, 4].
√
x −1
22. f (x) = 2 is defined for x − 1 ≥ 0 and (x − 3) (x + 2) = 0; that is, for x ≥ 1, x = 3, and x = −2, so the
x −x −6
domain of f is [1, 3) ∪ (3, ∞).
⎧ ⎧
⎪ x 2 0 ⎪ ⎧
√
x +2+ 2−x
√ ⎪
⎨ + ≥ ⎨ x ≥ −2
⎪ ⎨ −2 ≤ x ≤ 2
23. f (x) = is defined if 2−x ≥0 ⇔ x ≤2 ⇔
3
x −x ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎩ x = −1, 0, 1
⎩ x3 − x = 0 ⎩ x (x + 1) (x − 1) = 0

So the domain of f is [−2, −1) ∪ (−1, 0) ∪ (0, 1) ∪ (1, 2].

 Section 0.2 Functions and Their Graphs 9

24. f is defined for all values of x, so the domain is (−∞, ∞).

x3 + 1
25. f (x) = is defined for x = 0, and x 2 − 1 = (x + 1) (x − 1) > 0. So the domain of f is (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞).
x x2 − 1
1
26. f (x) = √ is defined for |x| − x > 0; that is, for x > x or x < −x. Only the second inequality has a solution, so
|x| − x
2x < 0, or x < 0. Therefore, the domain of f is (−∞, 0).

27. Refer to the given graph. 28. Refer to the given graph.

a. f (0) = −2 a. f (7) = 3

b. i. x = 2 b. x = 4 and x = 6
ii. x = 1
c. (2, 0); 0
c. The domain of f (x) is [0, 6].
d. The domain of f (x) is [−1, 9], and the range of
d. The range of f (x) is [−2, 6]. f (x) is [−2, 6].

3+1
29. Since f (3) = + 2 = 3, P (3, 3) lies on the graph of the function.
32 + 7
|−3 + 1| 2 1 1 does not lie on the graph of the function.
30. Since f (3) = = = − , P −3, − 13
(−3)3 + 2 −25 13

31. f (x) = −2x + 1 32. f (x) = 12 x 2 + 1

y y

1
0 1 x
y=f(x)
y=f(x)

0 1 x
The domain is (−∞, ∞) and the range is (−∞, ∞).
The domain is (−∞, ∞) and the range is [1, ∞).
√
33. g (x) = x − 1 is defined for x − 1 ≥ 0. 34. f (x) = |x| − 1
y y

1 y=f(x)
y=g(x)
1 1 x
_1

0 1 x

The domain is [1, ∞) and the range is [0, ∞). The domain is (−∞, ∞) and the range is [−1, ∞).
10 Chapter 0 Preliminaries

|t − 1|
35. h (x) = x 2 − 1 is defined for x 2 − 1 ≥ 0, that is, 36. f (t) = is defined for t = 1.
t −1
−∞ < x ≤ −1 or 1 ≤ x < ∞.
y
y
y=f(t)
1

1 t
y=h(x)
1
_1

_1 0 1 x The domain is (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞) and the range is

The domain is (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) and the range is [0, ∞). {−1, 1}.
⎧
⎧ ⎪
⎨ −x + 1 if x ≤ 1 ⎨ −x − 1 if x < −1
⎪
37. f (x) = 38. f (x) = 0 if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
⎩ x 2 − 1 if x > 1 ⎪
⎪
⎩ x + 1 if x > 1
y
y

y=f(x) y=f(x)
2

1
1

1 x

The domain is (−∞, ∞) and the range is [0, ∞). _1 1 x

The domain is (−∞, ∞) and the range is [0, ∞).

39. No 40. Yes 41. No 42. No

43. The Horizontal Line Test is applied to the graph of a function of y. Since no horizontal line intersects the curve at more than
one point, the graph does represent a function of y.
44. Since there are horizontal lines that intersect the curve at more than one point, the graph is not the graph of a function of y.

45. Even 46. Odd 47. Odd 48. Neither

49. f (−x) = 1 − 2 (−x)2 = 1 − 2x 2 = f (x). Therefore, f is an even function.

(−x) x
50. f (−x) = =− 2 = − f (x). Therefore, f is an odd function.
(−x)2 + 1 x +1

51. f (−x) = 2 (−x)3 − 3 (−x) + 1 = −2x 3 + 3x + 1 = − 2x 3 − 3x − 1 . Since f (−x) = f (x) and f (−x) = − f (x), f
is neither an even nor an odd function.
52. f (−x) = 2 (−x)1/3 − 3 (−x)2 = −2x 1/3 − 3x 2 = − 2x 1/3 + 3x 2 . Since f (−x) = f (x) and f (−x) = − f (x), f is
neither an even nor an odd function.
|−x| + 1 |x| + 1
53. f (x) = 4 2
= 4 = f (x). Thus, f is an even function.
(−x) − 2 (−x) + 3 x − 2x 2 + 3
 Section 0.2 Functions and Their Graphs 11

54. f (−x) = (−x)2 + (−x) + 1 − (−x)2 − (−x) + 1 = x2 − x + 1 − x2 + x + 1

=− x2 + x + 1 − x 2 − x + 1 = − f (x)
Thus, f is an odd function.

55. a. y 56. a. Since f is defined at 0, the condition

1 f (−x) = − f (x) ⇒ f (0) = − f (0) ⇒ f (0) = 0.
Thus, f cannot be an odd function.
_2 _1 0 1 2 x y
b.
2
_1
1
f is an even function.
_2 _1 0 1 2 x
y
b.
f is an even function.
1

_2 _1
0 1 2 x

_1

f is an odd function.

57. The Jacksons had their first stop from 9:00 to 9:15 A . M ., and their second stop from 12:00 to 1:00 P. M . Otherwise, they
traveled at constant rates between stops.

58. a. The graph of D = f (t) b. The graph of A = g (t)

f(t) (miles) g(t) (feet)
(6,3267)
3267 35,000
landing cruising

taking off 6 t (hours) 6 t (hours)

59. P=f(t)

100% Normal level of oxygen content

t (days)
12 Chapter 0 Preliminaries

0.59 − 0.61
60. a. The slope of the straight line passing through (0, 0.61) and (10, 0.59) is m = = −0.002, and an equation of
10 − 0
the line passing through the two points is y = −0.002t + 0.61. Similarly, an equation of the line passing through
0.60 − 0.59
(10, 0.59) and (20, 0.60) with slope m = = 0.001 is y = 0.001t + 0.58; an equation of the line passing
20 − 10
0.66 − 0.60
through (20, 0.60) and (30, 0.66) with slope m = = 0.006 is y = 0.006t + 0.48; an equation of the line
30 − 20
0.78 − 0.66
passing through (30, 0.66) and (40.0, 0.78) with slope m = = 0.012 is y = 0.012t + 0.30. Therefore, the
40 − 30
⎧
⎪ −0.002t + 0.61 if 0 ≤ t < 10
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ 0.001t + 0.58 if 10 ≤ t < 20
rule for f is f (t) =
⎪
⎪ 0.006t + 0.48 if 20 ≤ t < 30
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ 0.012t + 0.3 if 30 ≤ t ≤ 40
b. The gender gap was expanding between 1960 and 1970 and shrinking between 1970 and 2000.
c. 1960 to 1970: Expanded by the rate of 0.002 per year.
1970 to 1980: Shrunk by the rate of 0.001 per year.
1980 to 1990: Shrunk by the rate of 0.006 per year.
1990 to 2000: Shrunk by the rate of 0.012 per year.
61. At age 65: P (0) = 4.9623%. At age 90: P (25) = 0.0726 (25)2 + 0.7902 (25) + 4.9623 = 70.0923%.
62. The amount spent in 2004 was S (0) = 5.6, or $5.6 billion. The amount spent in 2008 was
S (4) = −0.03 (4)3 + 0.2 (4)2 + 0.23 (4) + 5.6 = 7.8, or $7.8 billion.
f(t) (dollars)
63. a. The average daily rate from 2001 through 2003 was c.
$82.95. 95

b. 90
Year 2004 2005 2006 85
Rate ($) 85.65 90.25 96.75
80

75

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 t (years)
f(x) (postage in cents)
64. a. The domain of f is (0, 13]. b.
⎧
⎪
⎪ 1.13 if 0 < x ≤ 1
⎪
⎪ 300
⎪
⎪ 1.30 if 1 < x ≤ 2
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ 1.47 if 2 < x ≤ 3
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ 1.64 if 3 < x ≤ 4 200
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ 1.81 if 4 < x ≤ 5
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ 1.98 if 5 < x ≤ 6 100
f (x) = 2.15 if 6 < x ≤ 7
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ 2.32 if 7 < x ≤ 8
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ 0 5 10 x (oz)
⎪
⎪ 2.49 if 8 < x ≤ 9
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ 2.66 if 9 < x ≤ 10
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ 2.83 if 10 < x ≤ 11
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ 3.00 if 11 < x ≤ 12
⎪
⎩
3.17 if 12 < x ≤ 13
 Section 0.3 The Trigonometric Functions 13

65. a. In 1989: f (0) = 130 tons/day. 66. a. At the beginning of 1900, f (0) = 22.9 years old.
In 1992: f (3) = 100 tons/day. At the beginning of 1950,

In 1996: f (7) = 1.25 (7)2 − 26.25 (7) + 162.5 f (5) = −0.7 (5)2 + 7.2 (5) + 11.5 = 30 years old.
= 40 tons/day. At the beginning of 1990,
f(t) (tons/day)
f (9) = 2.6 (9) + 9.4 = 32.8 years old.
b.
f(t) (years)
b.
40

100

30

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 t (years)

20

0 3 7 10 t (years)
(1900) (1930) (1970) (2000)
f (x) + f (−x) f (x) − f (−x) f (−x) + f (x) f (x) + f (−x)
67. Let g (x) = and h (x) = . Then g (−x) = = = g (x),
2 2 2 2
f (−x) − f (x) f (x) − f (−x)
and g is an even function. Also, h (−x) = =− = −h (x), and h is an odd function.
2 2
Finally
f (x) + f (−x) f (x) − f (−x)
f (x) = g (x) + h (x) = +
2 2
and this shows that f can be written as the sum of an even function and an odd function.
68. Define g (x) = a2k x 2k + a2k−2 x 2k−2 + · · · + a2 x 2 + a0 and h (x) = a2k+1 x 2k+1 + a2k−1 x 2k−1 + · · · + a3 x 3 + a1 x. If
the degree of f is even, then let n = 2k. If the degree of f is odd, then let n = 2k + 1. Thus, f (x) = g (x) + h (x).
Since g (−x) = a2k (−x)2k + a2k−2 (−x)2k−2 + · · · + a2 (−x)2 + a0 = g (x) is an even function and
h (−x) = a2k+1 (−x)2k+1 + a2k−1 (−x)2k−1 + · · · + a3 (−x)3 + a1 x = −h (x) is an odd function, f (x) can be written
as the sum of an even function and an odd function.
69. True. This follows from the definition of a function.
70. False. Consider the example f (x) = x 2 : f (2) = 4 and f (−2) = 4, but −2 = 2.
√ √ √ √ √
71. False. Consider the example f (x) = x: f (9 + 16) = 9 + 16 = 25 = 5 = 9 + 16 = 3 + 4 = 7.
72. True. For example, consider the graph of y = x.

0.3 Self-Check Diagnostic Test

r 5
1. sec θ = = . Let r = 5 and x = 3, then y = 52 − 32 = 4. Therefore r
x 3 y
y 4 ¬ ¬
tan θ = = .
x 3 x

sin (2 (−x)) − sin 2x

2. f (−x) = = = − f (x). So f is an odd function.
1 + [cos (−x)]2 + 1 1 + cos2 x + 1
14 Chapter 0 Preliminaries

cos x cos x − sin x

cot x − 1 −1 cos x
3. = sin x · sin x = = cot x
1 − tan x sin x cos x − sin x sin x
1−
cos x sin x
4. a 2 − x 2 = a 2 − (a sin θ)2 = a 2 1 − sin2 θ = a 2 cos2 θ

5. cos θ − 2 sin2 θ + 1 = 0 ⇔ cos θ − 2 1 − cos2 θ + 1 = 0 ⇔ cos θ − 2 + 2 cos2 θ + 1 = 0 ⇔

¹
2 cos2 θ + cos θ − 1 = 0 ⇔ (2 cos θ − 1) (cos θ + 1) = 0 ⇔ cos θ = 12 or cos θ = −1 ⇔ θ = π
3,
¹ 3

π, and 53π . _¹
3

0.3 The Trigonometric Functions

π = 5π
1. 150 · 180 π = 7π
2. 210 · 180 π = 11π
3. 330 · 180 π = 9π
4. 405 · 180
6 6 6 4
π = − 2π
5. −120 · 180 π = − 5π
6. −225 · 180 π = − 5π
7. −75 · 180 π = − 11π
8. −495 · 180
3 4 12 4

9. π 180
3 · π = 60
◦ 10. 34π · 180
π = 135
◦ 11. 56π · 180
π = 150
◦ 12. 94π · 180
π = 405
◦

13. − π 180
2 · π = −90
◦ 14. − 116π · 180
π = −330
◦ 15. − 134π · 180
π = −585
◦ 16. − 113π · 180
π = −660
◦
√ √ √ √ √
17. sin π 3 π 1 π
3 = 2 , cos 3 = 2 , tan 3 = 3 18. sin − π 2 π 2 π
4 = − 2 , cos − 4 = 2 , csc − 4 = − 2
√ √
19. cos 23π = − 12 , tan 23π = − 3, sec 23π = −2 20. sin 56π = 12 , cot 56π = − 3, csc 56π = 2

21. sin π = 0, tan π = 0, csc π is undefined. 22. cos − 32π = 0, cot − 32π = 0, csc − 32π = 1
√ √ √ √ √
23. csc 176π = 2, sec 176π = − 2 3 3 , cot 176π = − 3 24. sin − 113π = 23 , tan − 113π = 3, cot − 113π = 33

25. sin θ = 35 = ry . Let y = 3 and r = 5, so x = − 52 − 32 = −4. Thus,

¬
cos θ = − 45 , tan θ = − 34 , cot θ = − 43 , sec θ = − 54 , and csc θ = 53 .

√
26. cot θ = − 53 = xy . Let x = −5 and y = 3, so r = (−5)2 + 32 = 34. Thus,
¬ √ √ √ √
sin θ = 3 3434 , cos θ = − 5 3434 , tan θ = − 35 , sec θ = − 534 , and csc θ = 334 .

√ √
27. f (0) = 0, f π 2 π 3 π
4 = 2 , f − 3 = − 2 , f (3π) = 0, f a + 2 = sin a + 2 = cos a
π
√ √
28. f (0) = 2 + 1 − 0 = 3, f (1) = 2 + 1 − 1 = 2, f (2) = 2 cos 2π (2) = 2
√
29. f (t) = sin t − 1 is defined if sin t − 1 ≥ 0, or sin t ≥ 1. Since sin t ≤ 1, we must have sin t = 1, and so the domain of f
consists of the numbers t = π2 + 2nπ, where n is an integer.
x
30. Note that 2 + sin x ≥ 1, so f (x) = is defined for all x and its domain is (−∞, ∞).
2 + sin x
31. a. f (−x) = 2 sin (−x) = −2 sin x = − f (x). Thus, y = f (x) is an odd function.
cos2 (−x) cos2 x
b. f (−x) = − =− − = − f (x). Thus, y = f (x) is an odd function.
−x x
 Section 0.3 The Trigonometric Functions 15

c. f (x) = − csc (−x) = − (− csc x) = − f (x). Thus, y = f (x) is an odd function.

32. a. f (−x) = cot (−x) = − cot (x) = − f (x). Thus, y = f (x) is an odd function.
(−x) x
b. f (−x) = 2 sin = −2 sin = − f (x). Thus, y = f (x) is an odd function.
2 2
c. f (−x) = 2 sec (−x) = 2 sec x = f (x). Thus, y = f (x) is an even function.

1 1 − cos2 t sin2 t
33. sec t − cos t = − cos t = = = tan t · sin t
cos t cos t cos t
2 2 1 1
34. 2 csc 2u = = = · = csc u · sec u
sin 2u 2 sin u cos u sin u cos u
sin y cos y
35. + = sin y · sin y + cos y · cos y = 1
csc y sec y

1
36. sin x (csc x − sin x) = sin x − sin x = 1 − sin2 x = cos2 x
sin x

sin A sin B sin A cos B + sin B cos A sin (A + B)

37. tan A + tan B = + = =
cos A cos B cos A · cos B cos A · cos B
sin θ
cos θ tan θ + sin θ cos θ · + sin θ 2 sin θ · cos θ
38. = cos θ = = 2 cos θ
tan θ sin θ sin θ
cos θ

1 1 − sin2 t cos2 t
39. csc t − sin t = − sin t = = = cot t · cos t
sin t sin t sin t

40. sin 3t = sin (2t + t) = sin 2t cos t + cos 2t sin t

= 2 sin t cos2 t + 1 − 2 sin2 t sin t
= 2 sin t 1 − sin2 t + sin t − 2 sin3 t
= 2 sin t − 2 sin3 t + sin t − 2 sin3 t = 3 sin t − 4 sin3 t

41. 2 sin3 θ cos θ + 2 sin θ cos3 θ = 2 sin θ cos θ sin2 θ + cos2 θ = sin 2θ

1 − 1 − 2 sin2 t
1 − cos t 1 − cos 2 2t 2 2 sin2 2t
42. = = = = tan 2t
sin t sin 2 2t 2 sin 2t cos t
2 2 sin 2t · cos 2t

43. The domain is (−∞, ∞) and the range is [−2, 2]. 44. The domain is (−∞, ∞) and the range is [0, 1].
h(¬) f(t)

1
2

_1 0 1 ¬
_1
_2¹ _¹ ¹ 2¹ t
_2 0
16 Chapter 0 Preliminaries

45. A = 1, P = 2π 46. A = 1, P = 2π
y y
1 1

3¹
_¹ 0 ¹ 2¹ x _¹ 0 ¹ x

_1 _1

47. A = 1, P = 2π 48. A = 1, P = 2π
y y
1 1
3¹
2 ¹
¹ 0 ¹ x _¹ 0 ¹ 5¹ 9¹ x
_¹ _ 2 2 ¹ 4 4 4

_1 _1

49. A = 1, P = 2π 50. A = 1, P = 2π
y y
3 3

2 2

1 1

_¹ 0 ¹ 2¹ x _¹ 0 ¹ 2¹ x

51. y = 2 sin 2 x + π 2π
4 , so A = 2 and P = 2 = π. 52. y = cos 2 x + π 2π
8 , so A = 1 and P = 2 = π.
y y
2 1

1 3¹ ¹
4 _¹ 2 ¹
¹ 3¹ 7¹ x
_8
_4 0
¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ x
_2 4 2
8 8
_1
_1
_2

2π
53. y = 2 sin x cos x = sin 2x, so A = 1 and P = = π. 54. y = cos2 x − sin2 x = cos 2x, so A = 1 and
|2|
2π
y P= = π.
|2|
1
y
¹ 1
2 ¹
x
¹
¹ x
_1 2

_1
 Section 0.3 The Trigonometric Functions 17

55. A = 2, P = 23π 56. A = 3, P = π

2
y y
2 3

2
1
1

¹ ¹ ¹ 2¹ x 0 ¹ ¹ x
6 3 2 3 4 2
_1
_1
_2

_2 _3

57. A = 3, P = 22π = π 58. y = −3 sin [π (x + 1)], so A = |−3| = 3, P = 2ππ = 2.

y y
3 3

_1
0 ¹ ¹ x 0 1 x
2

_3 _3

59. sin 2x = 1 ⇒ 2x = π 5π π 5π
2, 2 ⇒x = 4, 4 60. tan 2θ = −1 ⇒ 2θ = 34π , 74π , 114π , 154π ⇒

θ = 38π , 78π , 118π , 158π

3¹
4

7¹
4

2 cos2 t + 3 cos t + 2
61. cos t + +3=0⇒ =0⇒ 62. sec2 x − 1 − sec x − 1 = 0 ⇒
cos t cos t
(cos t + 2) (cos t + 1) (sec x − 2) (sec x + 1) = 0. Thus, sec x = 2 or
= 0. Thus, cos t = −1 and
cos t sec x = −1. So solutions are x = π 5π
3 , x = π, and x = 3 .
cos t = 0. So t = π.

¹
3
18 Chapter 0 Preliminaries

63. cos x (cos x − sin x) = 0 ⇒ cos x = 0 or cos x = sin x ⇒ 64. 1 + cot2 x − cot x − 1 = 0 ⇒ cot2 x − cot x = 0 ⇒
cos x = 0 or tan x = 1. So x = π π 5π 3π
4, 2, 4 , 2 . cot x (cot x − 1) = 0. Thus cot x = 0 or cot x = 1, so
x=π π 5π 3π
4, 2, 4 , 2 .

65. (2 cos x − 1) (cos x − 1) = 0 ⇒ cos x = 12 or cos x = 1, 66. sin 2x sin x = 0 ⇒ 2 sin x cos x sin x = 0 ⇒ cos x = 0 or

so x = 0, π 5π sin x = 0, so x = 0, π 3π
2 , π, 2 .
3, 3 .

¹
3

10,000 10,000
67. sin 20◦ = ⇒d =
d sin 20◦
10,000 ft
d 10,000
20¡ t= = ≈ 146.2 s ≈ 2.4 min.
200 200 · sin 20◦
1000
68. x= ≈ 1191.75 ft
tan 40◦
1000 ft
1000 1000
x+y= =√ ≈ 1732.05 ft
tan 30◦ 3/3
40¡
30¡ y ≈ 1732.05 − 1191.75 = 540.3 ft
x y
540.3
Thus, her speed was approximately ≈ 9 ft/s.
60
69. True, because cos (x) = cos (−x).
70. True, because f (−x) = sin (−x) cos (−x) = − sin x cos x = − f (x).
71. True. cos (x + π) = cos x cos π − sin x sin π = − cos x.
√ √ √
72. True. cos x + π
4 = (cos x) 2
2 − (sin x) 2
2 = 22 (cos x − sin x). On the other hand,
√ √ √
− sin x − π π π 2 2 2
4 = − sin x cos 4 − cos x sin 4 = − 2 sin x − 2 cos x = 2 (cos x − sin x).
1 1 1
73. False. Since y = f (x) = csc x = and f (−x) = =− = − f (x), the graph is not symmetric with
sin x sin (−x) sin x
respect to the y-axis. Also, see Figure 13d in the text.
74. False. y = f (x) = sin2 x is an even function because f (−x) = [sin (−x)]2 = (− sin x)2 = sin2 x = f (x).
 Section 0.4 Combining Functions 19

0.4 Self-Check Diagnostic Test

1
1. ( f + g) (x) = 2x + . Its domain is (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, ∞).
x +1
1
( f − g) (x) = 2x − . Its domain is (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, ∞).
x +1
2x
( f g) (x) = . Its domain is (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, ∞).
x +1
f
(x) = 2x (x + 1) = 2x 2 + 2x. Its domain is (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, ∞).
g
√
x +1
2. (g ◦ f ) (x) = g f (x) = √ . Its domain is [−1, ∞).
x +1+1
10 10 10
3. h (x) = g f (x) = . Then f (x) = 3x 2 + 1 and g (x) = √ , or f (x) = 3x 2 + 1 and g (x) = .
3x 2 + 1 x x
√
4. g (x) = 3 f (x − 2) − 5 = 3 x − 2 − 5

5. Let u = x +1, so x = u −1. Then f (x + 1) = f (u) = 2 (u − 1)2 +5 (u − 1)+2 = 2u 2 −4u +2+5u −5+2 = 2u 2 +u −1.
Therefore, f (x) = 2x 2 + x − 1.

0.4 Combining Functions

1. a. ( f + g) (x) = x 2 + 3x − 1, domain: (−∞, ∞)
b. ( f − g) (x) = −x 2 + 3x + 1, domain: (−∞, ∞)
c. ( f g) (x) = 3x 3 − 3x, domain: (−∞, ∞)
f 3x
d. (x) = 2 , domain: (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)
g x −1
√
2. a. ( f + g) (x) = x 2 + x + 2, domain: [0, ∞)
√
b. ( f − g) (x) = x 2 − x, domain: [0, ∞)
c. ( f g) (x) = x 5/2 + x 2 + x 1/2 + 1, domain: [0, ∞)
f x2 + 1
d. (x) = √ , domain: [0, ∞)
g x +1
√ √
3. a. ( f + g) (x) = x + 1 + x − 1, domain: [1, ∞)
√ √
b. ( f − g) (x) = x + 1 − x − 1, domain: [1, ∞)
√ √
c. ( f g) (x) = x + 1 · x − 1 = x 2 − 1, domain: [1, ∞)
√
f x +1
d. (x) = √ , domain: (1, ∞)
g x −1

1 x x − 1 + x2 + x x 2 + 2x − 1
4. a. ( f + g) (x) = + = = , domain: (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)
x +1 x −1 x2 − 1 x2 − 1

1 x x − 1 − x2 − x − x2 + 1 1 + x2
b. ( f − g) (x) = − = = = , domain: (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)
x +1 x −1 x2 − 1 x2 − 1 1 − x2
1 x x
c. ( f g) (x) = · = 2 , domain: (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)
x +1 x −1 x −1
20 Chapter 0 Preliminaries

1
f 1 x −1 x −1
d. (x) = x 1 =
x + · = , domain: (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 0) ∪ (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)
g x +1 x x (x + 1)
x −1
5. ( f ◦ g) (x) = f g (x) = (2x + 3)2 = 4x 2 + 12x + 9, domain: (−∞, ∞). g ◦ f = g f (x) = 2x 2 + 3, domain:
(−∞, ∞).
√ 2
6. ( f ◦ g) (x) = f g (x) = 1 − x 2 , domain: [−1, 1]. g ◦ f = g f (x) = 1 − x = 1 − x, domain: [0, ∞).
1
1 x −1 +1 1+x
7. ( f ◦ g) (x) = f g (x) = = , domain: (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 1) ∪ (1, ∞). g ◦ f = g f (x) = x = ,
x +1 x +1 1 1−x
−1
x −1 x
domain: (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞).
1
x
8. ( f ◦ g) (x) = f g (x) = , domain: (−∞, 0] ∪ (1, ∞).
+1=
x −1
x −1
√ √
1 1 x +1+1 x +1+1
(g ◦ f ) (x) = g f (x) = √ =√ ·√ = , domain: [−1, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).
x +1−1 x +1−1 x +1+1 x
3 3
9. h (2) = g f (2) = 3 22 − 1 + 1 = 10
π·2 π·2
10. h (2) = g f (2) = 2 sin + 3 cos =2
4 4
⎧ ⎧
⎨ x 2 + 2x + 1 if x < 0 ⎨ x 2 + 1 if x < 0
11. a. (g ◦ f ) (x) = b. ( f ◦ g) (x) =
⎩ x 2 − 2x + 1 if x ≥ 0 ⎩ x 2 − 1 if x ≥ 0

y y
3 4
3
2 2
1
1
_2 _1 1 x
_1

_3 _2 _1 1 2 3 x

12. f (x) is defined on the interval [0, 1].

a. h (x) = f (2x + 3) is defined for 0 ≤ 2x + 3 ≤ 1, or − 32 ≤ x ≤ −1 and so its domain is − 32 , −1 .
√ √ √ √
b. h (x) = f 2x 2 is defined for 0 ≤ 2x 2 ≤ 1, or − 22 ≤ x ≤ 22 , and so its domain is − 22 , 22 .
√ √
13. a. (g ◦ f ) (0) = g f (0) = g (2) = 2 · 22 + 2 = 8 + 2
√
b. (g ◦ f ) (2) = g f (2) = g (4) = 2 · 42 + 4 = 32 + 2 = 34
c. ( f ◦ g) (4) = f g (4) = f (34) = 34 + 2 = 36
√
d. (g ◦ g) (1) = g g (1) = g (3) = 18 + 3
2 sin π
14. a. g f (0) = g π
2 =
2 =2
1 + cos π 2
2 sin 0
b. (g ◦ f ) π π
2 =g f 2 = g (0) = =0
1 + cos 0
2 sin π
c. f g π = f 2 = f (2) = π
2 −2
2 1 + cos π2
 Section 0.4 Combining Functions 21

d. ( f ◦ f ) π π
2 = f f 2 = f (0) = π π
2 −0= 2
15. ( f ◦ g ◦ h) (x) = f {g [h (x)]} = f g x 2 − 1 = f 2 x 2 − 1 + 1 = f 2x 2 − 1 = 2x 2 − 1
1
16. ( f ◦ g ◦ h) (x) = f {g [h (x)]} = f g (cos x) = f (a − b cos x) =
a − b cos x
3/2
17. If f (x) = 3x 2 + 4 and g (x) = x 3/2 , then h = g f (x) = 3x 2 + 4 .

18. If f (x) = x 2 − 2x + 3 and g (x) = |x|, then h = g f (x) = x 2 − 2x + 3 .

1 1 1
19. If f (x) = x 2 − 4 and g (x) = , or if f (x) = x 2 − 4 and g (x) = √ , then h = g f (x) = .
x x x2 − 4
√ 1 √ 1
20. If f (x) = 2x + 1 and g (x) = x + , then h (x) = g f (x) = 2x + 1 + √ .
x 2x + 1
21. If f (t) = t 2 and g (t) = sin t, then h (t) = g f (t) = sin t 2 .
t tan t
22. If f (t) = tan t and g (t) = , then h (t) = g f (t) = .
1 + 1t 1 + cot t
√ √ √
23. a. If f (x) = x, g (x) = 1 − x, and h (x) = x, then F (x) = f {g [h (x)]} = 1− x.
b. If f (x) = x 3 , g (x) = sin x, and h (x) = 2x + 3, then F (x) = f {g [h (x)]} = sin3 (2x + 3).
1 1
24. a. If f (x) = , g (x) = x 3 , and h (x) = 2x 2 + x + 3, then F (x) = f {g [h (x)]} = 3
.
x 2x 2 + x + 3
√
x −1 √ x +1−1
b. If f (x) = , g (x) = x, and h (x) = x + 1, then F (x) = f {g [h (x)]} = √ .
x +1 x +1+1
25. a. ( f ◦ g) (1) = f g (1) = f (3) = 4 b. (g ◦ f ) (2) = g f (2) = g (2) = 5 c. f g (2) = f (5) = 1

d. g f (0) = g (1) = 3 e. f f (2) = f (2) = 2 f. g g (1) = g (3) = 6

26. g f (−2) = g (2) = −1, g f (−1) = g (1) = −1.8, y

g f (0) = g (2) = −1, g f (1) = g (3.5) = 2,

g f (2) = g (4) = 3, g f (3) = g (3) = 1

1 x

27. Curve 1 is the graph of y = f (x) + 1, and curve 2 is the graph of y = f (x) − 1.
28. Curve 1 is the graph of y = f (x + 2), and curve 2 is the graph of y = f (x − 2).
29. Curve 1 is the graph of y = f x2 , and curve 2 is the graph of y = f (2x).
30. Curve 1 is the graph of y = f (−x), curve 2 is the graph of y = 2 f (x), curve 3 is the graph of y = − f (x), and curve 4 is
the graph of y = 12 f (−x).
√
31. g (x) = f (x) + 3 = x 3 + x + 2 32. g (x) = f (x) − 2 = x + x +1−2
1 sin (x − 4)
33. g (x) = f (x + 3) = x + 3 + √ 34. g (x) = f (x − 4) =
x +3 1 + cos (x − 4)
√
3 x x2 + 4
35. g (x) = 3 f (x) = 2 36. g (x) = 12 f (x) =
x +1 2
37. g (x) = f 1x = x2 sin x2 38. g (x) = f (3x) = 5 sin 12x
2
22 Chapter 0 Preliminaries

39. The function that shifts the graph horizontally 2 units to the right is g (x) = f (x − 2) = 4 − (x − 2)2 . The function that

compresses this graph by a factor of 2 is h (x) = g (2x) = 4 − (2x − 2)2 , and finally, the function that shifts this graph

vertically upward 1 unit is F (x) = h (x) + 1 = 4 − (2x − 2)2 + 1 = 4 − 4x 2 + 8x − 4 + 1 = 8x − 4x 2 + 1, the

required function.

√
40. The function that shifts the graph horizontally 1 unit to the left is g (x) = f (x + 1) = x + 1 + 1. The function
√
that compresses this graph by a factor of 3 is h (x) = g (3x) = 3x + 1 + 1. Finally, the required function is
√ √
F (x) = h (x) − 2 = 3x + 1 + 1 − 2 = 3x + 1 − 1.

y y
41. a. b.

y=f(x)+1
y=f(x+2) y=f(x)
1 1
y=f(x)
_1 1 3 x _3 1 3 x

y y
c. d.

y=2f(x)
2
y=f(2x)
1 1 y=f(x)
y=f(x)
_1 1 3 x _1 1 3 x

y y
e. f.

2
y=f(_x) y=f(x)
1 y=f(x) 1

_1 1 3 x _3 _1 1 3 x
y=_f(x)

y y
g. h.
4
y=2f(x-1)+2 y=_2f(x+1)+3
3

2 2
y=2f(x-1)
1 y=f(x+1) 1
y=f(x) y=f(x-1) y=f(x)

_1 1 2 3 4 x _2 _1 1 2 3 4 x
_1

_2 y=_2f(x+1)
 Section 0.4 Combining Functions 23

42. a. y b. y

2 2
y=f(x) y=f(x-1)
y=f( 2 )
x
1 1

_2 _1 1 2 3 4 x _4 _3 _2 _1 1 2 3 4 x
_1 _1

_2 _2
y=f(x)

c. y d. y

y=f(x)
2 2
y=|f(x)| |f(x)|
1 1 y= f(x)

_2 _1 1 2 3 4 x _2 _1 1 2 3 4 x
_1
y=f(x)
_2

e. y f. y
4

2 2
|f(x)|+f(x)
y= 2
1 1

_2 _1 1 2 3 4 x _3 _2 _1 1 2 3 4 x
_1 _1
y=f(x)
_2 _2
y=f(_x) y=f(x)
_3

g. y=_2f(_x)+1 y
5

_3 _2 _1 1 2 3 4 x
_1

_2
y=f(_x) y=f(x)
_3

_4
y=_2f(_x)
24 Chapter 0 Preliminaries

43. y 44. y
4 4
y=x@
3 3

2 2
y=x@-2
1 y=x@ 1 y=(x-2)@

_3 _2 _1 1 2 3 x _3 _2 _1 1 2 3 x
_1

_2

45. y 46. y=2Ïx-1+1

y
y= 1 y=2Ïx-1
x y= 1 1 4
2 x-1
1 3
y=Ïx
_1 1 2 x
2
_1
y= 1 y= 1 1 y=Ïx-1
_2
x x-1 1

0 1 2 3 4 5 x

47. y=2|x+1| y=|x+1| 48. y=|2x-1|+1

y y
3 y=|2x-1|
3
y=|x| y=|x|
2 2
1 1

_3 _2 _1 1 2 3 x x
_3 _2 _1 1 2 3
_1 _1
y=2|x+1|-1

49. y 50. y
4
y=x@
y=x@ y=(x-1)@
3

1 1
y=2(x-1)@ y=|x@-1|
1 x _2 _1 1 2 x
_1
y=2x@-4x+1
=2(x-1)@-1
 Section 0.4 Combining Functions 25

51. y 52. y
2 1
y=cos x
y=sin x
1
y= 2 cos (x-4 )
1 ¹

_¹ ¹ x _¹ ¹ x

_1

_2 x _1
y=2 sin 2

53. y y=(x-1)@ 54. y

y=x@

y=|x@-2x-1|
=|(x-1)@-2|

1 _¹ ¹ x
y=tan (x+3 )
¹

_1 1 x
y=tan x
_1
y=(x-1)@-2
_2

55. a. First, sketch the graph of f (x) for x ≥ 0, then b. y

reflect the graph about the y-axis. The graph of

1
f (|x|) includes both the left and right parts of the
graph. _2¹ _¹ ¹ 2¹ x

_1
y=sin |x|

56. Let k = x + 1. Then x = k − 1 and f (x + 1) = f (k) = 2 (k − 1)2 + 7 (k − 1) + 4 = 2k 2 + 3k − 1. Therefore,

f (x) = 2x 2 + 3x − 1.

57. a. h = g ( f (x)) = g (x − 1) = 2x + 3. Let u = x − 1, then x = u + 1, and g (u) = 2 (u + 1) + 3 = 2u + 5. So

g (x) = 2x + 5.
b. h = g f (x) = 3 f (x) + 4 = 4x − 8, so 3 f (x) = 4x − 12 and f (x) = 43 x − 4.

f (x) + 1 2x + 2 (2x + 1) + 1 (2x + 1) + 1

58. h (x) = g f (x) = = = = . Therefore, f (x) = 2x + 1.
2 f (x) − 1 4x + 1 (4x + 2) − 1 2 (2x + 1) − 1

59. h (x) = g f (x) = g 2x 2 + x = 6x 2 + 3x − 1 = 3 2x 2 + x − 1, and g (x) = 3x − 1.

60. a. h (x) = (g ◦ f ) (x) = g f (x) ⇒ h (−x) = g f (−x) = g f (x) = h (x). Therefore, h is an even function.
b. h (x) = (g ◦ f ) (x) = g f (x) ⇒ h (−x) = g f (−x) = g − f (x) = g f (x) = h (x). Therefore, h is an even
function.
c. h (x) = (g ◦ f ) (x) = g f (x) ⇒ h (−x) = g f (−x) = g f (x) = h (x). Therefore, h is an even function.
d. h (x) = (g ◦ f ) (x) = g f (x) ⇒ h (−x) = g f (−x) = g − f (x) = −g f (x) = −h (x). Therefore, h is an odd
function.
26 Chapter 0 Preliminaries

61. a. Since g is to be an even function, we define g (x) = f (−x) for x ∈ [−2π, 0]. Thus,
⎧
⎨ √−x − sin x −2π ≤ x < 0
g (x) = √
⎩ x + sin x 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
b. Since h is to be an odd function, we define h (x) = − f (−x) for x ∈ [−2π, 0]. Thus,
⎧
⎨ −√−x + sin x −2π ≤ x < 0
h (x) = √
⎩ x + sin x 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π

62. a. g (−x) = f (−x) + f (− (−x)) = f (−x) + f (x) = g (x), so g is an even function.

h (−x) = f (−x) − f (− (−x)) = f (−x) − f (x) = −h (x), so h is an odd function.
b. Put f (x) = 12 f (x) + f (−x) + 12 f (x) − f (−x) . The first function on the right is even and the second is odd.
c. Using the result of part b, we have
1 x + 1 −x + 1 1 x + 1 −x + 1
f (x) = + + −
2 x − 1 −x − 1 2 x − 1 −x − 1
1 x 2 + 2x + 1 + x 2 − 2x + 1 1 x 2 + 2x + 1 − x 2 + 2x − 1
= +
2 x2 − 1 2 x2 − 1
x2 + 1 2x
= 2 +
x − 1 x2 − 1
The first term is even and the second is odd.

63. a. D (t) = f (t) − g (t) = 0.33t 2 + 1.1t + 16.9 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 4, so D (4) = 26.58. In 2007, there were 26.58 billion
non-spam messages per day.
g (t) 1.21t 2 + 6t + 14.5
b. P (t) = = for 0 ≤ t ≤ 4, so P (4) ≈ 0.69. In 2007, 69% of all e-mail messages were spam.
f (t) 1.54t 2 + 7.1t + 31.4

64. a. f (t) = 267 (tons) and g (t) = 2t 2 + 46t + 733 (tons), 0 ≤ t ≤ 13.
b. h (t) = f (t) + g (t) = 2t 2 + 46t + 1000 (tons), 0 ≤ t ≤ 13
c. h (13) = 2 (13)2 + 46 (13) + 1000 = 1936 (tons)

65. a. (g ◦ f ) (0) = g ( f (0)) = g (0.64) = 26, so the mortality rate of motorcyclists in the year 2000 was 26 per
100 million miles traveled.
b. (g ◦ f ) (6) = g ( f (6)) = g (0.51) = 42, so the mortality rate of motorcyclists in 2006 was 42 per 100 million miles
traveled.
c. Between 2000 and 2006, the percentage of motorcyclists wearing helmets had dropped from 64 to 51, and as a
consequence, the mortality rate of motorcyclists had increased from 26 per million miles traveled to 42 per million miles
traveled.

66. a. (g ◦ f ) (1) = g ( f (1)) = g (406) = 23, so in 2002, the proportion of reported serious crimes that ended in arrests or in
the identification of the suspects was 23%.
b. (g ◦ f ) (6) = g ( f (6)) = g (326) = 18. In 2007, 18% of reported serious crimes ended in arrests or in the identification
of the suspects.
c. Between 2002 and 2007, the total number of detectives had dropped from 406 to 326 and, as a result, the proportion of
reported serious crimes that ended in arrests or in the identification of the suspects dropped from 23% to 18%.

67. a. The gap is G (t) − C (t) = 3.5t 2 + 26.7t + 436.2 − (24.3t + 365) = 3.5t 2 + 2.4t + 71.2, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 10.

b. At the beginning of 1983, the gap was G (0) = 3.5 (0)2 + 2.4 (0) + 71.2 = 71.2, representing 71,200.
At the beginning of 1986, the gap was G (3) = 3.5 (3)2 + 2.4 (3) + 71.2 = 109.9, representing 109,900.
 Section 0.5 Graphing Calculators and Computers 27

68. a. At the beginning of January, occupancy is r (0) = 55%. At the beginning of July, occupancy is
r (6) = 10 3 10 2 200
81 (6) − 3 (6) + 9 (6) + 55 = 95%.
3 (55)3 + 9 (55)2 = 444.675, representing $444,675. At the
b. At the beginning of January, revenue is R (55) = − 5000 50
3 (95)3 + 9 (95)2 = 1110.075, representing $1,110,075.
beginning of July, revenue is r (95) = − 5000 50

69. True. Since any linear function of x can be written as y = ax + b, we may let f (x) = a1 x + b1 and g (x) = a2 x + b2 .
Then ( f ◦ g) (x) = f g (x) = a2 (a1 x + b1 ) + b2 = (a2 a1 ) x + (a2 b1 + b2 ). Similarly, g ◦ f is also a linear function.

P (x)
70. True. Let f (x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 and g (x) = , where P and Q are polynomials. Then
Q (x)
P (x) n P (x) 2 P (x) P f (x)
( f ◦ g) (x) = f g (x) = an + · · · + a2 + a1 + a0 and (g ◦ f ) (x) = g f (x) = .
Q (x) Q (x) Q (x) Q f (x)
Both are rational functions.

71. True. Let h (x) = f (x) + g (x). If both f and g are even, then h (−x) = f (−x) + g (−x) = f (x) + g (x) = h (x). So h
is an even function.
If both f and g are odd, then h (−x) = f (−x) + g (−x) = − f (x) − g (x) = − f (x) + g (x) = −h (x). So h is an odd
function.

72. True. Let h (x) = f (x) + g (x). If f is even and g is odd, we have
h (−x) = f (−x) + g (−x) = f (x) − g (x) = − − f (x) + g (x) . This shows that h is neither even nor odd.

73. True. Let h (x) = f (x) · g (x). If both f and g are even, then h (−x) = f (−x) · g (−x) = f (x) · g (x) = h (x), so h is an
even function.

74. False. Let h (x) = f (x) · g (x). If both f and g are odd, then
h (−x) = f (−x) · g (−x) = − f (x) · −g (x) = f (x) · g (x) = h (x). So h is an even function, not an odd function.

0.5 Graphing Calculators and Computers

1. a. b.
10 0

-500
0

-1000
-10
-10 0 10 -20 0 20

2. a. b.
10 10

0 8

-10 6
-10 0 10 -2 0 2
28 Chapter 0 Preliminaries

3. a. b.
10 2

0 0

-10 -2
-10 0 10 -2 0 2

4. a. b.
10 5

0 0

-10 -5
-10 0 10 -5 0 5

5. 6.
0

5000

-50

0
-10 0 10 -5 0 5

7. 8.
50

0
0

-5 0 5 -5 0 5

9. 10.
0
50

-1 0

-50
-2
-2 0 2 -5 0 5
 Section 0.5 Graphing Calculators and Computers 29

11. 12.
0.02
1.0

0.00 0.5

-0.02 0.0
-0.2 0.0 0.2 -20 0 20

13. 14.
1.0 1

0.5 0

0.0 -1

0 100 200 -10 0 10

15.
5 0.2

0 0.0

-5 -0.2
-5 0 5 -0.2 0.0 0.2

16.
100 0.01

50
0.00

0
-10 0 10 0.0 0.1

17. −1.47569 18. −3.20147, 0.45490, 2.74657

19. −1.11769, 0.35855 20. −0.54120, 0.54120, −1.30656, 1.30656

21. −0.45662, 1.25873 22. 0.26983, 2.24831

23. (−2.33712, 2.41174), (6.05141, −2.50154) 24. (−2.58634, −0.35855), (6.18634, −4.56944)

25. (−1.02193, −6.34606), (1.2414, −1.59306), (5.78053, 7.93912)

26. (−0.04835, 2.06085), (2.0823, 2.89865), (4.96605, 1.14050)

27. (−2.51746, −1.16879), (0.91325, 1.58299) 28. (−0.77513, 0.48973), (0, 0), (0.77513, 0.48973)
30 Chapter 0 Preliminaries

29. a. b.
10 0.1

0 0.0

-10 -0.1
-10 0 10 -0.1 0.0 0.1

c. When x is large, the graph of f resembles that of x since the term 0.01 sin 100x is small in magnitude (≤ 0.01). On the
other hand, when x is small in magnitude, the second term is significant. Together, the two graphs give a good
description of f .

30. a. 31. a.
1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

0.0 0.0

-5 0 5 -5 0 5

f is even. b. They are not identical because f is not defined at

b. Since x = 0 and g is defined. at x = 0. For x = 0,
f (x) = g (x), so the functions are otherwise
f (−x) = cos (sin (−x)) = cos (− sin x)
identical.
= cos (sin x) = f (x)
we see that f is even.

32. a. b.
5 5

0 0

-5 -5
-5 0 5 -5 0 5

c. f and g are identical for x ≥ 1.

√ √ √
d. g (x) = x (x − 1) = x x − 1 for x ≥ 1.

33. a. b.
5 1e+5

0 0

-5 -1e+5
-5 0 5 -50 0 50
 Section 0.6 Mathematical Models 31

5 1 1 5 1 1
c. Write f (x) = 2x 3 1 − + 2 − 3 . If x is large, then the terms , , and 3 are small. So if x is large,
2x 2x x 2x 2x 2 x
then f (x) ≈ g (x) and the graph of f is close to that of g.

34. a. b.
x f (x)
10 2.59374
2
100 2.70481
1000 2.71692
10,000 2.71850
0
0 5 10 100,000 2.71827
1,000,000 2.71828
10,000,000 2.71828
100,000,000 2.71828
2
1,000,000,000 2.71828
The values of f (x) seem to approach 2.71828.

0
0 50 100

0.6 Self-Check Diagnostic Test

x2
1. a. f (x) = 3x − 1 b. f (x) = 2x 4 − 3x 2 + 7 c. f (x) = 2
x −9
√
d. f (x) = x 5/7 e. f (x) = x −1 f. f (x) = 2 sin x
2. a. The V -intercept is given by V (0) = C. It represents the initial book value of the asset.
C−S
b. The asset is being depreciated by dollars per year.
n
3. x x V (x) = (12 − 2x)2 (x)
x x = 144 − 48x + 4x 2 (x)
12-2x 12 = 4x 3 − 48x 2 + 144x, 0 < x < 6
x x
x x

0.6 Mathematical Models

1. a. Polynomial function (degree 3) b. Power function c. Rational function

d. Rational function e. Algebraic function f. Trigonometric function

2. a. Algebraic function b. Algebraic function c. Algebraic function

d. Trigonometric function e. Trigonometric function f. Polynomial function (degree 2)

3. a. The number of enterprise IM accounts in 2006 is given by N (0) = 59.7, or 59.7 million.
32 Chapter 0 Preliminaries

b. The number of enterprise IM accounts in 2010, assuming the trend continues, is given by
N (4) = 2.96 (4)2 + 11.37 (4) + 59.7 = 152.54, or 152.54 million.
4. a. The property tax in 1997 is given by N (0) = 2360, or $2360.
b. The property tax in 2010, assuming the trend continues, is given by N (13) = 7.26 (13)2 + 91.7 (13) + 2360 = 4779.04,
or $4779.04.
5. In 1999, N (0) = 648,000. In 2000, N (1) = −35.8 (1)3 + 202 (1)2 + 87.8 (1) + 648 = 902,000.
In 2001, N (2) = −35.8 (2)3 + 202 (2)2 + 87.8 (2) + 648 = 1,345,200.
In 2002, N (3) = −35.8 (3)3 + 202 (3)2 + 87.8 (3) + 648 = 1,762,800.

6. In the 50–54 age group, N (0) = 0.7 fatalities per 100 million vehicle miles driven.
In the 85–89 age group,
N (7) = 0.0336 (7)3 − 0.118 (7)2 + 0.215 (7) + 0.7 ≈ 7.95 fatalities per 100 million vehicle miles driven.

7. At the beginning of 1970, P (0) = 4.6%.

At the beginning of 1985, P (15) = −0.01005 (15)2 + 0.945 (15) − 3.4 = 8.51375%.
At the beginning of 2000, P (30) = −0.01005 (30)2 + 0.945 (30) − 3.4 = 15.905%.

8. a. P b. In 1993, P (3) = −0.9 (3) + 10.2 = 7.5 million.

8 In 1995, P (5) = 0.7 (5) + 2.2 = 5.7 million.
In 2002, P (12) = 0.12 (12) + 6.26 = 7.7 million.
7
c. The population was lowest in 1995.

6 d. Yes, in 1997.

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 t
1990 1994 1998 2002
S−C S−C S−C
9. V m= = , V (t) = t + C, so
(0, C) n−0 n n
C−S
V (t) = C − · t, 0 ≤ t ≤ n.
n
(n, S)

0 n t

10. a. The graph of the function passes through the points (70, 120) and (80, 160).
160 − 120
The slope of the line is m = = 4. The equation of the line is N − 120 = 4 (t − 70) = 4t − 280. Therefore,
80 − 70
4t = N + 160, or t = 14 N + 40.
b. Solving the equation in part a for N , we find 14 N = t − 40, or N = f (t) = 4t − 160. When t = 102, we find
N = 4 (102) − 160 = 248, or 248 times per minute.
100 · 40 100x
11. a. 0.50 = ⇒ b = 7960. Thus, R (x) = , x ≥ 0.
b + 40 7960 + x
100 · 60
b. R (60) = ≈ 0.748 = 74.8%
7960 + 60
12. By 2005, N (5) = 0.0018425 (5 + 5)2.5 ≈ 582,650 jobs. By 2010, N (10) = 0.0018425 (10 + 5)2.5 ≈ 1,605,594 jobs.
 Section 0.6 Mathematical Models 33

N(t) (millions)
13. a. We first construct the table and then draw the graph of N (t).
180
t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 160
140
N (t) 52 75 93 109 122 135 146 157 167 177
120
100
b. The number of viewers in 2010 is given by
80
N (8) = 52 (8)0.531 ≈ 156.87, or approximately 157 million 60
viewers. 40
20

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 t (year)

14. a. C (x) = cx + F, x ≥ 0
b. R (x) = sx, x ≥ 0
c. P (x) = R (x) − C (x) = (s − c) x − F, x ≥ 0
d. P (0) = −F. If no thermometers are produced or sold, the manufacturer will sustain a loss of $F (the fixed costs).
F
e. P (x) = 0 ⇒ 0 = (s − c) x − F ⇒ x =
s−c
15. a. The mathematical model giving the approximate amount of CO2 b.
400
in the atmosphere during this period is given by
380
A (t) = 0.010716t 2 + 0.8212t + 313.4.
360
c. The average amount of atmospheric CO2 in 1980 is given by
340
A (23) = 0.010716 (23)2 + 0.8212 (23) + 313.4 ≈ 337.96 or
320
approximately 338 ppmv.
0 20 40
d. Assuming that the trend continues, the average amount of
atmospheric CO2 in 2010 is given by
A (53) = 0.010716 (53)2 + 0.8212 (53) + 313.4 ≈ 387.02 or
approximately 387 ppmv.

16. a. y = f (t) b.
1.5e+6
= 44.56017t 3 − 893.94t 2 + 23,463.283t + 273,288
1e+6
where t = 0 corresponds to the beginning of 1970.

c. f (0) = 273,288, f (10) = 463,087, f (20) ≈ 741,459, 5e+5

f (30) ≈ 1,375,765. The calculated values are the same as the
0
given data. 0 10 20 30

17. a. f (t) = −0.425t 3 + 3.65714t 2 + 4.01786t + 43.6643 b.

c. $43.66 million; $77.16 million; $107.63 million 100

50

0
0 2 4 6
34 Chapter 0 Preliminaries

18. a. f (t) = −2.4167t 3 + 24.5t 2 − 123.33t + 506 b.

c. 506,000; 338,000; 126,000

400
d. Approximately 200,000
200

0
0 2 4 6

19. a. f (t) = 0.00125t 4 − 0.005093t 3 − 0.024306t 2 + 0.128624t + b.

3
1.70992

c. 1.71, 1.81, 1.85, 1.84, 1.83, 1.89

2

1
0 2 4

20. a. T (D) = 1.000308D 1.50199

b. T (D) ≈ D 1.5 and T 2 ≈ D 3 . Therefore, this result confirms Kepler’s Third Law of Planetary Motion, T 2 = K D 3 .

21. Since there is 80 feet of fencing available, 2x + 2y = 80, x + y = 40,

x or y = 40 − x. Then the area of the garden is given by
f = x y = x (40 − x) = 40x − x 2 . The domain of f is (0, 40).
y=40-x

250
22. The area of Ramon’s garden is 250 ft2 . Therefore, x y = 250 and y = . The
x
x
amount of fencing needed is given by 2x + 2y. So
250 500
250 f = 2x + 2 = 2x + . The domain of f is (0, ∞).
y= x x x

23. x x The volume of the box is given by

x x (area of the base of the box) × (height of the box). Thus,
8 V = f (x) = (15 − 2x) (8 − 2x) x = 4x 3 − 46x 2 + 120x. We must have x > 0,
x x 15 − 2x > 0, and 8 − 2x > 0. This implies that 0 < x < 4, so the domain of f is
x x (0, 4).
15

24. The volume of the box is given by V = (area of the base) (height) = x 2 y = 20, so
y=20/x@
20
we have y = 2 . Next, the amount of material used in constructing the box is
x x
x given by the area of the base of the box,
plus the area of the four sides, plus the area of the top of the box, or x 2 + 4x y + x 2 . Therefore, the cost of constructing the
20 8
box is given by f (x) = 0.30x 2 + 0.40x · 2 + 0.20x 2 = 0.5x 2 + , where x > 0.
x x
 Chapter 0 Review 35

25. The perimeter of the semicircle is πx. Next, the perimeter of the rectangular
portion of the window is given by 2y + 2x, so the perimeter of the Norman
x
window is πx + 2y + 2x and πx + 2y + 2x = 28, or y = 12 (28 − πx − 2x).
y
Since the area of the window is given by 2x y + 12 πx 2 , we see that

A = 2x y + 12 πx 2 . Substituting the value of y found earlier, we see that

A = f (x) = x (28 − πx − 2x) + 12 πx 2 = 12 πx 2 + 28x − πx 2 − 2x 2 = 28x − π 2 2 π
2 x − 2x = 28x − 2 + 2 x , so the
2

56
domain is 0, .
4+π
26. The average yield of the apple orchard is 36 bushels/tree when the density is 22 trees/acre. Let x be the unit increase in tree
density beyond 22. Then the yield of the apple orchard in bushels/acre is given by (22 + x) (36 − 2x) = −2x 2 − 8x + 792,
where x > 0.

27. x y = 50 and so y = 50
x . The area of the printed page is
1á
A = (x − 1) (y − 2) = (x − 1) 50 50
x − 2 = −2x + 52 − x . So the required

function is f (x) = −2x + 52 − 50 50

x . We must have x − 1 ≥ 0 and x − 2 ≥ 0.
50
1á y= x
2 Solving this last inequality we have 50
x > 2 ⇒ x < 25, so the domain is (1, 25).

28. a. Let x denote the number of bottles sold beyond 10,000 bottles. Then
P (x) = (10, 000 + x) (5 − 0.0002x) = −0.0002x 2 + 3x + 50,000, where 0 ≤ x < 25,000.
b. He can expect a profit of P (6000) = −0.0002 60002 + 3 (6000) + 50,000 = 60,800, or $60,800.

29. a. Let x denote the number of people beyond 20 who sign up for the cruise. Then the revenue is
R (x) = (20 + x) (600 − 4x) = −4x 2 + 520x + 12,000, where 0 ≤ x ≤ 70.
b. R (40) = −4 402 + 520 (40) + 12,000 = 26,400, or $26,400.

c. R (60) = −4 602 + 520 (60) + 12,000 = 28,800, or $28,800.

30. Let f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c, a = 0. Then

b b2 b2 b b2 b2 b 2 b2
f (x) = a x 2 + x+ 2 − 2 + c = a x2 + x+ 2 − + c = a x + − +c
a 4a 4a a 4a 4a 2 2a 4a

b b b2 b b
At x = − , f − =c− , so the vertex of the parabola f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c lies at − , f − .
2a 2a 4a 2a 2a

Chapter 0 Review
−4 − 3 7
1. m = =− 2. 3y = −2x + 8, y = − 23 x + 83 , m = − 23
2 − (−1) 3
√
3. 4y = 2x − 6, y = 12 x − 32 , m = −2 4. m = tan 120◦ = − 3

5. y = −4 6. y − 3 = −4 (x − 1) ⇒ y = −4x + 7
36 Chapter 0 Preliminaries

−5 − 3 4
7. m = = − , y − 3 = − 43 (x + 2) ⇒ y = − 43 x + 13 .
4 − (−2) 3
8. 4y = 8 − 3x, y = 2 − 34 x, m = − 34 . y − 3 = − 34 (x − 2) ⇒ y = − 34 x + 92 .
1−4 3
9. m = = − , y − 3 = − 35 (x + 1) ⇒ y = − 35 x + 12
5.
2 − (−3) 5
10. 2x − 24 = 3y, so y = 23 x − 8 and m = − 32 . y + 4 = − 32 (x + 2) ⇒ y = − 32 x − 7.
⎧ 2x + 4y = 6
⎨ x + 2y = 3
11. Solve ⇔ (−) 2x − 3y = 13
⎩ 2x − 3y = 13
7y = −7 ⇒ y = −1
−1 − (−1)
Next, x + 2 (−1) = 3 ⇒ x = 5. The point of intersection is (5, −1). m = = 0, so the line has equation
5−2
y = −1.
12. a. Let y denote the number of households, in millions. Then y = 42.5 when t = 0. The rate of decline is the slope of the
linear equation in t and y. So, with m = −3.9, we find y = −3.9t + 42.5.
b. The estimated number of households at the beginning of 2010 (t = 6) is y = −3.9 (6) + 42.5 = 19.1, or 19.1 million.
y 27.4 − 8.5
13. a, b. c. The slope of L is m = = 2.7. Using the point-slope form
7−0
25
of the equation of a line with the point (0, 8.5), we find
20 y − 8.5 = 2.7 (x − 0) ⇔ y = 2.7x + 8.5.

15 d. The estimated number of satellite TV subscribers in the United States

in 2006 is y = 2.7 (8) + 8.5 = 30.1 or 30.1 million.
10

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x

f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)2 + (x + h) + 1 − x 2 + x + 1
14. =
h h
x 2 + 2xh + h 2 + x + h + 1 − x 2 − x − 1
=
h
2xh + h 2 + h h (2x + h + 1)
= = = 2x + h + 1
h h
√ √
15. f (0) = 0, f π 3 π π
6 = 3 , f 4 = 1, f 3 = 3, f (π) = 0
√
16. a. f (−4) = − (−4) = 2
b. f (1) = (1)2 + 1 = 2
√ √ √
f (−1 − h) − f (−1) − (−1 − h) − − (−1) 1+h−1
c. = =
h h h

f (2 + h) − f (2) (2 + h)2 + (2 + h) − 22 + 2 4 + 4h + h 2 + (2 + h) − 6
d. = =
h h h
6 + 5h + h 2 − 6 5h + h 2 h (5 + h)
= = = =5+h
h h h
17. We want x 2 − 4 = 0 ⇒ x = ±2, so the domain of f is (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, 2) ∪ (2, ∞).
18. We want x 2 − 4 ≥ 0 ⇒ x ≤ −2 or x ≥ 2, so the domain of g is (−∞, −2] ∪ [2, ∞).
19. We want x − 1 ≥ 0, x = 0, and x − 2 = 0, so the domain of h is [1, 2) ∪ (2, ∞).
 Chapter 0 Review 37

20. All real numbers except x = 12 + n, where n is any integer. In other words, · · · ∪ − 32 , − 12 ∪ − 12 , 12 ∪ 12 , 32 ∪ · · · .

21. f (x) is defined for all real values of x. (Note that 2 − cos x ≥ 1 = 0.) Thus, the domain of f is (−∞, ∞)

y y
22. 23.
2

1
y=g(t)
1 y=f(x)

_¹ ¹ 2¹ t
0
0 1 x

√
f (x) = 1 − x is defined for 1 − x ≥ 0, or x ≤ 1, so the g (t) = |sin t| + 1 is defined for all real numbers t, so the
domain is (−∞, 1]. The range of f is [0, ∞). domain is (−∞, ∞). Since 0 ≤ |sin t| ≤ 1, the range of g
is [1, 2].

24. f (−x) = −3 (−x)7 + 4 (−x)3 − 2 (−x) = 3x 7 − 4x 3 + 2x = − −3x 7 + 4x 3 − 2x = − f (x), so f is an odd function.

sin (−x) − sin x

25. g (−x) = = = g (x), so g is an even function.
−x −x
π 2π π 5π π 5π
26. a. 120◦ · = b. 450◦ · = c. −225◦ · =−
180◦ 3 180◦ 2 180◦ 4
11π 180◦ 5π 180◦ 7π 180◦
27. a. · = 330◦ b. − · = −450◦ c. − · = −315◦
6 π 2 π 4 π
√ √
28. f (0) = cos 0 = 1; f π π 2 π π π 2
4 = cos 4 = 2 ; f − 4 = cos − 4 = cos 4 = 2 ; f (3π) = cos 3π = cos π = −1;
f a+ π π
2 = cos a + 2 = − sin a

√
29. a. cos θ = 12 implies that θ = π 5π
3 or 3 b. cot θ = − 3 implies that θ = 56π or 116π .

30. a. (sec θ + tan θ) (1 − sin θ) = sec θ + tan θ − sin θ sec θ − tan θ sin θ
= sec θ + tan θ − tan θ − tan θ sin θ
1 sin2 θ 1 cos2 θ
= − = 1 − sin2 θ =
cos θ cos θ cos θ cos θ
= cos θ
1
sec θ − cos θ − cos θ 1 − cos2 θ cos θ sin2 θ
b. = cos θ = · = = sin θ
tan θ sin θ cos θ sin θ sin θ
cos θ

31. a. cot2 x − cot x = 0 ⇒ cot x (cot x − 1) = 0 ⇒ cot x = 0 or cot x = 1 ⇒ x = π π 5π 3π

4 , 2 , 4 , or 2 .
b. sin x + sin 2x = 0 ⇒ sin x + 2 sin x cos x = 0 ⇒ sin x (1 + 2 cos x) = 0 ⇒ sin x = 0 or cos x = − 12 ⇒ x = 0, 23π , π,
or 43π .
38 Chapter 0 Preliminaries

x (2x + 3) 2x 2 − 1 + x 4x 3 + 6x 2 − x − 3
32. ( f + g) (x) = 2x + 3 + 2
= 2
= ,
2x − 1 2x − 1 2x 2 − 1

x x − (2x + 3) 2x 2 − 1 −4x 3 − 6x 2 + 3x + 3
(g − f ) (x) = − (2x + 3) = = ,
2x 2 − 1 2x 2 − 1 2x 2 − 1
x 2x 2 + 3x f 2x 2 − 1 4x 3 + 6x 2 − 2x − 3
( f g) (x) = (2x + 3) 2 = 2
, (x) = (2x + 3) · = ,
2x − 1 2x − 1 g x x
g x x
(x) = = 3
f 2x 2 − 1 · (2x + 3) 4x + 6x 2 − 2x − 3
√
33. g f (x) = f (x) + 1 = x 2 − 1 + 1 = |x|. Its domain is (−∞, ∞).
34. If f (x) = πx and g (x) = cos2 x, then h (x) = g f (x) = cos2 (πx).
√ √
35. If f (x) = x 2 , g (x) = cos x, and h (x) = 1 + x + 2, or f (x) = cos2 x, g (x) = 1 + x, and h (x) = x + 2, then
√
F (x) = f {g [h (x)]} = cos2 1 + x + 2 .
2
36. h (x) = g f (x) = 4x 2 − 1 and f (x) = 2x. So let u = 2x, or x = u2 . Then g (u) = 4 u2 − 1 = u 2 − 1. Therefore,
g (x) = x 2 − 1.

37. y 38. y
y=3(x+2)@

y=x#

y=x#-2 y=x@
_1 1
1 y=(x+2)@ 1
_1 x
(Ï2,
3
0)
(0, _2) _3 _2 _1 1 2 x

y y
39. 40.
1
1 y= x
y=
2 y=2-Ïx x+1
y=Ïx
1 1

1 x _1 1 x
_1

y=_Ïx
1
y=
x+1 1
y=
x

41. y 42. y
y=|sin x|
3 y=3 cos 2x 1

2
y=cos x
1 y=cos 2x _2¹ _¹ 0 ¹ 2¹ x

_2¹ _¹ ¹ 2¹ x
_1
y=sin x
_2

_3
 Chapter 0 Review 39

43. 44.
20 2.0e-6

0
0.0e+0

-20
-2.0e-6
-2 0 2 -0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02

45. −2.18271, 0.59237, and 1.89858

46. (±3.16164, 0.99960), (±2.46433, 0.60729), and (±1.18626, 0.14072)
47. −1.08659, −1, 1.26456
48. (−0.5972, −0.9300); (0.9866, 0.9201)
500 · 35
49. D (35) = = 116 23 mg
150
50. P (9) − P (0) = 50,000 + 30 (9)3/2 + 20 (9) − 50,000 = 990, representing an increase of 990 people in 9 months.
P (16) − P (0) = 50,000 + 30 (16)3/2 + 20 (16) − 50,000 = 2240, representing an increase of 2240 people in 16 months.
√ T
51. T = f (n) = 4n n − 4. f (4) = 0, f (5) = 20, f (6) ≈ 34,
140
f (7) ≈ 48, f (8) = 64, f (9) ≈ 80, f (10) ≈ 98, f (11) ≈ 116,
120
f (12) ≈ 136. As the length of the list increases, so does the length of 100

time required for learning. 80

60

40

20

0
2 4 6 8 10 12 n

52. 2.3 + 0.4t = 1.2 + 0.6t, 1.1 = 0.2t, so t = 5.5. The annual sales of Cambridge Drug Store will surpass those of Crimson
Drug Store after about 5.5 years.
53. a. f (r) = πr 2 b. g (t) = 2t

c. h (t) = f g (t) = π (2t)2 = 4πt 2 d. h (30) = 4π · 302 = 3600π ft2

54. y ($)
⎧ 20
⎪
⎪ 5 if 1 ≤ x ≤ 100
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ if 100 < x ≤ 200 15
⎨9
⎪
C (x) = 12.5 if 200 < x ≤ 300 10
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ 15 if 300 < x ≤ 400
⎪
⎪ 5
⎪
⎩
7 + 0.02x if x > 400
01 100 200 300 400 x (ft)

55. a. x x b. V (x) = (10 − 2x)2 · x = 4x 3 − 40x 2 + 100x

x x
c. V (1) = 4 − 40 + 100 = 64 in.3
10 in.

x x
x x
10 in.
40 Chapter 0 Preliminaries

54 108
56. r S (r) = 2πr 2 + 2πr · = 2πr 2 + ,r >0
πr 2 r
541 108
h= ¹r@ S (4) = 2π · 42 + = 32π + 27 ≈ 127.5 in.3
4

32
57. a. b. 32π = V = πr 2 h, so h = 2 ft. S (r) = 2πr 2 + 2πr h, so
r
32 256π
h C (r ) = 8 · 2πr 2 + 4 · 2πr · 2 = 16πr 2 + dollars.
r r
256π
r c. C (2) = 16π · 22 + ≈ 603.19 dollars
2
58. The graph of the function is a straight line that passes through the points (0, 10000) and (5, 2000). The slope of the line is
2000 − 10,000
m= = −1600. The equation of the line is V − 10,000 = −1600 (t − 0), or V = −1600t + 10,000.
5−0
 1 Limits and Continuity

1.1 Concept Questions

1. The values of f (x) can be made as close to 3 as we please by taking x to be sufficiently close to 2.

2. a. We cannot say anything about f (3). The existence of the given limit tells us nothing about the existence and/or value of
f (3).
b. Knowing that f (2) = 6 tells us nothing about the existence and/or value of the limit.
3. As x approaches 3 from the left of 3, the values of f (x) can be made as close to 2 as we please by taking x to be sufficiently
close to, but less than 3.

4. a. lim f (x) does not exist because the left-hand limit and the right-hand limit are not equal.
x→1
b. We cannot say anything about f (1) because the existence or nonexistence of the limit tells us nothing about the value of
f at x = 1.

1.1 An Intuitive Introduction to Limits

1. a. lim f (x) = 2 2. a. lim f (x) = 2
x→2− x→2−

b. lim f (x) = −1 b. lim f (x) = −1

x→2+ x→2+

c. lim f (x) does not exist. c. lim f (x) does not exist.
x→2 x→2

3. a. lim f (x) = 2 4. a. lim f (x) = 2

x→1− x→3−

b. lim f (x) = 2 b. lim f (x) = 2

x→1+ x→3+

c. lim f (x) = 2 c. lim f (x) = 2

x→1 x→3

5. a. lim f (x) = ∞ 6. a. lim f (x) = −∞

x→−1− x→0−

b. lim f (x) = 1 b. lim f (x) = ∞

x→−1+ x→0+

c. lim f (x) does not exist. c. lim f (x) does not exist.
x→−1 x→0
7. a. True.
b. True. Since lim f (x) = 2 and lim f (x) = 2, lim f (x) = 2.
x→0− x→0+ x→0
c. False. Since lim f (x) = 2 and lim f (x) = 2, lim f (x) = 2 = 1.
x→2− x→2+ x→2
d. True.
e. True. lim f (x) = ∞, which is another way of saying that lim f (x) does not exist.
x→4+ x→4+
f. False. From part e, we know that the right-hand limit does not exist. Therefore, lim f (x) does not exist.
x→4
41
42 Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity

8. a. True.
b. True. lim f (x) = 3 = lim f (x)
x→0− x→0+
c. True.
d. True.
e. False. Since lim f (x) = 3 and lim f (x) = 3, lim f (x) = 3.
x→3− x→3+ x→3
f. True.

9.
x 0.9 0.99 0.999 1.001 1.01 1.1
f (x) −0.90909 −0.99010 −0.99900 −1.00100 −1.01010 −1.11111
x −1
lim 2 = −1
x→1 x − 3x + 2

10.
x 0.9 0.99 0.999 1.001 1.01 1.1
f (x) 0.34483 0.33445 0.33344 0.33322 0.33223 0.32258
x −1
lim ≈ 0.333
x→1 x 2 + x − 2

11.
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2.001 2.01 2.1
f (x) 0.25158 0.25016 0.25002 0.24998 0.24984 0.24846
√
x +2−2
lim = 0.25
x→2 x −2

12.
x −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1
f (x) 0.57743 0.57735 0.57735 0.57735 0.57735 0.57743
√ √
3+x − 3−x
lim ≈ 0.57735
x→0 x

13.
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2.001 2.01 2.1
f (x) −0.06370 −0.06262 −0.06251 −0.06249 −0.06238 −0.06135
√1 − 12
2+x
lim ≈ −0.0625
x→2 x −2

14.
x 2.9 2.99 2.999 3.001 3.01 3.1
f (x) −0.42940 −0.41790 −0.41679 −0.41654 −0.41544 −0.40472
√
3 x + 1 − 2x
lim ≈ −0.417
x→3 x (x − 3)

15.
x −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1
f (x) 1.00167 1.00002 1.00002 1.00002 1.00002 1.00167
x
lim =1
x→0 sin x
 Section 1.1 An Intuitive Introduction to Limits 43

16.
x −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1
f (x) 1.16301 1.01512 1.00150 0.99850 0.98512 0.86057
(x + 1) cos x − 1
lim =1
x→0 (x + 1) sin x

17. f(x) a. lim f (x) = 2

x→3−
2
b. lim f (x) = 2
1 x→3+

0 x
c. lim f (x) = 2
1 3 5 x→3

18. f(x) a. lim f (x) = 4

x→4−
4
b. lim f (x) = 2
2 x→4+

c. lim f (x) does not exist.

2 4 6 x x→4
_2

_4

19. f(x) a. lim f (x) = 4

x→0−
4
b. lim f (x) = 4
x→0+

c. lim f (x) = 4
2 x→0

_2 2 x

20. f(x) a. lim f (x) = −1

x→0−

b. lim f (x) = −1
x→0+
3
c. lim f (x) = −1
x→0

_2 2 x
_1
44 Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity

21. f(x) a. lim f (x) = 1

x→1−

b. lim f (x) = 1
x→1+
2
c. lim f (x) = 1
x→1

_2 1 3 x
_1

_2

22. f(x) a. lim f (x) = 2

x→1−

b. lim f (x) = 2
x→1+
4
c. lim f (x) = 2
x→1

_1 1 2 3 x

Refer to the diagram below for Exercises 23–27.

y 23. lim [[x]] = 2 28. y

3 x→3−
4
2
24. lim [[x]] = 3 3
x→3+
1
2
25. lim [[x]] = −1
_2 _1 1 2 3 4 x x→−1+ 1
_1

_2 26. lim [[x]] does not exist. _1 1 2 x

x→−1
_1

27. lim [[x]] = 3 _2

x→3.1

lim [[2x]] = 4
x→2.4

29.
x −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 0 0.0001 0.001 0.01
f (x) 0 0 0 0 −0.3056 0.8269 −0.5064
From the table and the figure, we see that lim f (x) does not exist and lim f (x) = 0. Therefore, lim f (x) does not
x→0+ x→0− x→0
exist.

30.
x −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 0 0.0001 0.001 0.01
f (x) −0.00506 0.00083 −0.00003 0 −0.00003 0.00083 −0.00506
From the table and the figure, we see that lim f (x) = 0 and lim f (x) = 0. Therefore, lim f (x) = 0.
x→0+ x→0− x→0
 Section 1.1 An Intuitive Introduction to Limits 45

31. a. y b. The limit of f (x) exists for all values of x in (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).

c. The left-hand limit of f (x) exists for all values of x in (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).
1
d. The right-hand limit of f (x) exists for all values of x in (−∞, ∞).

_1 1 2 ¹ 4 x

_1

32. a. y b. The limit of f (x) exists for all values of x in −∞, π π

2 ∪ 2 ,∞ .
3
c. The left-hand limit of f (x) exists for all values of x in
−∞, π π
2 ∪ 2 ,∞ .
1
d. The right-hand limit of f (x) exists for all values of x in (−∞, ∞)
1 2 3 x
¹/2
_1

_3

33. The graph of Hc (t − t0 ) is shown in the figure. If c = 0, then Hc

lim Hc = 0 and lim Hc = c. Since the right-hand limit is not equal to c

t→t0− t→t0+

the left-hand limit, lim Hc does not exist.

t→t0
0 tü t

34. From the given figure, for n = 1, 2, 3, . . ., we have lim f (t) = k and lim f (t) = 0, so
t→[(2n−1)k]− t→[(2n−1)k]+
lim f (t) does not exist. Similarly, lim f (t) = 0 and lim f (t) = k, so lim f (t) does not exist.
t→[(2n−1)k] t→[(2n)k]− t→[(2n)k]+ t→[(2n)k]
Therefore, lim f (t) does not exist for n = 1, 2, 3, . . ..
t→nk

35. f (0.1) ≈ 2.5937, f (0.01) ≈ 2.7048, f (0.001) ≈ 2.7169, f (0.0001) ≈ 2.7181, f (0.00001) ≈ 2.7183,
f (0.000001) ≈ 2.7183, and f (0.0000001) ≈ 2.7183. It appears that lim (1 + h)1/ h ≈ 2.7183.
h→0

36.
θ −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1
f (θ) 0.33467 0.33335 0.33333 undefined 0.33333 0.33335 0.33467
tan θ − θ 1
It appears that lim = .
θ→0 θ3 3
46 Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity

37. 38.
10

4
5

0 3
0 1 2 3 0 2 4

It appears that lim f (x) = 7. It appears that lim f (x) = 4.

x→2 x→3

39. 40.
8 2
6
4
2
0
0
-2
0 1 2 -2 0 2

Since lim f (x) = −2 and lim f (x) = 2, lim f (x) It appears that lim f (x) = 1.
x→1− x→1+ x→1 x→0
does not exist.

41. 42.
0.0 1

-0.5
-1
-5 0 5 -1 0 1

It appears that lim f (x) = −0.5. It appears that lim f (x) ≈ 0.5.
x→0 x→0
⎧
⎨ x if x = 0
43. False. Let f (x) = Then lim f (x) = 0, but f (0) = 1 = 0.
⎩ 1 if x = 0 x→0
⎧
⎪
⎨ −1 if x < 0
⎪
44. False. Let f (x) = 0 if x = 0 Then f is defined at 0, but lim f (x) does not exist.
⎪
⎪ x→0
⎩ 1 if x > 0
⎧ ⎧
⎨ 1 if x = 0 ⎨ 1 if x = 0
45. False. Let f (x) = and g (x) = Then lim f (x) = lim g (x) = 1, but
⎩ 0 if x = 0 ⎩ −1 if x = 0 x→0 x→0

f (0) = 0 = −1 = g (0).
⎧
⎨ −1 if x < 0
46. False. Let f (x) = Then lim f (x) = −1 and lim f (x) = 1, but lim f (x) does not exist since
⎩ 1 if x ≥ 0 x→0− x→0+ x→0

lim f (x) = lim f (x).

x→0− x→0+
 Section 1.2 Techniques for Finding Limits 47

1.2 Concept Questions

1. If lim f (x) = L and lim g (x) = M, then

x→a x→a
• the Sum Law states that lim f (x) ± g (x) = lim f (x) ± lim g (x) = L ± M.
x→a x→a x→a
• the Product Law states that lim f (x) · g (x) = lim f (x) · lim g (x) = L M.
x→a x→a x→a
• the Constant Multiple Law states that lim c f (x) = c lim f (x) = cL for every c.
x→a x→a
f (x) lim f (x) L
x→a
• the Quotient Law states that lim = =, provided that M = 0.
x→a g (x) lim g (x) M
x→a
√ √
• the Root Law states that lim n
f (x) = n lim f (x) = n L, provided that L > 0 if n is even.
x→a x→a

2. a. lim 3x 2 − 2x + 1 = lim 3x 2 − lim 2x + lim 1 (Sum Law)

x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2

= 3 lim x 2 − 2 lim x + lim 1 (Constant Multiple Law)

x→2 x→2 x→2

=3 lim x lim x − 2 lim x + lim 1 (Product Law)

x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2

=3·2·2−2·2+1 (Law 2 and Law 1)

=9

lim x 2 + 4
x2 + 4 x→3
b. lim = (Quotient Law)
x→3 2x + 3 lim (2x + 3)
x→3
lim x 2 + lim 4
x→3 x→3
= (Sum Law)
lim 2x + lim 3
x→3 x→3

lim x lim x + lim 4

x→3 x→3 x→3 (Product Law and
=
2 lim x + lim 3 Constant Multiple Law)
x→3 x→3
3·3+4
= (Law 2 and Law 1)
2·3+3
13
=
9

√ √
3. a. lim x 2x 2 + 1 = lim x lim 2x 2 + 1 (Product Law)
x→4 x→4 x→4

= lim x lim 2x 2 + lim 1 (Root Law and Sum Law)

x→4 x→4 x→4

= lim x 2 lim x 2 + lim 1 (Constant Multiple Law)

x→4 x→4 x→4

= lim x 2 lim x lim x + lim 1 (Product Law)

x→4 x→4 x→4 x→4
√
= 4 (2 · 4 · 4 + 1) (Law 2 and Law 1)

= 66
48 Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity

3/2 3/2
2x 2 + x + 5 2x 2 + x + 5
b. lim = lim (Root Law)
x→1 x4 + 1 x→1 x4 + 1
⎡ ⎤3/2
lim 2x 2 + x + 5
⎢ x→1 ⎥
=⎣ ⎦ (Quotient Law)
lim x 4 + 1
x→1
⎡ 2 ⎤3/2
⎢ 2 lim x + lim x + lim 5 ⎥ (Sum Law, Constant Multiple Law,
⎢ x→1 x→1 x→1 ⎥
=⎢ 4
⎥
⎣ ⎦ and Product Law)
lim x + lim 1
x→1 x→1
3/2
2 · 12 + 1 + 5
= (Law 2 and Law 1)
14 + 1
8 3/2
= =8
2
4. If f (x) ≤ g (x) ≤ h (x) for all x in an open interval containing a, y

except possibly at a, and lim f (x) = L = lim h (x), then

x→a x→a
lim g (x) = L. L
x→a
If g (x) is squeezed between f (x) and h (x) near a, and if both f (x)
and h (x) approach L as x approaches a, then g (x) must approach L
as well.
0 a x

1.2 Techniques for Finding Limits

1. lim (3t + 4) = 3 · 2 + 4 = 10
t→2

2. lim 3x 2 + 2x − 8 = 3 · 22 + 2 · 2 − 8 = 8
x→2

3. lim h 4 − 2h 3 + 2h − 1 = (−1)4 − 2 (−1)3 + 2 (−1) − 1 = 0

h→−1

4. lim x 2 + 1 2x 2 − 4 = 22 + 1 2 · 22 − 4 = 5 · 4 = 20
x→2
4 4
5. lim 3x 2 − 4x + 2 = 3 · 12 − 4 · 1 + 2 =1
x→1
3
6. lim (2t − 1)2 t 2 − 2t = (6 − 1)2 (9 − 6)3 = 25 · 27 = 675
t→3
x −2 1−2 1
7. lim = =−
x→1 x 2 + x + 1 1+1+1 3
t3 − 1 (−1)3 − 1
−1 − 1 2
8. lim = =− =
t→−1 t 3 − 2t + 4 (−1)3 − 2 (−1) + 4
−1 + 2 + 4 5
√ √ √ √ √
9. lim 2x 3 − 2x = 2 · 23 − 2 · 2 = 4 − 2 2
x→2
√ √ √
10. lim 2x 3 − 3x + 7 = 2 · 27 − 3 · 3 + 7 = 52 = 2 13
x→3
2/3 2/3
11. lim x 3 − 2x 2 − 5 = (−1)3 − 2 (−1)2 − 5 = (−8)2/3 = 4
x→−1+
 Section 1.2 Techniques for Finding Limits 49

√
12. lim (x + 3)2 4x 2 − 8 = 12 4 (−2)2 − 8 = 2 2
x→−2
√
1+ x 1 1
13. lim √ =√ =
x→0+ x + 4 4 2
3/2
3/2 42 − 12 + 4 83/2 √
14. lim t −1/2 t 2 − 3t + 4 = √ = =8 2
t→4 4 2

3 3u 2 + 2u 3
3·4−4 3 8 2
15. lim = = =−
u→−2 3u 3 − 3 3 (−2)3 − 3 −27 3
√
w+1− w2 + 4 1−2 1
16. lim = =−
w→0 (w + 2)2 − (w + 1)2 4−1 3
πx π
17. lim sin = sin = 1
x→1 2 2
π π π
18. lim x tan x = tan =
x→π /4 4 4 4
√ √
sin x sin π 2 4 2 2
19. lim = π4 = · =
x→π /4 x 4 2 π π
sec 2x sec 0 1
20. lim √ = √ =
x→0 x + 4 4 2
√ √
21. lim 2 + cos x = 2 + cos π = 1
x→π
2
tan2 x tan π
4 12 2 √
22. lim = π = √ = √ =2− 2
x→π /4 1 + cos x 1 + cos 4 1+ 22 2+ 2

23. lim 2 f (x) + 3g (x) = 2 lim f (x) + 3 lim g (x) = 2 · 2 + 3 · 4 = 16

x→a x→a x→a

f (x) + g (x) lim f (x) + lim g (x) 2+4

x→a x→a
24. lim = = = −3
x→a 2h (x) 2 lim h (x) 2 (−1)
x→a

f (x) lim f (x)

2
x→a
25. lim √ = = √ =1
x→a g (x) lim g (x) 4
x→a

f (x) g (x) lim f (x) lim g (x) 2·4 8

x→a x→a
26. lim √ = =√ =
x→a g (x) + 5 lim g (x) + 5 4 + 5 3
x→a
2
27. lim [h (x)]2 − f (x) g (x) = lim h (x) − lim f (x) lim g (x) = (−1)2 − 2 · 4 = −7
x→a x→a x→a x→a
√
3 3 lim f (x) · lim g (x) √
3
f (x) g (x) x→a x→a 2·4 2
28. lim √ = =√ =
x→a f (x) g (x) + 1 lim f (x) · lim g (x) + 1 2 · 4 + 1 3
x→a x→a

29. lim x f (x) + x 2 + 1 g (x) = lim x f (x) + lim x 2 + 1 g (x)

x→−2 x→−2 x→−2

= lim x lim f (x) + lim x2 + 1 lim g (x)

x→−2 x→−2 x→−2 x→−2
2
= (−2) 2 + lim x + lim 1 (3) = −4 + (−2)2 + 1 (3) = 11
x→−2 x→−2
50 Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity

lim x lim f (x)

x f (x) x→−2 x→−2 (−2) 2 4
30. lim = = =−
x→−2 1 + x 2 2 1 + (−2)2 5
lim 1 + lim x
x→−2 x→−2
31. lim f (x) + g (x) = lim f (x) + lim g (x) = 1 + 1 = 2
x→−1 x→−1 x→−1
32. lim f (x) − g (x) does not exist because lim f (x) exists, but lim g (x) does not exist.
x→0 x→0 x→0
33. lim f (x) g (x) = lim f (x) lim g (x) = 1 · 1 = 1
x→1 x→1 x→1
lim f (x)
f (x) x→2 4
34. lim = = =2
x→2 g (x) lim g (x) 2
x→2
35. lim 2 f (x) + 3g (x) = 2 lim f (x) + 3 lim g (x) = 2 · 0 + 3 · 0 = 0
x→0− x→0− x→0−
lim f (x)
f (x) x→0+
36. lim = =0
x→0+ g (x) lim g (x)
x→0+
x2 − 9 (x + 3) (x − 3)
37. Incorrect. f (x) = = = x − 3 provided x = −3. lim f (x) cannot be found by substituting
x +3 x +3 x→−3
x = 3 in f (x).
x2 − 9
38. Correct. Since the denominator of is 0 at x = −3, we cannot find the limit by direct substitution. However, x − 3 is
x +3
x2 − 9 x2 − 9 (x + 3) (x − 3)
equivalent to provided that x = −3. Therefore, lim = lim = lim (x − 3) = −6.
x +3 x→−3 x + 3 x→−3 x +3 x→−3
f (x) 1
39. Let f (x) = 1 and g (x) = x. Then lim f (x) = 1 = 0 and lim g (x) = 0, and lim = lim does not exist.
x→0 x→0 x→0 g (x) x→0 x
40. First, let f (x) = 2x and g (x) = x. Then lim f (x) = lim 2x = 0, and lim g (x) = lim x = 0. Then
x→0 x→0 x→0 x→0
f (x) 2x f (x)
lim = lim = lim 2 = 2, and so lim exists in this case.
x→0 g (x) x→0 x x→0 x→0 g (x)
Next, let f (x) = x and g (x) = x 2 . Then lim f (x) = lim x = 0 and lim g (x) = lim x 2 = 0. Then
x→0 x→0 x→0 x→0
f (x) x 1
lim = lim 2 = lim does not exist.
x→0 g (x) x→0 x x→0 x
x2 − 4 (x + 2) (x − 2)
41. lim = lim = lim (x + 2) = 4
x→2 x − 2 x→2 x −2 x→2
5−x (−1) (x − 5) 1 1
42. lim 2 = lim = (−1) lim =−
x→5 x − 25 x→5 (x + 5) (x − 5) x→5 x + 5 10
t +1
43. lim =∞
t→1 (t − 1)2
x +1
44. lim =∞
x→2 x − 2
+

x 2 + 2x − 3 (x − 1) (x + 3) x +3
45. lim 2
= lim = lim =2
x→1 x −1 x→1 (x + 1) (x − 1) x→1 x + 1
x2 − x − 2 (x − 2) (x + 1)
46. lim = lim = lim (x + 1) = 3
x→2 x − 2 x→2 x −2 x→2
x2 − x − 2 (x − 2) (x + 1) x −2 3
47. lim = lim = lim =−
x→−1 x 2 + 4x + 3 x→−1 (x + 3) (x + 1) x→−1 x + 3 2
 Section 1.2 Techniques for Finding Limits 51

x 2 − 25 (x + 5) (x − 5) x −5 −10 5
48. lim = lim = lim = =
x→−5 2x 2 + 6x − 20 x→−5 2 (x + 5) (x − 2) x→−5 2 (x − 2) 2 (−7) 7
2t 3 + 3t 2 t 2 (2t + 3) 2t + 3 3
49. lim = lim = lim 2 =−
t→0 3t 4 − 2t 2 t→0 t 2 3t 2 − 2 t→0 3t − 2 2
3t 3 + 4t + 1
50. lim does not exist since the numerator approaches 8 and the denominator approaches 0 as t → 1.
t→1 (t − 1) 2t 2 + 1

x3 − 1 (x − 1) x 2 + x + 1
51. lim = lim = lim x 2 + x + 1 = 3
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x −1 x→1

v 4 − 16 v2 + 4 v2 − 4
52. lim = lim = lim v 2 + 4 = 8
v→2 v 2 − 4 v→2 v2 − 4 v→2
√ √
t −1 t −1 1 1
53. lim = lim √ √ = lim √ =
t→1 t − 1 t→1 t +1 t −1 t→1 t + 1 2
√ √
x −4 x +2 x −2 √
54. lim √ = lim √ = lim x +2 =4
x→4 x − 2 x→4 x −2 x→4
√ √ √
t +1 t +1 t +1
55. Since lim = ∞ and lim = −∞, lim does not exist.
t→1+ t − 1 t→1− t − 1 t→1 t − 1
√ √
t t 2t + 1 + 1 t 2t + 1 + 1 √
56. lim √ = lim √ ·√ = lim = 12 lim 2t + 1 + 1 = 1
t→0 2t + 1 − 1 t→0 2t + 1 − 1 2t + 1 + 1 t→0 2t + 1 − 1 t→0
√ √ √ √ √ √
x +3− 3 x +3− 3 x +3+ 3 x +3−3
57. lim = lim ·√ √ = lim √ √
x→0 x x→0 x x +3+ 3 x→0 x x +3+ 3
√
1 1 3
= lim √ √ = √ =
x→0 x + 3 + 3 2 3 6
√ √ √ √ √ √
a+h− a a+h− a a+h+ a a+h−a
58. lim = lim ·√ √ = lim √ √
h→0 h h→0 h a+h+ a h→0 h a+h+ a
√
1 1 a
= lim √ √ = √ =
h→0 a + h + a 2 a 2a
√ √ √ √ √
5−x −2 5−x −2 5−x +2 2−x +1 (5 − x − 4) 2 − x + 1
59. lim √ = lim √ ·√ ·√ = lim √
x→1 2 − x − 1 x→1 2 − x − 1 5−x +2 2 − x + 1 x→1 (2 − x − 1) 5 − x + 2
√ √
2−x +1 2−1+1 1
= lim √ =√ =
x→1 5 − x + 2 5−1+2 2
1 1
−
(2 + h)−1 − 2−1 2 = lim 2 − (2 + h) = lim −1 1
60. lim = lim 2 + h =−
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 (2 + h) 2h h→0 2 (2 + h) 4
61. lim [[x]] = 6
x→7−
62. lim [[x]] = −5
x→−5+
63. lim (x − [[x]]) = lim x − lim [[x]] = 2 − 1 = 1
x→2− x→2− x→2−
64. lim [[x + 1]] = 4
x→3+
1
sin x sin x 1 1
65. lim lim
= = ·1=
x→0 3x 3 x→0 x 3 3
sin 2x sin 2x 2 sin θ
66. lim = lim · = 2 · lim = 2 · 1 = 2. We have made the substitution θ = 2x at the third step.
x→0 x x→0 2x 1 θ→0 θ
52 Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity

sin 3h sin 3h 3 sin θ 3 3

67. lim = lim 4 = · lim = · 1 = . We have made the substitution θ = 3h at the third step.
h→0 4h h→0 · 3h 4 θ→0 θ 4 4
3

tan 2x sin 2x 1 1 sin 2x 2 sin 2x 2 2

68. lim = lim · = lim lim 3 = 1· · lim = ·1=
x→0 3x x→0 cos 2x 3x x→0 cos 2x x→0 (2x) 3 x→0 2x 3 3
2

tan2 x tan x sin x 1 1 sin x

69. lim = lim tan x lim =0· lim · =0· lim lim =0·1·1=0
x→0 x x→0 x→0 x x→0 cos x x x→0 cos x x→0 x

cos x − 1 (cos x − 1) (cos x + 1) cos2 x − 1 − sin2 x

70. lim = lim = lim = lim
x→0 sin x x→0 sin x (cos x + 1) x→0 sin x (cos x + 1) x→0 sin x (cos x + 1)
− sin x 0
= lim = =0
x→0 cos x + 1 1+1

2
cos θ − 1 1 − 2 sin2 θ2 − 1 1 sin θ2 1 sin x 2
71. lim = lim = − lim =− lim = − 12 · 12 = − 12 . We have made
θ→0 θ2 θ→0 4 · θ2 · θ2 2 θ →0 θ
2
2 x→0 x

the substitution x = θ2 at the fourth step.

x x x 1 x 1
72. lim = lim = lim · which does not exist because lim = 1, but lim does
x→0 1 − cos2 x x→0 sin2 x x→0 sin x sin x x→0 sin x x→0 sin x
not exist.

√
sin x − cos x sin x − cos x (sin x − cos x) cos x π =− 2
73. lim = lim = lim = lim (− cos x) = − cos 4 2
x→π /4 1 − tan x x→π /4 1 − sin x x→π /4 cos x − sin x x→π /4
cos x

lim 1
θ θ 1 θ→0 1
74. lim = lim = lim = = =1
θ→0 cos θ − π
2 θ →0 sin θ θ →0 sin θ sin θ 1
lim
θ θ →0 θ

sin 3x sin 3x 2x 3 sin 3x 2x 3 sin 3x 2x 3

75. lim = lim · · = lim · · = lim lim lim
x→0 sin 2x x→0 sin 2x 2x 3 x→0 3x sin 2x 2 x→0 3x x→0 sin 2x x→0 2

= 1 · 1 · 32 = 32

sin x
tan x − sin x cos x − sin x sin x (1 − cos x)
76. lim = lim = lim
x→0+ x2 x→0+ x2 x→0+ x 2 · cos x
sin x − (cos x − 1) 1 √
= lim lim lim = 1·0·1=0
x→0+ x x→0+ x x→0+ cos x

cos x cos t + π
2 = lim − sin t = −1
77. Let t = x − π π
2 , so that x = t + 2 . Then lim π = lim
x→π/2 x − 2 (t+π/2)→π/2 t t→0 t

t +π
78. Let t = 2x − π, so that x = . Then
2
sin x − π
2 = sin t+2π − π t t
2 = lim sin 2 = 1 lim sin 2 = 1 · 1 = 1
lim lim t t 2 2
x→π /2 2x − π (t+π )/2→π /2 t t/2→0 2 · 2 2 t/2→0 2
 Section 1.2 Techniques for Finding Limits 53

79. a. b.
12.5 x 0.99 0.999 1 1.001 1.01
f (x) 11.995 11.999 undefined 12.001 12.005

12.0 It appears that lim f (x) = 12.

x→1

c. Let x + 7 = t 3 , so that x = t 3 − 7. Then t → 2 as x → 1 and

11.5
0.0 0.5 1.0 x −1 t3 − 7 − 1 t3 − 8
lim √
3
= lim √ 3 3
= lim
x→1 x +7−2 t→2 t −2 t→2 t − 2
It appears that lim f (x) = 12.
x→1 (t − 2) t 2 + 2t + 4
= lim = lim t 2 + 2t + 4
t→2 t −2 t→2

= 4 + 2 · 2 + 4 = 12

80. a. b.
33 x −2.01 −2.001 −2 −1.999 −1.99
f (x) 31.992 31.999 undefined 32.001 32.007

32 It appears that lim f (x) = 32.

x→−2

c. Let x + 18 = t 4 , so that x = t 4 − 18. Then t → 2 as x → −2 and

31
-3 -2 -1 x +2 t 4 − 16 t 4 − 16
lim √
4
= lim √
4 4
= lim √
x→−2 x + 18 − 2 t→2 t − 2 t→2 4 t 4 − 2
It appears that lim f (x) = 32.
x→−2 t 2 + 4 (t + 2) (t − 2)
= lim
t→2 t −2
= lim t 2 + 4 (t + 2) = (4 + 4) (2 + 2) = 32
t→2

⎛ ⎞3
3/2
F v2 F⎝ v2 ⎠ v2
81. a. f (v) = 1− 2 = 1 − 2 . The radicand must be nonnegative, that is, 1 − 2 ≥ 0, or v 2 ≤ c2 .
m c m c c
Since c > 0, we must have v ≤ c. But the speed of light is unattainable, that is, v < c, and so the domain of f is [0, c).
Since v < c, v can approach c only from the left.
3/2
F v2 F
b. lim f (v) = lim 1− 2 = · 0 = 0. Thus, the acceleration of the particle approaches zero as its speed
v→c− v→c m
− c m
approaches the speed of light.

E0 2 E0 2
82. a. The radicand must be nonnegative, that is, 1 − ≥0⇒ ≤ 1 ⇒ E 2 ≥ E 02 , and since E 0 > 0, we just
E E
E0 2
have E ≥ E 0 . Hence the domain of v = c 1 − is E 0 , ∞). Since E ≥ E 0 , E can approach E 0 only from the
E
right.

E0 2
b. lim v = lim c 1 − = 0. Thus, the speed of the particle approaches 0 as the total energy approaches the
E→E 0+ E→E 0+ E
rest energy.
54 Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity

1
83. Observe that −1 ≤ sin ≤ 1 for all x = 0. Then, for x > 0, we have
x 0.5
1 1
−x ≤ x sin ≤ x, and for x < 0, we have −x ≥ x sin ≥ x.
x x
1 0.0
Because lim (−x) = 0 and lim x = 0, the result lim x sin = 0
x→0 x→0 x→0 x
follows from the Squeeze Theorem.
-0.5
-0.5 0.0 0.5

√ √ 1 √
84. Let f (x) = − x, g (x) = x cos 2 , and h (x) = x. Since
x 2
1 √ √ 1 √
−1 ≤ cos 2 ≤ 1 for all x = 0, we have − x ≤ x cos 2 ≤ x
x x
for all x > 0, or f (x) ≤ g (x) ≤ h (x). 0
√
But lim f (x) = lim − x = 0 and
x→0+ x→0+
√
lim h (x) = lim x = 0, and so the result follows from the -2
x→0+ x→0+ 0 1 2 3
√ 1
Squeeze Theorem, that is, lim x cos 2 = 0.
x→0+ x

85. a. lim f (x) = lim (x + 2) = 1 and lim f (x) = lim x 2 + 2x + 3 = 2.

x→−1− x→−1− x→−1+ x→−1+
b. lim f (x) does not exist because lim f (x) = lim f (x).
x→−1 x→−1− x→−1+

x 3 − 16
86. lim f (x) = lim= 12 and lim f (x) = lim −x 2 − 4x + 8 = 12. Since
x→−2− x→−2− x x→−2+ x→−2+
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 12, lim f (x) exists and has a value of 12.
x→−2− x→−2+ x→−2
√
87. lim f (x) = lim −x 5 + x 3 + x + 1 = 1 and lim f (x) = lim x2 + x + 1 = 1. Since
x→0− x→0− x→0+ x→0+
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 1, we see that lim f (x) exists and has a value of 1.
x→0− x→0+ x→0
√
88. lim f (x) = lim 1 − x + 2 = 2 and lim f (x) = lim 1 + x 3/2 = 2. Since lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 2,
x→1− x→1− x→1+ x→1+ x→1− x→1+
we conclude that lim f (x) exists and has a value of 2.
x→1
√
89. lim f (x) = lim [[x]] = 1 and lim f (x) = lim x − 2 + 1 = 1. Since lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 1, we
x→2− x→2− x→2+ x→2+ x→2− x→2+
conclude that lim f (x) exists and has a value of 1.
x→2
90. lim f (x) = lim |x| = 1 and lim f (x) = lim [[x]] = 1. Since lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 1, we conclude that
x→1− x→1− x→1+ x→1+ x→1− x→1+
lim f (x) exists and has a value of 1.
x→1

91. Let g (x) = −x 2 and h (x) = x 2 for all real x. Then g (x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h (x) for all x. Since lim g (x) = lim h (x) = 0, the
x→0 x→0
result follows from the Squeeze Theorem.
92. Let a be any number. If δ > 0, then there are infinitely many rational numbers as well as irrational numbers in the interval
(a − δ, a + δ). This implies that no matter how small δ is, there are values of f (x) that are equal to 1 (if x is rational)
and other values that are equal to 0 (if x is irrational). So f (x) cannot approach a specific number as x approaches a.
Therefore, lim f (x) does not exist.
x→a
 Section 1.2 Techniques for Finding Limits 55

1 1
93. Let f (x) = and g (x) = − . Then lim f (x) and lim g (x) both fail to exist. But
x x x→0 x→0
1 1
lim f (x) + g (x) = lim − = lim 0 = 0. This example does not contradict the Sum Law of Limits because
x→0 x→0 x x x→0
the law is valid only if both lim f (x) and lim g (x) exist.
x→a x→a
|x| |x|
94. Let f (x) = and g (x) = − for x = 0. Then lim f (x) and lim g (x) both fail to exist. But
x x x→0 x→0
|x| |x|
f (x) g (x) = − = −1 for x = 0, so that lim f (x) g (x) exists and is equal to −1. This example does not
x x x→0
contradict the Product Law of Limits because the law is valid only if both lim f (x) and lim g (x) exist.
x→a x→a
⎧
⎨ x 2 if x = 0
95. No. Consider the functions g (x) = and f (x) = 0 for all x. Then f (x) < g (x) for all x. Furthermore,
⎩ 1 if x = 0

since lim g (x) = 0 = lim f (x), the strict inequality lim f (x) < lim g (x) does not hold in this case.
x→0 x→0 x→a x→a
|BC|
96. a. arc AB = rθ = θ since the circle containing the arc has radius 1. Next, = sin θ, and from the diagram, we see
1
that |BC| < |arc AB|, or 0 < sin θ < θ.
b. Since lim 0 = lim θ = 0, the Squeeze Theorem implies that lim sin θ = 0.
θ →0+ θ→0+ θ→0+
c. Multiplying each side of the inequality 0 < sin θ < θ by −1 gives −θ < − sin θ < 0. If − π
2 < θ < 0, then since
sin (−θ) = − sin θ, the inequalities are equivalent to θ < sin θ < 0. Applying the Squeeze Theorem gives
lim sin θ = 0, and since the left- and right-hand limits are equal, we conclude that lim sin θ = 0.
θ→0− θ→0

d. From the identity sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1, we obtain cos θ = 1 − sin2 θ, since cos θ is positive for − π π
2 <θ< 2.
2 √
Therefore, lim cos θ = lim 1 − sin2 θ = 1 − lim sin2 θ = 1− lim sin θ = 1 − 0 = 1.
θ→0 θ→0 θ →0 θ→0

97. lim sin (a + h) = lim (sin a cos h + cos a sin h) = sin a lim cos h + cos a lim sin h (sin a and cos a are constant)
h→0 h→0 h→0 h→0
= (sin a) · 1 + (cos a) · 0 = sin a
and this establishes the result.
98. lim cos x = lim cos (a + h) = lim (cos a cos h − sin a sin h) = cos a lim cos h − sin a lim sin h
x→a h→0 h→0 h→0 h→0
= cos a · 1 − sin a · 0 = cos a
3x 2
99. False. Neither lim nor lim exists, and so the Sum and Difference Laws for limits do not apply.
x→2 x − 2 x→2 x − 2

lim x 2 + 3x − 4
x 2 + 3x − 4 x→1 0
100. True. In fact, using the Quotient Law, lim 2 = = = 0.
x→1 x − 2x − 3 lim x 2 − 2x − 3 −4
x→1
x 1 x 1
101. False. Consider f (x) = and g (x) = . Then lim f (x) − g (x) = lim − = lim 1 = 1,
x −1 x −1 x→1 x→1 x − 1 x −1 x→1
x 1
but neither of lim and lim exists.
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x − 1
⎧
⎨ −1 if x < 0
102. False. Let f (x) = −2, h (x) = 2, and g (x) = Then f (x) ≤ g (x) ≤ h (x) for all x. Also, lim f (x) and
⎩ 1 if x ≥ 0 x→0

lim h (x) both exist, but lim g (x) does not exist.
x→0 x→0
56 Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity

1.3 Concept Questions

1. For any given ε > 0, there is a δ > 0 such that if 0 < |x − 2| < δ, then x 3 + 5 − 13 < ε.
2. For every ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that a − δ < x < a + δ implies L − ε < f (x) < L + ε.
√ √
3. 1 − 22 ≈ 0.2929 and 1 − 26 ≈ 0.2247. Take δ to be 0.2247, the smaller of the two numbers.

4. Refer to Concept Question 3. Since 1 − 45 = 15 and 1 − 43 = 13 , we take δ = 15 .

1.3 A Precise Definition of Limits

1. |3x − 6| < 0.01 ⇔ 3 |x − 2| < 0.01 ⇔ |x − 2| < 0.01
3 = 0.003, so take δ = 0.003.
2. |2x − (−2)| < 0.001 ⇔ 2 |x − (−1)| < 0.001 ⇔ |x − (−1)| < 0.001
2 = 0.0005, so take δ = 0.0005.
3. |2x + 3 − 5| < 0.01 ⇒ 2 |x − 1| < 0.01 ⇔ |x − 1| < 0.005, so take δ = 0.005.
4. |3x − 2 − (−8)| < 0.05 ⇒ 3 |x + 2| < 0.05 ⇔ |x − (−2)| < 0.05
3 = 0.016, so take δ = 0.016.
x2 − 9 (x + 3) (x − 3)
5. − 6 < 0.02 ⇔ − 6 < 0.02 ⇒ |x − 3| < 0.02, so take δ = 0.02.
x −3 x −3

x2 − 4 (x + 2) (x − 2)
6. − (−4) < 0.005 ⇔ + 4 < 0.005 ⇒ |x − (−2)| < 0.005, so take δ = 0.005.
x +2 x +2

7. Consider 2x 2 − 18 = 2 x 2 − 9 = 2 |(x + 3) (x − 3)| = 2 |x + 3| |x − 3|. If we agree to pick

δ ≤ 1, then |x − 3| < δ ⇒ |x − 3| < 1 or 2 < x < 4. So 5 < x + 3 < 7 or |x + 3| < 7. Therefore,
2x 2 − 18 = 2 |x + 3| |x − 3| < 2 (7) |x − 3| < 0.01 ⇔ |x − 3| < 0.01
14 ≈ 0.00071. So pick δ = 0.0007.
√ √
√ x −2 x +2 |x − 4|
8. Consider x − 2 = √ = √ . If we agree to pick δ ≤ 1, then |x − 4| < 1 ⇒ 3 < x < 5, so
x +2 x +2
√ √ |x − 4|
x + 2 > 2. Therefore, x −2 = √ < 0.01 ⇒ |x − 4| < 0.01 (2) = 0.02. So pick δ = 0.02.
x +2
x2 + 4 x 2 + 4 − 2x − 4 |x|
9. Consider −2 = = |x − 2|. If we agree to pick δ ≤ 1, then |x − 2| < 1 ⇒ 1 < x < 3,
x +2 x +2 |x + 2|

x2 + 4 |x| x2 + 4
so −2 = |x − 2| < |x − 2|. If we pick δ = 0.01, then |x − 2| < δ ⇒ − 2 < |x − 2| < 0.01.
x +2 |x + 2| x +2
1 1 2−x |x − 2|
10. Consider − = = . If we agree to pick δ ≤ 1, then |x − 2| < 1 ⇒ 1 < x < 3. So
x 2 2x 2 |x|
1 1 |x − 2| 1 1
− = = |x − 2| < |x − 2| < 0.05 ⇒ |x − 2| < 0.1. So pick δ = 0.1.
x 2 2 |x| 2x 2
11. For any ε > 0, we need to find a δ > 0 such that if |x − 2| < δ, then |3 − 3| < ε. Since |3 − 3| = 0 < ε always holds, we
can pick δ to be any positive number. Then |x − 2| < δ ⇒ |3 − 3| < ε, and lim 3 = 3.
x→2
12. For any ε > 0, we need to find a δ > 0 such that whenever |x + 2| < δ, then |π − π| < ε. Since |π − π| = 0 < ε always
holds, we can pick δ to be any positive number. Then |x − (−2)| = |x + 2| < δ ⇒ |π − π| < ε, and this shows that
lim π = π.
x→−2
13. For any ε > 0, we need to find a δ > 0 such that if |x − 3| < δ, then |2x − 6| < ε. Now |2x − 6| < ε ⇒ |x − 3| < 12 ε, so
we pick δ = 12 ε. Then whenever |x − 3| < δ = 12 ε, we have |2x − 6| = 2 |x − 3| < 2 12 ε = ε. Therefore, lim 2x = 6.
x→3
 Section 1.3 A Precise Definition of Limits 57

14. For any ε > 0, we need to find a δ > 0 such that if |x + 2| < δ, then |(2x − 3) − (−7)| < ε. Now |(2x − 3) − (−7)| < ε
⇒ |2x + 4| < ε ⇒ |2 (x + 2)| < ε ⇒ |x + 2| < 12 ε, so we choose δ = 12 ε. Then whenever |x + 2| < δ = 12 ε, we have
|(2x − 3) − (−7)| = 2 |x + 2| < 2 12 ε = ε. Therefore, lim (2x − 3) = −7.
x→−2

15. For any ε > 0, we need to find a δ > 0 such that if |x − a| < δ, then |c − c| < ε. Since |c − c| = 0 < ε always holds, we
can choose δ to be any positive number. Then |x − a| < δ ⇒ |c − c| = 0 < ε. This shows that lim c = c.
x→a

16. For any ε > 0, we need to find a δ > 0 such that if |x − a| < δ, then |x − a| < ε. Choose δ = ε. Then |x − a| < δ ⇒
|x − a| < δ = ε, and so lim x = a.
x→a

17. Let ε > 0 be given. We need to find a δ > 0 such that 0 < |x − 1| < δ ⇒ 3x 2 − 3 < ε. Now

3x 2 − 3 = |3 (x + 1) (x − 1)| = 3 |x + 1| |x − 1|. If we agree beforehand to pick δ ≤ 1, then |x − 1| < 1 ⇒ 0 < x < 2.

ε ε
With this restriction on δ, we have 3x 2 − 3 < ε ⇒ 3 |x + 1| |x − 1| < ε ⇒ |x − 1| < < . So pick δ to be the
3 |x + 1| 9
smaller of 1 and 19 ε. Then, if |x − 1| < δ, we have 3x 2 − 3 = 3 |x + 1| |x − 1| < 3 (3) 19 ε = ε. This shows that

lim 3x 2 = 3.
x→1

18. Let ε > 0 be given. We need to find a δ > 0 such that 0 < |x − 2| < δ ⇒ x 2 − 2 − 2 < ε. Now

x 2 − 2 − 2 = x 2 − 4 = |(x − 2) (x + 2)| = |x − 2| |x + 2|. If we agree beforehand to pick δ ≤ 1, then

|x − 2| < 1 ⇒ 1 < x < 3. This implies that 3 < |x + 2| < 5. Therefore, x 2 − 2 − 2 = |x − 2| |x + 2| < ε
ε ε
⇒ |x − 2| < < . So pick δ to be the smaller of 1 and 15 ε. Then if |x − 2| < δ, we have
|x + 2| 5
x 2 − 2 − 2 = |x − 2| |x + 2| < 15 ε · 5 = ε. This shows that lim x 2 − 2 = 2.
x→2

x2 − 4
19. Let ε > 0 be given. We need to find a δ > 0 such that 0 < |x − 2| < δ ⇒ − 4 < ε. Now
x −2

x2 − 4 (x − 2) (x + 2)
−4 = − 4 = |x − 2|. If we pick δ = ε, then whenever 0 < |x − 2| < δ, we have
x −2 x −2

x2 − 4 x2 − 4
− 4 = |x − 2| < ε, and this shows that lim = 4.
x −2 x→2 x − 2

x 2 + 2x
20. Let ε > 0 be given. We need to find a δ > 0 such that 0 < |x| < δ ⇒ − 2 < ε. Now
x

x 2 + 2x
− 2 = |(x + 2) − 2| = |x|. If we pick δ = ε, then whenever 0 < |x| < δ, we have
x

x 2 + 2x x 2 + 2x
− 2 = |x − 2| < ε, and this shows that lim = 2.
x x→0 x
58 Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity

√
21. Let ε > 0 be given. We need to find a δ > 0 such that 0 < |x − 9| < δ ⇒ x − 3 < ε. Now
√ √
√ x −3 x +3 |x − 9|
x −3 = √ =√ . If we agree beforehand to pick δ ≤ 1, then |x − 9| < 1 ⇒ 8 < x < 10, and
x +3 x +3
√ √ √ √ |x − 9| |x − 9| √
this implies that 8 + 3 < x + 3 < 10 + 3. Therefore, x − 3 = √ <√ < ε ⇒ |x − 9| < ε 8+3 .
x +3 8+3
√
√ √ |x − 9| 8+3 ε
So pick δ to be the smaller of 1 and 8 + 3 ε. Then, if |x − 9| < δ, we have x − 3 = √ < √ = ε,
x +3 8+3
√
and this shows that lim x = 3.
x→9

22. Let ε > 0 be given. We need to find a δ > 0 such that 0 < |x| < δ ⇒ x 3 + 1 − 1 < ε. Now

x 3 + 1 − 1 = x 3 = |x|3 < ε ⇒ |x| < ε1/3 . So, if we pick δ = ε1/3 , then whenever |x| < δ, we have
3
x 3 + 1 − 1 = |x|3 < ε1/3 = ε. This shows that lim x 3 + 1 = 1.
x→0
23. Suppose that lim f (x) exists and is equal to L. Then for every ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that 0 < |x − 0| = |x| < δ
x→0
⇒ | f (x) − L| < ε. Pick ε = 1. (We can choose ε because we have assumed that the limit exists.) Now if δ > 0, then for
x = − δ2 < 0, | f (x) − L| = |−1 − L| < 1 ⇒ −2 < L < 0. For x = δ2 > 0, | f (x) − L| = |1 − L| < 1 ⇒ 0 < L < 2.
But L cannot satisfy L < 0 and L > 0 at the same time. Therefore, L does not exist, and lim f (x) does not exist.
x→0
24. Suppose that lim g (x) exists and is equal to L. Then for any ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that 0 < |x − 0| = |x| = δ
x→0
⇒ |g (x) − L| < ε. Pick ε = 1. (We can choose ε because we have assumed that the limit exists.) Now if δ > 0, then for
x = − δ2 < 0, |g (x) − L| = −1 − δ2 − L < 1 ⇒ δ2 + L + 1 < 1 ⇒ −1 < δ2 + L + 1 < 1 ⇒ −2 < δ2 + L < 0

⇒ − 2 + δ2 < L < − δ2 . For x = δ2 > 0, |g (x) − L| = 1 + δ2 − L < 1 ⇒ −1 < 1 + δ2 − L < 1 ⇒

− 2 + δ2 < −L < − δ2 ⇒ δ2 < L < 2 + δ2 . But L cannot satisfy L < − δ2 and L > δ2 at the same time. Therefore, L
does not exist, and lim g (x) does not exist.
x→0
25. Suppose that lim H (x) exists and is equal to L. Then for any ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that 0 < |x − 0| = |x| < δ
x→0
⇒ |H (x) − L| < ε. Pick ε = 12 . (We can choose ε because we have assumed that the limit exists.) Now if δ > 0, then
for x = − δ2 < 0, |H (x) − L| = |0 − L| = |L| < 12 ⇒ − 12 < L < 12 . For x = δ > 0, |H (x) − L| = |1 − L| < 1
2 2
⇒ |L − 1| < 12 ⇒ − 12 < L − 1 < 12 ⇒ 12 < L < 32 . But L cannot satisfy L < 1 and L > 1 at the same time. This
2 2
contradiction shows that L does not exist, and so lim H (x) does not exist.
x→0
26. Suppose that lim f (x) exists and is equal to L. Then for any ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that 0 < |x − 0| = |x| < δ
x→0
⇒ | f (x) − L| < ε. Pick ε = 12 . (We can choose ε because we have assumed that the limit exists.) Now if x is a rational
number satisfying 0 < |x| < δ, then | f (x) − L| = |0 − L| = |L| < 12 or − 12 < L < 12 . On the other hand, if x is
an irrational number satisfying 0 < |x| < δ, then | f (x) − L| = |1 − L| < 12 , or |L − 1| < 12 , which is equivalent to
− 12 < L − 1 < 12 , or 12 < L < 32 . But L cannot satisfy both L < 12 and L > 12 at the same time. This contradiction shows
that L cannot exist, and establishes the required result.
27. If c = 0, the result follows immediately. So assume c = 0, and let ε > 0 be given. Since lim f (x) = L, there exists a
x→a
δ > 0 such that 0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ | f (x) − L| < ε/ |c|. (It will be clear later why we pick ε/ |c| instead of simply ε.)
Then, if 0 < |x − a| < δ, we have |c f (x) − cL| = |c| | f (x) − L| < |c| (ε/ |c|) = ε, and since ε is arbitrary, the result
follows.
 Section 1.4 Continuous Functions 59

28. The inequalities a − δ < x < a are equivalent to 0 < |x − a| < δ with the additional condition that x < a. Similarly,
a < x < a + δ is equivalent to 0 < |x − a| < δ with the additional condition that x > a, and these are precisely the
conditions needed for the definition of the left- and right-hand limits.
y y
y=f(x) y=f(x)

L+·

L L
L-·

( ) ( )
0 a-¶ a x 0 a a+¶ x

4
29. Let ε > 0 be given. We have to find a δ > 0 such that 2 − δ < x < 2 ⇒ 4 − x 2 − 0 < ε.
4 4 √ √ √
Now 4 − x 2 − 0 = 4 − x 2 = 4 (2 − x) (2 + x) = 4 x − 2 4 x + 2. If we agree beforehand to
pick δ ≤ 1, then 0 < |x − 2| < 1 ⇒ 1 < x < 3. So 3 < x + 2 < 5 and |x + 2| < 5. Therefore,
4 √ √
4 − x 2 = 4 x − 2 4 x + 2 < 51/4 |x − 2|1/4 < ε ⇒ |x − 2| < 15 ε4 . So pick δ to be the smaller of 1 and 15 ε4 . Then
4 √ √ 1/4 4
2−δ < x <2⇒ 4 − x2 = 4
x − 2 4 x + 2 < 15 ε4 51/4 = ε and this shows that lim 4 − x 2 = 0.
x→2−
√
30. Let ε > 0 be given. We have to find a δ > 0 such that 2 < x < 2 + δ ⇒ x − 2 − 0 < ε. Now
√ √
x − 2 − 0 = x − 2 < ε ⇒ x − 2 < ε2 . So if we pick δ = ε2 , then 2 < x < 2 + δ ⇒
√ √ √ √
x − 2 − 0 = x − 2 < ε2 = ε, and this shows that lim x − 2 = 0.
x→2+
⎧
⎨ −1 if x < 0
31. False. Consider the function f (x) = Take ε = 3 and L = 0. Then for all δ > 0, 0 < |x − 0| = |x| < δ
⎩ 1 if x ≥ 0

⇒ | f (x) − L| = | f (x) − 0| = | f (x)| < 3 and, of course, lim f (x) = 0. In fact, lim f (x) does not exist.
x→0 x→0

32. True. If lim f (x) = L, then given any ε > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that 0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ | f (x) − L| < ε. Take
x→a
ε = 0.01.

33. True. This is the definition of lim f (x) = L.

x→a
⎧
⎨ −1 if x < 0
34. False. Take f (x) = with L = 0 and ε = 3. Then whenever 0 < |x − 0| < δ for any δ, we have
⎩ 1 if x ≥ 0
| f (x) − L| = | f (x) − 0| = | f (x)| < 3 and lim f (x) does not exist.
x→0

1.4 Concept Questions

1. a. If f is continuous at a, then lim f (x) = f (a). For example, f (x) = x + 1 is continuous at 0 since
x→a
lim f (x) = f (0) = 1.
x→0
√
b. If f is continuous from the right at a, then lim f (x) = f (a). For example, f (x) = x + 1 − 2 is continuous from
x→a +
the right at −1, since lim f (x) = f (−1) = −2.
x→−1+
60 Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity

√
c. If f is continuous from the left at a, then lim f (x) = f (a). For example, f (x) = 1 − x is continuous from the left
x→a −
at 1, since lim f (x) = f (1) = 0.
x→1−
2. a. f is continuous on an open interval (a, b) if it is continuous at every number in the interval. For example, f (x) = tan x
is continuous on − π π
2, 2 .
b. f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] if it is continuous on (a, b) and is also continuous from the right at a and
continuous from the left at b. For example, f (x) = 4 − x 2 is continuous on [−2, 2].
3. a. f is continuous. At any time t = t0 , we can determine the altitude of the airplane, and lim f (t) = f (t0 ).
t→t0
b. f is continuous. At any time t = t0 , we can determine the amount of rainfall over the past 24 hours at the Municipal
Airport and lim f (t) = f (t0 ).
t→t0
c. f is discontinuous. The number f (t) is constant (say $5.00) from the time the cinema opens until the evening (say
5 P. M .) when it jumps from the matinee price to the evening price (say $8.00).
d. f is continuous. At any time t = t0 , we can determine the speed of the pebble as it falls into the pool and
lim f (t) = f (t0 ).
t→t0
4. a. f has a removable discontinuity at a if lim f (x) = lim f (x) and f can be made continuous at a by defining or
x→a − x→a +
redefining f (a).
b. If f is continuous from the left at a and from the right at a, then lim f (x) = f (a) and lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a − x→a +
Therefore, lim f (x) = f (a) and so f is continuous at a.
x→a

1.4 Continuous Functions

1. f is continuous everywhere.
2. f is discontinuous at −1.
3. f is discontinuous at ±1.
4. f is discontinuous at 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..
5. f is discontinuous at 0.
6. f is continuous everywhere. Note that the graph of f is squeezed between the graphs of g (x) = −x and h (x) = x. Since
lim g (x) = lim h (x) = 0, it follows that lim f (x) = 0 by the Squeeze Theorem.
x→0 x→0 x→0
7. None. Since f is a polynomial, it is continuous everywhere.
8. None. Observe that x 2 + 1 = 0 for any value of x. Since f is a rational function that is defined on (−∞, ∞), f is
continuous everywhere.
9. The denominator of the function f is equal to 0 when x − 2 = 0, or x = 2. So f is discontinuous at 2.
10. The denominator of the function f is equal to 0 when x 2 − 1 = 0, or x = ±1. So f is discontinuous at ±1.
11. The denominator of the function f is equal to 0 when x 2 − 4 = 0, or x = ±2. So f is discontinuous at ±2.
12. The denominator of the function f is equal to 0 when (x − 3) (x + 1) = 0, that is, when x = 3 or x = −1. So f is
discontinuous at 3 and −1.
13. The denominator of the function f is equal to 0 when x (x − 2) = 0, that is, when x = 0 or x = 2. So f is discontinuous at
0 and 2.
14. None. f (x) = x 3 − 2x + 1 is the composition g ◦ h of g (x) = |x| and h (x) = x 3 − 2x + 1. Since each of these
functions is continuous, f is continuous on (−∞, ∞).
 Section 1.4 Continuous Functions 61

15. The denominator of the function f is equal to 0 when x (x + 2) = 0, that is, when x = 0 or x = −2. So f is discontinuous
at 0 and −2.
x +1
16. The denominator of the quotient is equal to 0 when x + 1 = 0, or x = −1, so f is discontinuous at −1.
|x + 1|
17. f is discontinuous at 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..
18. f is discontinuous at 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..
19. Since lim (2x − 1) = −1 = f (0) and lim 1 = 1, f is discontinuous at 0.
x→0− x→0+
20. None. Since lim (x + 2) = 5 and lim (−2x + 11) = 5 = f (3), f is continuous at 3. So f is continuous on (−∞, ∞).
x→3− x→3+
x2 − 1 (x + 1) (x − 1)
21. Since lim = lim = lim (x − 1) = −2 and f (−1) = 1, f is discontinuous at −1.
x→−1 x + 1 x→−1 x +1 x→−1
x2 + x − 6 (x + 3) (x − 2)
22. None. Since lim = lim = lim (x + 3) = 5 and f (2) = 5, f is continuous at 2. So f is
x→2 x −2 x→2 x −2 x→2
continuous on (−∞, ∞).
23. f is discontinuous at 0 because lim 1/x 2 does not exist.
x→0
24. Since lim (− |x| + 1) = 1 and f (0) = 0, f is discontinuous at 0.
x→0
(2n + 1) π
25. f is discontinuous at ± π 3π 5π
4 , ± 4 , ± 4 , . . .. Note that sec x is discontinuous at for integers n, so f (x) = sec 2x
2
(2n + 1) π
has discontinuities at x = .
4
26. f is discontinuous at 0, ±1, ±2, . . .. Note that cot x is discontinuous at nπ for integers n, so f (x) = cot πx has
discontinuities at n.
27. We require that f (1) = 1 + 2 = 3 = lim kx 2 = k, or k = 3.
x→1+
x2 − 4 (x − 2) (x + 2)
28. Since lim = lim = lim (x − 2) = −4, we define f (−2) = k = −4, that is, take k = −4.
x→−2 x + 2 x→−2 x +2 x→−2
29. We require that f (1) = 4 = lim (ax + b) = lim (2ax − b), or a + b = 4 and 2a − b = 4. Solving the last two
x→1− x→1+
equations simultaneously, we obtain a = 3 and b = 43 .
8

30. We require that lim (kx + 1) = lim kx 2 − 3 , or 2k + 1 = 4k − 3. Solving this last equation, we obtain k = 2.
x→2− x→2+
sin 2x sin 2x
31. Since lim = lim 2 · = 2, we require that f (0) = 2. So we take c = 2.
x→0 x x→0 2x
x cos kx 1 kx 1
32. Since lim (x cot kx) = lim · = lim · · lim (cos kx) = , we define f (0) = 1/k.
x→0 − x→0 − sin kx 1 x→0 − k sin kx x→0 − k
Then 0 + c = 1/k, or c = 1/k.
√
33. Yes. The function g (x) = 16 − x 2 is continuous everywhere, and the function h (x) = x is continuous whenever x ≥ 0.
Therefore f (x) = (h ◦ g) (x) = 16 − x 2 is continuous on [−4, 4].
34. Yes, because f (x) = x is continuous on (−∞, ∞) and h (x) = 4 − x 2 is continuous on [−2, 2], so g = f + h is
continuous on [−2, 2] and, therefore, on [−2, 1]. (See Exercise 33.)
35. No, because f is not continuous at 0.
36. Yes, because h is a rational function that is defined for all numbers in [−2, 2].
37. (−∞, ∞), because f is a polynomial function.
√
38. [0, ∞), because g (x) = x is continuous for x ≥ 0, and h (x) = (x − 5)4 is continuous on (−∞, ∞), and therefore
f = gh is continuous on [0, ∞).
39. Since x 2 + x + 1 is never negative, f is continuous on (−∞, ∞).
62 Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity

√
40. x is defined for x ≥ 0, and so h is continuous on (0, ∞). Note that we have to exclude 0 because it is not in the domain of
h.
41. 9 − x 2 ≥ 0 on [−3, 3], and so f is continuous on [−3, 3].
42. x 2 − 4 ≥ 0 on (−∞, −2] ∪ [2, ∞), and this is the set on which f is continuous.
43. 9 − x 2 ≥ 0 on [−3, 3]. Also, x = 0, −3, or 3. So f is continuous on (−3, 0) ∪ (0, 3).
√
44. x is continuous if x ≥ 0. Furthermore, x = 0 or 2. Therefore, f is continuous on (0, 2) ∪ (2, ∞).
45. f is the composition of two continuous functions, g (x) = sin x and h (x) = x 2 , and so it is continuous on (−∞, ∞).
46. f is a quotient of two continuous functions, but 0 is not in its domain, and so f is continuous on (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).
47. sin x is continuous everywhere, but csc x is discontinuous at nπ (n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .). Therefore, f is continuous on the
intervals (nπ, (n + 1) π), where n is any integer.
48. cos x is continuous everywhere, and 5 + 2 sin x > 0 for all x. So f is continuous on (−∞, ∞).
x2 + x − 6 (x + 3) (x − 2)
49. The absolute value function is continuous, so lim = lim = lim (x + 3) = |5| = 5.
x→2 x −2 x→2 x −2 x→2

50. The absolute value function is continuous, so

x2 − x − 2 (x + 1) (x − 2)
lim = lim = lim (x − 2) = |−3| = 3.
x→−1 x +1 x→−1 x +1 x→−1

3x 3 − 2x x 3x 2 − 2 3x 2 − 2 2
51. lim = lim = lim = − . So f will be continuous at 0 if we define
x→0 5x x→0 5x x→0 5 5
⎧ 3
⎨ 3x − 2x if x = 0
⎪
f (x) = 5x
⎩ −2
⎪
if x = 0
5

2x 3 + x − 3 (x − 1) 2x 2 + 2x + 3
52. lim = lim = lim 2x 2 + 2x + 3 = 7. So f will be continuous at 1 if we define
x→1 x −1 x→1 x −1 x→1
⎧
3
⎪ 2x + x − 3
⎨ if x = 1
f (x) = x −1
⎪
⎩7 if x = 1
√ √ √
x +1−1 x +1−1 x +1+1 x +1−1 1 1
53. lim = lim ·√ = lim √ = lim √ = . So f will be
x→0 x x→0 x x +1+1 x→0 x x +1+1 x→0 x + 1 + 1 2
⎧ √
⎨ x + 1 − 1 if x = 0
⎪
continuous at 0 if we define f (x) = x
⎩ 1
⎪
if x = 0
2
⎧
4−x
√
2− x 2+ x
√
√ ⎨ 4 −√x if x = 4
⎪
54. lim √ = lim √ = lim 2 + x = 4. So we define f (x) = 2− x
x→4 2 − x x→4 2− x x→4 ⎪
⎩4 if x = 4
⎧
tan x sin x 1 sin x 1 ⎨ tan x if x = 0
55. lim = lim · = lim · lim = 1. So we define f (x) = x
x→0 x x→0 x cos x x→0 x x→0 cos x ⎩1 if x = 0

sin2 x 1 − cos2 x (1 + cos x) (1 − cos x)

56. lim = lim = lim = lim (1 + cos x) = 2. So we define
x→0 1 − cos x x→0 1 − cos x x→0 1 − cos x x→0
⎧
⎪ sin x2
⎨ if x = 0
f (x) = 1 − cos x
⎪
⎩2 if x = 0
 Section 1.4 Continuous Functions 63
⎧
⎪
⎨ 0 if x < 0
⎪
2
57. ( f ◦ g) (x) = f (g (x)) = g (x) 1 − g (x) = 0 if x = 0 That is, f (x) = 0 for all x, and f ◦ g is continuous
⎪
⎪
⎩ 0 if x > 0

on (−∞, ∞). This result does not contradict Theorem 5, because the hypotheses of the theorem call for both f and g to be
continuous. However, this exercise shows that the composition of a continuous function and a discontinuous function can
result in a continuous function.
⎧
⎪
⎨ −1 if f (x) < 0
⎪
58. (g ◦ f ) (x) = g ( f (x)) = 0 if f (x) = 0
⎪
⎪
⎩ 1 if f (x) > 0
+++ 0 _ _ 0 ++ 0 _ _ _
_1 0 1 x
Now f (x) = x 1 − x 2 = x (1 − x) (1 + x). The sign of f is given in
y
the first figure at right.
Using this diagram, we find
1
⎧
⎪
⎨ −1 if x ∈ (−1, 0) ∪ (1, ∞)
⎪
(g ◦ f ) (x) = 0 if x = −1, 0, or 1 _1 0 1 x
⎪
⎪
⎩ 1 if x ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (0, 1)
_1
The graph of g ◦ f is shown at right. It is continuous on (−∞, −1),
(−1, 0), (0, 1), and (1, ∞).

59. f (x) = x 2 − x + 1 is continuous on [−1, 4]. f (−1) = 3 and f (4) = 13. Since f (−1) < 7 < f (4), there exists at least
one c in [−1, 4] such that f (c) = 7. To find c we solve x 2 − x + 1 = 7 ⇒ x 2 − x − 6 = (x − 3) (x + 2) = 0 ⇒ x = −2
or 3. Since −2 does not lie in [−1, 4], we see that c = 3.
60. f (x) = x 2 − 4x + 6 is continuous on [0, 3]. f (0) = 6 and f (3) = 3. Since f (3) ≤ 3 ≤ f (0), there exists a number c in
[0, 3] such that f (c) = 3. To find c we solve x 2 − 4x + 6 = 3 ⇒ x 2 − 4x + 3 = (x − 3) (x − 1) = 0 giving x = 1 or 3.
Therefore c = 1 or 3.
61. f (x) = x 3 − 2x 2 + x − 2 is continuous on [0, 4]. f (0) = −2 and f (4) = 34. Since f (0) < 10 < f (4),
there exists a number c in [0, 4] such that f (c) = 10. To find c we solve x 3 − 2x 2 + x − 2 = 10 ⇒
x 3 − 2x 2 + x − 12 = (x − 3) x 2 + x + 4 = 0 ⇒ x = 3. So c = 3.
x −1
62. f (x) = is continuous on [−4, −2]. f (−4) = 53 and f (−2) = 3. Since f (−4) < 2 < f (−2), there exists a
x +1
x −1
number c in [−4, −2] such that f (c) = 2. To find c we solve = 2 ⇒ x − 1 = 2 (x + 1) ⇒ x − 1 = 2x + 2 ⇒
x +1
x = −3. So c = −3.
63. f (x) = x 3 − 2x − 1 is continuous on [0, 2]. f (0) = −1 < 0 and f (2) = 3 > 0. Therefore, by Theorem 7, f (x) = 0 has
at least one root in (0, 2).
64. f (x) = x 4 − 2x 3 − 3x 2 + 7 is continuous on [1, 2]. f (1) = 3 > 0 and f (2) = −5 < 0. Therefore, by
Theorem 7, f (x) = 0 has at least one root in (1, 2).
65. f (x) = x 5 + 2x − 7 is continuous on [1, 2]. f (1) = −4 < 0 and f (2) = 29 > 0. Therefore, by Theorem 7, f (x) = 0
has at least one root in (1, 2).
√ √
66. f (x) = x 4 − 2x 3 − x − 1 is continuous on [2, 3]. f (2) = −1 < 0 and f (3) = 27 − 2 > 0. Therefore, by
Theorem 7, f (x) = 0 has at least one root in (2, 3).
67. f (x) = x 2 is continuous everywhere and 0 = f (0) < 2 < f (2) = 4. Therefore, by Theorem 7, there is at least one c in
(0, 2) such that f (c) = 2.
64 Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity

68. a. f (x) = x 5 − 3x 2 + 2x + 5 is continuous 69. a. f (x) = 12 x 2 − cos πx + 1 is continuous

everywhere and 5 = f (0) < 12 < f (2) = 29. √
everywhere and 0 = f (0) < 2 < f (1) = 52 .
Therefore, by Theorem 7, there is at least one c in
Therefore, by Theorem 7, there is at least one c in
(0, 2) such that f (c) = 12. √
(0, 1) such that f (c) = 2.
b. 30 b.

20 2

10 1

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
The point of intersection of the graphs is
The point of intersection of the graphs is
approximately (1.63735, 12), and so
√
c ≈ 1.63735. approximately 0.57926, 2 , and so
c ≈ 0.57926.

70. a. lim f (x) = lim −x 2 = 0 and y

x→0− x→0−
2
lim f (x) = lim (x + 1) = 1. This shows that f is not y=f(x)
x→0+ x→0+ 1
continuous at 0, and therefore is not continuous on [−1, 1].
_1 0 1 x
b. f (−1) = −1 and f (1) = 2. The number 12 lies between f (−1) and
_1
f (1), but there is no c in [−1, 1] such that f (c) = 12 . (See the
_2
figure.)

71. For −2 ≤ x < 0, f (x) = −x + 2. Setting f (x) = 0 gives −x + 2 = 0 or x = 2, which lies outside [−2, 0). So f has no
zero in [−2, 0). For 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, f (x) = − x 2 + 2 . Setting f (x) = 0 gives − x 2 + 2 = 0, which has no real solution.
Therefore, f has no zero in [0, 2]. We conclude that f has no zero in [−2, 2].

72. If f (x) = x 3 − x + 1, then f (−2) = −5 and f (−1) = 1, so there is a root of the equation f (x) = 0 in (−2, −1). We
construct a table.

Sign of Sign of ai + bi Sign of

Step ai bi 1 (a + b ) |bi − ai |
f (ai ) f (bi ) 2 f 2 1 i

1 −2 −1 − + −1.5 − 1 > 0.01

2 −1.5 −1 − + −1.25 + 0.5 > 0.01
3 −1.5 −1.25 − + −1.375 − 0.25 > 0.01
4 −1.375 −1.25 − + −1.3125 + 0.125 > 0.01
5 −1.375 −1.3125 − + −1.34375 − 0.0625 > 0.01
6 −1.34375 −1.3125 − + −1.328125 − 0.03125 > 0.01
7 −1.328125 −1.3125 − + −1.3203125 + 0.015625 > 0.01
8 −1.328125 −1.3203125 − + −1.32421875 0.0078125 < 0.01
So x ≈ −1.32.
 Section 1.4 Continuous Functions 65

73. If f (x) = x 5 + 2x − 7, then (1) = −4 and f (2) = 29, so there is a root of the equation f (x) = 0 in (1, 2). We construct a
table.

Sign of Sign of ai + bi Sign of

Step ai bi 1 (a + b ) |bi − ai |
f (ai ) f (bi ) 2 f 2 1 i
1 1 2 − + 1.5 + 1 > 0.01
2 1 1.5 − + 1.25 − 0.5 > 0.01
3 1.25 1.5 − + 1.375 + 0.25 > 0.01
4 1.25 1.375 − + 1.3125 − 0.125 > 0.01
5 1.3125 1.375 − + 1.34375 + 0.0625 > 0.01
6 1.3125 1.34375 − + 1.328125 − 0.03125 > 0.01
7 1.328125 1.34375 − + 1.3359375 − 0.015625 > 0.01
8 1.3359375 1.34375 − + 1.33984375 0.0077125 < 0.01
So we take x ≈ 1.34 as an approximate root of x 5 + 2x − 7 = 0.

74. The discontinuities at T1 and T2 reflect the jump in the amount of total deposits with the company as the result of its
acquisition of the ailing financial institutions.

75. vA (m/s) vB (m/s)

v v

0 tÁ t (s) 0 tÁ t (s)

76. x For 0 ≤ t < t0 , the object stays at the origin. For t ≥ t0 , the object moves
along the x-axis.
x=f(t)

0 tü t

77. a. h (0) = 4 + 64 (0) − 16 (0)2 = 4 ft and h (2) = 4 + 64 (2) − 16 (2)2 = 68 ft.

b. The function h is continuous on [0, 2]. Since 4 = h (0) < 32 < h (2) = 48, Theorem 7 implies that there is at least one c
in [0, 2] such that f (c) = 32 ft. This shows that at some time(s) between t = 0 and t = 2, the ball will cross Joan’s line
of sight.
c. 32 = 4 + 64t − 16t 2 ⇒ 16t 2 − 64t + 28 = 0 ⇒ 4 (2t − 7) (2t − 1) = 0 ⇒ t = 72 s or t = 12 s. Joan sees the ball on its
way up, half a second after it was thrown, and again on its way down, 3 12 seconds after it was thrown.

78. Since f is a polynomial function, it is continuous everywhere and, in particular, on the interval [0, 3]. Note that
2 = f (0) < 5 < f (3) = 7.3787, so by the Intermediate Value Theorem, there is at least time t0 in (0, 3) such that
f (t0 ) = 5.
66 Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity

79. f is continuous on 0, L/2) and (L/2, L because it is a polynomial function.

W0 W0 3 W0 L 3
lim f (x) = lim 3L 2 x − 4x 3 = 3L 2 12 L − 4 12 L =
x→(L/2)− x→(L/2)− 48E I 48E I 48E I
W0 3 2 W L3
and lim f (x) = lim 4 12 L − 12L 12 L + 9L 2 12 L − L 3 = 0 , so
x→(L/2)+ x→(L/2)+ 48E I 48E I
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f (L/2) ⇒ f is continuous at x = L/2 and f is continuous on
x→(L/2)− x→(L/2)+ x→L/2
[0, L].

80. a. The force exerted on a particle inside the shell is given by b. F(r)
lim F (r) = lim 0 = 0. The force exerted on a particle outside GMm
r→R − r→R −
R@
G Mm G Mm
the shell is given by lim F (r) = lim = . Since
r→R + r→R + r2 R2
the one-sided limits are not equal, F is not a continuous function of r. 0 R r

81. Let r (t) denote the distance of the couple from their house on their way to their mountain cabin, where t is measured in
hours and t = 0 corresponds to 6 P. M ., and let s (t) denote the distance from their house on their return trip. If d denotes the
distance between house and cabin, then we have r (0) = 0, r (2) = d, s (0) = d, and s (2) = 0. Now consider the function
f = r − s. Since r and s are continuous, so is f . Furthermore, f (0) = (r − s) (0) = r (0) − s (0) = 0 − d = −d < 0 and
f (2) = (r − s) (2) = r (2) − s (2) = d − 0 = d > 0. So by the Intermediate Value Theorem, there exists some time t0
between 0 and 2 such that f (t0 ) = r (t0 ) − s (t0 ) = 0 ⇒ r (t0 ) = s (t0 ). So at some time t0 between 6 P. M . and 8 P. M ., the
couple will be at the same location on both days.

82. a. Suppose, on the contrary, that f + g is continuous at a. Then g = ( f + g) − f will be continuous at a, since f is
continuous at a, and the difference of two continuous functions is a continuous function. But, by assumption, g is
discontinuous at a. This contradiction shows that f + g must, in fact, be discontinuous.
⎧ ⎧
⎨ −1 if x < 0 ⎨ 1 if x < 0
b. No. Let f (x) = and g (x) = Then both f and g are discontinuous at 0, but
⎩ 1 if x ≥ 0 ⎩ −1 if x ≥ 0

( f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x) = 0 is continuous at 0.

⎧
⎨ −1 if x < 0
83. a. No. Let f (x) = 0 for all x in (−∞, ∞), and let g (x) = Then f is continuous at 0 and g is
⎩ 1 if x ≥ 0

discontinuous at 0. But ( f g) (x) = f (x) g (x) = 0 and the function f g is continuous everywhere.
⎧ ⎧
⎨ 0 if x < 0 ⎨ 1 if x < 0
b. No. Let f (x) = and g (x) = Then both f and g are discontinuous at 0, but f g = 0 is
⎩ 1 if x ≥ 0 ⎩ 0 if x ≥ 0

continuous everywhere.

84. Let a be any real number and consider any open interval I containing a. Now there are infinitely many rational numbers as
well as irrational numbers in I . At a rational number x in I , f (x) = 0, and at an irrational number x in I , f (x) = 1. Since
this is true for any open interval I containing a, we see that no matter how small the interval is, there are values of f that are
equal to 0 and other values that are equal to 1. This shows that lim f (x) cannot exist, and so f cannot be continuous at a.
x→a
 Section 1.4 Continuous Functions 67

a2n a0
85. Let f (x) = a2n+1 + a2n x 2n + · · · + a1 x + a0 = a2n+1 x 2n+1 1 + +··· + , where a2n+1 = 0
a2n+1 x a2n+1 x 2n+1
and x = 0. Without loss of generality, let us assume that a2n+1 > 0. Observe that f is continuous, f (x) < 0 if x is
negative and sufficiently large in absolute value, and f (x) > 0 if x is positive and sufficiently large in absolute value.
Therefore, we can find numbers a and b with a < b such that f (a) < 0 and f (b) > 0. Using the Intermediate Value
Theorem, we conclude that there exists at least one number c in (a, b) such that f (c) = 0. Thus, the given equation has at
least one real root.
86. If the function changes sign on a certain interval, then the Intermediate Value Theorem implies that f has at least another
zero, and this contradicts the given condition on f .
87. Since g is continuous on [a, b], the function f (x) = x − g (x) is also continuous on [a, b]. Note that f (a) = a − g (a) < 0
and f (b) = b − g (b) > 0. Therefore, by the Intermediate Value Theorem, there is at least one c in (a, b) such that
f (c) = 0, that is, c − g (c) = 0, or g (c) = c, and c is a solution of x = g (x). The result tells us that, under the stated
conditions, the function g has a fixed point, that is, a number that is mapped by g onto itself.
88. f is not defined at 0, and so f is discontinuous there.
10
x +1
lim f (x) = lim √ = ∞ and lim f (x) = 2 and so f is
x→1− x→1− x 1−x x→1+

0 discontinuous at 1. Note that f is continuous from the right at 1. So f is

continuous on (−∞, 0), (0, 1), and [1, ∞).

-10
-2 0 2
⎧
|sin x| ⎨ 1 if sin x > 0
89. f (x) = =
1 sin x ⎩ −1 if sin x < 0

So f is continuous at all numbers except nπ, n an integer.

0

-1
-10 0 10

90. f is continuous everywhere because it is a polynomial function. Since f (0) = −1 < 0 and f (1) = 13 + 1 − 1 = 1 > 0,
the Intermediate Value Theorem implies that there is at least one number c in (0, 1) such that f (c) = 0. The number c is a
zero of f .
91. Because f (x) = sin x − x + 2 is continuous everywhere, f (0) = 2 > 0, and f 3π ≈ −3.7 < 0, the Intermediate Value
2

Theorem implies that there is at least one root in 0, 32π .

92. In Exercise 97 in Section 1.2, we proved that lim sin x = sin a, and sin x = sin a at a. So f (x) = sin x is continuous at a.
x→a
Since a is an arbitrary real number, f (x) = sin x is continuous everywhere.
93. Since lim cos x = cos a and cos x = cos a at a, cos x is continuous everywhere.
x→a
94. Since f is continuous at a, lim f (x) = f (a). Similarly, g is continuous at a, so lim g (x) = g (a). Now
x→a x→a
lim f (x) − g (x) = lim f (x) − lim g (x) = f (a) − g (a). Therefore, f − g is continuous at a.
x→a x→a x→a
95. Since f and g are both continuous at a, we have lim f (x) = f (a) and lim g (x) = g (a). Therefore,
x→a x→a
f (x) lim f (x) f (a)
x→a
lim = = provided g (a) = 0, and this shows that f /g is continuous at a.
x→a g (x) lim g (x) g (a)
x→a
 68 Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity
⎧
⎨ −1 if x < 0
96. False. Let f (x) = Then | f (x)| = 1 is continuous everywhere, including at 0. But f is discontinuous at 0.
⎩ 1 if x ≥ 0

2
97. False. Let f (x) = 1/x. Then f is discontinuous at 0, and so is f 2 (x) = f (x) = 1/x 2 .
⎧
⎨ −1 if −1 ≤ x < 0
98. False. Let f (x) = Then f is defined on [−1, 1], f (−1) < 0, and f (1) > 0, but f has no zeros in
⎩ 1 if 0 ≤ x < 1

(−1, 1).
99. True. Write g = ( f + g) − f . Since f + g and f are both continuous, and the difference of two continuous functions is
itself continuous, the result follows.
100. True. The interval (2, 4) is contained in the interval (1, 5). Since f is continuous on (1, 5), it is continuous at each point in
(1, 5), including the entire interval (2, 4).

1.5 Concept Questions

y − y1 f (2 + h) − f (2) f (2 + h) − f (2)
1. a. m sec = 2 = =
x2 − x1 (2 + h) − 2 h
f (2 + h) − f (2)
b. m tan = lim
h→0 h
f (2 + h) − f (2) f (2 + h) − f (2)
2. a. rav = =
(2 + h) − 2 h
f (2 + h) − f (2)
b. rinst = lim
h→0 h
c. They are the same.

1.5 Tangent Lines and Rates of Change

1. The rate of change of the average speed of traffic flow when the number of vehicles moved per day is 100,000 is
−7.5
= −0.15 mi/h per thousand cars. The rate of change of the average speed of traffic flow when the number of vehicles
50
−15
moved per day is 200,000 is = −0.3 mi/h per thousand cars.
50
2. The rate at which the wood grown is changing at the beginning of the 10th year is 124 = 1 cubic meters per hectare per year.
3
At the beginning of the 30th year, it is 10
8 = 1.25 cubic meters per hectare per year.

3. The rate of change of the percentage of households watching television at 4 P. M . is 12.3

4 ≈ 3.08 percent per hour. The rate
−42.3
at 11 P. M . is 2 = −21.15; that is, it is dropping off at the rate of 21.15 percent per hour.

4. The rate of change of the crop yield when the density is 200 aphids per bean stem is − 500 5
300 = − 3 , a decrease of
approximately 1.7 kg per 4000 m2 per aphid per bean stem. The rate of change when the density is 800 aphids per bean
stem is − 150 1 2
300 = − 2 , a decrease of 0.5 kg per 4000 m per aphid per bean stem.
5. a. At t1 , the velocity of Car A is greater than that of Car B because f (t1 ) > g (t1 ), but Car B has greater acceleration
because the slope of the tangent line to the graph of g is increasing, whereas the slope of the tangent line to f is
decreasing as you move across t1 .
 Section 1.5 Tangent Lines and Rates of Change 69

b. Both cars have the same velocity at t2 , but the acceleration of Car B is greater than that of Car A because the slope of the
tangent line to the graph of g is increasing, whereas the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f is decreasing as you
move across t2 .
6. a. P2 is decreasing faster at t1 because the slope of the tangent line to the graph of g at t1 is greater in absolute value than
the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at t1 .
b. P1 is decreasing faster than P2 at t2 .
c. Bactericide B is more effective in the short term, but bactericide A is more effective in the long run.
f (1 + h) − f (1) 5−5 0
7. a. m sec = = = =0
(1 + h) − 1 1+h−1 h
f (1 + h) − f (1)
b. m tan = lim = lim 0 = 0
h→0 (1 + h) − 1 h→0
c. y − 5 = 0 (x − 1) ⇒ y = 5
f (1 + h) − f (1) [2 (1 + h) + 3] − [2 (1) + 3] 2h
8. a. m sec = = = =2
(1 + h) − 1 h h
f (1 + h) − f (1)
b. m tan = lim = lim 2 = 2
h→0 (1 + h) − 1 h→0
c. y − 5 = 2 (x − 1) ⇒ y = 2x + 3

f (2 + h) − f (2) 2 (2 + h)2 − 1 − 2 (2)2 − 1 8h + 2h 2

9. a. m sec = = = = 2h + 8
(2 + h) − 2 (2 + h) − 2 h
f (2 + h) − f (2)
b. m tan = lim = lim (2h + 8) = 8
h→0 (2 + h) − 2 h→0
c. y − 7 = 8 (x − 2) ⇒ y = 8x − 9

f (2 + h) − f (2) (2 + h)2 − (2 + h) − 22 − 2 h 2 + 3h
10. a. m sec = = = =3+h
(2 + h) − 2 h h
f (2 + h) − f (2)
b. m tan = lim = lim (3 + h) = 3
h→0 (2 + h) − 2 h→0
c. y − 2 = 3 (x − 2) ⇒ y = 3x − 4

f (2 + h) − f (2) (2 + h)3 − 23 8 + 12h + 6h 2 + h 3 − 8 h h 2 + 6h + 12

11. a. m sec = = = = = h 2 + 6h + 12
(2 + h) − 2 h h h
f (2 + h) − f (2)
b. m tan = lim = lim h 2 + 6h + 12 = 12
h→0 (2 + h) − 2 h→0
c. y − 8 = 12 (x − 2) ⇒ y = 12x − 16

f (2 + h) − f (2) (2 + h)3 + (2 + h) − 23 + 2 h 3 + 6h 2 + 13h

12. a. m sec = = = = h 2 + 6h + 13
(2 + h) − 2 h h
f (2 + h) − f (2)
b. m tan = lim = lim h 2 + 6h + 13 = 13
h→0 (2 + h) − 2 h→0
c. y − 10 = 13 (x − 2) ⇒ y = 13x − 16
1 1
−
f (1 + h) − f (1) 1 + h 1 = 1 − (1 + h) = −h 1
13. a. m sec = = =−
(1 + h) − 1 h h (1 + h) h (1 + h) 1+h
f (1 + h) − f (1) 1
b. m tan = lim = lim − = −1
h→0 (1 + h) − 1 h→0 1+h
c. y − 1 = −1 (x − 1) ⇒ y = −x + 2
70 Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity

1 1
−
f (1 + h) − f (1) (1 + h) + 1 1 + 1 2 − (2 + h) −h 1
14. a. m sec = = = = =−
(1 + h) − 1 (1 + h) − 1 2h (2 + h) 2h (2 + h) 2 (2 + h)
f (1 + h) − f (1) 1 1
b. m tan = lim = lim − =−
h→0 (1 + h) − 1 h→0 2 (2 + h) 4
c. y − 12 = − 14 (x − 1) ⇒ y = − 14 x + 34

f (1 + h) − f (1) 2 (1 + h)2 + 1 − 2 (1)2 + 1 2 + 4h + 2h 2 + 1 − 3

15. lim = lim = lim
h→0 (1 + h) − 1 h→0 h h→0 h
h (4 + 2h)
= lim =4
h→0 h

g (−1 + h) − g (−1) (−1 + h)2 − (−1 + h) + 2 − (−1)2 − (−1) + 2

16. lim = lim
h→0 (−1 + h) − (−1) h→0 h
h 2 − 2h + 1 − h + 1 + 2 − 4 h (h − 3)
= lim = lim = −3
h→0 h h→0 h

H (2 + h) − H (2) (2 + h)3 + (2 + h) − 23 + 2 8 + 12h + 6h 2 + h 3 + 2 + h − 10

17. lim = lim = lim
h→0 (2 + h) − 2 h→0 h h→0 h
h h 2 + 6h + 13
= lim = 13
h→0 h
√ √ √ √
f (4 + h) − f (4) 4+h− 4 4+h−2 4+h+2 h 1
18. lim = lim = lim √ = lim √ =
h→0 (4 + h) − 4 h→0 h h→0 h 4+h+2 h→0 h 4+h+2 4

2 2 2
+ (1 + h) − +1 +h−2
f (1 + h) − f (1) 1+h 1 1 + h
19. lim = lim = lim
h→0 (1 + h) − 1 h→0 h h→0 h
2 + h + h 2 − 2 − 2h h (h − 1)
= lim = lim = −1
h→0 h (1 + h) h→0 h (1 + h)

1 1 1
f (1 + h) − f (1)
− +1 1+h−1
(1 + h) − 2 1 − 2
20. lim = lim = lim h − 1 = lim = −1
h→0 (1 + h) − 1 h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h (h − 1)

9 −1 5
21. a. [2, 3]: f (2) = 14 (2)2 = 1 and f (3) = 14 (3)2 = 94 , so v av = 4 = = 1.25 ft/s.
3−2 4
1.5625 − 1
[2, 2.5]: f (2) = 1 and f (2.5) = 14 (2.5)2 = 1.5625, so v av = = 1.125 ft/s.
2.5 − 2
1.1025 − 1
[2, 2.1]: f (2) = 1 and f (2.1) = 14 (2.1)2 = 1.1025, so v av = = 1.025 ft/s.
2.1 − 2
1.010025 − 1
[2, 2.01]: f (2) = 1 and f (2.01) = 14 (2.01)2 = 1.010025, so v av = = 1.0025 ft/s.
2.01 − 2
1.00100025 − 1
[2, 2.001]: f (2) = 1 and f (2.001) = 14 (2.001)2 = 1.00100025, so v av = = 1.00025 ft/s.
2.001 − 2
1 (2 + h)2 − 1 (2)2
f (2 + h) − f (2) 4 + 4h + h 2 − 4
b. v = lim = lim 4 4 = lim = 1 ft/s
h→0 (2 + h) − 2 h→0 h h→0 4h
 Section 1.5 Tangent Lines and Rates of Change 71

22. a. f (t) = 2t 2 + 48t. The average velocity of the car over the time interval [20, 21] is

f (21) − f (20) 2 (21)2 + 48 (21) − 2 (20)2 + 48 (20)

= = 130 ft/s, its average velocity over [20, 20.1] is
21 − 20 1

f (20.1) − f (20) 2 (20.1)2 + 48 (20.1) − 2 (20)2 + 48 (20)

= = 128.2 ft/s, and its average velocity over
20.1 − 20 0.1

f (20.01) − f (20) 2 (20.01)2 + 48 (20.01) − 2 (20)2 + 48 (20)

[20, 20.01] is = = 128.02 m/s.
20.01 − 20 0.01
b. We first compute f (t) using the four-step process:
Step 1 f (t + h) = 2 (t + h)2 + 48 (t + h) = 2t 2 + 4th + 2h 2 + 48t + 48h
Step 2 f (t + h) − f (t) = 2t 2 + 4th + 2h 2 + 48t + 48h − 2t 2 + 48t = 4th + 2h 2 + 48h = h (4t + 2h + 48)
f (t + h) − f (t) h (4t + 2h + 48)
Step 3 = = 4t + 2h + 48
h h
f (t + h) − f (t)
Step 4 f (t) = lim = lim (4t + 2h + 48) = 4t + 48
h→0 h h→0
The instantaneous velocity of the car at t = 20 is f (20) = 4 (20) + 48 = 128 ft/s.
c. Our results show that the average velocities do approach the instantaneous velocity as the intervals over which they are
computed decrease.

23. a. The average velocity of the ball over the time interval [2, 3] is

f (3) − f (2) 128 (3) − 16 (3)2 − 128 (2) − 16 (2)2

= = 48 ft/s; its average velocity over [2, 2.5] is
3−2 1

f (2.5) − f (2) 128 (2.5) − 16 (2.5)2 − 128 (2) − 16 (2)2

= = 56 ft/s, and its average velocity over [2, 2.1] is
2.5 − 2 0.5

f (2.1) − f (2) 128 (2.1) − 16 (2.1)2 − 128 (2) − 16 (2)2

= = 62.4 ft/s.
2.1 − 2 0.1
b. Using the four-step process, we find that the instantaneous velocity of the ball at any time t is given by
v (t) = 128 − 32t. In particular, the velocity of the ball at t = 2 is v (2) = 128 − 32 (2) = 64 ft/s.
c. At t = 5, v (5) = 128 − 32 (5) = −32, so the velocity of the ball at t = 5 is −32 ft/s. The ball is falling.
d. The ball hits the ground when f (t) = 0; that is, when 128t − 162 = 0 ⇔ t (128 − 16t) = 0 ⇒ t = 0 or t = 8. Thus, it
hits the ground when t = 8.

24. a. We solve the equation 16t 2 = 400, obtaining t = 5 s, which is the time it takes the screwdriver to reach the ground.

f (5) − f (0) 16 52 − 0
b. The average velocity of the screwdriver over [0, 5] is v av = = = 80 ft/s.
5−0 5
c. The velocity of the screwdriver at the time it hits the ground is given by the instantaneous velocity at t = 5, that is,

f (5 + h) − f (5) 16 (5 + h)2 − 16 (5)2 16 25 + 10h + h 2 − 25

lim = lim = lim
h→0 (5 + h) − 5 h→0 h h→0 h
h (10 − h)
= 16 · lim = 160 ft/s.
h→0 h

25. a. Its height after 40 s is h (40) = 12 (40)2 + 12 (40) = 820 ft.

h (40) − h (0) 820 − 0
b. Its average velocity over [0, 40] is v av = = = 20.5 ft/s.
40 − 0 40
72 Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity

c. The instantaneous velocity at t = 40 is

1 (40 + h)2 + 1 (40 + h) − 1 (40)2 + 1 (40)
h (40 + h) − h (40) 2 2 2 2
v = lim = lim
h→0 (40 + h) − 40 h→0 h
40h + 12 h 2 + 12 h h (h + 81)
= lim = lim = 40.5 ft/s.
h→0 h h→0 2h

26. a. We solve the equation 0.2t 3 = 200, obtaining t = 10 s.

h (10) − h (0) 0.2 103 − 0

b. The average velocity of the helicopter over [0, 10] is v av = = = 20 ft/s.
10 − 0 10
c. The instantaneous velocity at t = 10 is
h (10 + h) − h (10) 0.2 (10 + h)3 − 0.2 (10)3
v = lim = lim
h→0 (10 + h) − 10 h→0 h

1000 + 300h + 30h 2 + h 3 − 1000 h 300 + 30h + h 2

= 0.2 lim = 0.2 lim = 60 ft/s.
h→0 h h→0 h
27. The area function for a circle is A (r) = πr 2 .
A (2) − A (1) 4π − π
a. A (1) = π and A (2) = 4π, so the average rate of change over [1, 2] is = = 3π units2 /unit.
2−1 1
A (2 + h) − A (2) π (2 + h)2 − π (2)2 4 + 4h + h 2 − 4 h (4 + h)
b. lim = lim = π lim = π lim = 4π units2 /unit
h→0 (2 + h) − 2 h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
28. V (r) = 43 πr 3 gives the volume of a sphere.
a. V (1) = 43 π (1)3 = 43 π and V (2) = 43 π (2)3 = 32
3 π, so the average rate of change over [1, 2] is
32 π − 4 π
V (2) − V (1)
= 3 3 = 28 3
3 π units /unit.
2−1 1
4 π (2 + h)3 − 4 π (2)3
V (2 + h) − V (2) 4 8 + 12h + 6h 2 + h 3 − 8
b. lim = lim 3 3 = π lim
h→0 (2 + h) − 2 h→0 h 3 h→0 h
h 12 + 6h + h 2
4
= π lim = 16π units3 /unit
3 h→0 h

f (5.05) − f (5) −0.1 (5.05)2 − 5.05 + 40 − −0.1 (5)2 − 5 + 40

29. a. f (x) = −0.1x 2 − x + 40 ⇒ = = −2.005,
5.05 − 5 0.05
or approximately −$2.01 per thousand tents.

f (5.01) − f (5) −0.1 (5.01)2 − 5.01 + 40 − −0.1 (5)2 − 5 + 40

= = −2.001, or approximately −$2.00 per
5.01 − 5 0.01
thousand tents.
f (x + h) − f (x) h (−0.2x − 0.h − 1)
b. The rate of change is given by lim = = lim (−0.2x − 0.1h − 1) = −0.2x −
h→0 h h h→0
1. The rate of change of the unit price if x = 5000 is f (5) = −0.2 (5) − 1 = −2, a decrease of $2 per thousand tents.
1 − 1
V (3) − V (2) 1
30. a. The average rate of change over [2, 3] is = 3 2 = − , a decrease of 16 L/atm.
3−2 1 6
1 1
V (2 + h) − V (2) −
b. r = lim = lim 2 + h 2 = lim 2 − (2 + h) = lim −h
=−
1 L
h→0 (2 + h) − 2 h→0 h h→0 2h (2 + h) h→0 2h (2 + h) 4 atm
31. Our computations yield the following results: 32.1, 30.939, 30.814, 30.8014, 30.8001, 30.8000. The motorcycle’s
instantaneous velocity at t = 2 is approximately 30.8 ft/s.
 Section 1.5 Tangent Lines and Rates of Change 73

32. Our computations yield the following results: 5.06060, 5.06006, 5.060006, 5.0600006, 5.06000006. The rate of change of
the total cost function when the level of production is 100 cases a day is approximately $5.06 per day per case.
33. a. The graph of g:

20

10

0
-1 0 1

b. Using ZOOM and TRACE, we find lim g (h) = 12.

h→0
c. Taking f (x) = x 3 , we find

f (2 + h) − f (2) (2 + h)3 − (2)3 8 + 12h + 6h 2 + h 3 − 8 h 12 + 6h + h 2

lim = lim = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
2
= lim 12 + 6h + h = 12
h→0
√ √
3
8+h− 3 8
34. a. The graph of g (h) = using the viewing window [−1, 1] × [0, 0.1]:
h

0.10

0.05

0.00
-1 0 1

f (8 + h) − f (8) (8 + h)1/3 − 2
b. Using ZOOM and TRACE, we find lim = lim ≈ 0.083.
h→0 h h→0 h
35. Using the definition of the derivative, we find f (x) = x 5 and a = 1.
36. Using the definition of the derivative, we find f (x) = 2x 1/4 and a = 16.
√
37. Using the definition of the derivative, we find f (x) = x 2 + x and a = 4.
38. Using the definition of the derivative, we find f (x) = 2x and a = 3.
39. Using the definition of the derivative with h = x − 1, we find f (x) = x 4 and a = 1.
40. Using the definition of the derivative with h = x − π π
2 , we find f (x) = sin x and a = 2 .
f (b) − f (a)
41. True. The slope of the secant line passing through (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)) is m = . By definition, the
b−a
f (b) − f (a)
average rate of change of f (x) over [a, b] is rav = .
b−a
42. True. Consider the function f (x) = mx + b whose graph is a straight line. Since the tangent line to the graph of f at any
point is the line itself, the tangent line intersects the graph of f at infinitely many points.
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
43. False. If the tangent line exists at a point (x0 , f (x0 )), then lim exists and must be unique.
h→0 h
74 Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity

f (a + h) − f (a)
44. True. The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at x = a is given by lim . Put x = a + h. Then
h h→0
f (a + h) − f (a) f (x) − f (a)
h = x − a, and since x → a as h → 0, lim = lim .
h→0 h x→a x −a

Chapter 1 Review
Concept Review
1. a. L, f , L, a b. right c. exist, L d. ε > 0, δ > 0
f (x) L √ √
2. a. lim f (x) ± g (x) = L ± M, lim f (x) g (x) = L M, lim c f (x) = cL, lim = , lim n f (x) = n L
x→a x→a x→a x→a g (x) M x→a
b. p (a)
c. r (x)
3. lim g (x) = L
x→a
4. a. continuous b. removable c. jump d. left
5. a. (−∞, ∞) b. its domain c. continuous
6. a. [a, b], f (c) = M b. f (x) = 0, (a, b)
f (a + h) − f (a)
7. a. m tan = lim b. y − f (a) = m tan (x − a)
h→0 h
f (a + h) − f (a) f (a + h) − f (a)
8. a. b. lim
h h→0 h

Review Exercises
1. a. lim f (x) = 0 2. a. lim f (x) = 0
x→4− x→0−

b. lim f (x) = 0 b. lim f (x) does not exist.

x→4+ x→0+

c. lim f (x) = 0 c. lim f (x) does not exist.

x→4 x→0

3. f(x) a. lim f (x) = 2

8 x→3−

6
b. lim f (x) = 2
x→3+
4 c. lim f (x) = 2
x→3
2

_2 0 2 4 6 x

4. f(x) a. lim f (x) = −1

x→2−
2
b. lim f (x) = 1
1 x→2+

c. lim f (x) does not exist.

0 1 2 3 x x→2
_1
 Chapter 1 Review 75

5. f(x) a. lim f (x) = 0

x→2−
4
b. lim f (x) = 0
x→2+

c. lim f (x) = 0
2 x→2

0 2 4 x

6. y a. lim f (x) = 1
x→0−
3
b. lim f (x) = −∞
2 x→0+
1 c. lim f (x) does not exist.
2 3 x→0
_3 _2 _1 1 x
_1

_2

_3

7. lim 4h 2 − 2h + 4 = 4 · 32 − 2 · 3 + 4 = 36 − 6 + 4 = 34
h→3

8. lim x 3 + 1 x 2 − 1 = 23 + 1 22 − 1 = 27
x→2
√
9. lim x 2 + 2x − 3 = 32 + 2 · 3 − 3 = 2 3
x→3
t2 − 1 (t + 1) (t − 1)
10. lim = lim = lim [− (t + 1)] = −2
t→1 1 − t t→1 − (t − 1) t→1
2/3 2/3
11. lim x 2 + 2 = 52 + 2 =9
x→5

27 − x 3 − (x − 3) x 2 + 3x + 9
12. lim = lim = lim − x 2 + 3x + 9 = −27
x→3 x − 3 x→3 x −3 x→3
2y 2 + 1 0+1 1
13. lim = =
y→0 y 3 − 2y 2 + y + 2 0−0+0+2 2
x +1
14. lim =∞
x→3+ x − 3
2x 2 − 5x − 3 (2x + 1) (x − 3) 2x + 1 7
15. lim = lim = lim =
x→3 3x 2 − 10x + 3 x→3 (3x − 1) (x − 3) x→3 3x − 1 8
√ √
x −4 x +2 x −2 √
16. lim √ = lim √ = lim x +2 =4
x→4 x − 2 x→4 x −2 x→4
1 1
−
(4 + h)−1 − 4−1 4 = lim 4 − (4 + h) = lim −h −1 1
17. lim = lim 4 + h = =−
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 4h (4 + h) h→0 4h (4 + h) 4 (4) 16
x −2 x −2
18. lim = lim = 1 since |x − 2| = x − 2 for all x ≥ 2.
x→2 |x − 2|
+ x→2 x − 2
+

19. lim 9 − x2 = 9 − 32 = 0
x→3−
76 Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity
√ √
1+ 2x − 6 1+ 2·3−6
20. lim = =1
x→3+ x −2 3−2
2 sin 3x 2 sin 3x sin 3x
21. lim = lim 1 = 6 lim =6·1=6
x→0 x x→0 (3x) x→0 3x
3
1 (2x)
cos 2x 1 2x 1
22. lim x cot 2x = lim x · = lim cos 2x · lim 2 = 1 · · lim =
x→0 x→0 sin 2x x→0 x→0 sin 2x 2 x→0 sin 2x 2
cos x √
23. lim √ = ∞ because as x → 0+ , cos x → 1 and x → 0.
x→0+ x
√ √ √
24. lim x sin (1/x) = 0. Since −1 ≤ sin (1/x) ≤ 1 for all x = 0, it follows that − x ≤ sin (1/x) ≤ x for x > 0.
x→0+
√ √ √
Because lim − x = 0 = lim x, the Squeeze Theorem implies that lim x sin (1/x) = 0.
x→0 x→0 x→0+
√ √
25. Note that −1 ≤ cos 1/ x ≤ 1. Multiplying through by x , we have −x ≤ x cos 1/ x ≤ x 2 for all x > 0. Since
2 2 2
√
lim −x 2 = 0 and lim x 2 = 0, the Squeeze Theorem implies that lim x 2 cos 1/ x = 0.
x→0+ x→0+ x→0+

26. Since lim 1 − x2 = 1 = lim 1 + x2 and 1 − x 2 ≤ f (x) ≤ 1 + x 2 , the Squeeze Theorem implies that
x→0 x→0
lim f (x) = 1.
x→0
27. The function is discontinuous at b and c.
28. The function is discontinuous at a, b, and c.
29. a. [1, 2): f (x) is continuous on (1, 2) and lim f (x) = 2 = f (1), so f is continuous on [1, 2).
x→1+
b. (0, 1): f (x) = 1 on (0, 1), so f (x) is continuous there.
c. (3, 5): lim f (x) = 2 and lim f (x) = 1, so lim f (x) does not exist and f (x) is not continuous on (3, 5).
x→4− x→4+ x→4
30. a. [0, 3): f (x) is continuous on (0, 3) and lim f (x) = 5 = f (0), so f (x) is continuous on [0, 3).
x→0+
b. [0, 3]: f (x) is continuous on [0, 3) from part (a), and lim f (x) = 1 = f (3), so f (x) is continuous on [0, 3].
x→3−
c. [2, 6]: lim f (x) = 1, but lim = ∞, so lim f (x) does not exist, and f (x) is not continuous on [2, 6].
x→3− x→3+ x→3
d. (3, 6]: f (x) is continuous on (3, 6) and lim f (x) = f (6), so f (x) is continuous on (3, 6].
x→6−
31. f is continuous on its domain (−∞, 0].
32. Since x 2 + x − 6 = (x + 3) (x − 2) = 0 if x = −3 or x = 2, we see that the denominator is 0 at these points, and so g is
discontinuous at −3 and 2.
33. f (t) is continuous on its domain, (−1, ∞).
1
34. h (x) = is not defined at π π
2 ± nπ, n an integer. Therefore, h is discontinuous at 2 ± nπ, n an integer.
cos x
1
35. f (x) = is not defined when sin x = 0, so it is not continuous at ±nπ, n an integer.
sin x
36. Observe that f (x) = lim f (x) = 1 = f (0), so f is continuous at 0. Since x 2 + 1 and −x + 1 are polynomials, f is
x→0
continuous everywhere else.
x 2 − 2x x (x − 2) x 1
37. lim = lim = lim = , so if f is continuous at 2, then lim f (x) = f (2) = 12 and
x→2 x 2 − 4 x→2 (x + 2) (x − 2) x→2 x + 2 2 x→2
c = 12 .
⎧
⎨ |x| if x = 0 |x| 2
2
38. False. Consider f (x) = x f is discontinuous at 0, however f (x) = = 1 is continuous
⎩ 1 if x = 0 x

everywhere.
 Chapter 1 Review 77

39. f (x) = x 4 + x − 5 is a polynomial of degree 4, and therefore f is continuous everywhere. f (1) = −3 and f (2) = 13, so
by Theorem 7 in Section 1.4, f must have at least one zero in (1, 2).
40. f (x) = sin x − x + 1 is continuous everywhere because it is the sum of two continuous functions, g (x) = sin x and
h (x) = −x + 1. f (0) = 1 and f 3π = − 32π , so by Theorem 7 in Section 1.4, f must have at least one zero in 0, 32π .
2
41. Since f is not continuous at 0, f is not continuous on [−2, 2] and the Intermediate Value Theorem does not apply. For
−2 ≤ x < 0, f (x) = − x 2 + 1 . Setting −x 2 − 1 = 0 gives x 2 = −1 which has no real solution. So f has no zero in

[−2, 0). For 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, f (x) = x 2 + 1. Setting f (x) = 0 gives x 2 + 1 = 0, or x 2 = −1, which has no real solution. So f
has no zero in [0, 2]. Therefore, f has no zero in [−2, 2].
42‘. If x = 0, then f (x) is continuous. Next, observe that − |x| ≤ x sin (1/x) ≤ |x|. Since |sin (1/x)| ≤ 1, the Squeeze
Theorem implies that lim x sin (1/x) = 0 = f (0), and so f is continuous at 0 as well. Therefore, f is continuous on
x→0
(−∞, ∞).
43. For any ε > 0, we need to find a δ > 0 such that if 0 < |x + 1| < δ, then |(2x + 3) − 1| < ε. Consider |(2x + 3) − 1| < ε
⇒ |2 (x + 1)| < ε ⇒ |x + 1| < 12 ε. If we pick δ = 12 ε, then for 0 < |x + 1| < δ, we have |x + 1| < 12 ε ⇒
|2x + 2| < ε ⇒ |(2x + 3) − 1| < ε. Thus lim (2x + 3) = 1.
x→−1

v2 L
44. a. L = L 0 1 − 2 = 0 c2 − v 2 . c2 − v 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ (c + v) (c − v) ≥ 0 ⇒ −c ≤ v ≤ c. Because c represents the speed
c c
of light, c > 0 and v ≥ 0. The domain of L is [0, c). Therefore, we can consider only lim L.
v→c−
L0 L0 2
b. lim L = lim c2 − v 2 = c − c2 = 0. This means that the faster an object moves, the smaller its length
v→c− v→c− c c
becomes. As it approaches the speed of light, its length approaches 0.
◦
45. At 8:00 A . M .: m 1 = 13 1
3 and the temperature is increasing at a rate of 4 3 F per hour.
◦
At 6:00 P. M .: m 2 = − 74 and the temperature is decreasing at a rate of 1 34 F per hour.

s (2) − s (1) 2 (2)2 + 2 + 1 − 2 12 + 1 + 1

46. a. [1, 2]: v av = = = 7 ft/s
2−1 1

s (1.5) − s (1) 2 (1.5)2 + 1.5 + 1 − 4

[1, 1.5]: v av = = = 6 ft/s
1.5 − 1 0.5

s (1.1) − s (1) 2 (1.1)2 + 1.1 + 1 − 4

[1, 1.1]: v av = = = 5.2 ft/s
1.1 − 1 0.1

s (1.01) − s (1) 2 (1.01)2 + 1.01 + 1 − 4

[1, 1.01]: v av = = = 5.02 ft/s
1.01 − 1 0.01

s (1 + h) − s (1) 2 (1 + h)2 + (1 + h) + 1 − 4 2 1 + 2h + h 2 + 1 + h + 1 − 4
b. v = lim = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
h (5 + 2h)
= lim = 5 ft/s
h→0 h
G Mmr G Mm
47. a. lim F (r) = lim = and b. y
r→R − r→R − R3 R2
G Mm G Mm G Mm GMm
lim F (r) = lim = , so lim F (r) = . R@ y=F(r)
r→R + r→R + r 2 R 2 r→R R 2

G Mm
Also, F (R) = , so lim F (r) = F (R), and F (r) is
R2 r→R 0 R r
continuous elsewhere, so F is a continuous function of r .
78 Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity

Challenge Problems
√
1. Put t = 3 x + 1. Then t 3 = x + 1 and x = t 3 − 1. Observe that t → 1 as x → 0. Therefore,
√3
x +1−1 t −1 t −1 1 1
lim = lim 3 = lim = lim 2 = .
x→0 x t→1 t − 1 t→1 (t − 1) t 2 + t + 1 t→1 t + t + 1 3
x2 − 1 (x + 1) (x − 1)
2. a. lim = lim = −2 because |x − 1| = − (x − 1) for x < 1.
x→1 − |x − 1| x→1 − − (x − 1)
x2 − 1 (x + 1) (x − 1)
lim = lim = 2 because |x − 1| = x − 1 for x ≥ 1.
x→1+ |x − 1| x→1+ x −1
|sin x| sin x
b. lim = lim = 1 because |sin x| = sin x for 0 ≤ x ≤ π.
x→0 sin x
+ x→0 sin x
+

|sin x| − sin x
lim = lim = −1 because |sin x| = − sin x for −π ≤ x ≤ 0.
x→0− sin x x→0+ sin x

cos x cos x 1 cos x

3. lim = π 2 lim = π 2 lim · lim . Now
x→π /2 4x 2 x→π /2 (π + 2x) (π − 2x) x→π /2 π + 2x x→π /2 π − 2x
1− 2
π
1 1 y
lim = . Next, let y = π − 2x, so that x = π π
2 − 2 . Note that y → 0 as x → 2 . Therefore,
x→π /2 π + 2x 2π
y y y
cos x cos π
2 − 2 = lim sin 2 = 1 lim sin 2 = 1 . Thus, lim cos x 1 1 π
lim = lim y y = π2 · · = .
x→π /2 π − 2x y→0 y y→0 2 ·
2
2 y→0 2 2 x→π/2 4x 2 2π 2 4
1−
π2
a 2 − (c + h)2 − a 2 − c2 a 2 − (c + h)2 − a 2 − c2
4. a. m s = =
(c + h) − c h

a 2 − (c + h)2 − a 2 − c2 a 2 − (c + h)2 + a 2 − c2
b. lim m s = lim ·
h→0 h→0 h
a 2 − (c + h)2 + a 2 − c2

a 2 − (c + h)2 − a 2 − c2 a 2 − c2 − 2ch − h 2 − a 2 + c2
= lim = lim
h→0 h→0
h a 2 − (c + h)2 + a 2 − c2 h a 2 − (c + h)2 + a 2 − c2

−h (2c + h) 2c + h
= lim = − lim
h→0 h→0
h a 2 − (c + h)2 + a 2 − c2 a 2 − (c + h)2 + a 2 − c2

2c c
=− =−
2 a 2 − c2 a 2 − c2
a 2 − c2 − 0 a 2 − c2
The slope of the line passing through O and P is = and this line is perpendicular to the
c−0 c
c
tangent line T . Therefore, the slope of T is − , which is equal to the limit just calculated.
a 2 − c2

c. In Quadrant III, we have P −c, − a 2 − c2 and Q −c − h, − a 2 − (−c − h)2 . Thus,

− a 2 − (−c − h)2 + a 2 − c2 − a 2 − [− (c + h)]2 + a 2 − c2 a 2 − (c + h)2 − a 2 − c2

ms = = = , which
(−c − h) + c −h h
is the same as part (a).
 Chapter 1 Challenge Problems 79

5. a. Because this is a regular polygon, the line through the center O that bisects a side
R of the polygon is also perpendicular to that side. Therefore, the length of each side
¹
n of the circumscribing polygon is 2R tan (π/n), and thus the perimeter of the
O
circumscribing polygon is 2Rn tan (π/n). Also, a similar consideration shows that
the length of each side of the inscribing polygon is 2R sin (π/n), and so the
perimeter of the inscribing polygon is 2Rn sin (π/n).
b. Let C denote the circumference of the circle. Then 2Rn sin (π/n) ≤ C ≤ 2Rn tan (π/n). Let x = π/n, so as
π π sin x
n → ∞, x → 0. Then we have lim 2Rn sin = 2R lim sin x = 2Rπ lim = 2π R and
n→∞ n x→0 x x→0 x
π π sin x sin x 1
lim 2Rn tan = 2R lim = 2π R lim = 2π R. Thus, by the Squeeze Theorem,
n→∞ n x→0 x cos x x→0 x cos x
C = 2π R.

√
6. a. Let x = n. Since k (x) = [[x]] is discontinuous at y
√
x = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ., we see that f (x) = x is discontinuous at
1
x = n 2 , n an integer.
_2 _1 1 2
b. From the graph of g (x) = [[x]] + [[−x]], we see that g (x) is 0 x
discontinuous at any integer value of x.
_1 y=g(x)

7. Since
1 1 − cos2 x
tan2 x sec2 x − 1 −1
lim = lim = lim cos x
2
= lim cos2 x = lim (1 + cos x) (1 − cos x)
x→0 1 − cos x x→0 1 − cos x x→0 1 − cos x x→0 1 − cos x x→0 cos2 x (1 − cos x)
1 + cos x
= lim = 2, we define c = f (0) = 2.
x→0 cos2 x

8. Since |cos (1/x)| ≤ 1 for x = 0, we have − tan x ≤ tan x cos (1/x) ≤ tan x for x = 0. Using the Squeeze Theorem
with f (x) = − tan x, g (x) = tan x cos (1/x), and h (x) = tan x, and observing that lim tan x = 0, we see that
x→0
lim tan x cos (1/x) = 0 = f (0). So f is continuous at 0.
x→0

9. Put g (x) = f (x) − x. Since f is continuous on [1, 3], so is g. Now g (1) = f (1) − 1 = 0 − 1 = −1, and
g (3) = f (3) − 3 = 4 − 3 = 1. By Theorem 7 in Section 1.4, there is at least one c such that 1 < c < 3 and g (c) = 0; that
is, f (c) − c = 0 or f (c) = c.

1
10. f (x) = is discontinuous at x = 1. If x = 1, then
1−x
1 1 1−x x −1
h (x) = f ◦ f = f ( f (x)) = = = = is discontinuous at 0. Finally, if x = 0
1 − f (x) 1 1−x −1 x
1−
1−x
1 1 x
and x = 1, then g (x) = ( f ◦ f ◦ f ) (x) = f ( f ( f (x))) = f (h (x)) = = = = x is
1 − h (x) x −1 x −x +1
1−
x
continuous everywhere. Therefore, g = f ◦ f ◦ f is discontinuous at 0 and 1.
80 Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity

1 1
11. h (x) = ( f ◦ g) (x) = f (g (x)) = 2
= 2
g (x) − g (x) − 2 1 1
− −2
x −1 x −1
(x − 1)2 (x − 1)2
= =
1 − (x − 1) − 2 (x − 1)2 x (3 − 2x)
The function g is discontinuous at 1, and h is discontinuous at 0 and 32 . So h is discontinuous at 0, 1, and 32 .
12. Suppose the leading coefficient an of the even-degree polynomial p (x) = an x 2n + an−1 x 2n−1 + · · · + a0 is positive. Then
a a0
since lim p (x) = lim x 2n an + n−1 + · · · + 2n = ∞, there exists a number k > 0 such that p (k) > 0. By
x→∞ x→∞ x x
assumption there exists a c such that f (c) < 0. Applying the Intermediate Value Theorem, we see that there exists a root r1
in (c, k). Also, lim p (x) = ∞, and so there exists a number l < 0 such that f (l) > 0, and so Theorem 7 in Section 1.4
x→−∞
implies that there exists a root r2 in (l, c). So there exist at least two real roots. The case where a0 < 0 is treated in a similar
manner.
a b c
13. f (x) = + + is continuous on (−∞, A), (A, B), (B, C), and (C, ∞), lim f (x) = ∞, and
x−A x−B x −C x→A+
lim f (x) = −∞. Since f is a decreasing function (because each term decreases as x increases), there is one root of the
x→B −
a b c
equation + + = 0 in (A, B). Similarly, there is root in (B, C).
x−A x−B x −C
14. Let L and l be the largest and smallest numbers in the set { f (x1 ) , f (x2 ) , . . . , f (xn )}. Then
l ≤ f (x1 ) ≤ L, l ≤ f (x2 ) ≤ L, . . . , l ≤ f (xn ) ≤ L. Therefore, nl ≤ f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + · · · + f (xn ) ≤ nL or
f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + · · · + f (xn )
l≤ ≤ L. Since f is continuous on (a, b), there exists a number c in (a, b) such that
n
f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + · · · + f (xn )
f (c) = .
n
 2 The Derivative

2.1 Concept Questions

1. a. i. It gives the slope of the secant line passing through the points (x, f (x)) and (x + h, f (x + h)).
ii. It gives the average rate of change of f over the interval [x, x + h].
b. i. It gives the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at the point (x, f (x)).
ii. It gives the instantaneous rate of change of f at x.

2. Loosely speaking, a function f does not have a derivative at

y
a if the graph of f does not have a tangent line at a, or if it
has a vertical tangent line at a. The function whose graph is
shown in the figure fails to be differentiable at x = a, b, and
c because it is discontinuous at each of these numbers. The
derivative of the function does not exist at x = d, e and f
because it has a kink at each point on the graph corresponding
to these numbers. Finally, the function is not differentiable at a b c d e f g x
x = g because the tangent line is vertical at (g, f (g)).

2.1 The Derivative

f (x + h) − f (x) 5−5 0
1. f (x) = 5 ⇒ f (x) = lim = lim = lim = lim 0 = 0 with domain (−∞, ∞).
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0
2. f (x) = 2x + 1 ⇒
f (x + h) − f (x) [2 (x + h) + 1] − (2x + 1) 2x + 2h + 1 − 2x − 1 2h
f (x) = lim = lim = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h

= lim 2 = 2 with domain (−∞, ∞).

h→0
3. f (x) = 3x − 4 ⇒
f (x + h) − f (x) [3 (x + h) − 4] − (3x − 4) 3x + 3h − 4 − 3x + 4 3h
f (x) = lim = lim = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h

= lim 3 = 3 with domain (−∞, ∞).

h→0

4. f (x) = 2x 2 + x ⇒

f (x + h) − f (x) 2 (x + h)2 + (x + h) − 2x 2 + x
f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 + x + h − 2x 2 + x 4xh + 2h 2 + h h (4x + 2h + 1)
= lim = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
= lim (4x + 2h + 1) = 4x + 1 with domain (−∞, ∞).
h→0
81
82 Chapter 2 The Derivative

5. f (x) = 3x 2 − x + 1 ⇒

f (x + h) − f (x) 3 (x + h)2 − (x + h) + 1 − 3x 2 − x + 1
f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
3x 2 + 6xh + 3h 2 − x − h + 1 − 3x 2 − x + 1 6xh + 3h 2 − h
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
h (6x + 3h − 1)
= lim = lim (6x + 3h − 1) = 6x − 1 with domain (−∞, ∞).
h→0 h h→0

6. f (x) = x 3 − x ⇒

f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)3 − (x + h) − x 3 − x
f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
x 3 + 3x 2 h + 3xh 2 + h 3 − x − h − x 3 − x 3x 2 h + 3xh 2 + h 3 − h
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
h 3x 2 + 3xh + h 2 − 1
= lim = lim 3x 2 + 3xh + h 2 − 1 = 3x 2 − 1 with domain (−∞, ∞).
h→0 h h→0

7. f (x) = 2x 3 + x − 1 ⇒

f (x + h) − f (x) 2 (x + h)3 + (x + h) − 1 − 2x 3 + x − 1
f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
2x 3 + 6x 2 h + 6xh 2 + 2h 3 + x + h − 1 − 2x 3 + x − 1 6x 2 h + 6xh 2 + 2h 3 + h
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
h 6x 2 + 6xh + 2h 2 + 1
= lim = lim 6x 2 + 6xh + 2h 2 + 1 = 6x 2 + 1 with domain (−∞, ∞).
h→0 h h→0
√
8. f (x) = 2 x ⇒
√ √ √ √ √ √
f (x + h) − f (x) 2 x +h−2 x x +h− x x +h+ x
f (x) = lim = lim = 2 lim ·√ √
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h x +h+ x
(x + h) − x h 1 2
= 2 lim √ √ = 2 lim √ √ = 2 lim √ √ = √
h→0 h x +h+ x h→0 h x +h+ x h→0 x +h+ x 2 x
1
= √ with domain (0, ∞).
x
√
9. f (x) = x + 1 ⇒
√ √
f (x + h) − f (x) x +h+1− x +1
f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
√ √ √ √
x +h+1− x +1 x +h+1+ x +1 (x + h + 1) − (x + 1)
= lim ·√ √ = lim √ √
h→0 h x + h + 1 + x + 1 h→0 h x + h + 1 + x + 1
h 1 1
= lim √ √ = lim √ √ = √ with domain (−1, ∞).
h→0 h x +h+1+ x +1 h→0 x + h + 1 + x + 1 2 x +1
1
10. f (x) = ⇒
x
1 1 x − (x + h)
f (x + h) − f (x) −
f (x) = lim = lim x + h x = lim x (x + h)
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
−h 1 1
= lim = − lim = − 2 with domain (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).
h→0 hx (x + h) h→0 x (x + h) x
 Section 2.1 The Derivative 83

1
11. f (x) = ⇒
x +2
1 1 x + 2 − (x + h + 2)
f (x + h) − f (x) −
(x + 2) (x + h + 2)
f (x) = lim = lim x + h + 2 x + 2 = lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
−h 1 1
= lim = − lim =− with domain (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, ∞).
h→0 h (x + 2) (x + h + 2) h→0 (x + 2) (x + h + 2) (x + 2)2

2
12. f (x) = − √ ⇒
x
√ √
2 2 − x + x +h
−√ − −√ √ √
f (x + h) − f (x) x +h x x x +h
f (x) = lim = lim = 2 lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
√ √ √ √
x +h− x x +h+ x (x + h) − x
= 2 lim √ √ ·√ √ = 2 lim √ √ √ √
h→0 h x x + h x +h+ x h→0 h x x + h x +h+ x
h 1 2
= 2 lim √ √ √ √ = 2 lim √ √ √ √ =√ √ √
h→0 h x x + h x +h+ x h→0 x x + h x +h+ x x x 2 x
1
= √ with domain (0, ∞).
x x

3
13. f (x) = ⇒
2x + 1
3 3 3 (2x + 1) − 3 (2x + 2h + 1)
−
f (x + h) − f (x) 2 (x + h) + 1 2x + 1 (2x + 2h + 1) (2x + 1)
f (x) = lim = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
−6h 6
= lim = − lim
h→0 h (2x + 2h + 1) (2x + 1) h→0 (2x + 2h + 1) (2x + 1)
6
=− with domain −∞, − 2 ∪ − 12 , ∞ .
1
(2x + 1)2

√
14. f (x) = x + x ⇒
√ √ √ √
f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h) + x + h − x + x x +h+ x +h−x − x
f (x) = lim = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
√ √ √ √ √ √
h x +h− x x +h− x x +h+ x x +h−x
= lim + = lim 1 + ·√ √ = lim 1 + √ √
h→0 h h h→0 h x +h+ x h→0 h x +h+ x
1 1
= lim 1+ √ √ = 1 + √ with domain (0, ∞).
h→0 x +h+ x 2 x

15. f (x) = x 2 + 1 ⇒

f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)2 + 1 − x 2 + 1 x 2 + 2xh + h 2 + 1 − x 2 + 1

f (x) = lim = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
h (2x + h)
= lim = lim (2x + h) = 2x
h→0 h h→0
The slope of the tangent line at (2, 5) is f (2) = 2 (2) = 4. An equation of the tangent line is y − 5 = 4 (x − 2) or
y = 4x − 3.
84 Chapter 2 The Derivative

16. f (x) = 3x 2 − 4x + 2 ⇒

f (x + h) − f (x) 3 (x + h)2 − 4 (x + h) + 2 − 3x 2 − 4x + 2
f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
3x 2 + 6xh + 3h 2 − 4x − 4h + 2 − 3x 2 − 4x + 2 h (6x + 3h − 4)
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= lim (6x + 3h − 4) = 6x − 4
h→0
The slope of the tangent line at (2, 6) is f (2) = 6 (2) − 4 = 8. An equation of the tangent line is y − 6 = 8 (x − 2) or
y = 8x − 10.
17. f (x) = 2x 3 ⇒
f (x + h) − f (x) 2 (x + h)3 − 2x 3 (x + h)3 − x 3
f (x) = lim = lim = 2 lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
x 3 + 3x 2 h + 3xh 2 + h 3 − x 3 h 3x 2 + 3xh + h 2
= 2 lim = 2 lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= 2 lim 3x 2 + 3xh + h 2 = 2 3x 2 = 6x 2
h→0
The slope of the tangent line at (1, 2) is f (1) = 6. An equation of the tangent line is y − 2 = 6 (x − 1) or y = 6x − 4.
18. f (x) = 3x 3 − x ⇒

f (x + h) − f (x) 3 (x + h)3 − (x + h) − 3x 3 − x
f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
3x 3 + 9x 2 h + 9xh 2 + 3h 3 − x − h − 3x 3 − x h 9x 2 + 9xh + 3h 2 − 1
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= lim 9x 2 + 9xh + 3h 2 − 1 = 9x 2 − 1
h→0
The slope of the tangent line at (−1, −2) is f (−1) = 8. An equation of the tangent line is y − (−2) = 8 [x − (−1)] or
y = 8x + 6.
√
19. f (x) = x − 1 ⇒
√ √
f (x + h) − f (x) x +h−1− x −1
f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
√ √ √ √
x +h−1− x −1 x +h−1+ x −1 (x + h − 1) − (x − 1)
= lim ·√ √ = lim √ √
h→0 h x + h − 1 + x − 1 h→0 h x + h − 1 + x − 1
h 1 1
= lim √ √ = lim √ √ = √
h→0 h x +h−1+ x −1 h→0 x + h − 1 + x − 1 2 x −1
√ √ √ √
The slope of the tangent line at 4, 3 is f (4) = √ 1 = 3 . An equation of the tangent line is y − 3 = 3 (x − 4)
6
2 3 6
√ √
or y = 63 x + 33 .
2
20. f (x) = ⇒
x
2 2 1 1 x − (x + h)
f (x + h) − f (x) − −
f (x) = lim = lim x + h x = 2 lim x + h x = 2 lim x (x + h)
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
−h 1 2
= 2 lim = −2 lim =− 2
h→0 hx (x + h) h→0 x (x + h) x
The slope of the tangent line at (2, 1) is f (2) = − 24 = − 12 . An equation of the tangent line is y − 1 = − 12 (x − 2) or
y = − 12 x + 2.
 Section 2.1 The Derivative 85

21. a. f (x) = 2x − x 3 ⇒
f (x + h) − f (x) [2 (x + h) − (x + h)3 ] − (2x − x 3 )
f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
(2x + 2h − x 3 − 3x 2 h − 3xh 2 − h 3 ) − (2x − x 3 ) 2h − 3x 2 h − 3xh 2 − h 3
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= lim (2 − 3x 2 − 3xh − h 2 ) = −3x 2 + 2
h→0
The slope of the tangent line at (1, 1) is f (1) = −3 (1)2 + 2 = −1. An equation of the tangent line is
y − 1 = −1 (x − 1) or y = −x + 2.
b. 4 1.1 1.01

2
1.0
0 1.00

-2 0.9
-4 0.99
-2 -1 0 1 2 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.10 0.990 0.995 1.000 1.005 1.010

22. a. 1.0 0.10 0.010

0.5 0.05 0.005

0.0 0.00 0.000

-1 0 1 -0.1 0.0 0.1 -0.01 0.00 0.01

It seems that no matter how much we zoom in, the graph of f still has a corner at (0, 0). As we saw in Example 6, this is
the reason why f (x) = |x| is not differentiable at (0, 0).
b. 2.1
2.4
2 2.2
2.0 2.0
0
1.8
1.6
-2 1.9
-2 0 2 4 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.9 1.0 1.1

The graph of f has a corner at (1, 2), and so we expect that f is not differentiable at x = 1.

23. y = f (x) = −2x 2 + x + 1 ⇒

dy f (x + h) − f (x) [−2 (x + h)2 + (x + h) + 1] − (−2x 2 + x + 1)
= lim = lim
dx h→0 h h→0 h
(−2x 2 − 4xh − 2h 2 + x + h + 1) − (−2x 2 + x + 1) h (−4x − 2h + 1)
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= lim (−4x − 2h + 1) = −4x + 1
h→0
dy
= −4 (1) + 1 = −3, so y is decreasing at the rate of 3 units per unit change in x.
dx x=1
86 Chapter 2 The Derivative

24. y = f (x) = 2x 3 + 2 ⇒

dy f (x + h) − f (x) 2 (x + h)3 + 2 − 2x 3 + 2 (x + h)3 + 1 − x 3 + 1

= lim = lim = 2 lim
dx h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
x 3 + 3x 2 h + 3xh 2 + 1 − x 3 + 1 h 3x 2 + 3xh
= 2 lim = 2 lim = 2 lim 3x 2 + 3xh = 6x 2
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
dy
= 6 22 = 24, so y is increasing at the rate of 24 units per unit change in x.
dx x=2
√
25. y = f (x) = 2x ⇒
√ √ √ √ √ √
dy f (x + h) − f (x) 2 (x + h) − 2x 2 (x + h) − 2x 2 (x + h) + 2x
= lim = lim = lim ·√ √
dx h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h 2 (x + h) + 2x
2 (x + h) − 2x 2 1
= lim √ √ = lim √ √ =√
h→0 h 2 (x + h) + 2x h→0 2 (x + h) + 2x 2x

dy 1 1
= √ = , so y is increasing at the rate of 12 unit per unit change in x.
dx x=2 4 2
1
26. y = f (x) = x 2 − ⇒
x
1 1
(x + h)2 − − x2 −
dy f (x + h) − f (x) x +h x
= lim = lim
dx h→0 h h→0 h
1 1 1 1
x 2 + 2xh + h 2 − − x2 − 2xh + h 2 − +
x +h x x +h x
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
x − (x + h) 1
2xh + h 2 − h 2x + h +
x (x + h) x (x + h) 1 1
= lim = lim = lim (2x + h) + = 2x + 2
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 x (x + h) x
dy 1
= 2 (−1) + = −1, so y is decreasing at the rate of 1 unit per unit change in x.
dx x=−1 (−1)2
27. The slope of the tangent line to the graph at (0, 0) is 0, and so c and d are the only candidates. Next, the slope of the tangent
line to the graph increases as x increases for large values of x, and so the answer is c.
28. The slope of the tangent line to the graph does not exist at (0, 0) and this rules out c and d. Next, the slopes of the tangent
lines to the graph approach −∞ as the points of tangency (x, y) approach (0, 0) from the left, and so the answer is a.
29. The tangent line to the graph does not exist at −1, 0, or 1, and so the answer is b.
30. The slope of the tangent line at (0, 0) is 0 and the slopes of the tangent lines to the graph at (x, y) approach 0 as x → ±∞,
and so the answer is d.
31. y» 32. y»
2
1

1
_2 _1 0 1 2 x

_2 _1 0 1 2 x _1

_1

_2
 Section 2.1 The Derivative 87

33. y» 34. y»
1 2

1
2
1
_1 0 1 2 x

_1 _2 0 2 4 x

_1

35. y» 36. y»
1
1

_4 _2 0 2 4 x
_4 _2 0 2 4 x _1

_1

37. a. f (h) gives the instantaneous rate of change of the temperature at a given height h. It is measured in ◦ F/ft.
b. Since the temperature decreases as the altitude increases, the sign of f (h) is negative.
c. Since f (1000) = −0.05, the change in the air temperature as the altitude changes from 1000 ft to 1001 ft is
approximately −0.05 ◦ F.

f (b) − f (a)
38. a. measures the average rate of change in revenue as the advertising expenditure changes from a thousand
b−a
dollars to b thousand dollars. The units of measurement are thousands of dollars per thousand dollars.
b. f (x) gives the instantaneous rate of change in revenue when x thousand dollars are spent on advertising. It is measured
in thousands of dollars per thousand dollars.
c. Since f (20) · (21 − 20) = 3 · 1 = 3, the approximate change in revenue is $3000.

39. a. C (x), measured in dollars per unit, gives the instantaneous rate of change of the total manufacturing cost C when
x units of a certain product are produced.
b. The sign of C is positive since the cost of producing x units of a certain product increases as x increases.
c. Since C (1000) · (1001 − 1000) = 20 · 1 = 20, the additional cost of producing the 1001st unit is approximately $20.

40. a. f (θ) measures the rate of change of the range of the cannon with respect to θ when the angle of elevation of the cannon
is set at θ. Its units are ft/◦ .
b. f (θ) > 0 for 0◦ < θ < θ0 and f (θ) < 0 for θ0 < θ < 90◦ , where θ0 is some angle between 0◦ and 90◦ . In other
words, as θ increases from 0◦ through θ0 , the range of the projectile increases, reaching a maximum value when
θ = θ0 , and decreases as θ increases from θ0 to 90◦ . Of course, at an angle of elevation of 90◦ , the projectile goes
straight up and straight down, giving a range of 0.
f (41) − f (40)
c. The range of the projectile if the cannon is fired at an angle of 41◦ is f (41), but ≈ f (40) ⇒
41 − 40
f (41) ≈ f (40) + f (40) · 1 ≈ 10,000 + 20 = 10,020 ft.
88 Chapter 2 The Derivative

f (x + h) − f (x)
41. a. f (x) = lim c. y
h→0 h
4
(x + h)2 − 2 (x + h) + 1 − x 2 − 2x + 1
= lim
h→0 h 2
x 2 + 2xh + h 2 − 2x − 2h + 1 − x 2 − 2x + 1
= lim
h→0 h 0
_4 _2 2 4 x
2xh + h 2 − 2h h (2x + h − 2)
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h _2

= lim (2x + h − 2) = 2x − 2 d. f is changing at the rate of 0 units per

h→0
unit change in x.
b. At a point on the graph of f where the tangent line to the curve is
horizontal, f (x) = 0. Then 2x − 2 = 0, or x = 1. Since
f (1) = 1 − 2 + 1 = 0, we see that the required point is (1, 0).

1 1
−
f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h) − 1 x − 1
42. a. f (x) = lim = lim c. y
h→0 h h→0 h 3
x − 1 − (x + h − 1)
(x + h − 1) (x − 1) −h 2
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h (x + h − 1) (x − 1)
1 1 1
= − lim =−
h→0 (x + h − 1) (x − 1) (x − 1)2
_3 _2 _1
b. The slope is f (−1) = −1/4. So, an equation is 0 1 2 3 x

y − − 12 = − 14 (x + 1), or y = − 14 x − 34 . _1

_2

_3

43. f is not differentiable at 0 because the graph of f has a kink at (0, 1).

44. f is not differentiable at 1 because f is not continuous at 1.

45. f is not differentiable at −2 or 2 because the graph of f has a kink at each of the points (±2, 0).

46. f is not differentiable at 2 because the graph of f has a kink at the point (2, 0).

47. f is not differentiable at −2 or 2 because f is not continuous at these values of x.

48. f is not differentiable at −2 because f is not continuous there. f also fails to be differentiable at 0 and 1, because the graph
of f has kinks at the points (0, 3) and (1, 4).

49. lim f (x) = lim (x + 2) = 2 and lim f (x) = lim (2 − 3x) = 2. Therefore, lim f (x) = 2. Also,
x→0− x→0− x→0+ x→0+ x→0
f (0) = 0 + 2 = 2 and so lim f (x) = f (0). Therefore, f is continuous at 0.
x→0
To show that f is not differentiable at 0, let h < 0 and consider
f (0 + h) − f (0) (h + 2) − 2
lim = lim = lim 1 = 1. Next, if h > 0, then
h→0− h h→0− h h→0−
f (0 + h) − f (0) (2 − 3h) − 2 f (0 + h) − f (0)
lim = lim = lim (−3) = −3. This shows that lim does not
h→0+ h h→0+ h h→0+ h→0 h
exist, and so by definition, f is not differentiable at 0.
 Section 2.1 The Derivative 89

50. lim f (x) = lim (x + 1) = 1, lim f (x) = lim x 2 + 1 = 1. Therefore, lim f (x) = 1. Also,
x→0− x→0− x→0+ x→0+ x→0
f (0) = 0 + 1 = 1, and so lim f (x) = f (0). Therefore, f is continuous at 0.
x→0
To show that f is not differentiable at 0, let h < 0 and consider
f (0 + h) − f (0) (h + 1) − 1
lim = lim = lim 1 = 1. Next, if h > 0, then
h→0− h h→0− h h→0−

f (0 + h) − f (0) (0 + h)2 + 1 − 1 f (0 + h) − f (0)

lim = lim = lim h = 0. This shows that lim does not
h→0+ h h→0+ h h→0+ h→0 h
exist, and so by definition, f is not differentiable at 0.

⎧
⎨ − (2x − 1) if x < 1
51. f (x) = |2x − 1| = 2 lim f (x) = lim [− (2x − 1)] = 0 and
⎩ 2x − 1 if x ≥ 12 x→(1/2)− x→(1/2)−

lim f (x) = lim (2x − 1) = 0. Therefore, lim f (x) = 0. Also, f 1 = 2 12 − 1 = 0, and so f is

x→1/2 2
x→(1/2)+ x→(1/2)+
continuous at 12 .
To show that f is not differentiable at x = 12 , let h < 0 and consider
f 1 +h − f 1 − 2 12 + h − 1 − 0
2 2
lim = lim = lim (−2) = −2. Next, if h > 0, then
h→0− h h→0− h h→0−

f 1 +h − f 1 2 12 + h − 1 − 0 f 1 +h − f 1
2 2 2 2
lim = lim = lim 2 = 2. This shows that lim
h→0+ h h→0+ h h→0+ h→0 h
does not exist, and so by definition, f is not differentiable at 12 .

⎧
⎨ x sin (1/x) if x = 0
52. f (x) = Because |sin (1/x)| ≤ 1, we have 0 ≤ |x sin (1/x)| ≤ |x|. Since lim |x| = 0, the
⎩0 if x = 0 x→0

Squeeze Theorem implies that lim x sin (1/x) = 0 = f (0), and so f is continuous at 0.
x→0
f (0 + h) − f (0) h sin (1/ h)
To show that f is not differentiable at 0, we compute f (0) = lim = lim = lim sin (1/ h)
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
which does not exist. Therefore, f is not differentiable at 0.

53. y» ($million/year) 54. y (ft/s)

200 10
y=s»(t)
100
5

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 t (years) 16

_100 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 18 t (s)

_5
_200

_300 _10

f (1) ≈ 150, and the budget is increasing at the rate of v (5) ≈ 8, and the velocity of the car is approximately
$150 million per year when t = 1. 8 ft/s at t = 5 s.
f (5) ≈ −160, and the budget is decreasing at the rate of v (12) ≈ −5, and the velocity of the car is approximately

$160 million per year when t = 5. −5 ft/s at t = 12 s.

90 Chapter 2 The Derivative

55. a. For each fixed value of h, g (x) measures the average rate of
10
change of f (x) = x 3 over the interval [x, x + h].

b. We would expect g (x) to approach f (x) = 3x 2 since

5
(x + h)3 − x 3 x 3 + 3x 2 h + 3xh 2 + h 3 − x 3
lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
h 3x 2 + 3xh + h 2 0
= lim = 3x 2 -2 -1 0 1 2
h→0 h
c. The graphs of 3x 2 , 3x 2 + 3x + 1, 3x 2 + 1.5x + 0.25, and
3x 2 + 0.3x + 0.01 are shown at right.. The graphs of g (x)
approach the graph of f (x) = 3x 2 as h → 0.

56. a. f (x) = 3x 2 − 1. See the solution to Exercise 6 in this

section.

b. The expression for g (x) is the same as that for 5

f (x + h) − f (x)
, where f (x) = x 3 − x and h = 0.01.
h
0
f (x + h) − f (x)
Since f (x) = lim , we expect that if h is
h→0 h
-2 -1 0 1 2
f (x + h) − f (x)
very small, then ≈ f (x), and so the
h
graph of g should be very close to that of f .

⎧
y
⎨ −x 3 if x < 0
57. a. b. f (x) = If h < 0, then
30 ⎩ x 3 if x ≥ 0
25
20 f (0 + h) − f (0) −h 3
lim = lim = − lim h 2 = 0. If h > 0, then
15 h→0− h h→0− h h→0−
10
f (0 + h) − f (0) h3
5 lim = lim = lim h 2 = 0. Therefore,
h→0+ h h→0 h+ h→0+
_4 _2 0 2 4 x f (0 + h) − f (0)
lim = 0, and f is differentiable at 0.
h→0 h
If x > 0, then f (x) = x 3 and

f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)3 − x 3 x 3 + 3x 2 h + 3xh 2 + h 3 − x 3

f (x) = lim = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
h 3x 2 + 3xh + h 2
= lim = lim 3x 2 + 3xh + h 2 = 3x 2
h→0 h h→0
If x < 0, then f (x) = −x 3 , and a similar calculation shows that f (x) = −3x 2 . So f is differentiable everywhere.
⎧
⎨ −3x 2 if x < 0
c. From the results of part b, we see that f (x) =
⎩ 3x 2 if x ≥ 0
 Section 2.1 The Derivative 91

58. a. y b. If x ≥ 0, then f (x) = x 2 , so

6
f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)2 − x 2
4 f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
2
x 2 + 2xh + h 2 − x 2
_4 _2 2 4 x = lim = lim (2x + h) = 2x
_2
h→0 h h→0

_4 If x < 0, then f (x) = −x 2 , and a similar calculation shows that

_6 f (x) = −2x. So f is differentiable everywhere.
⎧ ⎧
⎨ −x 2 if x < 0 ⎨ −2x if x < 0
f (x) = x |x| = c. From the results of part b, we see that f (x) =
⎩ x 2 if x ≥ 0 ⎩ 2x if x ≥ 0

59. The function h (x) = |x| is continuous everywhere; see Example 7a in Section 1.4. Therefore, by Theorems 4 and 5 of
Section 1.4 and the continuity of f , we see that
lim g (x) = lim |x − a| f (x) = lim |x − a| · lim f (x) = lim (x − a) lim f (x) = |a − a| f (a) = 0 = g (a), and
x→a x→a x→a x→a x→a x→a
this shows that g is continuous at a.
⎧
⎨ − (x − a) f (x) if x < a
Next, to show that f is not differentiable at 0, write g (x) =
⎩ (x − a) f (x) if x ≥ a

If h < 0, then
g (a + h) − g (a) − [(a + h) − a] f (a + h) + (a − a) f (a) −h f (a + h)
lim = lim = lim
h→0− h h→0− h h→0− h
= − lim f (a + h) = − f (a)
h→0−
If h > 0, then
g (a + h) − g (a) [(a + h) − a] f (a + h) + (a − a) f (a) h f (a + h)
lim = lim = lim = lim f (a + h) = f (a).
h→0 + h h→0 + h h→0 + h h→0+
g (a + h) − g (a) g (a + h) − g (a) g (a + h) − g (a)
Since f (a) = 0, we see that lim = lim and so lim does not
h→0− h h→0+ h h→0 h
exist; that is, g is not differentiable at a.

60. a. Observe that 0 ≤ x 1/3 sin x1 ≤ |x|1/3 , so the Squeeze Theorem b. 1

implies that lim x 1/3 sin 1x = 0 = f (0). This shows that f is
x→0
continuous at 0. Next, 0
f (0 + h) − f (0) h 1/3 sin h1 sin 1
f (0) = lim = lim = lim 2/3h
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
-1
does not exist, and so f is not differentiable. -0.5 0.0 0.5
⎧
⎨ x 2 sin 1 if x = 0
61. a. f (x) = x ⇒ b.
⎩0 if x = 0 0.1

f (0 + h) − f (0) h 2 sin h1 − 0
f (0) = lim = lim = lim h sin h1 .
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 0.0

Now 0 ≤ h sin h1 ≤ |h|, and the Squeeze Theorem implies that

lim h sin h1 = 0. Therefore f is differentiable at 0 and f (0) = 0. -0.1

h→0 -0.5 0.0 0.5
92 Chapter 2 The Derivative

f ((x + T ) + h) − f (x + T ) f ((x + h) + T ) − f (x + T )
62. f (x + T ) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim [since f is periodic with period T ] = f (x)
h→0 h
showing that f is periodic with period T .
63. For fixed x, we have
f (x + nh) − f (x + (n − 1) h) f (x + nh) − f (x) − f (x + (n − 1) h) − f (x)
lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
f (x + nh) − f (x) f (x + (n − 1) h) − f (x)
= lim − lim
h→0 h h→0 h
H
provided the limits exist. To evaluate the first limit, let H = nh, so h = and H → 0 as h → 0.
n
f (x + nh) − f (x) n f (x + H) − f (x)
Then lim = lim = n f (x) by the definition of the
h→0 h H →0 H
derivative, which we assume exists at this point. To evaluate the second limit, we put H = (n − 1) h
f (x + (n − 1) h) − f (x)
and proceed as before, finding that lim = (n − 1) f (x). Thus,
h→0 h
f (x + nh) − f (x + (n − 1) h)
lim = n f (x) − (n − 1) f (x) = f (x).
h→0 h
64. a. Using the result of Exercise 63 with n = 2, we have
√ √ √ √ √ √
f (x + 2h) − f (x + h) x + 2h − x + h x + 2h − x + h x + 2h + x + h
f (x) = lim = lim = lim ·√ √
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h x + 2h + x + h
(x + 2h) − (x + h) 1 1
= lim √ √ = lim √ √ = √
h→0 h x + 2h + x + h h→0 x + 2h + x + h 2 x
as in Example 1.
b. With n = 3, we find
1 1
f (x + 3h) − f (x + 2h) −
f (x) = lim = lim x + 1 + 3h x + 1 + 2h = lim (x + 1 + 2h) − (x + 1 + 3h)
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h (x + 1 + 3h) (x + 1 + 2h)
−h −1 1
= lim = lim =−
h→0 h (x + 1 + 3h) (x + 1 + 2h) h→0 (x + 1 + 3h) (x + 1 + 2h) (x + 1)2
as in Example 3.
f (3 + h) − f (3)
65. True. By definition, the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at (3, f (3)) is given by f (3) = lim .
h→0 h
66. False. The function f (x) = 0 is differentiable, and the function g (x) = |x| is not differentiable at 0. But the function
h = f g defined by h (x) = f (x) g (x) = 0 is differentiable everywhere.
67. False. The function f (x) = |x| is not differentiable at 0 (see Example 6). Taking f (x) = g (x) = |x|, we see that f and g
are not differentiable at 0, but the product f g defined by ( f g) (x) = f (x) g (x) = |x| |x| = x 2 is differentiable at 0.
68. False. The functions f (x) = |x| and g (x) = − |x| are not differentiable at 0, but f + g defined by
( f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x) = |x| − |x| = 0 is differentiable at 0.
√
69. False. Consider f (x) = x. The domain of f is [0, ∞), but the domain of f is (0, ∞). (See Example 1.)
70. True. One example is the function f (x) = |x − 1| + |x − 2| + · · · + |x − n|.

2.2 Concept Questions

d
1. a. The Power Rule: If n is any real number, then x n = nx n−1 .
dx
 Section 2.2 Basic Rules of Differentiation 93

d
b. The Constant Multiple Rule: If f is a differentiable function and c is a constant, then c f (x) = c f (x).
dx
d
c. The Sum Rule: If f and g are differentiable functions, then f (x) + g (x) = f (x) + g (x).
dx
2. a. If h (x) = 2 f (x) , then h (x) = 2 f (x) and h (2) = 2 f (2) = 2 · 3 = 6.
b. If F (x) = 2 f (x) − 4g (x), then F (x) = 2 f (x) − 4g (x) and
F (2) = 2 f (2) − 4g (2) = 2 (3) − 4 (−2) = 6 + 8 = 14.

2.2 Basic Rules of Differentiation

d d
1. f (x) = (2.718) = 0 2. f (x) = (3x + 4) = 3
dx dx
d d
3. f (x) = 3x 2 = 6x 4. f (x) = −2x 3 = −6x 2
dx dx
d d 3
5. f (x) = x 2.1 = 2.1x 1.1 6. f (x) = 9x 1/3 = 9 · 13 x (1/3)−1 = 3x −2/3 = 2/3
dx dx x
d √ d 3
7. f (x) = 3 x =3 x 1/2 = 3 · 12 · x (1/2)−1 = 32 x −1/2 = √
dx dx 2 x
d 2 d 1
8. f (u) = √ =2 u −1/2 = 2 − 12 u −(1/2)−1 = −u −3/2 = − 3/2
du u du u
d d 84
9. f (x) = 7x −12 = 7 x −12 = 7 (−12) x −12−1 = −84x −13 = − 13
dx dx x
d −1.2 −1.2−1 −2.2 0.36
10. f (x) = 0.3x = 0.3 (−1.2) x = −0.36x = − 2.2
dx x
d 2
11. f (x) = x − 2x + 8 = 2x − 2
dx
d √ √
12. g (x) = − 13 x 2 + 2x = − 23 x + 2
dx
d
13. f (r ) = πr 2 + 2πr = 2πr + 2π
dr
dy d
14. = − 13 x 3 + 2x 2 + x − 1 = − 13 3x 2 + 4x + 1
dx dx
d
15. f (x) = 0.03x 2 − 0.4x + 10 = 0.06x − 0.4
dx
d
16. f (x) = 0.002x 3 − 0.05x 2 + 0.1x − 20 = 0.006 x 2 − 0.1x + 0.1
dx
d d
17. g (x) = x 2 2x 3 − 3x 2 + x + 4 = 2x 5 − 3x 4 + x 3 + 4x 2 = 10x 4 − 12x 3 + 3x 2 + 8x
dx dx
d
18. H (u) = (2u)3 − 3u + 7 = 8u 3 − 3u + 7 ⇒ H (u) = 8u 3 − 3u + 7 = 24u 2 − 3 = 3 8u 2 − 1
du
x 3 − 4x 2 + 3 d 3
19. f (x) = = x 2 − 4x + 3x −1 ⇒ f (x) = x 2 − 4x + 3x −1 = 2x − 4 − 3x −2 = 2x − 4 − 2
x dx x
t 5 − 3t 3 + 2t 2 d
20. h (t) = = 12 t 3 − 32 t + 1 ⇒ h (t) = 1 t3 − 3 t + 1 = 3 t2 − 3 = 3 t2 − 1
2t 2 dt 2 2 2 2 2
d
21. f (x) = 4x 4 − 3x 5/2 + 2 = 16x 3 − 15 2 x
3/2
dx
d
22. f (x) = 5x 4/3 − 23 x 3/2 + x 2 − 3x + 1 = 20 3 x
1/3 − x 1/2 + 2x − 3
dx
d 3 8
23. f (x) = 3x −1 + 4x −2 = −3x −2 − 8x −3 = − 2 − 3
dx x x
94 Chapter 2 The Derivative

d 1
24. f (x) = − 13 x −3 − x 6 = − 13 −3x −4 − 6x 5 = x −4 + 2x 5 = 2x 5 + 4
dx x

d 16 9 2
25. f (t) = 4t −4 − 3t −3 + 2t −1 = −16t −5 + 9t −4 − 2t −2 = − 5 + 4 − 2
dt t t t

d 15 4 1
26. f (x) = 5x −3 − 2x −2 − x −1 + 200 = −15x −4 + 4x −3 + x −2 = − 4 + 3 + 2
dx x x x

dA d 200 200
27. = 0.001x 2 − 0.4x + 5 + = 0.002x − 0.4 − 200x −2 = 0.002x − 0.4 −
dx dx x x2

d 200
28. y = 0.0002t 3 − 0.4t 2 + 4 + 100t −2 = 0.0006t 2 − 0.8t − 200t −3 = 0.0006t 2 − 0.8t − 3
dt t

d 5
29. f (x) = 2x − 5x 1/2 = 2 − 52 x −1/2 = 2 − √
dx 2 x

d √
30. f (t) = 2t 2 + t 3/2 = 4t + 32 t 1/2 = 4t + 32 t
dt

d 1 1
31. y = x 1/3 + x −1/2 = 13 x −2/3 − 12 x −3/2 = 2/3 − 3/2
dx 3x 2x

d 1 1
32. f (u) = u −1/2 − 3u −1/3 = − 12 u −3/2 + u −4/3 = − 3/2 + 4/3
du 2u u

d d
33. f (x) = 2x 3 − 4x = 6x 2 − 4 34. f (x) = 4x 5/4 + 2x 3/2 + x = 5x 1/4 + 3x 1/2 + 1
dx dx

a. f (−2) = 6 (−2)2 − 4 = 24 − 4 = 20 a. f (0) = 5 (0) + 3 (0) + 1 = 1

b. f (0) = 6 (0) − 4 = −4 b. f (16) = 5 (16)1/4 + 3 (16)1/2 + 1 = 10 + 12 + 1

c. f (2) = 6 (2)2 − 4 = 20 = 23

d d
35. a. f (x) = 2x 2 − 3x + 4 = 4x − 3 and 36. a. f (x) = − 53 x 2 + 2x + 2 = − 10
3 x + 2 and
dx dx
f (2) = 4 (2) − 3 = 5. An equation of the tangent f (−1) = − 10 16
3 (−1) + 2 = 3 . An equation of the
line is y − 6 = 5 (x − 2), or y = 5x − 4.
tangent line is y − − 53 = 16
3 [x − (−1)] or
b.
y = 16 11
3 x+ 3 .
10
b.
50

0 0

-50
-1 0 1 2 3
-100

-10 -5 0 5 10
 Section 2.2 Basic Rules of Differentiation 95

d d
37. a. f (x) = x 4 − 3x 3 + 2x 2 − x + 1 38. a. f (x) = x 1/2 + x −1/2 = 12 x −1/2 − 12 x −3/2
dx dx
= 4x 3 − 9x 2 + 4x − 1 and 1 1
= √ − 3/2 , so
2 x 2x
f (1) = 4 (1)3 − 9 (1)2 + 4 (1) − 1 = −2. An 1 1 1 1 3
equation of the tangent line is y − 0 = −2 (x − 1) or f (4) = √ − = − = . An
2 4 2 · 43/2 4 16 16
y = −2x + 2.
equation of the tangent line is y − 52 = 16
3 (x − 4),

b. 3 x + 7.
or y = 16 4

b.
10 4

3
0

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 2

-2 0 2 4 6

39. f (x) = 6x 2 + 6x − 12 = 0 ⇒ x 2 + x − 2 = 0 ⇒ (x + 2) (x − 1) = 0 ⇒ x = −2 or 1.
f (−2) = 2 (−8) + 3 (4) − 12 (−2) − 10 = 10 and f (1) = 2 + 3 − 12 − 10 = −17, so the points are (−2, 10) and
(1, −17).

40. g (x) = x 2 − x − 1 = −1 ⇒ x 2 − x = x (x − 1) = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or 1. g (0) = 1 and g (1) = 13 − 12 − 1 + 1 = − 16 , so the

points are (0, 1) and 1, − 16 .

1 1
41. h (t) = 2 − 2 = −2 ⇒ 2 = 4 ⇒ t = ± 12 . h − 12 = 2 − 12 − 2 = −3 and h 12 = 2 12 + 2 = 3, so the points are
t t
− 12 , −3 and 12 , 3 .

d 1 1 1 2 (3) + 1 7 2 (−3) + 1 5
42. F (s) = 2+ = − 2 = − ⇒ s 2 = 9 ⇒ s = ±3. F (3) = = and F (−3) = = , so
ds s s 9 3 3 −3 3
the points are 3, 73 and −3, 53 .

dy dy
43. a. y = x 3 − 3x + 1 ⇒ = 3x 2 − 3 and = 9, so m T = 9 b. 10
dx dx x=2
and m N = − 19 . An equation of the tangent line is
y − 3 = 9 (x − 2) or y = 9x − 15, and an equation of the normal 0
line is y − 3 = − 19 (x − 2) or y = − 19 x + 29
9 .

-10
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Note that the tangent and normal lines do

not look perpendicular because the x-
and y-axes are not to scale.
96 Chapter 2 The Derivative

dy 1
44. a. y = 2x + x −1/2 ⇒ = 2 − 12 x −3/2 = 2 − 3/2 and b. 10
dx 2x
dy
= 32 , so m T = 32 and m N = − 23 . An equation of the
dx x=1
5
tangent line is y − 3 = 32 (x − 1) or y = 32 x + 32 , and an equation

of the normal line is y − 3 = − 23 (x − 1) or y = − 23 x + 11

3 .
0
0 1 2 3 4

Note that the tangent and normal lines do

not look perpendicular because the x-
and y-axes are not to scale.

9 dy 9 dy 9
45. y = 2x − ⇒ = 2 + 2 . Setting = 3 gives 2 + 2 = 3 ⇒ x 2 = 9 ⇔ x = ±3.
x dx x dx x

46. f (x) = 23 x 3 + x 2 − 12x + 6 ⇒ f (x) = 2x 2 + 2x − 12

a. f (x) = −12 ⇒ 2x 2 + 2x − 12 = −12 ⇒ 2x 2 + 2x = 0 ⇒ 2x (x + 1) = 0 ⇔ x = 0 or x = −1
b. f (x) = 0 ⇒ 2x 2 + 2x − 12 = 0 ⇒ 2 x 2 + x − 6 = 2 (x + 3) (x − 2) = 0 ⇔ x = −3 or x = 2

c. f (x) = 12 ⇒ 2x 2 + 2x − 12 = 12 ⇒ 2 x 2 + x − 12 = 2 (x + 4) (x − 3) = 0 ⇔ x = −4 or x = 3

47. f (x) = 14 x 4 − 13 x 3 − x 2 ⇒ f (x) = x 3 − x 2 − 2x

a. f (x) = −2x ⇒ x 3 − x 2 − 2x = −2x ⇒ x 3 − x 2 = 0 ⇒ x 2 (x − 1) = 0 ⇔ x = 0 or 1.
f (1) = 14 (1)4 − 13 (1)3 − (1)2 = − 13 1 4 1 3 2
12 and f (0) = 4 (0) − 3 (0) − (0) = 0. We conclude that the corresponding
points on the graph are 1, − 13
12 and (0, 0).

b. f (x) = 0 ⇒ x 3 − x 2 − 2x = 0 ⇒ x x 2 − x − 2 = 0 ⇒ x (x − 2) (x + 1) = 0 ⇔ x = 0, 2, or −1. f (0) = 0,

f (2) = 14 (2)4 − 13 (2)3 − (2)2 = 4 − 83 − 4 = − 83 , and f (−1) = 14 (−1)4 − 13 (−1)3 − (−1)2 = 14 + 13 − 1 = − 12

5.

We conclude that the corresponding points are (0, 0), 2, − 83 , and −1, − 12
5 .

c. f (x) = 10x ⇒ x 3 − x 2 − 2x = 10x ⇒ x 3 − x 2 − 12x = 0 ⇒ x x 2 − x − 12 = 0 ⇒

x (x − 4) (x + 3) = 0 ⇒ x = 0, 4, or −3. f (0) = 0, f (4) = 14 (4)4 − 13 (4)3 − (4)2 = 48 − 64 80

3 = 3 , and
f (−3) = 14 (−3)4 − 13 (−3)3 − (−3)2 = 81 81
4 + 9 − 9 = 4 . We conclude that the corresponding points are (0, 0),
4, 80 81
3 , and −3, 4 .

dy
48. y = 13 x 3 − 2x + 5 ⇒ = x 2 − 2. The slope of the given line is 2, so set x 2 − 2 = 2 ⇒ x 2 = 4 ⇒ x = ±2. The required
dx
points are −2, 19 11
3 and 2, 3 .

dy
49. y = 13 x 3 − 2x + 5 ⇒ = x 2 − 2. The slope of the given line is 1, so the normal line has slope −1. We set x 2 − 2 = −1
dx
⇒ x 2 = 1 ⇒ x = ±1. The required points are −1, 20 10
3 and 1, 3 .

dy
50. The line y = 2x has slope 2. Also y = x 2 + c ⇒ = 2x, so 2x = 2 ⇒ x = 1. Therefore y = 2. Substituting into the
dx
second equation gives 2 = 1 + c, so c = 1.
 Section 2.2 Basic Rules of Differentiation 97

y −2
51. Let (x0 , y0 ) denote the point of tangency. Then the slope of a line passing through this point and (3, 2) is m = 0 .
x0 − 3
dy
The slope of the tangent line to the parabola at (x0 , y0 ) is = [2x − 2]x=x0 = 2x0 − 2. Equating these two
dx x=x0
y −2
slopes gives 0 = 2x0 − 2 ⇒ y0 − 2 = (x0 − 3) (2x0 − 2). Because (x0 , y0 ) is on the parabola, we must have
x0 − 3
y0 = x02 − 2x0 . Substituting this into the previous expression gives x02 − 2x0 − 2 = 2x02 − 8x0 + 6 ⇒ x02 − 6x0 + 8 = 0 ⇒
(x0 − 4) (x0 − 2) = 0. Thus, x0 = 2 or 4. The two points of tangency are (2, 0) and (4, 8), the slopes of the tangent
lines are m 1 = 2 (2) − 2 = 2 and m 2 = 2 (4) − 2 = 6, and their equations are y − 0 = 2 (x − 2) ⇒ y = 2x − 4 and
y − 8 = 6 (x − 4) ⇒ y = 6x − 16.
52. The parabola y = x 2 − 6x + 11 = (x − 3)2 + 2 has vertex (3, 2), so the slope of the line passing through the vertex of the
2−0
parabola and (1, 0) is = 1. The slope of the normal line is then −1/m = −1. The slope of the tangent line to the
3−1
dy
parabola at (x0 , y0 ) is = [2x − 6]x=x0 = 2x0 − 6. Since the slope of the required normal line is −1, it follows
dx x=x0
2
that 2x0 − 6 = 1 and x0 = 72 . Since f 7
2 = 72 − 6 72 + 11 = 94 , the point of intersection of the normal line and the

parabola is 72 , 94 , and an equation of the normal line is y − 94 = −1 x − 72 or y = −x + 23

4.

(1 + h)3 − 1
53. lim = f (1), where f (x) = x 3 . f (x) = 3x 2 , so f (1) = 3.
h→0 h
x5 − 1 (1 + h)5 − 1
54. lim = lim = f (1), where f (x) = x 5 . f (x) = 5x 4 , so f (1) = 5.
h→0 x − 1 h→0 h
f (2 + h) − f (2) 3 (2 + h)2 − (2 + h) − 10
55. Let f (x) = 3x 2 − x. Then f (2) = lim = lim . But
h→0 h h→0 h
f (2) = [6x − 1]x=2 = 11, so the required limit is 11.
f (8 + t)1/3 − f (8) (8 + t)1/3 − 2
56. Let f (x) = x 1/3 . Then f (8) = lim = lim . But
t→0 t t→0 t
1 1
f (8) = 13 x −2/3 = = 1 .
, so the required limit is 12
x=8 3 (8)2/3 12
57. We use the definition of the derivative to write
2 (x + h)7 − (x + h)2 − 2x 7 + x 2 2 (x + h)7 − 2x 7 (x + h)2 − x 2 d d
lim = lim − lim = 2x 7 − x2
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h dx dx
= 14x 6 − 2x = 2x 7x 5 − 1
58. We use the definition of the derivative to write
1 √ 1 √ 1 1 √ √
+ x +h− − x − x +h− x d 1 d √ 1 1
lim x + h x = lim x + h x + lim = + x =− 2 + √ .
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h dx x dx x 2 x
59. T = −0.05t 3 + 0.4t 2 + 3.8t + 19.6 ⇒ T = −0.15t 2 + 0.8t + 3.8. Setting T = 2.05 gives −0.15t 2 + 0.8t + 3.8 = 2.05
⇒ −0.15t 2 + 0.8t + 1.75 = 0 ⇒ 15t 2 − 80t − 175 = 0 ⇒ 3t 2 − 16t − 35 = 0 ⇔ (3t + 5) (t − 7) = 0 ⇔ t = − 53 or 7.
We reject the negative root. So the temperature is increasing at the rate of 2.05 ◦ F per hour at 1 P. M ..
60. S = −0.0015x ⇒ S (100) = −0.0015 (100) = −0.15, so the average speed of traffic flow drops at the rate of 0.15 mi/h
per 1000 vehicles when x = 100. S (200) = −0.0015 (200) = −0.3, so the average speed of traffic flow drops at the rate
of 0.3 mi/h per 1000 vehicles when x = 200.
61. a. P (t) = 0.54t + 1.4. In 2010, P (1) = 0.54 (1) + 1.4 = 1.94 or 1.94%/decade. In 2020,
P (2) = 0.54 (2) + 1.4 = 2.48%/decade.
98 Chapter 2 The Derivative

b. In 2010, P (1) = 0.27 12 + 1.4 (1) + 2.2 = 3.87%. In 2020, P (2) = 0.27 22 + 1.4 (2) + 2.2 = 6.08%.

dA d 11.925 dA 11.925
62. = 26.5 x −0.45 = 26.5 (−0.45) x −1.45 = − 1.45 . Therefore, =− ≈ −89.01 and
dx dx x dx x=0.25 (0.25)1.45
dA 11.925
= − 1.45 ≈ −4.36. This shows that if you make 0.25 stops per mile, your average speed will decrease at the
dx x=2 (2)
rate of approximately 89.01 mi/h per stop per mile. If you make 2 stops per mile, your average speed will decrease at the
rate of approximately 4.36 mi/h per stop per mile.

63. a. D (t) = f (t) − g (t) = 2.48t 2 + 18.47t + 509 − −1.12t 2 + 29.09t + 429 = 3.6t 2 − 10.62t + 80
b. D (t) = 7.2t − 10.62 ⇒ D (1) = 7.2 − 10.62 = −3.42, so in 1995, the difference was dropping at the rate of $3.42 per
person per year. D (6) = 7.2 (6) − 10.62 = 32.58, so in 2000, the difference was increasing at the rate of $32.58 per
person per year.

64. a. b. Using the numerical derivative operation of a graphing utility, we see that
30 f (20) ≈ 0.9280996. The rate of change of f when x = 50 is given by
f (50) ≈ −0.3145009995.
20
c. The results of part b tell us that when a typical car is being driven at
10
20 mi/h, its fuel economy increases at the rate of approximately 0.9 miles
0 per gallon per 1 mi/h increase in its speed. At a speed of 50 mi/h, its fuel
0 20 40 60 economy decreases at the rate of approximately 0.3 miles per gallon per
1 mi/h increase in its speed.

65. a. b. Using the numerical derivative operation of a graphing utility, we find that
f (2) ≈ 0.3835, f (3) ≈ 1.0489, and f (4) ≈ 1.7311.
10
c. The number of Alzheimer’s patients will be increasing at the rate of
5 approximately 0.3835 million patients per decade at the beginning of
2010, 1.0489 million patients per decade in 2020, and 1.7311 million
patients per decade in 2030.
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

66. a. f (t) = 0.611t 3 + 9.702t 2 + 32.544t + 473.5 b.

1000
c. Using the numerical derivative operation of a graphing utility, we find that
f (1) = 53.781 and f (4) = 139.488. So at the beginning of 2000, the
assets of the hedge funds were increasing at the rate of 500

$53.781 billion/year, and at the beginning of 2003, they were increasing at

the rate of $139.488 billion/year. 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
 Section 2.2 Basic Rules of Differentiation 99

67. a. f (t) = −0.0123t 4 + 0.2639t 3 − 2.2601t 2 + 5.6608t + 143.6 b.

c. Using the numerical derivative operation of a graphing utility, we find that 140
f (0) = 5.6608, f (2) = −0.6064, and f (9) = −6.7601. So in 1985,
the population was increasing at the rate of 5.6608 million per 5 years, and 120
in 1995 it was decreasing at the rate of 0.6064 million per 5 years.
According to our model, in 2030 it is expected to be decreasing at the rate
100
of 6.7601 million per 5 years. 0 2 4 6 8

d Gm M d 2Gm M
68. F = = Gm M r −2 = −2Gm Mr −3 = − N/m
dr r2 dr r3
d 2πr r 2π d 2π 3 3π r
69. T = = √ · r 3/2 = √ · r 1/2 =
dr R g R g dr R g 2 R g
70. Let (x0 , y0 ) denote the point on the parabolic path at the instant its bow is pointed at the spectator. Then the tangent
line to the parabola at (x0 , y0 ) must pass through the point (2.5, 0). The slope of the tangent line is given by
y −0 −2.5x02 + 10
y x=x = −5x|x=x0 = −5x0 . It is also given by 0 = , since y0 = −2.5x02 + 10. Equating
0 x0 − 2.5 x0 − 2.5
−2.5x02 + 10
the two slopes gives = −5x0 ⇒ −2.5x02 + 10 = −5x02 + 12.5x0 ⇒ 2.5x02 − 12.5x0 + 10 = 0 ⇒
x0 − 2.5
25x02 − 125x0 + 100 = 0 ⇒ x02 − 5x0 + 4 = 0 ⇔ (x0 − 4) (x0 − 1) = 0, so x0 = 4 or 1. We reject the first root because
we want the point where the launch approaches the spectator. At this instant, the launch is at the point (1, 7.5), and so the
√ √
required distance is d = (2.5 − 1)2 + (0 − 7.5)2 = 2.25 + 56.25 = 58.5 ≈ 7.65, or approximately 765 ft.
71. The parabola passes through (−1, 0), giving 0 = A − B + C. The parabola also passes through the point of tangency (1, 1),
thus 1 = A + B + C. Finally, y = 2Ax + B, and the tangency requirement gives y x=1 = 2A + B = 1 (the slope of
⎧
⎪
⎨ A− B +C =0
⎪
y = x). We have the system A+ B +C =1 Subtracting the second equation from the first gives −2B = −1 or
⎪
⎪
⎩ 2A + B =1
B = 12 . Substituting this into the third equation gives 2A + 12 = 1 or A = 14 , and substituting into the final equation, we
have C = −A + B = − 14 + 12 = 14 . To summarize, A = 14 , B = 12 , and C = 14 .

72. In order for f to be continuous at a, lim f (x) = lim x 2 = a 2 must be equal to

x→a − x→a −
lim f (x) = lim (Ax + B) = Aa + B, that is, a A + B = a 2 . In order for f to be differentiable at a, we must have
x→a + x→a +
f (a + h) − f (a) f (a + h) − f (a)
lim = lim or 2a = A. Therefore, A = 2a and B = a 2 − 2a 2 = −a 2 .
h→0− h h→0 + h
f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)n − x n
73. f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
n n−1 n (n − 1) n−2 2
x + nx h+ x h + · · · + nxh n−1 + h n − x n
2!
= lim
h→0 h
n (n − 1)
h nx n−1 + x n−2 h + · · · + nxh n−2 + h n−1
2!
= lim
h→0 h
n (n − 1)
= lim nx n−1 + h + · · · + nxh n−2 + h n−1 = nx n−1 + 0 + · · · + 0 + 0 = nx n−1
h→0 2!
100 Chapter 2 The Derivative

1 − x n+1
74. 1 + x + x 2 + · · · + x n = for x = 1. Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x, we obtain
1−x
d d 1 − x n+1
1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn =
dx dx 1−x

d 1 d x n+1
1 + 2x + 3x 2 + · · · + nx n−1 = −
dx 1−x dx 1−x
d 1 1
Using the definition of the derivative, we can easily show that = . Next, using the Binomial
dx 1−x 1 − x2
Theorem (see Exercise 73), we write
d x n+1 1 (x + h)n+1 x n+1
= lim −
dx 1−x h→0 h 1 − (x + h) 1 − x

1 (1 − x) (x + h)n+1 − (1 − x − h) x n+1
= lim
h→0 h (1 − x − h) (1 − x)
(n + 1) n n−1 2
(1 − x) x n+1 + (n + 1) x n h + x h + · · · − (1 − x − h) x n+1
2!
= lim
h→0 h (1 − x − h) (1 − x)
x n+1 + (n + 1) x n h − x n+2 − (n + 1) x n+1 h + higher order terms in h − (1 − x − h) x n+1
= lim
h→0 h (1 − x − h) (1 − x)
(n + 1) x n − nx n+1 h + higher order terms in h
= lim
h→0 h (1 − x − h) (1 − x)
(n + 1) x n − nx n+1 + higher order terms in h (n + 1) x n − nx n+1
= lim =
h→0 (1 − x − h) (1 − x) (1 − x)2
1 − (n + 1) x n + nx n+1
Therefore, 1 + 2x + 3x 2 + · · · + nx n−1 = . This problem can be solved much more easily using
(1 − x)2
the Quotient Rule for differentiation, which is introduced in Section 2.3.
75. False. f (x) = 2nx 2n−1 . For example, for n = 3, f (x) = x 6 = x 2·3 and f (x) = 6x 5 , whereas
2nx 2(n−1) = 2 · 3x 2(3−1) = 6x 4 .
76. False. f (x) = 2x is not a power function. The exponent in a power function must be a constant.
77. True by the Sum and Constant Multiple Rules.
2
78. False. Take f (x) = x 2 . Then g (x) = f x 2 = x 2 = x 4 , so g (x) = 4x 3 . On the other hand, f (x) = 2x, so

f x 2 = 2 x 2 = 2x 2 . Thus, g (x) = f x2 .

2.3 Concept Questions

1. a. The derivative of the product of two functions is equal to the first function times the derivative of the second function,
plus the second function times the derivative of the first function.
b. The derivative of the quotient of two functions is equal to another quotient whose numerator is given by the denominator
times the derivative of the numerator minus the numerator times the derivative of the denominator, and whose
denominator is given by the square of the denominator of the original quotient.
2. a. h (x) = f (x) g (x) + f (x) g (x), so h (1) = f (1) g (1) + f (1) g (1) = (3) (4) + (−1) (2) = 10
g (x) f (x) − f (x) g (x) g (1) f (1) − f (1) g (1) 2 (−1) − 3 (4) 7
b. F (x) = 2
, so F (1) = 2
= 2
=− .
g (x) g (1) 2 2
 Section 2.3 The Product and Quotient Rules 101

2.3 The Product and Quotient Rules

d
1. f (x) = 2x x 2 + 1 = 2x (2x) + x 2 + 1 (2) = 4x 2 + 2x 2 + 2 = 6x 2 + 2 = 2 3x 2 + 1
dx
d
2. F (x) = 3x 2 (x − 1) = 3x 2 (1) + (x − 1) (6x) = 3x 2 + 6x 2 − 6x = 9x 2 − 6x = 3x (3x − 2)
dx
d d
3. f (t) = (t − 1) (2t + 1) + (2t + 1) (t − 1) = (t − 1) (2) + (2t + 1) (1) = 2t − 2 + 2t + 1 = 4t − 1
dt dt
d d
4. f (x) = (3x + 1) x2 − 2 + x2 − 2 (3x + 1) = (3x + 1) (2x) + x 2 − 2 (3) = 6x 2 + 2x + 3x 2 − 6
dx dx
= 9x 2 + 2x − 6

d d
5. f (x) = x 3 − 12x 3x 2 + 2x + 3x 2 + 2x x 3 − 12x = x 3 − 12x (6x + 2) + 3x 2 + 2x 3x 2 − 12
dx dx
= 6x 4 + 2x 3 − 72x 2 − 24x + 9x 4 − 36x 2 + 6x 3 − 24x = 15x 4 + 8x 3 − 108x 2 − 48x

d d
6. f (w) = w3 − w2 + w − 1 w3 + 2 + w3 + 2 w3 − w 2 + w − 1
dw dw
= w3 − w2 + w − 1 3w2 + w3 + 2 3w2 − 2w + 1

= 3w5 − 3w4 + 3w3 − 3w2 + 3w5 − 2w4 + w3 + 6w2 − 4w + 2 = 6w5 − 5w4 + 4w3 + 3w2 − 4w + 2

d d
(x − 1) (x) − x (x − 1) (x − 1) (1) − x (1) x −1−x 1
7. f (x) = dx dx = = =−
(x − 1)2 (x − 1)2 (x − 1)2 (x − 1)2
d d
x2 + 1 (2x) − 2x x2 + 1 x 2 + 1 (2) − 2x (2x) 2x 2 + 2 − 4x 2 2 x2 − 1
8. g (x) = dx dx = = = −
2 2 2 2
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 x2 + 1 x2 + 1
d d
(3x − 2) (2x + 1) − (2x + 1) (3x − 2) (3x − 2) (2) − (2x + 1) (3) 6x − 4 − 6x − 3
9. h (x) = dx dx = =
(3x − 2)2 (3x − 2)2 (3x − 2)2
7
=−
(3x − 2)2
d d
(3 − 2t) (2 − t) − (2 − t) (3 − 2t) (3 − 2t) (−1) − (2 − t) (−2) −3 + 2t + 4 − 2t 1
10. P (t) = dt dt = = =
(3 − 2t)2 (3 − 2t)2 (3 − 2t)2 (3 − 2t)2
d d
x2 − 5 (2x + 3) − (2x + 3) x2 − 5 x 2 − 5 (2) − (2x + 3) (2x)
11. F (x) = dx dx =
2 2
x2 − 5 x2 − 5

2x 2 − 10 − 4x 2 − 6x −2x 2 − 6x − 10 2 x 2 + 3x + 5
= 2
= 2
=− 2
x2 − 5 x2 − 5 x2 − 5
d d
(s + 1) s2 − 4 − s2 − 4 (s + 1) (s + 1) (2s) − s 2 − 4 (1) 2s 2 + 2s − s 2 + 4
12. f (s) = ds ds = =
(s + 1)2 (s + 1)2 (s + 1)2
s 2 + 2s + 4
=
(s + 1)2
102 Chapter 2 The Derivative

13. F (x) = (x + 2) x 2 − x + 1 = x 3 − x 2 + x + 2x 2 − 2x + 2 = x 3 + x 2 − x + 2 ⇒ F (x) = 3x 2 + 2x − 1.

Using the Product Rule, we have
d d
F (x) = (x + 2) x2 − x + 1 + x2 − x + 1 (x + 2) = (x + 2) (2x − 1) + x 2 − x + 1 (1)
dx dx
= 2x 2 − x + 4x − 2 + x 2 − x + 1 = 3x 2 + 2x − 1

t 5 − 3t 3 + 2t 2
14. h (t) = = 12 t 3 − 32 t + 1 ⇒ h (t) = 32 t 2 − 32 = 32 t 2 − 1 .
2t 2
Using the Quotient Rule, we have
d 5 d
2t 2 t − 3t 3 + 2t 2 − t 5 − 3t 3 + 2t 2 2t 2 2t 2 5t 4 − 9t 2 + 4t − t 5 − 3t 3 + 2t 2 (4t)
h (t) = dt dt =
2 2
2t 2 2t 2
10t 6 − 18t 4 + 8t 3 − 4t 6 + 12t 4 − 8t 3 6t 6 − 6t 4
= 4
= = 32 t 2 − 32 = 32 t 2 − 1
4t 4t 4

15. g (t) = t 3 + 1 2t −2 − t −1 = 2t − t 2 + 2t −2 − t −1 ⇒
d 1 4
g (t) = 2t − t 2 + 2t −2 − t −1 = 2 − 2t − 4t −3 + t −2 = −2t + 2 + 2 − 3 .
dt t t
Using the Product Rule, we have
d d 3
g (t) = t 3 + 1 2t −2 − t −1 + 2t −2 − t −1 t + 1 = t 3 + 1 −4t −3 + t −2 + 2t −2 − t −1 3t 2
dt dt
1 4
= −4t 0 + t − 4t −3 + t −2 + 6t 0 − 3t = −2t + 2 + 2 − 3
t t

2t 2 − 3t 3/2 √
16. f (t) = = 25 t 3/2 − 35 t ⇒ f (t) = 25 · 32 t 1/2 − 35 = 35 t −1 .
5t 1/2
Using the Quotient Rule, we have
d d
5t 1/2 2t 2 − 3t 3/2 − 2t 2 − 3t 3/2 5t 1/2 5t 1/2 4t − 92 t 1/2 − 2t 2 − 3t 3/2 5 t −1/2
2
f (t) = dt dt =
2 25t
5t 1/2
20t 3/2 − 45
2 t − 5t
3/2 + 15 t
2 = 15t
3/2 − 15t √
= = 35 t 1/2 − 35 = 35 t −1
25t 25t

d d
17. f (x) = 5x 2 + 1 2x 1/2 − 1 + 2x 1/2 − 1 5x 2 + 1 = 5x 2 + 1 x −1/2 + 2x 1/2 − 1 (10x)
dx dx
1
= 5x 3/2 + x −1/2 + 20x 3/2 − 10x = 25x 3/2 − 10x + √
x

d d 1 t −1/2
18. f (t) = 1 + t 1/2 2t 2 − 3 + 2t 2 − 3 1 + t 1/2 = 1 + t 1/2 (4t) + 2t 2 − 3 2
dt dt
3
= 4t + 4t 3/2 + t 3/2 − 32 t −1/2 = 5t 3/2 + 4t − √
2 t

d d
x2 + 1 2x 1/2 − 2x 1/2 x2 + 1 x2 + 1 x −1/2 − 2x 1/2 (2x)
19. f (x) = dx dx =
2 2
x2 + 1 x2 + 1

x 3/2 + x −1/2 − 4x 3/2 −3x 3/2 + x −1/2 x −1/2 −3x 2 + 1 −3x 2 + 1

= 2
= 2
= 2
=√ 2
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 x2 + 1 x x2 + 1
 Section 2.3 The Product and Quotient Rules 103

d d
x 1/2 + 1 x 1/2 − 1 − x 1/2 − 1 x 1/2 + 1 x 1/2 + 1 1 x −1/2 − x 1/2 − 1
2
1 x −1/2
2
20. f (x) = dx dx =
2 2
x 1/2 + 1 1/2
x +1
1 x 0 + 1 x −1/2 − 1 x 0 + 1 x −1/2
x −1/2 1
= 2 2 2
2
2 = √ 2
=√ √ 2
x 1/2 +1 x +1 x x +1

d d
dy d 2x 2 x2 + x + 1 2x 2 − 2x 2 x2 + x + 1
21. = = dx dx
dx dx 2
x +x +1 2
x2 + x + 1
x 2 + x + 1 (4x) − 2x 2 (2x + 1) 2x 2x 2 + 2x + 2 − 2x 2 + x 2x (x + 2)
= 2
= 2
= 2
x2 + x + 1 x2 + x + 1 x2 + x + 1

d d 2
dy d 2t − 1 t 2 − 3t + 2 (2t − 1) − (2t − 1) t − 3t + 2
22. = = dt dt
dt dt t 2 − 3t + 2 t 2 − 3t + 2
2

t 2 − 3t + 2 (2) − (2t − 1) (2t − 3) 2t 2 − 6t + 4 − 4t 2 + 6t + 2t − 3

= 2
= 2
t 2 − 3t + 2 t 2 − 3t + 2
−2t 2 + 2t + 1 2t 2 − 2t − 1
= 2
=− 2
t 2 − 3t + 2 t 2 − 3t + 2

d d
(x − 2) x3 + x2 + x + 1 − x3 + x2 + x + 1 (x − 2)
23. f (x) = dx dx
(x − 2)2
(x − 2) 3x 2 + 2x + 1 − x 3 + x 2 + x + 1 3x 3 + 2x 2 + x − 6x 2 − 4x − 2 − x 3 − x 2 − x − 1
= =
(x − 2)2 (x − 2)2
2x 3 − 5x 2 − 4x − 3
=
(x − 2)2

d d
d (2r + 1) (r − 3) d 2r 2 − 5r − 3 (3r + 1) 2r 2 − 5r − 3 − 2r 2 − 5r − 3 (3r + 1)
24. f (r ) = = = dr dr
dr 3r + 1 dr 3r + 1 (3r + 1)2

(3r + 1) (4r − 5) − 2r 2 − 5r − 3 (3) 12r 2 − 15r + 4r − 5 − 6r 2 − 15r − 9 6r 2 + 4r + 4

= = =
(3r + 1)2 (3r + 1)2 (3r + 1)2
2 3r 2 + 2r + 2
=
(3r + 1)2

1 x +1
1+ x +1 x +1
25. f (x) = x = x = = 2 ⇒
x +2 x +2 x (x + 2) x + 2x
d d
d x +1 x 2 + 2x (x + 1) − (x + 1) x 2 + 2x x 2 + 2x (1) − (x + 1) (2x + 2)
f (x) = = dx dx =
dx x 2 + 2x x 2 + 2x
2 x 2 (x + 2)2

x 2 + 2x (1) − (x + 1) (2x + 2) x 2 + 2x − 2x 2 − 2x − 2x − 2 x 2 + 2x + 2
= = =−
x 2 (x + 2)2 x 2 (x + 2)2 x 2 (x + 2)2
104 Chapter 2 The Derivative

1 x +1
1+ x +1
26. y = x = x = ⇒
1 x −1 x −1
1−
x x
d d
dy d x +1 (x − 1) (x + 1) − (x + 1) (x − 1) (x − 1) (1) − (x + 1) (1) 2
= = dx dx = =−
dx dx x − 1 (x − 1) 2 (x − 1) 2 (x − 1)2
d √ √ d
(3x − 1) x + 3x 1/2 − x + 3x 1/2 (3x − 1)
27. f (x) = dx dx
(3x − 1)2

1
√ −1/2 √ √ √ √
(3x − 1) 1 + 2 3x − x + 3x 1/2 (3) 3x + 32 3x 1/2 − 1 − 12 3x −1/2 − 3x − 3 3x 1/2
= =
(3x − 1)2 (3x − 1)2
√ √ √
3 3x + 2 x + 3
=− √
2 x (3x − 1)2

x x −1 x x 2 + 4 − (x − 1) x 2 − 4 x 2 + 8x − 4
28. f (x) = 2 − 2 = 2 2
= ⇒
x −4 x +4 x −4 x +4 x 4 − 16
d d
x 4 − 16 x 2 + 8x − 4 − x 2 + 8x − 4 x 4 − 16
f (x) = dx dx
2
x 4 − 16
x 4 − 16 (2x + 8) − x 2 + 8x − 4 4x 3 2x 5 + 8x 4 − 32x − 128 − 4x 5 − 32x 4 + 16x 3
= 2
= 2
x 4 − 16 x 4 − 16
−2x 5 − 24x 4 + 16x 3 − 32x − 128
= 2
x 4 − 16

d d
d ax + b (cx + d) (ax + b) − (ax + b) (cx + d) (cx + d) (a) − (ax + b) (c)
29. F (x) = = dx dx =
dx cx + d (cx + d)2 (cx + d)2
acx + ad − acx − bc ad − bc
= =
(cx + d)2 (cx + d)2
d d 2
d at 2 t2 + b at 2 − at 2 t +b t 2 + b (2at) − at 2 (2t) 2abt
30. g (t) = = dt dt = =
dt 2
t +b 2 2 2 2 2 2
t +b t +b t +b

d 2x − 1 d 2x − 1 2x − 1 d
31. f (x) = x2 + 1 = x2 + 1 + x2 + 1
dx 3x + 1 dx 3x + 1 3x + 1 dx
⎡ d d ⎤
(3x + 1) (2x − 1) − (2x − 1) (3x + 1) 2x − 1
⎢ dx dx ⎥
= x2 + 1 ⎣ 2 ⎦+ (2x)
(3x + 1) 3x + 1

x 2 + 1 [(3x + 1) (2) − (2x − 1) (3)] 2x (2x − 1)

= +
(3x + 1)2 3x + 1
2
x + 1 (6x + 2 − 6x + 3) 5 x2 + 1
2x (2x − 1) 2x (2x − 1)
= + = +
(3x + 1)2 3x + 1 (3x + 1)2 3x + 1
5 x 2 + 1 + 2x (2x − 1) (3x + 1) 5x 2 + 5 + 12x 3 + 4x 2 − 6x 2 − 2x 12x 3 + 3x 2 − 2x + 5
= = =
(3x + 1)2 (3x + 1)2 (3x + 1)2
 Section 2.3 The Product and Quotient Rules 105

d 2 d 2 2 d
32. g (t) = (2t + 1) t − 1 + = (2t + 1) t −1+ + t −1+ (2t + 1)
dt t −1 dt t −1 t −1 dt
⎡ d d ⎤
(t − 1) (2) − 2 (t − 1) 2
⎢ dt dt ⎥
= (2t + 1) ⎣1 + 2 ⎦+ t −1+ (2)
(t − 1) t −1

−2 (t − 1)2 + 2 2 (2t + 1) 4
= (2t + 1) 1 + +2 = 2t + 1 − + 2 (t − 1) +
(t − 1)2 t −1 (t − 1)2 t −1
2 (2t + 1) − 4 (t − 1) 4t + 2 − 4t + 4 6
= 4t − 1 − = 4t − 1 − = 4t − 1 −
(t − 1)2 (t − 1)2 (t − 1)2

d d
33. f (x) = (2x − 1) x2 + 3 + x2 + 3 (2x − 1) = (2x − 1) (2x) + x 2 + 3 (2) ⇒
dx dx
f (1) = (2 − 1) (2) + (4) (2) = 10

d d
(2x − 1) (2x + 1) − (2x + 1) (2x − 1) (2x − 1) (2) − (2x + 1) (2)
34. f (x) = dx dx = ⇒
(2x − 1) 2 (2x − 1)2
[2 (2) − 1] (2) − [2 (2) + 1] (2) 6 − 10 4
f (2) = = =−
[2 (2) − 1]2 9 9

d d
35. f (x) = x 1/2 + 2x x 3/2 − x + x 3/2 − x x 1/2 + 2x
dx dx
= x 1/2 + 2x 3 x 1/2 − 1 + x 3/2 − x 1 x −1/2 + 2 ⇒
2 2

f (4) = (4)1/2 + 2 (4) 3 (4)1/2 − 1 + (4)3/2 − (4) 1 (4)−1/2 + 2 = (2 + 8) (3 − 1) + (8 − 4) 1 + 2

2 2 4

= (10) (2) + (4) 94 = 29

d d
x 4 − 2x 2 − 1 (x) − x x 4 − 2x 2 − 1 x 4 − 2x 2 − 1 (1) − x 4x 3 − 4x
36. f (x) = dx dx = ⇒
2 2
x 4 − 2x 2 − 1 x 4 − 2x 2 − 1
(−1)4 − 2 (−1)2 − 1 − (−1) 4 (−1)3 − 4 (−1) 1−2−1 2 1
f (−1) = 2
= =− =−
(−1)4 − 2 (−1)2 − 1 (1 − 2 − 1)2 4 2

37. f (x) = x 2 + 1 (2 − x) ⇒
d d
f (x) = x 2 + 1 (2 − x) + (2 − x) x 2 + 1 = x 2 + 1 (−1) + (2 − x) (2x) = −3x 2 + 4x − 1
dx dx
At a point where the tangent line is horizontal, we have f (x) = −3x 2 +4x −1 = 0 or 3x 2 −4x +1 = (3x − 1) (x − 1) = 0,
giving x = 13 or x = 1. Since f 1
3 = 19 + 1 2 − 13 = 50
27 and f (1) = 2(2 − 1) = 2, we see that the required points

are 13 , 50
27 and (1, 2).

x x 2 + 1 (1) − x (2x) 1 − x2
38. f (x) = 2 ⇒ f (x) = 2
= 2
. At a point where the tangent line is horizontal, we have
x +1 x2 + 1 x2 + 1
f (x) = 0 ⇒ 1 − x 2 = 0, giving x = ±1. Therefore, the required points are −1, − 12 and 1, 12 .
106 Chapter 2 The Derivative

d d
39. f (x) = x 2 + 6 (x − 5) + (x − 5) x 2 + 6 = x 2 + 6 (1) + (x − 5) (2x) = x 2 + 6 + 2x 2 − 10x
dx dx
= 3x 2 − 10x + 6.
At a point where the slope of the tangent line is −2, we have f (x) = 3x 2 − 10x + 6 = −2. This gives
3x 2 − 10x + 8 = (3x − 4) (x − 2) = 0, so x = 43 or x = 2. Since f 4
3 = 16 + 6
9
4 −5
3 = − 770
27 and

f (2) = (4 + 6) (2 − 5) = −30, the required points are 43 , − 770

27 and (2, −30).

d d
(s − 2)(2s + 1) − (2s + 1) (s − 2) (s − 2) (2) − (2s + 1) (1) 2s − 4 − 2s − 1 5
40. F (s) = ds ds = = =− . At a
(s − 2)2 (s − 2)2 (s − 2)2 (s − 2)2
5 1
point where the slope of the tangent line is − 15 , we have F (s) = − 2
= − ⇒ (s − 2)2 = 25 ⇒ s − 2 = ±5 ⇔
(s − 2) 5
2 (−3) + 1 2 (7) + 1
s = −3 or s = 7. Since f (−3) = = 1 and f (7) = = 3, the required points are (−3, 1) and (7, 3).
(−3) − 2 7−2

dy d
41. a. = 2x 2 − 1 x 3 + 2x − 4 b.
dx dx 4
d d
= 2x 2 − 1 x 3 + 2x − 4 + x 3 + 2x − 4 2x 2 − 1 2
dx dx
= 2x 2 − 1 3x 2 + 2 + x 3 + 2x − 4 (4x) ⇒ 0
-2
dy
m= = (2 − 1) (3 + 2) + (1 + 2 − 4) (4) = 1. An equation of
dx x=1 -4
the tangent line is y − (−1) = 1 (x − 1) or y = x − 2. -1 0 1 2

d d
dy d 2x x2 + 1 (2x) − (2x) x2 + 1
42. a. = = dx dx b.
dx dx 2
x +1 2 1
x2 + 1
x 2 + 1 (2) − 2x (2x) 0
= 2
⇒
x2 + 1
-1
dy (1 + 1) (2) − 2 (−1) (−2)
m= = = 0. An equation of the
dx x=−1 22 -4 -2 0 2 4
tangent line is y − (−1) = 0 [x − (−1)] or y = −1.

d d
dy d 3 (x − 1) (3) − 3 (x − 1)
43. a. = x2 + 1 + = 2x + dx dx b.
dx dx x −1 (x − 1)2 10
3
= 2x − ⇒
(x − 1)2 0

dy
m= = −4 − 39 = − 13
3 . An equation of the tangent line is -10
dx x=−2
y − 4 = − 13 13 14
3 [x − (−2)] or y = − 3 x − 3 .
-4 -2 0 2
 Section 2.3 The Product and Quotient Rules 107

d d
x 1/2 + 1 x 1/2 − 1 − x 1/2 − 1 x 1/2 + 1
44. a. f (x) = dx dx b.
2
x 1/2 + 1 1.0

x 1/2 + 1 1 x −1/2 − x 1/2 − 1 1 x −1/2

2 2 0.5
= 2
⇒
x 1/2+1
0.0
(3) 14 − (1) 14 1
f (4) = = . An equation of the tangent line is
(3)2 18 -0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10
y − 13 = 18
1 (x − 4) or y = 1 x + 1 .
18 9

d d
45. a. f (x) = x 3 + 1 3x 2 − 4x + 2 + 3x 2 − 4x + 2 x3 + 1 b. 4
dx dx
= x 3 + 1 (6x − 4) + 3x 2 − 4x + 2 3x 2 ⇒
2
f (1) = (2) (2) + (1) (3) = 7. An equation of the tangent line is
0
y − 2 = 7 (x − 1) or y = 7x − 5. An equation of the normal line is
y − 2 = − 17 (x − 1) or y = − 17 x + 15
7 . -2
-1 0 1 2

Note that the tangent and normal lines do

not look perpendicular because the x-
and y-axes are not to scale.

d d
dy x2 + 1 (1) − 1 x2 + 1 2x
46. a. = dx dx =− ⇒ b.
dx 2 2 2 2
x +1 x +1
dy 2 1 1
= − 2 = − . An equation of the tangent line is
dx x=1 2 2
y − 12 = − 12 (x − 1) or y = − 12 x + 1. An equation of the normal line is 0
y − 12 = 2 (x − 1) or y = 2x − 32 .
-1 0 1 2

47. h (x) = f (x) g (x) + g (x) f (x) ⇒ h (1) = f (1) g (1) + g (1) f (1) = (2) (3) + (−2) (−1) = 8

48. h (x) = x 2 + 1 g (x) + g (x) (2x) ⇒ h (1) = 2g (1) + g (1) (2) = (2) (3) + (−2) (2) = 2

d d
x + g (x) x f (x) − x f (x) x + g (x) x + g (x) f (x) + x f (x) − x f (x) 1 + g (x)
49. h (x) = dx dx = ⇒
2 2
x + g (x) x + g (x)
[1 + (−2)] [2 + (1) (−1)] − (1) (2) (1 + 3)
h (1) = = −9
(1 − 2)2
108 Chapter 2 The Derivative

d d
f (x) − g (x) f (x) g (x) − f (x) g (x) f (x) − g (x)
50. h (x) = dx dx
2
f (x) − g (x)
f (x) − g (x) f (x) g (x) + g (x) f (x) − f (x) g (x) f (x) − g (x)
= 2
⇒
f (x) − g (x)
f (1) − g (1) f (1) g (1) + g (1) f (1) − f (1) g (1) f (1) − g (1)
h (1) = 2
f (1) − g (1)
[2 − (−2)] [(2) (3) + (−2) (−1)] − (2) (−2) (−1 − 3)
= =1
[2 − (−2)]2
1
−1
1 f (h) − f (0) (1 + h)2 1 − (1 + h)2
51. Take f (x) = . Then f (0) = lim = lim = lim . But
(1 + x)2 h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h (1 + h)2
d d d
(1 + x)2 (1) − (1) (1 + x)2 1 + 2x + x 2 2 + 2x 2
f (x) = dx dx =− dx =− =− . Therefore,
(1 + x)4 (1 + x)4 (1 + x)4 (1 + x)3
1 − (1 + t)2 2
lim = f (0) = − = −2.
t→0 t (1 + t)2 1 + x 3 x=0
f (x) − f (1) (x + 1)2 − 4
52. Take f (x) = (x + 1)2 . Then f (1) = lim = lim . But
x→1 x −1 x→1 x −1
d d (x + 1)2 − 4
f (x) = (x + 1)2 = x 2 + 2x + 1 = 2x + 2. Therefore, lim = f (1) = (2x + 2)|x=1 = 4.
dx dx x→1 x −1
53. f (x) = x 8 − x 4 + 2x 2 + 1 ⇒ f (x) = 8x 7 − 4x 3 + 4x ⇒ f (x) = 56x 6 − 12x 2 + 4
54. f (x) = (2x)4 − (2x)2 + 1 = 16x 4 − 4x 2 + 1 ⇒ f (x) = 64x 3 − 8x ⇒ f (x) = 192x 2 − 8
2 18
55. f (x) = x −1 + 3x −2 ⇒ f (x) = −x −2 − 6x −3 ⇒ f (x) = 2x −3 + 18x −4 = 3 + 4
x x
x +1 (x − 1) (1) − (x + 1) (1) 2
56. f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = = − ⇒
x −1 (x − 1)2 (x − 1)2
⎡ d ⎤
(x − 1)2 (0) − 2 x 2 − 2x + 1
⎢ dx ⎥ 2 (2x − 2) 4
f (x) = − ⎣ ⎦= =
(x − 1)4 (x − 1)4 (x − 1)3

57. y = x 3 − 2x 2 + 1 ⇒ y = 3x 2 − 4x ⇒ y = 6x − 4
1
58. y = x 2 x + = x 3 + x ⇒ y = 3x 2 + 1 ⇒ y = 6x
x
59. y = (x + 2)3 = x 3 + 6x 2 + 12x + 8 ⇒ y = 3x 2 + 12x + 12 ⇒ y = 6x + 12

x x 2 + 1 (1) − x (2x) 1 − x2
60. y = 2 ⇒y = 2
= 2
⇒
x +1 x2 + 1 x2 + 1
2 d 2
x 2 + 1 (−2x) − 1 − x 2 x 4 + 2x 2 + 1 x 2 + 1 (−2x) − 1 − x 2 4x 3 + 4x
y = dx =
4 4
x2 + 1 x2 + 1
2
x2 + 1 (−2x) − 1 − x 2 4x x 2 + 1 −2x x 2 + 1 x2 + 1 + 2 1 − x2 2x x 2 − 3
= 4
= 4
= 3
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 x2 + 1
61. a. f (x) = 4x 3 − 2x 2 + 3 ⇒ f (x) = 12x 2 − 4x ⇒ f (x) = 24x − 4, so f (2) = 24 (2) − 4 = 44.
1
b. y = 2x 3 − = 2x 3 − x −1 ⇒ y = 6x 2 + x −2 ⇒ y = 12x − 2x −3 , so y x=1 = 12 − 2 = 10.
x
 Section 2.3 The Product and Quotient Rules 109

62. a. f (x) = 8x 7 − 6x 5 + 4x 3 − x ⇒ f (x) = 56x 6 − 30x 4 + 12x 2 − 1 ⇒ f (x) = 336x 5 − 120x 3 + 24x ⇒
f (x) = 1680x 4 − 360x 2 + 24, so f (0) = 24.
b. y = x −1 ⇒ y = −x −2 ⇒ y = 2x −3 ⇒ y = −6x −4 , so y x=1 = −6 (1)
−4 = −6.

63. f (x) = 2x 4 − 4x 2 + 1 ⇒ f (x) = 8x 3 − 8x ⇒ f (x) = 24x 2 − 8 ⇒ f (x) = 48x ⇒ f (4) (x) = 48 ⇒ f (5) (x) = 0
⇒ f (6) (x) = 0 ⇒ · · ·

d d d dv dm
64. a. F = (mv) = m (v) + v (m) = m +v .
dt dt dt dt dt
b. If the mass of the particle is constant (this may be assumed when it is traveling much more slowly than the speed of
dv
light), then dm/dt = 0, and so F = m = ma.
dt
0.055t + 0.26 0.15
65. f (t) = ⇒ f (t) = − . At the beginning, the formaldehyde level is changing at the
t +2 (t + 2)2
0.15
rate of f (0) = − = −0.0375; that is, it is dropping at the rate of 0.0375 part per million per year. Next,
4
0.15
f (3) = − 2 = −0.006, and so the level is dropping at the rate of 0.006 part per million per year at the beginning of the
5
fourth year (t = 3).

66. a. The rate of change of the pond’s oxygen level at any time t is given by

d t 2 + 10t + 100
f (t) = 100
dt t 2 + 20t + 100
⎡ d 2 d 2 ⎤
t 2 + 20t + 100 t + 10t + 100 − t 2 + 10t + 100 t + 20t + 100
⎢ dt dt ⎥
= 100 ⎣ 2 ⎦
t 2 + 20t + 100
⎡ ⎤
t 2 + 20t + 100 (2t + 10) − t 2 + 10t + 100 (2t + 20) t 2 − 100
= 100 ⎣ 2
⎦ = 1000
2
t 2 + 20t + 100 t 2 + 20t + 100
1000 (t − 10)
=
(t + 10)3
1000 (1 − 10) 1000 (10 − 10) 1000 (20 − 10)
b. f (1) = ≈ −6.76, f (10) = = 0, and f (20) = ≈ 0.37.
(1 + 10)3 (1 + 10)3 (1 + 10)3
c. One day after the organic waste has been dumped into the pond the oxygen content was dropping at the rate of
approximately 6.8% per day. Ten days after the waste was dumped, the oxygen content was neither increasing or
decreasing. After 20 days, the oxygen content was increasing at the rate of approximately 0.37% per day.

67. a. b. Using the numerical derivative operation of a graphing utility, we find that
f (0) ≈ −57.5266 and f (2) = −14.6165.
100
c. The results of part b show that the treatment benefit drops off at the rate of
50 58% per hour at the time when the heart attack first occurs and falls off at
the rate of 15% per hour when the time to treatment is 2 hours. Thus, it is
extremely urgent that a patient suffering a heart attack receive medical
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 attention as soon as possible.
110 Chapter 2 The Derivative

kT ab a
68. P = + 2 − ⇒
V −b V (V − b) V (V − b)

dP (V − b) (0) − (1) (1) V 2 (V − b) (0) − (1) 3V 2 − 2bV V (V − b) (0) − (2V − b)

= kT · + ab · −a·
dV (V − b)2 V 4 (V − b)2 V 2 (V − b)2
kT ab (3V − 2b) a (2V − b)
=− − +
(V − b)2 V 3 (V − b)2 V 2 (V − b)2
f (0 + h) − f (0) 0−0
69. a. If h < 0, then lim = lim = 0. If h > 0, then
h→0− h h→0− h
f (0 + h) − f (0) h−0 f (0 + h) − f (0)
lim = lim = 1. This shows that lim = f (0) does not exist. So f is
h→0+ h h→0+ h h→0 h
not differentiable on the interval (−1000, 1000).
⎧
⎨0 if −1000 < x ≤ 0 g (0 + h) − g (0) 0−0
b. g (x) = If h < 0, then lim = lim = 0. If h > 0, then
⎩ 0.002x if 0 < x < 1000 h→0− h h→0− h

g (0 + h) − g (0) 0.002h − 0
lim = lim = 0.002. This shows that g is not differentiable at 0; that is, g is
h→0+ h h→0 + h
differentiable, but not twice differentiable.
⎧ ⎧
⎨0 if −1000 < x ≤ 0 ⎨ 0 if −1000 < x ≤ 0
c. h (x) = ⇒ h (x) =
⎩ 0.000003x 2 if 0 < x < 1000 ⎩ 0.000006x if 0 < x < 1000

As in parts a and b, one can show that h is not differentiable at 0.

The function h is the most suitable. The continuity of h guarantees a smooth turn, since h (x) is associated with the
acceleration of a vehicle.

70. P (t) = 0.0012t 2 + 0.0072t + 0.8; P (t) ≤ 0.8 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 13. P (t) = 0.0024t + 0.0072. For 0 ≤ t ≤ 13, P (t) > 0.
This means that the proportion of the U.S. population that was obese was increasing at an increasing rate from 1991 through
2004.
⎧ ⎧
⎨ −x 3 if x < 0 ⎨ −3x 2 if x < 0
3
71. f (x) = x = ⇒ f (x) =
⎩ x if x ≥ 0
3 ⎩ 3x 2 if x > 0

f (0 + h) − f (0) h3
If h < 0, then lim = lim − = − lim h 2 = 0.
h→0− h h→0− h h→0−

f (0 + h) − f (0) h3
If h > 0, then lim = lim = lim h 2 = 0.
h→0+ h h→0+ h h→0+
So f (x) exists at 0 and f (0) = 0.
f (0 + h) − f (0) −3h 2
If h < 0, then lim = lim = −3 lim h = 0.
h→0− h h→0− h h→0−

f (0 + h) − f (0) 3h 2
If h > 0, then lim = lim = 3 lim h = 0.
h→0+ h h→0+ h h→0+
f (0 + h) − f (0)
This shows that f (0) = lim = 0. That is, f (0) exists and has value 0.
h→0 h
d d
72. a. h = uvw ⇒ h = [(uv) w] = uv (w) + w (uv) = uvw + w uv + vu = u vw + uv w + uvw
dx dx
b. h (x) = (2x + 5) (x + 3) x 2 + 4 ⇒ h (x) = 2 (x + 3) x 2 + 4 + (2x + 5) (1) x 2 + 4 +

(2x + 5) (x + 3) (2x) = 8x 3 + 33x 2 + 46x + 44

 Section 2.4 The Role of the Derivative in the Real World 111

d d
73. False. Take f (x) = x and g (x) = x. Then f (x) g (x) = x 2 , so f (x) g (x) = x 2 = 2x = f (x) g (x) = 1.
dx dx
d d d
74. True. Using the Product Rule, x f (x) = f (x) (x) + x f (x) = f (x) (1) + x f (x).
dx dx dx
75. True.
d
f (x) g (x) − f (x) g (x) = f (x) g (x) + f (x) g (x) − f (x) g (x) − f (x) g (x) = f (x) g (x) − f (x) g (x).
dx
76. True. If P (x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 is a polynomial of degree n, then

P (x) = nan x n−1 + (n − 1) an−1 x n−2 + · · · + 3a3 x 2 + 2a2 x + a1

P (x) = n (n − 1) an x n−2 + (n − 1) (n − 2) an−1 x n−3 + · · · + 6a3 x + 2a2

..
.

P (n−1) (x) = n (n − 1) (n − 2) · · · (2) x

P (n) (x) = n (n − 1) (n − 2) · · · (2) (1)
P (n+1) (x) = 0
2
77. True. g (x) = f (x) = f (x) f (x), so by the Product Rule, g (x) = f (x) f (x) + f (x) f (x) = 2 f (x) f (x).
−2 1
78. True. g (x) = f (x) = 2
, so by the Quotient Rule,
f (x)
2 d (1) − 1 · d f (x) 2
f (x) · dx dx 2 f (x) f (x) 2 f (x)
g (x) = 4
=− 4
=− 3
.
f (x) f (x) f (x)

2.4 Concept Questions

f (t2 ) − f (t1 )
1. a. The average velocity of the object over the time interval t1 , t2 is ft/s.
t2 − t1
b. The velocity of the object at time t is f (t) ft/s.
c. The speed of the object at time t is f (t) ft/s.
d. The acceleration of the object at time t is f (t) ft/s2 .
e. The jerk of the object at time t is f (t) ft/s3 .

2. P (a) measures the rate of change of the profit when the level of sales is a units.

3. Using the definition of the derivative as the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at the point (a, f (a)), we have
f (a) = tan π π
2 − θ ⇔ 2 − θ = tan
−1 f (a) ⇔ θ = π − tan−1 f (a).
2

2.4 The Role of the Derivative in the Real World

1. s (t) = 1.86t 2 , s (2) = 7.44 ft, v (t) = s (t) = 3.72t, v (2) = 7.44 ft/s, and |v (2)| = 7.44 ft/s.
2. s (t) = 2t 3 − 3t 2 + 4t + 1, s (1) = 4 ft, v (t) = s (t) = 6t 2 − 6t + 4, v (1) = 4 ft/s, and |v (1)| = 4 ft/s.
3. s (t) = 2t 4 − 8t 2 + 4, s (1) = −2 ft, v (t) = s (t) = 8t 3 − 16t, v (1) = −8 ft/s, and |v (1)| = 8 ft/s.
t (t + 1) (1) − t (1) 1
4. s (t) = , s (0) = 0 ft, v (t) = s (t) = 2
= , v (0) = 1 ft/s, and |v (0)| = 1 ft/s.
t +1 (t + 1) (t + 1)2
112 Chapter 2 The Derivative

2t 4 t 2 + 1 (2) − 2t (2t) 2 1 − t2
5. s (t) = 2 , s (2) = ft, v (t) = s (t) = = 6 ft/s, and
, v (2) = − 25
t +1 5 2 2
t2 + 1 t2 + 1
6 = 6 ft/s.
|v (2)| = − 25 25

t2 t 2 + 1 (2t) − t 2 (2t) 2t
6. s (t) = 2 , s (2) = 45 ft, v (t) = s (t) = 2
= 2
4 ft/s, and |v (2)| = 4 ft/s.
, v (2) = 25 25
t +1 t2 + 1 t2 + 1
2 d 2 2 d 4
7. s (t) = t 2 − 1 , s (1) = 0 ft, v (t) = s (t) = t −1 = t − 2t 2 + 1 = 4t 3 − 4t, v (1) = 0 ft/s, and
dt dt
|v (1)| = 0 ft/s.

t3 d t3 t3 + 1 3t 2 − t 3 3t 2 3t 2
8. s (t) = 3 , s (1) = 12 ft, v (t) = s (t) = 3
= 2
= 2
, v (1) = 34 ft/s,
t +1 dt t +1 t3 + 1 t3 + 1
and |v (1)| = 34 ft/s.

9. a. s (t) = 2t + 3 ⇒ v (t) = s (t) = 2 = 0, so the body is never c.

stationary.
0 1 2 3 4 5 s (ft)
b. v (t) = 2 > 0, so the body is always moving in the positive direction.

10. a. s (t) = 4 − t 2 ⇒ v (t) = −2t = 0 if t = 0, so the body is stationary c.

at t = 0 and at s (0) = 4 ft.
_1 0 1 2 3 4 5 s (ft)
b. v (t) < 0 if t > 0, so the body is always moving in the negative
direction.

11. a. s (t) = 8 + 2t − t 2 ⇒ v (t) = s (t) = 2 − 2t = 2 (1 − t) = 0 if c.

t = 1, so the body is stationary at t = 1 at the position s (1) = 9 ft.

b. v (t) > 0 if t < 1 and v (t) < 0 if t > 1, so the body moves in the 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 s (ft)
positive direction when 0 < t < 1 and in the negative direction when
t > 1.

12. a. s (t) = 13 t 3 − 32 t 2 + 1 ⇒ v (t) = s (t) = t 2 − 3t = t (t − 3) = 0 if c.

t = 0 or 3, so the body is stationary at t = 0 and t = 3 with positions
s (0) = 1 ft and s (3) = − 72 ft. _5 _4 _3 _2 _1 0 1 2 3 s (ft)
b. v (t) < 0 if 0 < t < 3 and v (t) > 0 if t > 3, so the body moves in
the negative direction when 0 < t < 3, and in the positive direction
when t > 3.

13. a. s (t) = 2t 4 − 8t 3 + 8t 2 + 1 ⇒ c.
v (t) = s (t) = 8t 3 − 24t 2 + 16t = 8t (t − 1) (t − 2) = 0 if t = 0, 1,
or 2, so the body is stationary at t = 0, 1, and 2, at positions
s (0) = 1 ft, s (1) = 3 ft, and s (2) = 1 ft. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 s (ft)

b. sign of t 0 +++++++++++ v (t) > 0 if 0 < t < 1 or t > 2, and v (t) < 0 if 1 < t < 2, so the
sign of t-1 _ _ _ 0 ++++++++ body moves in the positive direction when 0 < t < 1 and when
sign of t-2 _ _ _ _ _ _ 0 +++++ t > 2, and it moves in the negative direction when 1 < t < 2.
0 1 2 3 t (s)
 Section 2.4 The Role of the Derivative in the Real World 113

2
14. a. s (t) = t 2 − 1 ⇒ c.
d 4
v (t) = s (t) = t − 2t 2 + 1 = 4t 3 − 4t = 4t t 2 − 1
dt
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 s (ft)
= 4t (t + 1) (t − 1) = 0 if t = −1, 0, or 1.
We reject the negative root. So the body is stationary at t = 0 and
t = 1, at positions s (0) = 1 ft and s (1) = 0 ft.

b. v (t) < 0 if 0 < t < 1 and v (t) > 0 if t > 1, so the body moves to
the left when 0 < t < 1 and to the right when t > 1.

2t t 2 + 1 (2) − 2t (2t) 2 (1 − t) (1 + t)
15. a. s (t) = 2 ⇒ v (t) = s (t) = 2
= 2
= 0 if t = −1 or t = 1. We reject the
t +1 2
t +1 t2 + 1
negative root. So the body is stationary at t = 1 s at position s (1) = 1 ft.
b. v (t) > 0 if 0 < t < 1 and v (t) < 0 if t > 1, so the body moves in the positive direction when 0 < t < 1, and in the
negative direction when t > 1.
2t
c. Observe that as t gets larger and larger, 2 gets closer to 0,
t +1
and so while the body moves in the negative direction for t > 1, it
0 1 s (ft)
never quite makes it back to the origin.

t3 t 3 + 1 3t 2 − t 3 3t 2 3t 2
16. a. s (t) = 3 ⇒ v (t) = s (t) = 2
= 2
= 0 if t = 0. So the body is stationary at
t +1 t3 + 1 t3 + 1
t = 0, at position s (0) = 0 ft.
b. v (t) > 0 if t > 0, and so the body always moves in the positive direction.
t3
c. Observe that as t gets larger and larger, 3 gets closer and
t +1
closer to 1. This means that the body moves to the right, but never
quite reaches 1 ft in its motion.

17. a. s (t) = 2t 3 − 9t 2 + 12t − 2 ⇒ v (t) = s (t) = 6t 2 − 18t + 12 ⇒ a (t) = v (t) = s (t) = 12t − 18 = 6 (2t − 3)
b. a (t) = 0 if t = 32 , a (t) < 0 if 0 < t < 32 , and a (t) > 0 if t > 32 , where a (t) is measured in ft/s2 and t in seconds.

18. a. s (t) = t 4 − 2t 2 + 2 ⇒ v (t) = s (t) = 4t 3 − 4t ⇒ a (t) = v (t) = s (t) = 12t 2 − 4

√ √ √
b. a (t) = 4 3t 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ t = ± 33 , but we reject the negative root. So a (t) = 0 if t = 33 , a (t) < 0 if 0 < t < 33 ,
√
and a (t) > 0 if t > 33 , where a (t) is measured in ft/s2 and t in seconds.

2t 2 1 − t2
19. a. s (t) = 2 ⇒ v (t) = 2
(see Exercise 15) ⇒
t +1 t2 + 1
2 d 4 2
t 2 + 1 (−2t) − 1 − t 2 t + 2t 2 + 1 t 2 + 1 (−2t) − 1 − t 2 4t 3 + 4t
a (t) = 2 · dt =2·
4 4
t2 + 1 t2 + 1
2
t2 + 1 (−2t) − 4t 1 − t 2 t2 + 1 −2t t 2 + 1 t2 + 1 + 2 1 − t2 4t t 2 − 3
=2· 4
=2· 4
= 3
t2 + 1 t2 + 1 t2 + 1
114 Chapter 2 The Derivative

√ √
b. a (t) = 0 if t = 0 or t = ± 3, but we reject the negative root. So a (t) = 0 if t = 0 or if t = 3, a (t) < 0 if
√ √
0 < t < 3, and a (t) > 0 if t > 3, where a (t) is measured in ft/s2 and t in seconds.

t3 3t 2
20. a. s (t) = 3 ⇒ v (t) = 2
(see Exercise 16) ⇒
t +1 t3 + 1
2 d 6 2
t 3 + 1 (2t) − t 2 t + 2t 3 + 1 t 3 + 1 (2t) − t 2 6t 5 + 6t 2
a (t) = 3 · dt = 3·
4 4
t3 + 1 t3 + 1
2
t3 + 1 (2t) − 6t 4 t 3 + 1 2t t 3 + 1 t 3 + 1 − 3t 3 6t 1 − 2t 3
=3· 4
=3· 4
= 3
t3 + 1 t3 + 1 t3 + 1
√
3
√
3
√
3
1 22/3 4 4 4
b. a (t) = 0 if t = 0 or t = 1/3 = = , a (t) > 0 if 0 < t < , and a (t) < 0 if t > , where a (t) is
2 2 2 2 2
measured in ft/s2 and t in seconds.

kg·m
21. a. s (t) = 2t 2 − 3t + 1 ⇒ v (t) = 4t − 3, so v (2) = 5 m/s. The momentum is mv = 20 · 5 = 100 s .
b. The kinetic energy is 12 mv 2 = 12 (20) (25) = 250 J.

kg·m
22. a. s (t) = t 3 − 3t 2 + 1 ⇒ v (t) = 3t 2 − 6t, so v (1) = −3 m/s. The momentum is mv = 20 (−3) = −60 s .
b. The kinetic energy is 12 mv 2 = 12 (20) (9) = 90 J.

23. a. s (t0 ) > 0, so it is ascending at t = t0 . s (t1 ) = 0, so it is stationary at t = t1 . s (t2 ) < 0, so it is descending at t = t2 .

b. v (t) = s (t) is increasing as we move across t0 , so its acceleration is positive at t = t0 . v (t) = s (t) = 0 as we move
across t1 , so its acceleration is 0 at t = t1 . v (t) = s (t) is increasing as we move across t2 , so its acceleration is positive
at t = t2 .

24. a. s = 24t − 16t 2 ⇒ v (t) = s (t) = 24 − 32t. At the highest point, v (t) = 0, so 24 − 32t = 0 ⇒ t = 34 . Therefore, it
reaches a height of s 34 = 9 ft.

b. It hits the ground at the time when s (t) = 0 ⇒ 24t − 16t 2 = 8t (3 − 2t) = 0 ⇒ t = 0 or t = 32 . We reject the root
t = 0 (when it was initially on the ground). So it hits the ground with velocity v 32 = 24 − 32 32 = −24 ft/s.

25. a. She will hit the water at time t when s (t) = −4.9t 2 + 2t + 10 = 0 ⇒
√ √
−2 ± 4 − 4 (−4.9) (10) 1+5 2
t= = ≈ 1.65 s. (We reject the negative root.)
2 (−4.9) 4.9
√ √ √
b. v (t) = s (t) = −9.8t + 2, so v 1+5 4.9
2 = −9.8 1+5 2 + 2 = −10 2 ≈ −14.14 m/s.
4.9

26. a. s (t) = 88t − 12t 2 − 16 t 3 ⇒ v (t) = 88 − 24t − 12 t 2 , so v (0) = 88 ft/s.

−48 ± 482 − 4 (1) (−176)
b. Setting v (t) = 88 − 24t − 12 t 2 = 0 gives t 2 + 48t − 176 = 0 ⇒ t = ≈ 3.4226, so the
2
stopping distance is approximately s (3.4226) = 88t − 12t 2 − 16 t 3 ≈ 153.9 ft.
t=3.4226
c. a (t) = v (t) = (−24 − t) ft/s2 and j (t) = a (t) = −1 ft/s3 . At the time the brakes were first applied, the jerk was
j (0) = −1 ft/s3 .
 Section 2.4 The Role of the Derivative in the Real World 115

1 t 4 − 1 t 3 + 4t 2 ⇒ v (t) = h (t) = 1 t 3 − 3 t 2 + 8t
27. a. h (t) = 64 2 16 2
b. v (0) = 0, v (8) = 0, and v (16) = 0. The initial velocity is 0 ft/s, it reaches a maximum height after 8 s, and it returns
and lands after 16 s, at which time its velocity is again 0 ft/s.
1 t 4 − 1 t 3 + 4t 2
c. h (8) = 64 = 64 ft
2 t=8

ω2 x 2 ω2 x ω2 x
28. y = ⇒ y = and α = tan−1 . For fixed x, α increases as ω increases. So as the angular velocity ω
2g g g
ω2 x
increases, the wall of the water surface becomes steeper and steeper. In fact, as ω becomes arbitrarily large, tan−1
g
approaches π 2 . Thus, if the angular speed is great enough, we see that the parabolic shape of the cross-section breaks up as
all the water is driven toward the wall of the cylinder.

√ x √ x √
29. a. y = 3− and θ = lim tan−1 3− = tan−1 3 = 60◦ .
200 x→0 200
√ x √ x
b. The trajectory is parallel to the ground when θ = 0, that is, when θ = tan−13− =0⇔ 3− =0⇔
200 200
√ 2
√ √ x2 √ √ 200 3
x = 200 3. At this point, y = 3x − = 3 200 3 − = 300 ft. So the projectile is at
400 √ 400
x=200 3
√
the point 200 3, 300 .
c. ymax = 300 ft
√ x2 √ x √ √
3x −
d. Setting y = 0 gives =0⇔x 3− = 0 ⇔ x = 0 or x = 400 3. So the range is 400 3 ft.
400 400
√ √
e. y x=400√3 = tan−1 3 − 400 3 = tan−1 −√3 = −60◦ , so the projectile hits the ground at an angle of 120◦ .
200

w w
30. a. y = x 4 − 2Lx 3 + L 3 x ⇒ y = 4x 3 − 6Lx 2 + L 3 .
24E I 24E I
wL 3 wL 3
At x = 0, y = , and so the angle is θ = tan−1 .
24E I 24E I

wL 3 wL 3
At x = L, y = − , and so the angle is 180 − tan−1 .
24E I 24E I

w L 3 L 2
b. y x=L/2 = 4 − 6L + L 3 = 0, and so the angle is θ = tan−1 0 = 0.
24E I 2 2

w L 4 L 3 L 5wL 4
c. The deflection at x = L/2 is − 2L + L3 = .
24E I 2 2 2 384E I

31. a. b. y = 4.3404 × 10−10 x 3 − 1.5625 × 10−5 x 2 + 3000 ⇒

3000
y = 1.30212 × 10−9 x 2 − 3.125 × 10−5 x. The graph of y is a parabola
2000 that opens upward and has its smallest value at the vertex
b −3.125 × 10−5
1000 x =− =− ≈ 11,999.662. Therefore, the
2a 2 1.30212 × 10−9
minimum value of y is y x=11,999.662 ≈ −0.1875. So the required angle
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
is tan−1 (−0.1875) ≈ 0.18535, or about 10.6◦ .
116 Chapter 2 The Derivative

32. a. Set s A = 0.063t 2 + 23t + 15 = 300. Using the quadratic formula, we see that A crosses the finish line in t ≈ 11.997 s.
Set s B = 0.298t 2 + 24t = 300. Using the quadratic formula, we see that B crosses the finish line in t ≈ 10.998 s. So B
crosses the finish line 1 s ahead of A.
b. Setting s A = s B , we have 0.063t 2 + 23t + 15 = 0.298t 2 + 24t ⇒ 0.235t 2 + t − 15 = 0. Solving, we find t ≈ 6.14. At
this time, s B = 0.298t 2 + 24t ≈ 158.59, and we see that B overtakes A about 300 − 158.59 ≈ 141.4 ft from
t=6.14
the finish line.
c. B beat A by a distance of 300 − s A (10.998) = 300 − 0.063 (10.998)2 + 23 (10.998) + 15 ≈ 24.43 ft.

d. v A (t) = s A (t) = 0.126t + 23, so v A (11.997) ≈ 24.51 ft/s and v B (t) = s B (t) = 0.596t + 24, so
v B (10.998) ≈ 30.55 ft/s.
(2t + 5) (110) − 110t (2) 550
33. a (t) = v (t) = = . The initial acceleration is a (0) = 22 ft/s2 and a (10) = 0.88 ft/s2 .
(2t + 5)2 (2t + 5)2
34. a. C (2001) − C (2000) = 2.599 or about $2.60. C (3001) − C (3000) = 2.3999 or about $2.40.
b. C (x) = 3 − 0.0002x ⇒ C (2000) = 2.6 or $2.60/unit, and C (3000) = 2.4 or $2.40/unit.

35. C (x) = 0.0002x 3 − 0.06x 2 + 120x + 6000 ⇒ C (x) = 0.0006x 2 − 0.12x + 120, so C (200) = 120 and
C (201) − C (200) = 120.0602.
C (x) 70,000 70,000
36. a. C (x) = = 0.000002x 2 − 0.02x + 120 + ⇒ C (x) = 0.000004x − 0.02 −
x x x2
b. C (5000) = −0.0028 and C (10,000) = 0.0193. If the level of production is 5000 units, then the average cost drops by
$0.0028/set for each additional set produced. If the level of production is 10,000 units, then the average cost increases by
$0.0193/set for each additional set produced.

37. a. R (x) = 10,000x − 100x 2 ⇒ R (x) = 10,000 − 200x

b. R (49) = 200, R (50) = 0, R (51) = −200. The result seems to imply that the airline will realize maximum revenue if
it charges $50/passenger.
38. a. P (x) = −0.000002x 3 + 0.016x 2 + 80x − 70,000 ⇒ P (x) = −0.000006x 2 + 0.032x + 80
b. P (2000) = 120. Assuming 2000 sets have been produced and sold, the sale of an additional set will yield a profit of
$120.
1 1 1 1 1 1 2.5 + p 2.5 p
39. = + . If q = 2.5, then = + = or f = .
f p q f p 2.5 2.5 p 2.5 + p
2.5 (50)
a. If p = 50, then f = ≈ 2.38 cm.
2.5 + 50
df (2.5 + p) (2.5) − 2.5 p (1) 6.25 df 6.25
b. = 2
= 2
and = ≈ 0.00227 cm/cm
dp (2.5 + p) (2.5 + p) dp p=50 (2.5 + 50)2
⎧
⎪
⎪ G Mmr
⎨ if r < R
40. F (r) = R2
⎪
⎪ G Mm
⎩ if r ≥ R
r2
G Mm G Mm
a. For r < R, F (r) = , so the magnitude of the force increases at a constant rate of units per unit change in
R2 R2
the distance from the center of the Earth.
2G Mm 2G Mm
b. For r > R, F (r) = − , so the magnitude of the force decreases at the rate of units per unit change in
r3 r3
the distance from the center of the Earth.
 Section 2.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 117

2.5 Concept Questions

d d d d d
1. (sin x) = cos x, (cos x) = − sin x, (tan x) = sec2 x, (cot x) = − csc2 x, (sec x) = sec x tan x,
dx dx dx dx dx
d
(csc x) = − csc x cot x
dx
cos (a + h) − cos a
2. a. lim = f (a), where f (x) = cos x. Since f (x) = − sin x, we see that
h→0 h
cos (a + h) − cos a
lim = f (a) = − sin a.
h→0 h
√
sec π π π
4 + h − 2 = lim sec 4 + h − sec 4 , where f (x) = sec x. Since f (x) = sec x tan x, we see that
b. lim
h→0 h h→0 h
√
sec π + h − 2 √ √
lim 4 = f π 4 = sec π4 tan π
4 = 2 (1) = 2.
h→0 h

2.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

d
1. f (x) = (4 cos x − 2x + 1) = −4 sin x − 2
dx
d
2. g (x) = (x + tan x) = 1 + sec2 x
dx
d
3. h (t) = (3 tan t − 4 sec t) = 3 sec2 t − 4 sec t tan t = sec t (3 sec t − 4 tan t)
dt
d √ d d √ sin x
4. y = x sin x = x 1/2 (sin x) + sin x x 1/2 = x cos x + √
dx dx dx 2 x
d d d
5. f (u) = (u cot u) = u (cot u) + cot u (u) = −u csc2 u + cot u
du du du
d d d
6. g (v) = (sin v − 2v csc v) = cos v − 2 v csc v + csc v (v)
dv dv dv
= cos v − 2 (−v csc v cot v + csc v) = cos v + 2 csc v (v cot v − 1)
d d d
7. s = (sin x cos x) = sin x (cos x) + cos x (sin x) = − sin2 x + cos2 x = cos2 x − sin2 x = cos 2x
dx dx dx
d d d
8. f (t) = (sec t tan t) = sec t (tan t) + tan t (sec t) = (sec t) sec2 t + tan t (sec t tan t) = sec t sec2 t + tan2 t .
dt dt dt
Alternative answers are sec t 1 + 2 tan2 t or sec t 2 sec2 t − 1 , using the identity sec2 t = 1 + tan2 t.
d d d
9. f (θ) = [cos θ (1 + sec θ)] = cos θ (1 + sec θ) + (1 + sec θ) (cos θ)
dθ dθ dθ
tan θ
= (cos θ) (sec θ tan θ) + (1 + sec θ) (− sin θ) = (cos θ) − sin θ − tan θ = − sin θ
cos θ
d cos x (1 + x) (− sin x) − cos x sin x + cos x + x sin x
10. g (x) = = =−
dx 1+x (1 + x)2 (1 + x)2
d sin x x cos x − sin x
11. g (x) = =
dx x x2
d cos θ (1 − sin θ) (− sin θ) − cos θ (− cos θ) − sin θ + sin2 θ + cos2 θ 1 − sin θ
12. y = = = =
dθ 1 − sin θ (1 − sin θ)2 (1 − sin θ)2 (1 − sin θ)2
1
=
1 − sin θ
118 Chapter 2 The Derivative

d x (1 + sec x) (1) − x (sec x tan x) 1 + sec x − x sec x tan x

13. y = = =
dx 1 + sec x (1 + sec x)2 (1 + sec x)2

d cot x (1 + csc x) − csc2 x − cot x (− csc x cot x) − csc2 x − csc x csc2 x − cot2 x
14. f (x) = = =
dx 1 + csc x (1 + csc x)2 (1 + csc x)2
− csc x (csc x + 1) csc x
= 2
=−
(1 + csc x) 1 + csc x

15. f (x) = sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x ⇒

d d d
f (x) = (2 sin x cos x) = 2 sin x (cos x) + cos x (sin x) = 2 [sin x (− sin x) + cos x (cos x)]
dx dx dx
= 2 − sin2 x + cos2 x = 2 cos 2x

16. y = cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x = 2 cos2 x − 1 ⇒

d d d
y = 2 cos2 x − 1 = 2 [(cos x) (cos x)] − (1)
dx dx dx
= 2 [cos x (− sin x) + cos x (− sin x)] = −4 sin x cos x = −2 sin 2x

d 1 + sin x (1 − cos x) (cos x) − (1 + sin x) (sin x) cos x − cos2 x − sin x − sin2 x

17. f (x) = = =
dx 1 − cos x (1 − cos x)2 (1 − cos x)2
cos x − sin x − 1
=
(1 − cos x)2

d sin x cos x (1 + csc x) [(sin x) (− sin x) + cos x (cos x)] − sin x cos x (− csc x cot x)
18. y = =
dx 1 + csc x (1 + csc x)2
(1 + csc x) cos 2x + cos x cot x
= (since cos2 x − sin2 x = cos 2x)
(1 + csc x)2

d d
d sin θ + cos θ (sin θ − cos θ) (sin θ + cos θ) − (sin θ + cos θ) (sin θ − cos θ)
19. h (θ) = = dθ dθ
dθ sin θ − cos θ (sin θ − cos θ)2
(sin θ − cos θ) (cos θ − sin θ) − (sin θ + cos θ) (cos θ + sin θ)
=
(sin θ − cos θ)2
sin θ cos θ − sin2 θ − cos2 θ + sin θ cos θ − sin θ cos θ − sin2 θ − cos2 θ − sin θ cos θ 2
= =−
(sin θ − cos θ)2 (sin θ − cos θ)2

d d
d 1 − tan t (1 − tan t) − (1 − tan t)
(1 + cot t) (1 + cot t)
20. s = = dt dt
dt 1 + cot t (1 + cot t)2
cos t 1 sin t 1
(1 + cot t) − sec2 t − (1 − tan t) − csc2 t 1+ − 2 − 1− −
sin t cos t cos t sin2 t
= =
(1 + cot t)2 cos t 2
1+
sin t
2 cos2 t − 2 sin t cos t − 1
=
cos2 t (cos t + sin t)2

d d d d d
21. f (x) = x sin2 x = x [(sin x) (sin x)] + sin2 x (x) = x sin x sin x + sin x sin x + sin2 x
dx dx dx dx dx
= 2x sin x cos x + sin2 x or x sin 2x + sin2 x
 Section 2.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 119

d d
d a sin t (1 + b cos t) (a sin t) − (a sin t) (1 + b cos t)
22. y = = dt dt
dt 1 + b cos t (1 + b cos t)2
(1 + b cos t) (a cos t) − (a sin t) (−b sin t) a (cos t + b)
= 2
=
(1 + b cos t) (1 + b cos t)2

d d
23. f (x) = (sin x) = cos x ⇒ f (x) = (cos x) = − sin x
dx dx

d
24. g (x) = (sec x) = sec x tan x ⇒
dx
d d
g (x) = sec x (tan x) + tan x (sec x) = sec x · sec2 x + tan x · sec x tan x = sec x sec2 x + tan2 x
dx dx
= sec x 1 + 2 tan2 x

d d d
25. y = (3 cos x − x sin x) = −3 sin x − x (sin x) + sin x (x) = −3 sin x − x cos x − sin x = −4 sin x − x cos x
dx dx dx
d d d
⇒ y = (−4 sin x − x cos x) = −4 cos x − x (cos x) + cos x (x) = −4 cos x + x sin x − cos x
dx dx dx
= −5 cos x + x sin x

d d d 2
26. h (t) = t 2 + 1 sin t = t 2 + 1 (sin t) + sin t t + 1 = t 2 + 1 cos t + 2t sin t ⇒
dt dt dt
d d d 2 d d
h (t) = t 2 + 1 cos t + 2t sin t = t 2 + 1 (cos t) + cos t t + 1 + 2 t (sin t) + sin t (t)
dt dt dt dt dt
= − t 2 + 1 sin t + 2t cos t + 2t cos t + 2 sin t = 4t cos t − t 2 sin t + sin t

d d d 1 x −1/2 cos x
27. y = x 1/2 cos x = x 1/2 (cos x) + cos x x 1/2 = −x 1/2 sin x + 2 ⇒
dx dx dx
d
y = −x 1/2 sin x + 12 x −1/2 cos x
dx
d d 1 −1/2 d d
= −x 1/2 (sin x) − sin x x 1/2 + x (cos x) + cos x x −1/2
dx dx 2 dx dx
= −x 1/2 cos x − 12 x −1/2 sin x − 12 x −1/2 sin x − 14 x −3/2 cos x = − 14 x −3/2 4x 2 cos x + 4x sin x + cos x

4x 2 cos x + 4x sin x + cos x

=− √
4x x

d d
dw d cos θ θ (cos θ) − cos θ (θ) θ sin θ + cos θ
28. = = dθ dθ =− ⇒
dθ dθ θ θ 2 θ2
d d
d 2w θ2 (θ sin θ + cos θ) − (θ sin θ + cos θ) θ2
= − dθ dθ
dθ2 θ4
θ2 (sin θ + θ cos θ − sin θ) − (θ sin θ + cos θ) (2θ) 2 cos θ + 2θ sin θ − θ2 cos θ
=− 4
=
θ θ3
120 Chapter 2 The Derivative

29. a. f (x) = sin x ⇒ f (x) = cos x, so the slope of the tangent line is b.
√
m= f π 6 = cos π = 3 and an equation is
6 2 1
√ √ √
y − 2 = 2 x − 6 or y = 23 x + 6 −12 3π .
1 3 π
0

-1

-1 0 1 2 3

30. a. f (x) = tan x ⇒ f (x) = sec2 x, so the slope of the tangent line is b.
4
m= f π 2 π π
4 = sec 4 = 2 and an equation is y − 1 = 2 x − 4 or
2
y = 2x + 1 − π
2.
0
-2
-4
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

31. a. f (x) = sec x ⇒ f (x) = sec x tan x, so the slope of the tangent line b.
√ 4
is m = f π π π
3 = sec 3 tan 3 = 2 3 and an equation is
√ √ √ 2
y−2=2 3 x − π 6 − 2 3π .
3 or y = 2 3x + 3 0
-2
-4
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

sin x x cos x − sin x

32. a. f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = , so the slope of the b.
x x2
tangent line is m = f π = − 4 and an equation is
2 π2 1
2 = − 4 x − π or y = − 4 x + 4 .
y− π
π2 2 π2 π

-2 0 2 4 6
√
d π2 2 π 2 2π (8 + π)
33. y = x 2 sec x = x 2 sec x tan x + 2x sec x ⇒ y x=π/4 = · √ ·1+2 √ =
dx 16 2 4 2 16
d √ √
34. y = (csc x − 2 cos x) = − csc x cot x + 2 sin x ⇒ y x=π/6 = (−2) 3 + 2 12 = 1 − 2 3
dx
d sin x (1 − cos x) (cos x) − sin x (sin x) 1
35. y = = 2
= ⇒ y x=π/2 = −1
dx 1 − cos x (1 − cos x) cos x −1
d x tan x d sin x d
36. y = = x· · cos x = (x sin x) = x cos x + sin x ⇒ y x=0 = 0
dx sec x dx cos x dx
d
37. f (x) = (sin x) = cos x. Setting cos x = 1 gives x = 2kπ, k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..
dx
d (2k + 1) π
38. g (x) = (x + sin x) = 1 + cos x. Setting 1 + cos x = 1 gives cos x = 0 ⇒ x = , k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..
dx 2
 Section 2.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 121

d 1 cos x cos x (2k + 1) π

39. h (x) = (csc x) = − csc x cot x = − = − 2 . Setting cos x = 0 gives x = ,
dx sin x sin x sin x 2
k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..
d (2k + 1) π
40. f (x) = (cot x) = − csc2 x. Setting − csc2 x = −2, we find x = , k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..
dx 4
41. f (x) = sin x ⇒ f (x) = cos x ⇒ f (x) = − sin x ⇒ f (x) = − cos x ⇒ f (4) (x) = sin x ⇒ · · · . So higher order
derivatives of f (x) are either ± sin x or ± cos x. Since −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 and −1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 for all x, we see that
f (n) (x) ≤ 1 for all n and all x.

42. f (x) = cos x ⇒ f (x) = − sin x ⇒ f (x) = − cos x ⇒ f (x) = sin x ⇒ f (4) (x) = cos x ⇒ · · · . So higher order
derivatives of f (x) are either ± sin x or ± cos x. Since −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 and −1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 for all x, we see that
f (n) (x) ≤ 1 for all n and all x.
43. s (t) = 2 sin t + 3 cos t, so s π
2 = 2 ft.
v (t) = s (t) = 2 cos t − 3 sin t, so v π
2 = −3 ft/s and the speed is |−3| = 3 ft/s.
a (t) = v (t) = −2 sin t − 3 cos t, so a π 2
2 = −2 ft/s .
44. a. s (t) = sin t − t cos t, so s (π) = π, s (2π) = −2π, s (3π) = 3π, . . .. We see that |s (nπ)| = nπ for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . ..
Observe that nπ gets larger and larger as n increases.
b. v (t) = s (t) = cos t − cos t + t sin t = t sin t, so v π π 3π = − 3π , v 5π = 5π , . . ..
2 = 2,v 2 2 2 2
c. a (t) = v (t) = sin t + t cos t, so a (π) = −π, a (2π) = 2π, a (3π) = −3π, . . ..
1 1
−
sin (x + h) sin x csc (x + h) − csc x d
45. lim = lim = (csc x) by definition, and this is equal to − csc x cot x.
h→0 h h→0 h dx
π
tan 4 + h − 1 √ 2
d
46. lim = (tan x) (by definition) = sec2 x = 2 =2
h→0 h dx x=π /4 x=π /4
d cos (x + h) − cos x cos x cos h − sin x sin h − cos x
47. (cos x) = lim = lim
dx h→0 h h→0 h
cos x (cos h − 1) sin x sinh 1 − cos h sin h
= lim − = − cos x lim − sin x lim
h→0 h h h→0 h h→0 h

= (− cos x) (0) − (sin x) (1) = − sin x

d d 1 0 · sin x − 1 · cos x cos x 1
48. (csc x) = = =− · = − cot x csc x
dx dx sin x sin2 x sin x sin x

d d cos x − sin x · sin x − cos x · cos x (−1) sin2 x + cos2 x 1

49. (cot x) = = = = − 2 = − csc2 x
dx dx sin x sin2 x sin2 x sin x
d d 1 0 · cos x − 1 · (− sin x) sin x sin x 1
50. (sec x) = = = = · = tan x sec x
dx dx cos x cos2 x cos2 x cos x cos x
1 − sin2 2x cos2 2x
51. True. f (x) = 2
= = 1, and so f (x) = 0.
cos 2x cos2 2x
52. True.
d d d d
[cos (x + h)] = (cos x cos h − sin x sin h) = (cos x cos h) − (sin x sin h)
dx dx dx dx
d d
= cos h (cos x) − sin h (sin x) (since h is a constant)
dx dx
= − cos h sin x − sin h cos x = − (sin x cos h + cos x sin h) = − sin (x + h)
122 Chapter 2 The Derivative

2.6 Concept Questions

1. The derivative of h (x) = g ( f (x)) is equal to the derivative of g evaluated at f (x) times the derivative of f evaluated at x.
d ( f (x))n = n f (x) n−1 f (x)
2. a. g (x) = dx
d sec f (x) = sec f (x) tan f (x) · f (x)
b. h (x) = dx
dP
3. a. measures the rate of change of the population P with respect to the temperature of the medium.
dt
dT
b. measures the rate of change of the temperature of the medium with respect to time.
dt
dP d P dT
c. = · = f (T ) g (t) measures the rate of change of the population with respect to time.
dt dT dt
d. ( f ◦ g) (t) = f (g (t)) = P gives the population of bacteria at any time t.
dP
e. f (g (t)) g (t) = (by the Chain Rule) gives the rate of change of the population with respect to time. See part c.
dt

2.6 The Chain Rule

1. y = (2x + 4)3 = g ( f (x)), where u = f (x) = 2x + 4 and y = g (u) = u 3 , so
dy dy du
= = 3u 2 · 2 = 6u 2 = 6 (2x + 4)2
dx du dx
√
2. y = x 2 − 4 = g ( f (x)), where u = f (x) = x 2 − 4 and y = g (u) = u = u 1/2 , so
dy dy du x x
= = 12 u −1/2 · (2x) = 1/2 = .
dx du dx u 2
x −4
1 1
3. y = 3 = g ( f (x)), where u = f (x) = x 2 + 1 and y = √3
= u −1/3 , so
2
x +1 u
dy dy du 2x
= = − 13 u −4/3 · (2x) = − 4/3
.
dx du dx 3 x2 + 1
4. y = 2 sin πx = g ( f (x)), where u = f (x) = πx and y = g (u) = 2 sin u, so
dy dy du
= = (2 cos u) π = 2π cos u = 2π cos πx.
dx du dx
√ √
5. y = x + cos x = g ( f (x)), where u = f (x) = x + cos x and y = g (u) = u = u 1/2 , so
dy dy du 1 − sin x
= = 12 u −1/2 (1 − sin x) = √ .
dx du dx 2 x + cos x
√ √
6. y = sec x = g ( f (x)), where u = f (x) = x and y = g (u) = sec x, so
√ √
dy dy du sec x tan x
= = (sec u tan u) 12 x −1/2 = √ .
dx du dx 2 x
7. f (x) = (2x + 1)5 ⇒ f (x) = 5 (2x + 1)4 · (2) = 10 (2x + 1)4
4/3 1/3
8. g (x) = 3x 2 + x − 1 ⇒ g (x) = 43 3x 2 + x − 1 (6x + 1)

−3 −4 3 6t 2 − 1
9. f (t) = 2t 3 − t ⇒ f (t) = −3 2t 3 − t 6t 2 − 1 = − 4
t 4 2t 2 − 1
1 −5 −6 5x (3x − 4)
10. g (x) = 5
= x 3 − 2x 2 + 1 ⇒ g (x) = −5 x 3 − 2x 2 + 1 3x 2 − 4x = − 6
x 3 − 2x 2 + 1 x 3 − 2x 2 + 1
2 6 2 5 2
11. y = t + ⇒y =6 t+ 1− 2
t t t
 Section 2.6 The Chain Rule 123

−2
x2 + 3
12. f (x) = ⇒
x
−3 −3 3
x2 + 3 d x2 + 3 3 x x2 − 3
f (x) = −2 x + 3x −1 = −2 1− 2 = −2
x dx x x x2 + 3 x2

2x x 2 − 3
=− 3
x2 + 3

4
13. h (u) = u 3 2u 2 − 1 ⇒
3 4 3
h (u) = u 3 · 4 2u 2 − 1 (4u) + 3u 2 2u 2 − 1 = u 2 2u 2 − 1 16u 2 + 3 2u 2 − 1
3
= u 2 2u 2 − 1 22u 2 − 3

3
14. h (x) = (2x − 1)2 x 2 + 1 ⇒
2 3 2
h (x) = (2x − 1)2 · 3 x 2 + 1 (2x) + 2 (2x − 1) · 2 x 2 + 1 = 2 (2x − 1) x 2 + 1 3x (2x − 1) + 2 x 2 + 1
2
= 2 (2x − 1) x 2 + 1 8x 2 − 3x + 2

1/2 −1/2 3x 2 − 2
15. f (x) = x 3 − 2x = x 3 − 2x ⇒ f (x) = 12 x 3 − 2x 3x 2 − 2 =
2 x 3 − 2x
√ √
16. g (t) = t − 2 + 4 − t = (t − 2)1/2 + (4 − t)1/2 ⇒
1 1 1
g (t) = 12 (t − 2)−1/2 + 12 (4 − t)−1/2 (−1) = √ −√
2 t −2 4−t
1/2
17. g (u) = u 1 − u 2 = u 1 − u 2 ⇒
1/2 −1/2 −1/2 1 − 2u 2
g (u) = 1 − u 2 + u · 12 1 − u 2 (−2u) = 1 − u 2 1 − u2 − u2 =
1 − u2
x −1/2
18. f (x) = = x x2 − x − 2 ⇒
x2 − x − 2
−3/2 −1/2
f (x) = x − 12 x2 − x − 2 (2x − 1) + x 2 − x − 2
−3/2 x +4
= 12 x 2 − x − 2 −x (2x − 1) + 2 x 2 − x − 2 =− 3/2
2 x2 − x − 2

2t + 3 −3
19. f (t) = 3
= (2t + 3) t + 2t 2 ⇒
t + 2t 2
−4 −3
f (t) = (2t + 3) (−3) t + 2t 2 (1 + 4t) + t + 2t 2 (2)
−4 −4
= t + 2t 2 −3 (2t + 3) (1 + 4t) + 2 t + 2t 2 = t + 2t 2 −6t − 24t 2 − 9 − 36t + 2t + 4t 2

20t 2 + 40t + 9
=−
t 4 (1 + 2t)4

√ 6 6 5 √ 5 1
20. f (x) = x 2 + x = x 2 + x 1/2 ⇒ f (x) = 6 x 2 + x 1/2 2x + 12 x −1/2 = 6 x 2 + x 2x + √
2 x
124 Chapter 2 The Derivative

5 1/2 5
21. y (s) = 1+ 1 + s2 = 1 + 1 + s2 ⇒
4
1/2 4 −1/2 5s 1 + 1 + s2
y (s) = 5 1 + 1 + s 2 1 1 + s2 (2s) =
2
1 + s2
x + 2 3/2
22. f (x) = ⇒
x −3
√
3 x + 2 1/2 (x − 3) (1) − (x + 2) (1) 3 x + 2 1/2 −5 15 (x + 2)1/2 15 x + 2
f (x) = · = · = − = −
2 x −3 (x − 3)2 2 x −3 (x − 3)2 2 (x − 3)5/2 2 (x − 3)5/2
1/3
2x 2 − 1
23. g (x) = ⇒
2x + 5

1 2x 2 − 1
−2/3 (2x + 5) (4x) − 2x 2 − 1 (2) 1 2x 2 − 1
−2/3
4x 2 + 20x + 2
g (x) = · = ·
3 2x + 5 (2x + 5)2 3 2x + 5 (2x + 5)2
2 2x 2 + 10x + 1
= 2/3
3 2x 2 − 1 (2x + 5)4/3

(t + 1)3 −2
24. y = 2
= (t + 1)3 t 2 + 2t ⇒
t 2 + 2t
dy −3 −2
= (t + 1)3 (−2) t 2 + 2t (2t + 2) + t 2 + 2t (3) (t + 1)2
dt
−3 −3
= (t + 1)2 t 2 + 2t −4 (t + 1)2 + 3 t 2 + 2t = (t + 1)2 t 2 + 2t −4t 2 − 8t − 4 + 3t 2 + 6t

t 2 + 2t + 4 (t + 1)2
=−
t 3 (t + 2)3
25. f (x) = sin 3x ⇒ f (x) = (cos 3x) (3) = 3 cos 3x
d
26. g (t) = 3 sec 2t ⇒ g (t) = (3 sec 2t tan 2t) (2t) = 6 sec 2t tan 2t
dt
27. g (t) = tan (πt − 1) ⇒ g (t) = sec2 (πt − 1) · π = π sec2 (πt − 1)
d
28. y = cot (2x + 1) ⇒ y = − csc2 (2x + 1) (2x + 1) = −2 csc2 (2x + 1)
dx
d
29. f (x) = sin3 x ⇒ f (x) = 3 sin2 x (sin x) = 3 cos x sin2 x
dx
d
30. y = cos x 3 ⇒ y = − sin x 3 x 3 = −3x 2 sin x 3
dx
√
√ √ 1 x −1/2 sec2 x
31. f (x) = sin 2x + tan x ⇒ f (x) = (cos 2x) 2 + sec2 x 2 = 2 cos 2x + √
2 x
2 d
32. y = cos x 2 − 3x + 1 + tan ⇒ y = − sin x 2 − 3x + 1 x 2 − 3x + 1 +
x dx
2 d 2 2
sec2 2x −1 = − (2x − 3) sin x 2 − 3x + 1 − 2 sec2
x dx x x

33. f (x) = sin3 x + cos3 x ⇒ f (x) = 3 sin2 x (cos x) + 3 cos2 x (− sin x) = 3 sin x cos x (sin x − cos x)

d
34. f (x) = tan2 x + cot x 2 ⇒ f (x) = 2 tan x sec2 x − csc2 x 2 x 2 = 2 tan x sec2 x − 2x csc2 x 2
dx
 Section 2.6 The Chain Rule 125

2/3
35. f (x) = 1 + sin2 3x ⇒
−1/3 d −1/3 d
f (x) = 23 1 + sin2 3x sin2 3x = 23 1 + sin2 3x (2 sin 3x cos 3x) (3x)
dx dx
−1/3 4 sin 3x cos 3x
= 4 1 + sin2 3x sin 3x cos 3x = 3
1 + sin2 3x
4
36. z = 1 + csc2 x ⇒
dz 3 d 3 d
= 4 1 + csc2 x 1 + csc2 x = 4 1 + csc2 x (2) (csc x) (csc x)
dx dx dx
3 3
= 8 1 + csc2 x (csc x) (− csc x cot x) = −8 csc2 x cot x 1 + csc2 x
−3
37. h (x) = x 2 − sec πx ⇒
−4 d −4
h (x) = −3 x 2 − sec πx 2x − (sec πx tan πx) (πx) = −3 (2x − π sec πx tan πx) x 2 − sec πx
dx
3 (2x − π sec πx tan πx)
=− 4
x 2 − sec πx

38. g (x) = tan2 x 2 + x ⇒

d d
g (x) = 2 tan x 2 + x tan x 2 + x = 2 tan x 2 + x sec2 x 2 + x x2 + x
dx dx
= 2 (2x + 1) tan x 2 + x sec2 x 2 + x
√ dy 1 d sin x
39. y = 1 + 2 cos x ⇒ = √ (1 + 2 cos x) = − √
dx 2 1 + 2 cos x dx 1 + 2 cos x
√
40. f (x) = 2 + 3 tan 2x ⇒
1 d 1 d 3 sec2 2x
f (x) = √ (2 + 3 tan 2x) = √ 3 sec2 2x (2x) = √
2 2 + 3 tan 2x dx 2 2 + 3 tan 2x dx 2 + 3 tan 2x
1 + cos 3x
41. f (x) = ⇒
1 − cos 3x
(1 − cos 3x) (−3 sin 3x) − (1 + cos 3x) (3 sin 3x) 3 sin 3x (−1 + cos 3x − 1 − cos 3x)
f (x) = =
(1 − cos 3x)2 (1 − cos 3x)2
6 sin 3x
=−
(1 − cos 3x)2
x + sin 2x
42. y = ⇒
2 + cos 3x
(2 + cos 3x) (1 + 2 cos 2x) − (x + sin 2x) (−3 sin 3x)
y =
(2 + cos 3x)2
2 + 4 cos 2x + cos 3x + 2 cos 2x cos 3x + 3x sin 3x + 3 sin 2x sin 3x
=
(2 + cos 3x)2
1 dy 1 d 1 1 1
43. y = sin ⇒ = cos = − 2 cos
x dx x dx x x x
1 1 1 d 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
44. f (x) = x sin ⇒ f (x) = sin + x cos = sin − 2 x cos = sin − cos
x x x dx x x x x x x x
√
45. f (x) = sin 2x − cos 2x ⇒
1 d 2 cos 2x + 2 sin 2x cos 2x + sin 2x
f (x) = √ (sin 2x − cos 2x) = √ =√
2 sin 2x − cos 2x dx 2 sin 2x − cos 2x sin 2x − cos 2x
126 Chapter 2 The Derivative

d
√ 1 d 1 + sec2 3t (3t) 1 + 3 sec2 3t
46. g (t) = t + tan 3t ⇒ g (t) = √ · (t + tan 3t) = √ dt = √
2 t + tan 3t dt 2 t + tan 3t 2 t + tan 3t
1+x
47. y = sin2 ⇒
1−x
dy 1+x 1+x d 1+x 1+x 1+x (1 − x) (1) − (1 + x) (−1)
= 2 sin cos = 2 sin cos ·
dx 1−x 1−x dx 1 − x 1−x 1−x (1 − x)2
4 1+x 1+x
= sin cos
(1 − x)2 1−x 1−x
√
x
48. y = sec3 ⇒
1+x
√ √ √ √
dy x x x x
d
= 3 sec2 sec tan
dx 1+x 1+x 1+x dx
1+x
1 √
√ √ (1 + x) √ − x (1) √ √
x x 2 x x x 1 + x − 2x
= 3 sec3 tan · = 3 sec3 tan · √
1+x 1+x (1 + x)2 1+x 1+x 2 x (1 + x)2
√ √
3 (1 − x) 3 x x
= √ 2
sec tan
2 x (1 + x) 1+x 1+x
cos 2x
49. f (x) = ⇒
1 + x2
d d d 1 d
1 + x2cos 2x − cos 2x 1 + x2 1 + x 2 (− sin 2x) (2x) − cos 2x 1 + x2
dx dx dx 2 1+x 2 dx
f (x) = =
1 + x2 1 + x2
x cos 2x
−2 1 + x 2 sin 2x − 2 1 + x 2 sin 2x + x cos 2x
1 + x2
= =−
1 + x2 1 + x2
3/2

cot 2t
50. f (t) = ⇒
1 + t2
d d d
1 + t2 cot 2t − cot 2t 1 + t2 1 + t2 − csc2 2t (2t) − (cot 2t) (2t)
f (t) = dt dt = dt
2 2
1 + t2 1 + t2
2 1 + t 2 csc2 2t + t cot 2t
=− 2
1 + t2
51. y = sec2 x tan 3x ⇒
dy d d d d
= sec2 x tan 3x + tan 3x sec2 x = sec2 x sec2 3x (3x) + tan 3x (2 sec x) (sec x)
dx dx dx dx dx
= 3 sec2 x sec2 3x + 2 tan 3x sec x (sec x tan x) = sec2 x 3 sec2 3x + 2 tan x tan 3x

52. y = x tan2 (2x + 3) ⇒

dy d d d
=x tan2 (2x + 3) + tan2 (2x + 3) (x) = x [2 tan (2x + 3)] [tan (2x + 3)] + tan2 (2x + 3)
dx dx dx dx
d
= 2x tan (2x + 3) sec2 (2x + 3) (2x + 3) + tan2 (2x + 3) = tan (2x + 3) 4x sec2 (2x + 3) + tan (2x + 3)
dx
d
53. f (x) = sin (sin x) ⇒ f (x) = cos (sin x) (sin x) = cos x cos (sin x)
dx
d d
54. g (t) = tan (cos 2t) ⇒ g (t) = sec2 (cos 2t) (cos 2t) = sec2 (cos 2t) (− sin 2t) (2t) = −2 sin 2t sec2 (cos 2t)
dt dt
 Section 2.6 The Chain Rule 127

55. f (x) = cos3 (sin πx) ⇒

d d
f (x) = 3 cos2 (sin πx) [cos (sin πx)] = 3 cos2 (sin πx) [− sin (sin πx)] (sin πx)
dx dx
d
= 3 cos2 (sin πx) [− sin (sin πx)] cos πx (πx) = −3π cos πx cos2 (sin πx) sin (sin πx)
dx

√
56. y = sin (cos 2x) ⇒
dy 1 d 1 d
= √ [sin (cos 2x)] = √ cos (cos 2x) (cos 2x)
dx 2 sin (cos 2x) dx 2 sin (cos 2x) dx
cos (cos 2x) d sin 2x cos (cos 2x)
= √ (− sin 2x) (2x) = − √
2 sin (cos 2x) dx sin (cos 2x)

4
57. f (x) = x 2x 2 − 1 ⇒
d 4 4 d 3 d 4
f (x) = x 2x 2 − 1 + 2x 2 − 1 (x) = (x) 4 2x 2 − 1 2x 2 − 1 + 2x 2 − 1 (1)
dx dx dx
3 4 3 3
= 16x 2 2x 2 − 1 + 2x 2 − 1 = 2x 2 − 1 16x 2 + 2x 2 − 1 = 18x 2 − 1 2x 2 − 1 ⇒
d 3 3 d
f (x) = 18x 2 − 1 2x 2 − 1 + 2x 2 − 1 18x 2 − 1
dx dx
2 d 3
= 18x 2 − 1 (3) 2x 2 − 1 2x 2 − 1 + 2x 2 − 1 (36x)
dx
2 3 2
= 3 18x 2 − 1 2x 2 − 1 (4x) + 36x 2x 2 − 1 = 12x 2x 2 − 1 18x 2 − 1 + 3 2x 2 − 1
2
= 48x 6x 2 − 1 2x 2 − 1

1 d 4
58. g (x) = = (2x + 1)−2 ⇒ g (x) = −2 (2x + 1)−3 (2x + 1) = −4 (2x + 1)−3 = − ⇒
(2x + 1)2 dx (2x + 1)3
d 24
g (x) = (−4) (−3) (2x + 1)−4 (2x + 1) = 24 (2x + 1)−4 =
dx (2x + 1)4

d d 2
59. f (t) = sin2 t − sin t 2 ⇒ f (t) = 2 sin t sin t − cos t 2 t = 2 sin t cos t − 2t cos t 2 = sin 2t − 2t cos t 2 (since
dt dt
2 sin t cos t = sin 2t) ⇒
d d d d 2
f (t) = cos 2t (2t) − 2 t cos t 2 + cos t 2 (t) = 2 cos 2t − 2 (t) − sin t 2 t + cos t 2
dt dt dt dt
= 2 cos 2t − 2 −2t 2 sin t 2 + cos t 2 = 2 cos 2t + 2t 2 sin t 2 − cos t 2

1
60. y = x sin⇒
x
dy d 1 1 d 1 d 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
=x sin + sin x = x cos + sin = x cos − 2 + sin = −x −1 cos + sin ⇒
dx dx x x dx x dx x x x x x x x
d2 y d 1 1 d −1 d 1 1 d 1 1 1 1 d 1
= −x −1 cos − cos x + sin = −x −1 − sin − cos − 2 + cos
dx 2 dx x x dx dx x x dx x x x x dx x
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= x −1 sin − 2 + 2 cos − 2 cos = − 3 sin
x x x x x x x x
128 Chapter 2 The Derivative

61. a. f (x) = x x 2 + 1 ⇒ b.
10
d d
f (x) = x x2 + 1 + x2 + 1 x
dx dx
x d 5
= x2 + 1 + x2 + 1
2 x 2 + 1 dx
x2 0
= + x2 + 1
x2 + 1
√ √ 0 1 2 3
The slope of the tangent line is f (1) = √1 + 2 = 3 2 2 and an
2
√ √ √ √
equation is y − 2 = 3 2 2 (x − 1) or y = 3 2 2 x − 22 .

x −1 3
62. a. g (x) = ⇒ b.
x +1 0.1
2
x −1 d x −1
g (x) = 3
x +1 dx x +1
0.0
x − 1 2 (x + 1) (1) − (x − 1) (1)
=3 ·
x +1 (x + 1)2
x −1 2 1 6 (x − 1)2 -0.1
=6 · 2
= 0 1 2 3
x +1 (x + 1) (x + 1)4
The slope of the tangent line is g (2) = 6(1) 2 and an
= 27
34
1 = 2 (x − 2) or y = 2 x − 1 .
equation is y − 27 27 27 9

d
63. a. f (x) = cos 3x ⇒ f (x) = − sin 3x (3x) = −3 sin 3x b.
dx 1
The slope of the tangent line is f (π) = 0 and an equation is
y − (−1) = 0 (x − π) or y = −1.
0

-1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

64. a. h (t) = 2 cos2 πt ⇒ b.

3
d d
h (t) = 4 cos πt (cos πt) = (4 cos πt) (− sin πt) (πt)
dt dt 2
= −4π cos πt sin πt = −2π sin 2πt 1

The slope of the tangent line is h 1 = −2π and an equation is

4 0

y − 1 = −2π t − 14 or y = −2πt + 1 + π
2.
-1
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

65. F (x) = g ( f (x)) ⇒ F (x) = g ( f (x)) f (x), so F (2) = g ( f (2)) f (2) = g (5) · 4 = 75 · 4 = 300.
66. F (x) = g ( f (x)) ⇒ F (x) = g ( f (x)) f (x), so F (3) = g ( f (3)) f (3) = g (16) · 6 = 18 · 6 = 34 .

67. No. Let F (x) = f ( f (x)). Then F (x) = f ( f (x)) f (x). If we let f (x) = x 2 , then F (x) = f ( f (x)) = f x 2 = x 4 ,
2
so F (x) = 4x 3 , but f (x) = (2x)2 = 4x 2 .
 Section 2.6 The Chain Rule 129

68. No. Suppose h = g ( f (x)). If we let f (x) = x and g (x) = x 2 , then h = g ( f (x)) = g (x) = x 2 and
h (x) = 2x = g f (x) = g (1) = 2 (1) = 2.

69. F (x) = g ( f (x)) ⇒ F (x) = g ( f (x)) f (x) and G (x) = f (g (x)) ⇒

G (x) = f (g (x)) g (x), so F (1) = g ( f (1)) f (1) = g (2) (−2) = 2 (−2) = −4,
G (−1) = f (g (−1)) g (−1) = f 1 − 14 = (−2) − 14 = 12 , and F (2) = g ( f (2)) f (2) = g (0) f (2) does
4
not exist because f (2) does not exist.

70. a. h (x) = (g ◦ g) (x) = g (g (x)) ⇒ h (x) = g (g (x)) g (x), so h (1) = g (g (1)) g (1) = g (2) g (1) = 2 · 2 = 4.
b. H (x) = ( f ◦ f ) (x) = f ( f (x)) ⇒ H (x) = f ( f (x)) f (x), so H (1) = f (2) · f (1) does not exist because
f (2) does not exist.
c. G (x) = f x 2 − 1 ⇒ G (x) = f x 2 − 1 (2x), so G (1) = f (0) · 2 = −2 · 2 = −4.
π = f √ √
d. F (x) = f (2 sin x) ⇒ F (x) = f (2 sin x) (2 cos x), so F 6 2 sin π
6 2 cos π
6 = f (1) · 3 = −2 3.

d a f (sin x) + bg (cos x) = a d f (sin x) + b d g (cos x) = a f (sin x) d (sin x) + bg (cos x) d (cos x)

71. F (x) = dx dx dx dx dx

= a · cos x · f (sin x) − b · sin x · g (cos x)

d a sin ( f (x)) + b cos (g (x)) = a d sin ( f (x)) + b d cos (g (x)) = a cos ( f (x)) f (x) − b sin (g (x)) g (x)
72. F (x) = dx dx dx

d
73. F (x) = dx f x2 + 1 + g x2 − 1 d f x2 + 1 + d g x2 − 1
= dx dx

= f d x2 + 1 + g
x 2 + 1 dx d x 2 − 1 = 2x f
x 2 − 1 dx x 2 + 1 + 2xg x2 − 1

= 2x f x2 + 1 + g x2 − 1

d a d f x a + d f (x) a = f d x a + a f (x) a−1 d

74. F (x) = dx f x a + f (x) = dx dx x a dx dx f (x)
a−1
= ax a−1 f x a + a f (x) f (x)

d x 2 f (2x) = 2x f (2x) + x 2 f (2x) d (2x) = 2x f (2x) + 2x 2 f (2x) ⇒

75. F (x) = dx dx
d 2x f (2x) + 2x 2 f (2x) = 2 f (2x) + 2x f (2x) d (2x) + 4x f (2x) + 2x 2 f (2x) d (2x)
F (x) = dx dx dx

= 2 f (2x) + 4x f (2x) + 4x f (2x) + 4x 2 f (2x) = 2 f (2x) + 8x f (2x) + 4x 2 f (2x)

Thus, F (2) = 2 f (4) + 16 f (4) + 16 f (4) = 2 (−2) + 16 (1) + 16 (−1) = −4.

d x f x2 + 1
76. g (x) = dx = f x2 + 1 + x f d x 2 + 1 = f x 2 + 1 + 2x 2 f
x 2 + 1 dx x2 + 1 ⇒

g (x) = f d x 2 + 1 + 4x f
x 2 + 1 dx x 2 + 1 + 2x 2 f d x2 + 1
x 2 + 1 dx

= 2x f x 2 + 1 + 4x f x 2 + 1 + 4x 3 f x 2 + 1 = 6x f x 2 + 1 + 4x 3 f x2 + 1
130 Chapter 2 The Derivative

x −1/2
77. a. If x < 0, then f (x) = − = −x 2 − x 2 ⇒ b.
2 − x2 4
−1/2 −3/2
f (x) = − 2 − x 2 − x 12 2 − x2 (−2x) 2
−3/2 −3/2
= − 2 − x2 2 − x 2 + x 2 = −2 2 − x 2 0

−3/2 -2
Similarly, if x > 0, then f (x) = 2 2 − x 2 . Thus,
⎧ -2 -1 0 1 2
⎪ 2
⎪
⎪ − 3/2
if x < 0
⎨ 2 − x2
f (x) =
⎪
⎪ 2
⎪
⎩ if x > 0
3/2
2 − x2
f (−1) = −2 and f (1) = 2, so the required tangent lines have equations y − 1 = −2 [x − (−1)] ⇔ y = −2x − 1 and
y − 1 = 2 (x − 1) ⇔ y = 2x − 1.

78. Suppose f is differentiable at 0. Then 2 − x 2 f (x) is also differentiable at 0. But |x| = 2 − x 2 f (x) is not
differentiable at 0. We conclude that f is not differentiable at 0.

79. f (t) = 10.72 (0.9t + 10)0.3 . The rate of change at any time t is given by
f (t) = 10.72 (0.3) (0.9t + 10)−0.7 (0.9) = 2.8944 (0.9t + 10)−0.7 . At the beginning of 2000, we
find f (0) = 2.8944 (10)−0.7 ≈ 0.5775, or 0.6% per year. At the beginning of 2010, we have
f (10) = 2.8944 (9 + 10)−0.7 ≈ 0.3685, or 0.4% per year. The percent of the population of Americans age 55 or over in
2010 is f (10) = 10.72 (9 + 10)0.3 ≈ 25.93, or about 25.9%.

80. a. N (9) = 34.4 [1 + 0.32125 (9)]0.15 ≈ 42.18, representing about 42,180,000 people.
b. N (9) ≈ 0.52, representing about 520,000 people/year.

81. s (t) = 12 cos 2t + 34 sin 2t, so s π 4 = 12 cos π 3 π

2 + 4 sin 2 = 4 ft.
3

v (t) = s (t) = 12 (− sin 2t) (2) + 34 cos 2t (2) = − sin 2t + 32 cos 2t, so v π π
4 = −1 ft/s and the speed is v 4 = 1 ft/s.
a (t) = −2 cos 2t − 3 sin 2t, so a π 4 = −3 ft/s .
2

πt
82. PW (t) = 9000 + 1000 sin ⇒
24
d πt πt d πt π πt 125π πt
PW (t) = 1000 sin = 1000 cos = 1000 cos = cos , so PW (12) = 0 wolves/month.
dt 24 24 dt 24 24 24 3 24
πt d πt πt d πt πt
PC (t) = 36,000 + 12,000 cos ⇒ PC (t) = 12,000 cos = 12,000 − sin = −500π sin ,
24 dt 24 24 dt 24 24
so PC (12) = −500π or about −1571 caribou/month.

πt πt πt 2πt
83. P (t) = 20 + 12 sin − 6 sin + 4 sin − 3 sin . The rate of change of the price of the stock at the
30 15 10 15
2π πt 2π πt 2π πt 2π 2πt
close of the tth day of trading is given by P (t) = cos − cos + cos − cos .
5 30 5 15 5 10 5 15
In particular, the rate of change of the price of the stock at the close of the 15th day of trading is given by
P (15) = 25π (0) − 25π (−1) + 25π (0) − 25π (1) = 0, or $0 per share per day. The closing price of the stock on that day
was P (15) = 20 + 12 (1) − 6 (0) + 4 (−1) − 3 (0) = 28, or $28 per share.
 Section 2.6 The Chain Rule 131
⎧ √
⎪ if 0 ≤ t < 5
⎨ √0.129t + 4 − 1.9
⎪
√
84. a. G(t) = J (t) − N (t) = 0.129t + 4 − 0.123t + 2.99t if 5 ≤ t < 10
⎪
⎪
⎩ √0.4t + 1.29 − √0.123t + 2.995 if 10 ≤ t ≤ 15
⎧
⎪ 0.129
⎪
⎪ √ if 0 < t < 5
⎪
⎪ 2 0.129t +4
⎪
⎪
⎨ 0.129 0.123
G (t) = √ − √ if 5 < t < 10
⎪
⎪ 2 0.129t + 4 2 0.123t + 2.99t
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ 0.2 0.123
⎪
⎩ √ − √ if 10 < t < 15
0.4t + 1.29 2 0.123t + 2.995
b. In 2008 (t = 8), the gap is changing at the rate of
d (0.129t + 4)1/2 − (0.123t + 2.995)1/2
G (8) = dt
t=8
= 0.129
2 (0.129t + 4)
−1/2 − 0.123 (0.123t + 2.995) −1/2
2 ≈ −0.0021
t=8
That is, the gap is narrowing at the rate of 2100 nurses annually. In 2012 (t = 12), the gap is changing at the rate of
d (0.4t + 1.29)1/2 − (0.123t + 2.995)1/2
G (12) = dt
t=12
= 0.4
2 (0.4t + 1.29)
−1/2 − 0.123 (0.123t + 2.995) −1/2
2 ≈ 0.0520
t=12
That is, the gap is widening at the rate of 52,000 nurses annually.

σ 12 σ 6
85. u (r) = u 0 − ⇒
r r
d σ 12 d σ 6 σ 11 d σ σ 5 d σ
F (r) = −u (r) = −u 0 − = −u 0 12 −6
dr r dr r r dr r r dr r
12σ σ 11 6σ σ 5 6u σ 6 σ 6
= −u 0 − 2 + 2 = 07 2 −1
r r r r r r

⎡ ⎤
−1/2 −3/2
m0 dm d ⎣ v2 ⎦ = m0 − 1 v2 2v m0v
86. m = ⇒ = m0 1 − 2 1− 2 − 2 = 3/2
. With
dv dv c 2 c c v2
v2
1− 2 c2 1− 2
c c

dm 9.11 × 10−31 (0.999) 3 × 108

m 0 = 9.11 × 10−31 , c = 3 × 108 , and v = 0.999c, we have = 2 3/2
≈ 3.39 × 10−35 .
dv 3 × 108 1 − 0.9992
The mass is increasing at the rate of 3.39 × 10−35 kg per m/s.

87. s (t) = t 1 − t 2 ⇒
d d t d t2 1 − 2t 2
v (t) = s (t) = t 1 − t2 + 1 − t2 t= 1 − t2 + 1 − t2 = − + 1 − t2 = , so
dt dt 2 1−t 2 dt 1 − t2 1 − t2
1 − 2 14 √
1 3
v = = ft/s.
2 1 − 14 3
132 Chapter 2 The Derivative

d d
d 1 − 2t 2 1 − t2 1 − 2t 2 − 1 − 2t 2 1 − t2
a (t) = v (t) = = dt dt
dt 1 − t 2 2
1 − t2

1 1 − 2t 2 d 1 1 − 2t 2
= 1 − t 2 (−4t) − 1 − t2 = −4t 1 − t 2 − (−2t)
1 − t2 2 1 − t 2 dt 1−t 2
2 1 − t2

4t t 1 − 2t 2
=− + 3/2
1 − t2 1 − t2
−4 12 1 1−2 1 √
1 2 4 10 3
so a = + 3/2
=− ft/s2 .
2 1 9
1− 4 1 − 14

dS d 1 d πr h
88. a. S = πr r 2 + h 2 ⇒ = πr r 2 + h 2 = πr · r 2 + h2 =
dh dh 2 r 2 + h 2 dh r 2 + h2
dS d d r d
b. =π r r 2 + h2 + r 2 + h2 (r) = π r 2 + h2 + r 2 + h2
dr dr dr 2 r 2 + h 2 dr

r2 π π 2r 2 + h 2
=π + r 2 + h2 = r 2 + r 2 + h2 =
r 2 + h2 r 2 + h2 r 2 + h2

1000 − x 3/4 1000 − x 5/4

89. a. i. k = 14 ⇒ y1 = 500 −
1000 1000
1000
2
1000 − x
ii. k = 1 ⇒ y2 = 500 1 −
1000 500

1000 − x −0.2 1000 − x 2.2

iii. k = 1.2 ⇒ y3 = 500 − 0
1000 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000

In case (i), the boat is able to land directly on the opposite bank. In case (ii), the boat is able to land downriver on the
opposite bank. In case (iii), the boat never reaches the opposite bank.
b. In case (i), the boat moves about 93 ft downriver. In case (ii), it moves exactly 500 ft downriver. In case (iii), it moves
downriver indefinitely.

1000 − x 3/4 1000 − x 5/4

90. From Example 10, we have y = 500 − for y
1000 1000

dy 1 5 1000 − x 1/4 3 1000 − x −1/4 ¬O ¬A

0 ≤ x ≤ 1000, and so = − .
dx 2 4 1000 4 1000 x
A(1000, 0)
dy 1 5 3 1
At the point O, x = 0, so tan θ O = = − = ⇒ θ O = tan−1 14 ≈ 14.04◦ . Thus, the required angle
dx x=0 2 4 4 4
is approximately 76◦
dy
At the point A, x = 1000, so tan θ A = = −∞, which implies that θ A = 90◦ . Thus, the required angle is 0◦ .
dx x=1000
 Section 2.6 The Chain Rule 133

k1 1/(Ck2 )
91. q (t) = EC + (q0 − EC) ⇒
k1 + k 2 t
dq 1 k1 [1/(Ck2 )]−1 d k1
i (t) = = 0 + (q0 − EC)
dt Ck2 k 1 + k2 t dt k1 + k2 t
q − EC k1 (1−Ck2 )/(Ck2 ) −k1 k2 k1 (EC − q0 ) k1 (1−Ck2 )/(Ck2 )
= 0 =
Ck2 k1 + k2 t (k1 + k2 t)2 C (k1 + k2 t)2 k1 + k2 t
d
92. x (t) = A sin (ωt + φ) ⇒ v (t) = x (t) = A cos (ωt + φ) (ωt + φ) = Aω cos (ω + φ) ⇒
dt
d
a (t) = v (t) = −Aω sin (ωt + φ) (ωt + φ) = −Aω 2 sin (ωt + φ)
dt
σ
93. V (r) = r 2 + R2 − r ⇒
2ε0
σ d d σ 1 d σ r
F (r) = −V (r) = − r 2 + R2 − (r) = − r 2 + R2 − 1 = − −1
2ε0 dr dr 2ε0 2 r 2 + R 2 dr 2ε0 r 2 + R2
1 Q Q −1/2
94. V (x) = = x 2 + a2 ⇒
4πε0
x 2 + a2 4πε0
dV Q d −1/2 Q −3/2 d Qx
E =− =− x 2 + a2 =− − 12 x 2 + a2 x 2 + a2 = 3/2
dx 4πε0 dx 4πε0 dx 4πε0 x 2 + a 2

95. a. v = Lg sec θ sin2 θ ⇒

dv d 1 d
= Lg sec θ sin2 θ = Lg sec θ sin2 θ
dθ dθ dθ
2 Lg sec θ sin2 θ
Lg d d
= sec θ sin2 θ + sin2 θ sec θ
dθ dθ
2 Lg sec θ sin2 θ
√ √
Lg Lg
= √ sec θ (2 sin θ cos θ) + sin2 θ (sec θ tan θ) = √ 2 sin θ + sin θ tan2 θ
2 sin θ sec θ 2 sin θ sec θ
√
tan2 θ + 2 Lg
= √
2 sec θ

b. If L = 4, θ = π
6 , and g = 32, then d. 100

v= 4 (32) sec π 2 π
6 sin 6 = √
4
8 ≈ 6.1 ft/s and
3
50
dv tan2 π
6 +2 4 (32) sec π
6
= ≈ 12.3 ft/s.
dθ 2 sec π
6
c. lim v= lim LG sec θ sin2 θ = ∞. 0
θ→(π /2)− θ →(π /2)− 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

The speed of the ball has to be very large in order for the string to
approach a horizontal position.
e2
96. r = a 1 − e cos M − (cos 2M − 1) ⇒
2

dr d e2 dM e2 d d 2π
=a 1 − e cos M − (cos 2M − 1) = a e sin M + sin 2M (2M) (t − tn )
dt dM 2 dt 2 dM dt P
2π 2πae
= a e sin M + e2 sin 2M = (sin M + e sin 2M)
P P
 134 Chapter 2 The Derivative

dS d S dx
97. x = 6.25t 2 + 19.75t + 74.75 and S = g (x) = −0.00075x 2 + 67.5, so = = (−0.0015x) (12.5t + 19.75).
dt dx dt
dS
When t = 4, x = 6.25 42 + 19.75 (4) + 74.75 = 253.75, and so = (−0.0015) (253.75) [12.5 (4) + 19.75] = −26.5.
dt
The average speed of traffic flow is falling at the rate of approximately 26.5 mi/h per decade.
The average speed of traffic flow at the beginning of 1999 was
S = g ( f (t)) = g (253.75) = −0.00075 (253.75)2 + 67.5 ≈ 19.2 mi/h.
5 t 3 − 5 t 2 + 25 t + 60 and R (r) = −0.0006r 3 + 0.18r 2 , so
98. r (t) = − 216 6 2
dR d R dr 5 t 2 − 5 t + 25 . When t = 0, r (0) = 60 and so
= = −0.0018r 2 + 0.36r − 72 3 2
dt dr dt
dR
= −0.0018 602 + 0.36 (60) 25 2 = 189, so the revenue is increasing at the rate of $189,000/month at the
dt
beginning of January.
5 63 − 5 62 + 25 (6) + 60 = 100 and
When t = 6, r (6) = − 216 6 2
dR 5 62 − 5 (6) + 25 = 0, so the revenue is neither increasing nor decreasing
= −0.0018 1002 + 0.36 (100) − 72 3 2
dt
at the beginning of July.
⎧
⎨ x 2 sin 1 if x = 0
99. f (x) = x
⎩ 0 if x = 0
Since
d x 2 sin 1x d sin 1 + sin 1 d x 2 = x 2 cos 1 d
= x 2 dx 1 + 2x sin 1x = x 2 − 12 cos 1x + 2x sin 1x
dx x x dx x dx x x

= − cos 1x + 2x sin 1x

f (h) − f (0) h 2 sin h1 1

and lim = lim = lim h sin = 0 (by the Squeeze Theorem), we see that
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
⎧
⎨ 2x sin 1 − cos 1
f (x) = x x if x = 0
⎩ 0 if x = 0
Next,
d 2x sin x1 − cos 1x d sin 1 + sin 1 d (2x) + sin 1 d
= 2x dx 1 = 2x − 12 cos 1x + 2 sin x1 + − 12 sin 1x
dx x x dx x dx x x x

= 2 sin 1x − x2 cos 1x − 12 sin x1

x
Thus, f (x) = 2 − 12 sin x1 − x2 cos 1x for x = 0. Since dx
d sin 1 does not exist at x = 0, we conclude that f
x (x) does
x
not exist at x = 0.
√ d √ 2 1 d 2u du uu
100. f (x) = |u| = u 2 ⇒ f (x) = u = √ u2 = √ =
dx 2 u 2 dx 2 u 2 dx |u|
d
dx (x + 1) (x + 1) x +1
101. f (x) = |x + 1| ⇒ f (x) = = , x = −1
|x + 1| |x + 1|
102. g (x) = x x 2 + x ⇒
d x2 + x
x x 2 + x dx
d d x 2 (x + 1) (2x + 1)
g (x) = x x2 + x + x2 + x (x) = 2
+ x2 + x = + x2 + x
dx dx x +x x2 + x
2
x 2 (x + 1) (2x + 1) + x 2 + x 2x 4 + 3x 3 + x 2 + x 4 + 2x 3 + x 2 3x 4 + 5x 3 + 2x 2
= = =
x2 + x x2 + x x2 + x
 Section 2.6 The Chain Rule 135

d sin x
sin x dx sin x cos x sin 2x
103. h (x) = |sin x| ⇒ h (x) = = = , where x = kπ, k an integer.
|sin x| |sin x| 2 |sin x|
d d x d (x)
x2 |x| − |x| x2 x 2 dx − 2x |x|
|x| dx dx |x| x 2 − 2 |x|2 x 2 − 2x 2 1
104. f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = = = = =−
x2 x4 x 4 3
x |x| 3
x |x| x |x|
√
105. a. f (x) = |(x − 1) (x − 2)| ⇒ b. y
1 d y=f(x)
f (x) = √ x 2 − 3x + 2 2
2 |(x − 1) (x − 2)| dx
x 2 − 3x + 2 dx d x 2 − 3x + 2 1
1 y=f»(x)
= √
2 |(x − 1) (x − 2)| x 2 − 3x + 2
_1 0 1 2 3 x
(2x − 3) (x − 1) (x − 2)
= , x = 1, 2
2 x 2 − 3x + 2
3/2 _1

_2
d (−x) = f (x) ⇒
106. Suppose f is even, so that f (−x) = f (x). Differentiating both sides of this equation gives f (−x) dx
− f (−x) = f (x) ⇒ f (−x) = − f (x), which says that f is odd.
d (−x) = − f (x) ⇒ − f (−x) = − f (x) ⇒ f (−x) = f (x), so
If f is odd, then f (−x) = − f (x). Thus, f (−x) dx
f is even.
107. False. Let f (x) = 2x + 1 and g (x) = x 2 . Then h (x) = g ( f (x)) = (2x + 1)2 , so h (x) = 2 (2x + 1) (2) = 4 (2x + 1)
and h (x) = 8. But g (x) = 2x ⇒ g (x) = 2, so g ( f (x)) f (x) = 2 f (x) = 2 (0) = 0. Therefore
h (x) = g ( f (x)) f (x).
108. True. If h (t) = f (a + bt) + f (a − bt), then
d (a + bt) + f (a − bt) d (a − bt) = b f (a + bt) − b f (a − bt).
h (t) = f (a + bt) dx dt
f 1
d 1 1 d 1 1 1 x
109. True. f = f = f − 2 =− .
dx x x dx x x x x2
2 2 d f ( f (x)) = 2 f ( f (x)) f ( f (x)) f (x) or
110. True. h (x) = ( f ◦ f ) (x) = f ( f (x)) ⇒ h (x) = 2 f ( f (x)) dx
h = 2(f ◦ f) f ◦ f f .
136 Chapter 2 The Derivative

2.7 Concept Questions

1. a. We differentiate both sides of F (x, y) = 0 with respect to x, then solve for dy/dx.
b. The Chain Rule is used to differentiate any expression involving the dependent variable y.

2. Differentiating both sides of the equation xg (y) + y f (x) = 0 with respect to x gives
d d d d dy dy
x g (y) + g (y) (x) + y f (x) + f (x) (y) = 0 ⇒ x · g (y) + g (y) · 1 + y · f (x) + f (x) · =0
dx dx dx dx dx dx
dy g (y) + y f (x)
⇒ =− .
dx f (x) + xg (y)

2.7 Implicit Differentiation

2x
1. 2x 2 + y 2 = 4 ⇒ 4x + 2yy = 0 ⇒ y = −
y

2
2. y 2 − 3y = 2x ⇒ 2yy − 3y = 2 ⇒ (2y − 3) y = 2 ⇒ y =
2y − 3

y (y + 2x)
3. x y 2 + yx 2 − 2 = 0 ⇒ y 2 + 2x yy + y x 2 + 2x y = 0 ⇒ 2x y + x 2 y = − y 2 + 2x y ⇒ y = −
x (2y + x)

1 − 2x y − 2y 2
4. x 2 y + 2x y 2 − x + 3 = 0 ⇒ 2x y + x 2 y + 2y 2 + 4x yy − 1 = 0 ⇒ x 2 + 4x y y = 1 − 2x y − 2y 2 ⇒ y =
x (x + 4y)

3x 2 − 1
5. x 3 − 2y 3 − y = x + 2 ⇒ 3x 2 − 6y 2 y − y = 1 ⇒ 6y 2 + 1 y = 3x 2 − 1 ⇒ y = 2
6y + 1

6. x 3 y 2 − 2x 2 y + 2x = 3 ⇒ 3x 2 y 2 + 2x 3 yy − 4x y − 2x 2 y + 2 = 0 ⇒ 2x 3 y − 2x 2 y = 4x y − 3x 2 y 2 − 2 ⇒

4x y − 3x 2 y 2 − 2
y =
2x 2 (x y − 1)

1 1 1 y y2
7. + =1 ⇒ x −1 + y −1 = 1 ⇒ − 2 − 2 = 0 ⇒ y = − 2
x y x y x

x3 y2 y 3x 2 − x 3 y x 2 2yy − y 2 (2x)
8. + 2 =3⇒ 2
+ = 0 ⇒ 3x 6 y − x 7 y + 2x 2 y 3 y − 2x y 4 = 0 ⇒
y x y x4
y 2y 3 − 3x 5
y =
x 2y 3 − x 5
Alternate Solution: Start by multiplying both sides of the original equation by x 2 y: x 5 + y 3 = 3x 2 y ⇒
x 6y − 5x 3
5x 4 + 3y 2 y = 6x y + 3x 2 y ⇒ y =
3 y2 − x 2
 Section 2.7 Implicit Differentiation 137

d d
xy x 2 + y2 (x y) − x y x 2 + y2
9. 2 = x +1 ⇒ dx dx = 1 ⇒
x + y2 x 2 + y2
2

d
x 2 + y2 y + xy − xy x 2 + y2 x 2 + y2 y + x y − x y 2x + 2yy
dx = 1⇒ = 1
2 2
x 2 + y2 x 2 + y2
2
⇒ x 2 y + x 3 y + y 3 + x y 2 y − 2x 2 y − 2x y 2 y = x 2 + y2 = x 4 + 2x 2 y 2 + y 4 ⇒

x 4 + 2x 2 y 2 + x 2 y − y 3 + y 4
x 3 − x y 2 y = x 4 + 2x 2 y 2 + y 4 − y 3 + x 2 y ⇒ y =
x x 2 − y2
Alternate Solution: Start by multiplying both sides of the original equation by x 2 + y 2 :
3x 2 + 2x + y 2 − y
x y = x 2 + y 2 (x + 1) = x 3 + x 2 + x y 2 + y 2 ⇒ y + x y = 3x 2 + 2x + y 2 + 2x yy + 2yy ⇒ y =
x − 2x y − 2y
x+y (x − y) 1 + y − (x + y) 1 − y
10. = y2 + 1 ⇒ = 2yy ⇒
x−y (x − y)2
x + x y − y − yy − x + x y − y + yy = 2yy x 2 − 2x y + y 2 ⇒ 2x y − 2yy x 2 + 4x y 2 y − 2y 3 y = 2y ⇒
y
y =
x + 2x y 2 − x 2 y − y 3
Alternate Solution: Start by multiplying both sides of the original equation by x − y:
x + y = (x − y) y 2 + 1 = x y 2 + x − y 3 − y ⇒ 1 + y = y 2 + 2x yy + 1 − 3y 2 y − y ⇒ 3y 2 − 2x y + 2 y = y 2

y2
⇒y =
3y 2 − 2x y + 2
x +1
11. (x + 1)2 + (y − 2)2 = 9 ⇒ 2 (x + 1) + 2 (y − 2) y = 0 ⇒ y =
2−y

5/2 2 2 1 − 10x 8/5

12. 2x 2 + 3y 2 = x ⇒ 2x 2 + 3y 2 = x 2/5 ⇒ 4x + 6yy = 25 x −3/5 ⇒ 6yy = 3/5 − 4x = ⇒
5x 5x 3/5
1 − 10x 8/5
y =
15x 3/5 y
√ √ y 1/2 y
13. x+ y = 1 ⇒ x 1/2 + y 1/2 = 1 ⇒ 12 x −1/2 + 12 y −1/2 y = 0 ⇒ y = − 1/2 = −
x x
√
14. x y = x 2 + 2y 2 ⇒ (x y)1/2 = x 2 + 2y 2 ⇒ 12 (x y)−1/2 y + x y = 2x + 4yy ⇒ y + x y = 4 (x y)1/2 x + 2yy ⇒
√
4x x y − y
x − 8 (x y)1/2 y y = 4x (x y)1/2 − y ⇒ y = √
x − 8y x y
cos (x + y)
15. y 2 = sin (x + y) ⇒ 2yy = cos (x + y) · 1 + y ⇒ 2y − cos (x + y) y = cos (x + y) ⇒ y =
2y − cos (x + y)
y sin x y + 1
16. x + y 2 = cos x y ⇒ 1 + 2yy = (− sin x y) y + x y ⇒ (2y + x sin x y) y = −y sin x y − 1 ⇒ y = −
2y + x sin x y
17. tan2 x 3 + y 3 = x y ⇒ 2 tan x 3 + y 3 sec2 x 3 + y 3 3x 2 + 3y 2 y = y + xy ⇒

6y 2 tan x 3 + y 3 sec2 x 3 + y 3 − x y = y − 6x 2 tan x 3 + y 3 sec2 x 3 + y 3 ⇒

y − 6x 2 tan x 3 + y 3 sec2 x 3 + y 3
y =
6y 2 tan x 3 + y 3 sec2 x 3 + y 3 − x
1
18. x = sec 2y ⇒ 1 = sec 2y tan 2y 2y ⇒ y = = 12 cos 2y cot 2y
2 sec 2y tan 2y
138 Chapter 2 The Derivative

1/2 −1/2
19. 1 + cos2 y = x y ⇒ 1 + cos2 y = x y ⇒ 12 1 + cos2 y (−2 cos y sin y) y = y + x y ⇒

cos y sin y −y 1 + cos2 y

+ x y = −y ⇒ y =
1 + cos2 y cos y sin y + x 1 + cos2 y

20. x + y 2 = cot x y ⇒ 1 + 2yy = − csc2 x y y + xy ⇒ 2y + x csc2 x y y = −1 − y csc2 x y ⇒

1 + y csc2 x y
y =−
2y + x csc2 x y
√
x 1 3
21. x 2 + 4y 2 = 4 ⇒ 2x + 8yy = 0 ⇒ y = − , so y √ =− √ = . An equation of the tangent line is
4y 1,− 3/2
4 − 23 6
√ √ √ √
y − − 23 = 63 (x − 1) or y = 63 x − 2 3 3 .

2x y 2 (−1) (1) 1
22. x 2 y + y 3 = 2 ⇒ 2x y + x 2 y + 3y 2 y = 0 ⇒ y = − 2 , so y (−1,1) = − = . An equation of the
x + 3y 2 1+3 2
tangent line is y − 1 = 12 (x + 1) or y = 12 x + 32 .

y 1/3
23. x 2/3 + y 2/3 = 2 ⇒ 23 x −1/3 + 23 y −1/3 y = 0 ⇒ y = − 1/3 , so y (1,−1) = 1. An equation of the tangent line is
x
y + 1 = 1 (x − 1) or y = x − 2.
y cos x y
24. y = sin x y ⇒ y = (cos x y) y + x y ⇒ y = ⇒ y (π/2,1) = 0. An equation of the tangent line is
1 − x cos x y
y−1=0 x − π
2 or y = 1.

25. x y 2 − x 2 y − 2 = 0 ⇒ y 2 + 2x yy − 2x y − x 2 y = 0. At (1, −1), 1 − 2y + 2 − y = 0 ⇒ y = 1.

26. x 2/3 + y 2/3 = 5 ⇒ 23 x −1/3 + 23 y −1/3 y = 0. At (1, 8), 23 + 23 · 8−1/3 y = 0 ⇒ y = −2.

√ √
27. x csc y = 2 ⇒ csc y − x (csc y cot y) y = 0. At 1, π 3
6 , 2 − 2 3y = 0 ⇒ y = 3 .

28. tan (x + 2y) − sin x = 1 ⇒ sec2 (x + 2y) 1 + 2y − cos x = 0. At 0, π 1

8 , 2 1 + 2y − 1 = 0 ⇒ y = − 4 .

3x 2 + y
29. x y + x 3 = 4 ⇒ y + x y + 3x 2 = 0 ⇒ y = − . Differentiating both sides of the next-to-last expression yields
x
3x 2 + y
6x + 2y 6x − 2 · 2 3x 2 − 3x 2 − y 2y
y + y + x y + 6x = 0 ⇒ y = − =− x =− = 2.
x x x2 x

x2
30. x 3 − y 3 = 8 ⇒ 3x 2 − 3y 2 y = 0 ⇒ y = . Differentiating both sides of the next-to-last expression yields
y2
2
2 x−y y
2 2 x − y x 2 /y 2 2x y 3 − x 3
2
6x − 6y y − 3y 2 y = 0 ⇒ y = = =
y2 y2 y5

31. sin x + cos y = 1 ⇒ cos x − (sin y) y = 0 ⇒ y = cos x

sin y . Differentiating both
2
sides of the next-to-last expression yields − sin x − (cos y) y − (sin y) y = 0⇒
2 sin x + cos y cos x 2
sin x + (cos y) y sin y sin x sin2 y + cos y cos2 x
y =− =− =−
sin y sin y sin3 y
 Section 2.7 Implicit Differentiation 139

y
32. tan y − x y = 0 ⇒ sec2 y y − y − x y = 0 ⇒ y = . Differentiating both sides
sec2 y − x
2
of the next-to-last expression yields 2 sec2 y tan y y + sec2 y y − y − y − x y = 0 ⇒

y y sec2 y tan y
2 1−
2y 1 − sec2 y tan y y sec2 y − x sec2 y − x 2y sec2 y − x − y sec2 y tan y
y = = =
sec2 y − x sec2 y − x sec2 y − x
3
√
x2 y2 x 2yy 9x 9 3 3
33. + =1⇒ + = 0 ⇒ y = − , so y √ = √ = √ = . An equation of the tangent
4 9 2 9 4y −1,3 3/2
4· 3 3 2 3 2
2
√ √ √ √
line is y − 3 2 3 = 23 (x + 1) or y = 23 x + 2 3.

x2 y2 2x 2yy 4x
34. − =1⇒ − =0⇒y = , so y (5,8/3) = 56 . An equation of the tangent line is y − 83 = 56 (x − 5) or
9 4 9 4 9y
y = 56 x − 32 .
2 2
35. y 2 − x y 2 − x 3 = 0 ⇒ 2yy − y 2 − 2x yy − 3x 2 = 0. At 12 , 12 , 2 12 y − 12 − 2 12 1
2 y − 3 12 = 0 ⇒

y = 2, so an equation of the tangent line is y − 12 = 2 x − 12 or y = 2x − 12 .

x (3x + 2)
36. 2y 2 − x 3 − x 2 = 0 ⇒ 4yy − 3x 2 − 2x = 0 ⇒ y = , so y (1,1) = 54 . An equation of the tangent line is
4y
y − 1 = 54 (x − 1) or y = 54 x − 14 .
2
37. 2 x 2 + y 2 = 25 x 2 − y 2 ⇒ 4 x 2 + y 2 2x + 2yy = 25 2x − 2yy . At (3, 1), 4 (10) 6 + 2y = 25 6 − 2y
9 , so an equation of the tangent line is y − 1 = − 9 (x − 3) or y = − 9 x + 40 .
⇒ y = − 13 13 13 13
√
38. x 2 y 2 = (y + 1)2 4 − y 2 ⇒ 2x y 2 + 2x 2 yy = 2 (y + 1) 4 − y 2 y + (y + 1)2 −2yy . At −2 3, 1 ,
√ √ √ √
−4 3 + 2 (12) y = 2 (2) (3) y + (4) −2y ⇒ y = 53 , so an equation of the tangent line is y − 1 = 53 x + 2 3 or
√
y = 53 x + 11
5 .

y
39. a. 4x y − 9 = 0 ⇒ 4y + 4x y = 0 ⇒ y = − , so y (3,3/4) = − 14 . An b. 4
x
equation of the tangent line is y − 34 = − 14 (x − 3) or y = − 14 x + 32 , 2

and an equation of the normal line is y − 34 = 4 (x − 3) or 0

y = 4x − 45
4.
-2

-4
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

x
40. a. x 2 + y 2 = 9 ⇒ 2x + 2yy = 0 ⇒ y = − , so b. 4
y
√
1 = 2 . An equation of the tangent line is 2
y √ = √
4
−1,2 2 2 2
0
√ √ √ √
y − 2 2 = 42 (x + 1) or y = 42 x + 9 4 2 , and an equation of the -2
√ √
normal line is y − 2 2 = − √4 (x + 1) = −2 2 (x + 1) or -4
2
√ -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
y = −2 2x.
140 Chapter 2 The Derivative

41. a. 4x 3 − 3x y 2 − 5x y − 8y 2 + 9x = −38 ⇒ b.
6
12x 2 − 3y 2 − 6x yy − 5y − 5x y − 16yy + 9 = 0. At (−2, 3),
4
48 − 27 + 36y − 15 + 10y − 48y + 9 = 0 ⇒ y = 15
2 , so an
equation of the tangent line is y − 3 = 15 15 2
2 (x + 2) or y = 2 x + 18,
2 (x + 2) or
and an equation of the normal line is y − 3 = − 15 0

2 x + 41 .
y = − 15 -2
15
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4

42. a. x 5 − 2x y + y 5 = 0 ⇒ 5x 4 − 2y − 2x y + 5y 4 y = 0. At (1, 1), b. 2

5 − 2 − 2y + 5y = 0 ⇒ y = −1, so an equation of the tangent line
is y − 1 = −1 (x − 1) or y = −x + 2, and an equation of the normal 1
line is y − 1 = 1 (x − 1) or y = x.
0

-1

-1 0 1 2

y − x2
43. a. x 3 + y 3 = 3x y ⇒ 3x 2 + 3y 2 y = 3 y + x y ⇒ x 2 + y 2 y = y + x y ⇒ y 2 y − x y = y − x 2 ⇒ y = 2
y −x
b. To find the required point of intersection, we substitute x = y into the equation of the folium and solve for x, obtaining
x 3 + x 3 = 3x (x) ⇒ 2x 3 − 3x 2 = 0 ⇒ x 2 (2x − 3) = 0, so x = 0 or 32 . The point of intersection in Quadrant I is
3 − 3 2
3, 3 2 2
2 2 and y = = −1. An equation of the tangent line is y − 32 = −1 x − 32 or y = −x + 3.
3 2− 3
2 2

y − x2
c. The tangent line is horizontal where y = = 0 ⇒ y − x 2 = 0 ⇒ y = x 2 . Substituting, we find
y2 − x
3 √
3
x3 + x2 = 3x x 2 ⇒ x 3 + x 6 − 3x 3 = 0 ⇒ −2x 3 + x 6 = 0 ⇒ x 3 −2 + x 3 = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or x = 2. The
√ √
required points are (0, 0) and 3 2, 3 4 .

√
3 y √
1 1 √
44. x 2/3 + y 2/3 = 4 ⇒ 23 x −1/3 + 23 y −1/3 y = 0 ⇒ √
3 y
y = − √
3
⇒ y = − √
3
. At 3 3, 1 , y = − 33 , so an equation
x x
√ √ √
3 3
of the tangent line is y − 1 = − 3 x − 3 3 or y = − 3 x + 4.

√ √
1 t − 2 20 = 0 ⇒ h −1/2 dh + 1 = 0 ⇒ dh = − h . dh
√ 9 3
45. 2h 1/2 + 25 =− = − , so the height is decreasing
dt 25 dt 25 dt h=9 25 25
3 ft/s.
at the rate of 25
 Section 2.7 Implicit Differentiation 141

tan α − tan β
46. a. We have θ = α − β, so tan θ = tan (α − β) = .
1 + tan α tan β 120 ft
y + 120 y
Now tan α = and tan β = , so
2000 2000 ¬ y ft
Œ
y + 120 y º
− 240,000
2000 2000 2000 ft
tan θ = = 2 .
y + 120 y y + 120y + 4,000,000
1+
2000 2000
240,000
b. When the rocket is on the launching pad, y = 0, and so tan θ = ⇒ θ ≈ 0.06 or about 3.43◦ . When the rocket
4,000,000
240,000
is at an altitude of 10,000 ft, y = 10,000, and so tan θ = ⇒ θ ≈ 0.0022814, or
(10,000)2 + 120 (10,000) + 4,000,000
about 0.13◦ .
c. Differentiating the equation in part b implicitly with respect to y, we obtain
d d 240,000 dθ 240,000 (2y + 120)
(tan θ) = ⇒ sec2 θ =− ⇒
dy dy y 2 + 120y + 4,000,000 dy 2
y + 120y + 4,000,000
2

dθ 240,000 (2y + 120)

=− 2
. Using the result of part b, we see that when y = 10,000,
dy y + 120y + 4,000,000 1 + tan2 θ
2

tan θ = 0.0022814, and so

dθ 240,000 (20,000 + 120)
=− 2
≈ −4.3632 × 10−7 radians/ft, or
dy y=10,000 2 2
(10,000) + 120 (10,000) + 4,000,000 1 + (0.0022814)

approximately −2.5 × 10−5 ◦ /ft.

d. The viewing angle approaches 0 as the altitude increases without bound.

⎫
x 2 + 2y 2 = 6 ⎬
47. To find the points of intersection of the two curves, we solve ⇒ 2y 2 + 4y − 6 = 2 (y + 3) (y − 1) = 0
x 2 = 4y ⎭

⇒ y = −3 or 1. If y = −3, then x 2 = −4y and so there is no solution. If y = 1, then x 2 = 4 ⇒ x = ±2, so the points of
intersection are (−2, 1) and (2, 1).
x
To find the slope of the tangent line to the curve x 2 + 2y 2 = 6, we differentiate implicitly: 2x + 4yy = 0 ⇒ y = − .
2y
x
The slope of the tangent line to the second curve is y = .
2
x
At (−2, 1), the slope of the tangent line to the first curve is m 1 = − = 1. The slope of the tangent line to the
2y (−2,1)
x
second curve is m 2 = = −1. The two tangent lines are perpendicular, so the two curves are orthogonal at (−2, 1).
2 (−2,1)
x x
At (2, 1), the slopes are m 1 = − = −1 and m 2 = = 1, and the tangent lines are again perpendicular.
2y (2,1) 2 (2,1)
142 Chapter 2 The Derivative
⎫
x 2 − y2 = 3 ⎬ 2
48. To find the points of intersection of the two curves, we solve The second equation gives y = , and
xy = 2 ⎭ x

2 2
substitution then gives x 2 − = 3 ⇒ x 4 − 3x 2 − 4 = 0 ⇒ x 2 + 1 x 2 − 4 = 0 ⇒ x = ±2, so the points of
x
intersection are (−2, −1) and (2, 1).
x
To find the slope of the tangent line to the curve x 2 − y 2 = 3, we differentiate implicitly: 2x − 2yy = 0 ⇒ y = . The
y
2
slope of the tangent line to x y = 2 is y = − 2 .
x
x 2 1
At (−2, −1), the slopes of the tangent lines are m 1 = = 2 and m 2 = − 2 = − , showing that the
y (−2,−1) x (−2,−1) 2
two tangent lines are perpendicular at (−2, −1).
x 2
At (2, 1), the slopes are m 1 = = 2 and m 2 = − 2 = − 12 , and the tangent lines are again perpendicular.
y (2,1) x (2,1)

⎫
x 2 + 3y 2 = 4 ⎬
49. To find the points of intersection, we solve Substituting the second equation into the first gives
y = x3 ⎭

x 2 + 3x 6 = 4 ⇒ 3x 6 + x 2 − 4 = 0. By inspection ±1 are solutions to this equation, so we use long division to factor the
expression.

3x 4 + 3x 2 + 4
x2 − 1 3x 6 + x2 − 4
3x 6 − 3x 4
3x 4 + x 2 − 4
3x 4 − 3x 2
4x 2 − 4
4x 2 − 4
0

Thus, 3x 6 + x 2 − 4 = 0 ⇒ x 2 − 1 3x 4 + 3x 2 + 4 = 0. The factor 3x 4 + 3x 2 + 4 > 0 everywhere, so the only

solutions are x = ±1, and the points of intersection are (−1, −1) and (1, 1).
x
To find the slopes of the tangent lines to x 2 + 3y 2 = 4 and y = x 3 , we differentiate, obtaining 2x + 6yy = 0 ⇒ y = −
3y

and y = 3x 2 , respectively.
x 1
At (−1, −1), the slopes of the tangent lines are m 1 = − = − and m 2 = 3x 2 = 3, showing that the
3y (−1,−1) 3 (−1,−1)

two tangent lines are perpendicular at (−1, −1).

x
At (1, 1), the slopes are m 1 = − = − 13 and m 2 = 3x 2 = 3, and the tangent lines are again perpendicular.
3y (1,1) (1,1)
 Section 2.7 Implicit Differentiation 143
⎫
y−x = π ⎬
50. To find the points of intersection, we solve 2 Substituting the second equation into the first yields
x = cos y ⎭

y − cos y = π π
2 . By inspection y = 2 is the only solution. Substituting into the first equation gives x = 0, so the point of
intersection is 0, π π
2 . The slope of the tangent line to the curve y − x = 2 is 1. To find the slope of the tangent line to the
1
curve x = cos y, we differentiate implicitly, obtaining 1 = (− sin y) y ⇒ y = − . At the point 0, π
2 , we have
sin y
1
m 1 = 1 and m 2 = − = −1, showing that the tangent lines are perpendicular to each other.
sin y y=π/2

x
51. a. x 2 + y 2 = c2 ⇒ 2x + 2yy = 0 ⇒ y = − and y = kx ⇒ y = k. But b.
y 4
y y
k = , so y = . Thus, the two families are orthogonal to each other. 2
x x
0

-2

-4

-4 -2 0 2 4

x 2 + y2
52. a. x 2 + y 2 = cx ⇒ 2x + 2yy = c, but c = , and so b.
x
x 2 + y2
2x + 2yy = ⇒ 5
x
x 2 + y2 x 2 + y 2 − 2x 2 y2 − x 2 y2 − x 2
2yy = − 2x = = ⇒y = .
x x x 2x y 0
2x x 2 + y2
x 2 + y 2 = ky ⇒ 2x + 2yy = ky ⇒ y = , but k = , so
k − 2y y
-5
2x 2x 2x y -5 0 5
y = = =− 2 .
x 2 + y2 x 2 + y 2 − 2y 2 y − x2
− 2y
y y
So the two families are orthogonal to each other.

2x
53. a. 2x 2 + y 2 = c ⇒ 4x + 2yy = 0 ⇒ y = − and y 2 = kx ⇒ 2yy = k, b. 4
y
y2 2
y2 k y
but k = ⇒y = = x = , so the two families are orthogonal
x 2y 2y 2x 0
to each other.
-2

-4
-2 0 2 4
144 Chapter 2 The Derivative

9x
54. a. 9x 2 + 4y 2 = c2 ⇒ 18x + 8yy = 0 ⇒ y =− and y 9 = kx 4 ⇒ b. 4
4y
4kx 3 y9 4x 3 y 9 4y
9y 8 y = 4kx 3 ⇒ y = 8
, but k = 4 and so y = 8 · 4 = , so 2
9y x 9y x 9x
the two families are orthogonal to each other. 0

-2

-4
-4 -2 0 2 4

55. a. If we move in the direction given by the tangent line to the contour
curve at A, then we are neither moving up nor moving down the hill. 600 500
It seems reasonable, therefore, that if we move in the direction that is A 400
perpendicular to the tangent line, we will be descending at the 300
greatest rate. 200
100
b. In view of the explanation given in part a, we should start at A, 50

moving in a direction perpendicular to the contour line at A, and B

proceed until we hit the next contour line. Repeat the process until the
point B is reached.
56. a. b. A member of the family that is orthogonal to the family of isobars gives
H the direction of flow of air from a region of higher pressure to one of lower
pressure.

H
d d
57. True. Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x, we have f (x) g (y) = (0) ⇒
dx dx
dy dy f (x) g (y)
f (x) g (y) + f (x) g (y) = 0 ⇒ =− , provided f (x) = 0 and g (y) = 0.
dx dx f (x) g (y)
d d dy
58. True. Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x, f (x) + g (y) = (0) ⇒ f (x) + g (y) =0
dx dx dx
dy f (x)
⇒ =− .
dx g (y)

2.8 Concept Questions

1. Suppose x and y are two variables that are related by an equation. Furthermore, suppose x and y are both functions of a
third variable t. (Normally, t represents time.) Then a related rates problem involves finding dx/dt or dy/dt.
2. Step 1 Assign a variable to each quantity. Draw a diagram if needed.
Step 2 Write the given values of the variables and their rates of change with respect to t.
Step 3 Find an equation giving the relationship between the variables.
Step 4 Differentiate both sides of this equation implicitly with respect to t.
Step 5 Replace the variables and their derivatives by the numerical data found in step 2 and solve the equation for the
required rate of change.
 Section 2.8 Related Rates 145

2.8 Related Rates

dx dy dy x dx dx dy 3 3
1. x 2 + y 2 = 25 ⇒ 2x + 2y = 0, so =− . If x = 3, y = −4, and = 2, then =− ·2= .
dt dt dt y dt dt dt −4 2
dy dx dx y 2 dy
2. y 3 − 2x 3 = −10 ⇒ 3y 2 − 6x 2 = 0, so = 2 .
dt dt dt 2x dt
dy dx 4
If x = 1, y = −2, and = −1, then = (−1) = −2.
dt dt 2
dx dy dy 2y dx dx dy 2 (2)
3. x 2 y = 8 ⇒ 2x y + x2 = 0, so =− . If x = 2, y = 2, and = 3, then =− (3) = −6.
dt dt dt x dt dt dt 2
dy dy dx dx dx x + 2y dy
4. y 2 + x y + x 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ 2y +x +y + 2x = 0, so =− .
dt dt dt dt dt 2x + y dt
dy dx 1−2
If x = 1, y = −1, and = −2, then =− (−2) = −2.
dt dt 2−1
dx dy dy 2 sin x cos x dx
5. sin2 x + cos y = 1 ⇒ 2 (sin x cos x) − (sin y) = 0, so = .
dt dt dt sin y dt
√ √
√ 2 22 2 √
π π dx 3 dy 2 3
If x = , y = , and = , then = √ = 1.
4 3 dt 2 dt 3 2
2
dx dy dx dy 4 cos y − π sec2 x dx π
6. 4x cos y − π tan x = 0 ⇒ (4 cos y) − (4x sin y) − π sec2 x =0⇒ = . If x = ,
dt dt dt dt 4x sin y dt 6
√ 2
4 3 − π √2 √
π dx dy 2 3 6 3 − 4π
y = , and = 1, then = = .
6 dt dt 4 π 1 π
6 2
dV dx
7. a. V = x 3 ⇒ = 3x 2
dt dt
dx dV
b. When x = 10 and = 0.5, we have = 3 102 (0.5) = 150 in3 /s.
dt dt
dV dh dr dh dr
8. a. Differentiating the given equation with respect to t, we obtain = πr 2 + 2πr h = πr r + 2h .
dt dt dt dt dt
dr dh dV
b. Substituting r = 2, h = 6, = 0.1, and = 0.3 into the expression for , we
dt dt dt
dV
obtain = π (2) [2 (0.3) + 2 (6) (0.1)] = 3.6π, and so the volume is increasing at the rate of 3.6π in3 /s.
dt
dx dy dy 2x dx dx dy 6
9. 2x 2 − y 2 = 2 ⇒ 4x − 2y = 0, so = . If x = 3, y = −4, and = 2, then = (2) = −3 units/s.
dt dt dt y dt dt dt −4
dy dy dx dy dx dy 3 dx
10. 3y + 4y 2 + 3x = 4 ⇒ 3 + 8y +3 =0⇒ (3 + 8y) = −3 , so =− . If x = 1, y = −1, and
dt dt dt dt dt dt 8y + 3 dt
dx dy
= 3, then = 35 (3) = 95 units/s.
dt dt
dy dx dy/dt
11. Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to t, we obtain = 12 x 2 − 1 ⇒ = 12 x 2 − 1.
dt dt dx/dt
dy/dt
a. < 1 ⇒ 12 x 2 − 1 < 1 ⇒ x 2 < 4 ⇔ −2 < x < 2, so the y-coordinate of the particle is changing at a slower rate
dx/dt
than that of the x-coordinate in the interval (−2, 2).
dy/dt
b. = 1 ⇒ x 2 = 4 ⇔ x = ±2, so the rates of change of the two coordinates are equal at x = ±2.
dx/dt
dy/dt
c. > 1 ⇒ 12 x 2 − 1 > 1 ⇒ x 2 > 4 ⇔ x < −2 or x > 2, so the y-coordinate of the particle is changing at a faster
dx/dt
rate than that of the x-coordinate for x < −2 and for x > 2.
146 Chapter 2 The Derivative

dx √
12. We are given that v = = k x, where k is the constant of proportionality. Differentiating both sides of the equation with
dt
dv d2x dx 1 √
respect to t gives = 2 = k 12 x −1/2 = 12 k √ k x = 12 k 2 . Using Newton’s Second Law of Motion, we
dt dt dt x
d dv
find that the force acting on the particle is F = (mv) = m = 12 k 2 m, a constant.
dt dt
dA dr
13. A = πr 2 . Differentiating with respect to t, we obtain = 2πr . When the radius of the circle is 60 ft and increasing
dt dt
1 dA 1
at the rate of 2 ft/s, = 2π (60) 2 = 60π ft /s. The area is increasing at the rate of approximately 188.5 ft2 /s.
2
dt
dV
14. Let V denote the volume of the soap bubble, and r its radius. We are given = 8. From the formula V = 43 πr 3 , we find,
dt
dV 4 dr dr dr dV /dt
upon differentiating with respect to t, = 3πr 2 = 4πr 2 , so = . When r = 10, we have
dt 3 dt dt dt 4πr 2
dr 8
= ≈ 0.0064. So the radius is increasing at the rate of approximately 0.0064 cm/s. From s = 4πr 2 , we find
dt 4π 102
ds dr dr ds
= 4π (2r ) = 8πr . Therefore, when r = 10, we have ≈ 8π (10) (0.0064) = 1.6, so the surface area is
dt dt dt dt
increasing at the rate of approximately 1.6 cm2 /s.
dV
15. Let V and S denote its volume and surface area. Then we are given that = k S, where k is the constant
dt
of proportionality. But from V = 43 πr 3 , we find, upon differentiating both sides with respect to t, that
dV d 4 3 dr dr
= πr = 4πr 2 = k S = k 4πr 2 . Therefore = k, a constant.
dt dt 3 dt dt
dx dx dx dy dy dy
16. x 4 − 4x 2 + 2x 2 y 2 + 4y 2 + y 4 = 0 ⇒ 4x 3 − 8x + 4x y 2 + 4x 2 y + 8y + 4y 3 =0⇒
dt dt dt dt dt dt
dy 8x − 4x y 2 − 4x 3 dx 2x − x y 2 − x 3 dx
= 2 3
= . When x = 1, we have 1 − 4 + 2y 2 + 4y 2 + y 4 = 0 ⇒
dt 4x y + 8y + 4y dt y x 2 + y 2 + 2 dt
√ √
2 −6 ± 36 − 4 (1) (−3) −6 ± 48 √
y 4 + 6y 2 − 3 = 0 ⇒ y 2 + 6 y 2 − 3 = 0 ⇒ y 2 = = = −3 ± 2 3.
2 2
√ √
Since the car is in the first quadrant, y = 2 3 − 3. Therefore, at the point 1, 2 3 − 3 ,
√ √
dy 2 (1) − 1 −3 + 2 3 − 1 20 4 − 2 3
= √ √ (−20) = − √ √ ≈ −4.54. So the car is moving at a speed of
dt 2 3 − 3 1 + 2 + −3 + 2 3 2 3 2 3−3
approximately 4.54 mi/h in the negative y-direction.
dx dy
17. Differentiating x 2 + y 2 = 132 = 169 with respect to t gives 2x + 2y =0
dt dt
dy x dx
⇒ =− . When x = 12, we have 144 + y 2 = 169 ⇒ y = 5. Therefore,
dt y dt
dx dy
when x = 12, y = 5, and = 8, we find 2 (12) (8) + 2 (5) =0⇒
dt dt
dy
= −19.2, so the top of the ladder is sliding down the wall at 19.2 ft/s.
dt
dx dy dy x dx
18. Differentiating x 2 + y 2 = 400 with respect to t gives 2x + 2y =0⇒ =− . When x = 12, we have
dt dt dt y dt
√ dx dy
144 + y 2 = 400 ⇒ y = 256 = 16. Therefore, with x = 12, = 5, and y = 16, we find 2 (12) (5) + 2 (16) =0⇒
dt dt
dy
= −3.75, so the top of the ladder is sliding down the wall at 3.75 ft/s.
dt
 Section 2.8 Related Rates 147

dx dp dx 9 p dp
19. 100x 2 + 9 p2 = 3600 ⇒ 200x + 18 p =0⇒ =− . When p = 14, 100x 2 + 9 142 = 3600 ⇒
dt dt dt 100x dt
√ dp dx 9 (14) (−0.1)
x = 18.36, and = −0.1, =− √ ≈ 0.029, so the quantity demanded is increasing at the rate of
dt dt 100 18.36
0.029 thousand, or 29 packs per week.

dV d d dx dz dy dx dz dy dx
20. a. V = x yz ⇒ = x (yz) = x (yz) + yz =x y +z + yz = xy + xz + yz
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
dx dy dz
b. When x = 3, y = 5, z = 10, = 0.2, = 0.3, and = 0.1,
dt dt dt
dV
= (3) (5) (0.1) + (3) (10) (0.3) + (5) (10) (0.2) = 20.5 in3 /s.
dt
dD dx dD x dx dx
21. D 2 = x 2 + 902 = x 2 + 8100 ⇒ 2D = 2x ⇒ = . When x = 30 and = −22, we find
dt dt dt D dt dt
dD 30
= (−22) ≈ −6.96. The distance is decreasing at the rate of approximately 6.96 ft/s.
dt 302 + 8100

dD dx dx D dD
22. D 2 = x 2 + 4 ⇒ 2D = 2x ⇒ = . When x = 12 and pulley
dt dt dt x dt
dD √ √ D
= −1, we have D = 144 + 4 = 2 37, and so 2
dt
√ √
dx 2 37 37
= (−1) = − ≈ −1.01, so the boat is approaching the x bow of boat
dt 12 6
dock at approximately 1.01 m/s.

dy dx dx
23. y = 10−10 x 4 − 2000x 3 ⇒ = 10−10 4x 3 − 6000x 2 . If x = 1000 and = 50,
dt dt dt
dy
= 10−10 4 (1000)3 − 6000 (1000)2 (50) = −10, so the depth is increasing at the rate of 10 ft/s.
dt

x−y 6
24. By similar triangles, = ⇒ x − y = 25 x ⇒ x = 53 y ⇒
x 15
dx 5 dy dy dx 15
= . When = 4, = 53 (4) = 20
3 , so the tip of the shadow is 6
dt 3 dt dt dt
y
moving at 6 23 ft/s. x

25. The volume V of the water in the pot is V = πr 2 h = π 42 h = 16πh. Differentiating with respect to t, we obtain
dV dh dh dV
= 16π . Therefore, when = 0.4, we find = 16π (0.4) ≈ 20.1, so water is being poured into the pot at the
dt dt dt dt
3
rate of approximately 20.1 in /s.

dD dx dy
26. D 2 = x 2 + y 2 ⇒ D = x 2 + y 2 ⇒ 2D = 2x + 2y ⇒
dt dt dt
B
dx dy
dD x +y
= dt dt . When x = −20, y = 28, dx = −9, and dy = 11,
dt D dt dt D
y 28
dD (−20) (−9) + (28) (11)
we have = ≈ 14.18, so the distance between
dt A x
(−20)2 + (28)2
20 0
the cars is increasing at the rate of approximately 14.2 ft/s.
148 Chapter 2 The Derivative

27. Let D denote the distance between the two cars, x the distance traveled by
the car heading east, and y the distance traveled by the car heading north. y

dD dx dy
Then D 2 = x 2 + y 2 ⇒ 2D = 2x + 2y ⇒
dt dt dt
D
dx dy
dD x +y
= dt dt . When t = 5, x = 30, y = 40, dx = 2 (5) + 1 = 11,
dt D dt
dy x
and = 2 (5) + 3 = 13. Therefore,
dt
dD (30) (11) + (40) (13)
= √ = 17 ft/s.
dt 900 + 1600
y dθ 1 dy dy
28. tan θ = ⇒ sec2 θ = . We want to find when z = 30. But
20 dt 20 dt dt
√ √ √
when z = 30, y = 900 − 400 = 500 = 10 5 and sec θ = 30 3
20 = 2 . z
y
dθ π
Therefore, with = rad/s, we find ¬
dt 2
x
dy dθ 3 2 π 45π 20
= 20 sec2 θ · = 20 · = ≈ 70.7 ft/s.
dt dt 2 2 2
dx dy
d D x +y
29. D 2 = x 2 + y 2 ⇒ = dt dt as in Exercise 25. When t = 1 ,
2
dt D
dx A
x = −120 + 12 (25) = −107.5 and y = 12 (20) = 10, and with = 25
dt D
dy dD (−107.5) (25) + 10 (20) y
and = 20, we have = ≈ −23.04, so the
dt dt 107.52 + 102
B x 0
distance is decreasing at the rate of about 23 km/h.

30. Let x (t) and y (t) denote the distances covered by ships A and B
respectively after t hours. Then by the Law of Cosines, the distance
B
between the two ships is A
√
D= x 2 + y 2 − 2x y cos 45◦ = x 2 + y 2 − 2x y ⇒ x y
45¡
√
dx dy 2 dy dx
x +y − x +y
dD dt dt 2 dt dt
= √ .
dt 2 2
x + y − 2x y
√
dx dy dD 18 · 18 + 20 · 20 − 22 (18 · 20 + 20 · 18)
When t = 1, x = 18, y = 20, = 18, and = 20, so = √ ≈ 14.66, so
dt dt dt 182 + 202 − 2 · 18 · 20
the distance is increasing at approximately 14.7 km/h.
dV dP dV 5C d P 5P 5 V 7 d P 5V d P
31. P 5 V 7 = C ⇒ V 7 = C P −5 ⇒ 7V 6 = −5C P −6 ⇒ =− 6 6 =− 6 6 =− . When
dt dt dt 7P V dt 7P V dt 7P dt
dP dV 5 4 1 L kPa 1
V = 4 L, P = 100 kPa, = −5 kPa/s, we have =− · (−5) = · = L/s.
dt dt 7 100 7 kPa s 7
dV dR dI dV dI 1 V 12
32. V = I R ⇒ =I + R . When V = 12, I = 2, = 2, and = , we have R = = = 6 and
dt dt dt dt dt 2 I 2
dR 1 dR 1
2=2 +6 ⇒ = − , so the resistance is falling at the rate of 12 /s.
dt 2 dt 2
 Section 2.8 Related Rates 149

−1/2 −3/2
v2 dm m v2 2v dv m0v dv
33. m = m 0 1 − 2 ⇒ =− 0 1− 2 − 2 = 3/2 dt
. When v = 2.92 × 108 and
c dt 2 c c dt v2
c2 1 − 2
c

dv dm 9.11 × 10−31 2.92 × 108 2.42 × 105

= a = 2.42 × 105 , = ⎡ ⎤3/2 ≈ 9.1 × 10−32 , so the mass is increasing at
dt dt 8 2
2 2.92 × 10
2.98 × 108 ⎣1 − ⎦
2.98 × 108

the rate of approximately 9.1 × 10−32 kg/s.

1 1 1 R1 + R2 R1 R2
34. = + = ⇒ R = ⇒
R R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 + R2
dR dR d R1 d R2 d R2 dR
(R1 + R2 ) R1 2 + R2 1 − R1 R2 + R12 + R22 1
dR dt dt dt dt dt dt . When R = 60, d R1 = 2,
= 2
= 2 1
dt (R1 + R2 ) (R1 + R2 ) dt
d R2 dR 602 (−3) + 902 (2) 54
R2 = 90, and = −3, we have = = , so the resistance of the equivalent resistor is
dt dt 1502 225
54
changing at a rate of 225 /s.

dx
35. We are given that = 264. Using the Pythagorean Theorem,
dt
x
s 2 = x 2 + 10002 = x 2 + 1,000,000. Differentiating both sides of this
ds dx
equation with respect to t, we have 2s = 2x and so 1000
dt dt s
ds x (dx/dt)
= . Now when s = 1500, we have 15002 = x 2 + 10,000 ⇒
dt s Trawler
√
√ ds 1,250,000 · 264
x = 1,250,000. Therefore, = ≈ 196.8, so the
dt 1500
aircraft is receding from the trawler at a speed of approximately 196.8 ft/s.

36. Let D denote the distance between the plane and the radar station. Then
1000 − y 1
D 2 = x 2 + y 2 , but = sin 30◦ = , so
z 2
√ √
x 3
1 1 ◦
y = 1000 − 2 z = 2 (2000 − z) ⇒ = cos 30 = ⇒ x = 23 z.
z 2
Therefore,
√ 2 2
D2 = 3 + 12 (2000 − z)
2 z

= 34 z 2 + 14 (2000 − z)2 = 14 3z 2 + (2000 − z)2 ⇒

dz dz
dD 1 dz dD (2z − 1000) (2z − 1000)
2D = [6z − 2 (2000 − z)] ⇒ = dt = dt . When y = 1000 and
dt 4 dt dt 2D
3z 2 + (2000 − z)2
dz dD −1000 (−600)
= −600, z = 2000 − 2y = 0 and = √ = 300, so the distance is increasing at a rate of 300 ft/s.
dt dt 20002
150 Chapter 2 The Derivative

37. a. 72 = 32 + x 2 − 2 (3) x cos θ = 0 ⇒ x 2 − (6 cos θ) x − 40 = 0

3 7
dx dx dθ dx 3x sin θ dθ ¬
b. 2x − (6 cos θ) + (6 sin θ) x ⇒ = .
dt dt dt dt 3 cos θ − x dt x
π dθ 2 π 2
When θ = 3 and = 60 (2π) = 120π rad/s, x − 6 cos 3 x − 40 = 0 ⇔ x − 3x − 40 = 0 ⇔
dt
dx 3 sin π3 8 · 120π ≈ −1205.5 m/s.
(x − 8) (x + 5) = 0 ⇔ x = 8 or −5. We reject the negative root, so = π
dt 3 cos 3 − 8
38. The distance between the plane and the aircraft carrier is
2 1/2
D= (x − 30t)2 + y 2 = (x − 30t)2 + 0.001x 2 = (x − 30t)2 + 0.000001x 4 ⇒
dD −1/2 dx dx
= 12 (x − 30t)2 + 0.000001x 4 2 (x − 30t) − 30 + 0.000004x 3 .
dt dt dt
dx
When t = 10, x = 1000, and = 500, we have
dt
dD −1/2
= 12 (1000 − 10 · 30)2 + 0.000001 10004 2 (1000 − 30 · 10) (500 − 30) + 0.000004 10003 (500)
dt
≈ 1088.76
so the distance is increasing at approximately 1089 ft/s.

39. D 2 = x 2 + y 2 + 1002 ⇒ helicopter

dD d dx dy
2D = x 2 + y 2 + 10,000 = 2x + 2y ⇒ 100
dt dt dt dt D
dx dy
dD x +y
dt dt y
= . When x = 200, y = 1000,
dt x 2 + y 2 + 10,000
oil rig x tender
dx dy
= 20 · 88 88
60 = 3 ft/s, and dt = −88 ft/s, then
dt
dD 200 · 88
3 + 1000 (−88)
= ≈ −80.15, so the distance is decreasing
dt 2002 + 10002 + 10,000
at the rate of approximately 80.15 ft/s or 54.6 mi/h.
y x
40. By similar triangles, = ⇒ x = 7y. At a height of y ft 42
6 42
(where y ≤ 6), the area of the cross-section is 6
y
A = 12 x y + 13y = 12 (7y) y + 13y = 72 y 2 + 13y. The volume of
x 13
water is the product of the area of a cross-section times the width
dV dy dy dV /dt
of the pool; that is, V = 30A = 105y 2 + 390y ⇒ = (210y + 390) ⇒ = . When y = 4
dt dt dt 210y + 390
dV dy 600 (0.1337)
and = 600 (0.1337), we find that = ≈ 0.065513. So the water level is rising at the rate of
dt dt 210 (4) + 390
approximately 0.0655 ft/min.
41. After 10 s, the drill bit has traveled h = 0.05 · 10 = 0.5 in. and the cross-section of the Plexiglas
block has the shape shown in Figure b. When the drill bit is h in. from the top of the Plexiglas block,
the volume of material removed is the sum of the volume of a cone and the volume of a cylinder:

V = 13 π 1 2 1 + π 12
2
h − 13π + π h − 1 = π h − π = π (9h − 2), so
= 36
2 3 4 3 4 18 36
dV dV dh d π dh π dh π dh dV π π
= = (9h − 2) = 9 = and = (0.05) = ≈ 0.04 in3 /s.
dt dh dt dh 36 dt 36 dt 4 dt dt t=10 4 80
 Section 2.9 Differentials and Linear Approximations 151

250,000 (0.07)
42. a. With r = 0.07, we have P = ≈ $1663.26.
−360
12 1 − 1 + 0.07
12

b. P = 25012
,000 r −360 −1 ⇒
r 1 − 1 + 12
dP r −360 −1 − r 1 − 1 + r −360 −2 360 1 + r −361 1 dr
= 25012
,000
1 − 1 + 12 12 12 12 .
dt dt
dr
When r = 0.07 and = 0.0025, we have
dt
dP −360 −1 −360 −2 −361 1
= 25012
,000
1 − 1 + 0.07
12 − 0.07 1 − 1 + 0.07
12 360 1 + 0.07
12 12 (0.0025)
dt

≈ $41.97/month per month

So the monthly repayment is increasing at the rate of $41.97 per month. This means that if the Garcias secure the loan
one month later, they will have to pay approximately $42 more per month for the mortgage.

2.9 Concept Questions

1. The differential of x is dx. The differential of y is dy = f (x) dx.
2. y = f (x + x) − f (x) ≈ dy
y y=f(x)
T

f(x+ëx)
ëy
P dy
f(x)
ëx

0 x x+ëx x

2.9 Differentials and Linear Approximations

1. a. y = x 2 + 1, x = dx = 2.02 − 2 = 0.02, and y = 2.022 + 1 − 22 + 1 = 0.0804.

b. y = 2x, dy = y dx = 2x dx, and y ≈ dy = 2 · 2 · 0.02 = 0.08.

c. y − dy = 0.0804 − 0.08 = 0.0004

2. a. y = 2x 3 − x, x = dx = 1.97 − 2 = −0.03, and y = 2 · 1.973 − 1.97 − 2 · 23 − 2 = −0.679254.

b. y = 6x 2 − 1, dy = y dx = 6x 2 − 1 dx, and y ≈ dy = 6 · 22 − 1 (−0.03) = −0.69.

c.y − dy = −0.679254 − (−0.69) = 0.010746
√ √ √
3. a. w = 2u + 3, u = du = 3.1 − 3 = 0.1, and w = 2 (3.1) + 3 − 2 (3) + 3 ≈ 0.033150.
d √ 1 d 1 1
b. w = 2u + 3 = √ (2u) = √ , dw = w du = √ du, and
du 2 2u + 3 du 2u + 3 2u + 3
1
w ≈ dw = √ (0.1) ≈ 0.033333.
2 (3) + 3
c. w − dw ≈ 0.033150 − 0.033333 = −0.000183
152 Chapter 2 The Derivative

1 1 1
4. a. y = , x = dx = 1.02 − 1 = 0.02, and y=
− ≈ −0.019608.
x 1.02 1
1 1 1
b. y = − 2 , dy = y dx = − 2 dx, and y ≈ dy = − 2 (0.02) = −0.02.
x x 1
c. y − dy ≈ −0.019608 − (−0.02) = 0.000392
5. f (x) = 2x 2 − 3x + 1 ⇒ f (x) = 4x − 3, so d f |x=1 = f (1) dx = (4 · 1 − 3) dx = dx.
6. f (x) = x 4 − 2x 3 + 3 ⇒ f (x) = 4x 3 − 6x 2 , so d f |x=0 = f (0) dx = (4 · 0 − 6 · 0) dx = 0.
1 3
7. f (x) = 2x 1/4 + 3x −1/2 ⇒ f (x) = 3/4 − 3/2 , so d f |x=1 = f (1) dx = −dx.
2x 2x
1 2x 2 (2)
8. f (x) = 2x 2 + 1 ⇒ f (x) = · 4x = , so d f |x=2 = f (2) dx = √ dx = 43 dx.
2 2x 2 + 1 2x 2 + 1 2 (4) + 1
x (7x − 2)
9. f (x) = x 2 (3x − 1)1/3 ⇒ f (x) = x 2 13 (3x − 1)−2/3 (3) + (3x − 1)1/3 (2x) = , so
(3x − 1)2/3
3 (21 − 2)
d f |x=3 = f (3) dx = dx = 57
4 dx.
(9 − 1)2/3

x2 x 3 − 1 (2x) − x 2 3x 2 x 4 + 2x
10. f (x) = 3
⇒ f (x) = 2
= − 2
, so
x −1 x3 − 1 x3 − 1
1−2
d f |x=−1 = f (−1) dx = − dx = 14 dx.
(−2)2
√
11. f (x) = 2 sin x + 3 cos x ⇒ f (x) = 2 cos x − 3 sin x, so d f |x=π/4 = f π dx = 2 cos π − 3 sin π dx = − 2 dx.
4 4 4 2
12. f (x) = x tan x ⇒ f (x) = tan x + x sec2 x, so d f |x=π/4 = f π π π 2 π 2+π
4 dx = tan 4 + 4 sec 4 dx = 2 dx.
√ 1 sin x
13. f (x) = 1 + 2 cos x ⇒ f (x) = √ (−2 sin x) = − √ , so
2 1 + 2 cos x 1 + 2 cos x
sin π
d f |x=π/2 = f π 2 dx = −
2 dx = −dx.
1 + 2 cos π
2
√
14. f (x) = sin2 x ⇒ f (x) = 2 sin x cos x, so d f |x=π/6 = f π dx = 2 sin π cos π dx = 3 dx.
6 6 6 2
15. f (x) = x 3 + 2x 2 ⇒ f (x) = 3x 2 + 4x. At a = 1, we have
L (x) = f (1) + f (1) (x − 1) = (1 + 2) + (3 + 4) (x − 1) = 7x − 4.
√ 1
16. f (x) = 2x + 3 ⇒ f (x) = 12 (2x + 3)−1/2 (2) = √ . At a = 3, we have
2x + 3
√ 1
L (x) = f (3) + f (3) (x − 3) = 2 · 3 + 3 + √ (x − 3) = 13 x + 2.
2·3+3
17. f (x) = x 2/3 ⇒ f (x) = 23 x −1/3 . At a = 8, we have L (x) = f (8) + f (8) (x − 8) = 82/3 + 23 8−1/3 (x − 8) = 13 x + 43 .
18. f (x) = sin x ⇒ f (x) = cos x. At a = π
4 , we have
√ √
L (x) = f π
4 + f
π π π π π 2 2 π
4 x − 4 = sin 4 + cos 4 x − 4 = 2 x + 2 1 − 4 .
√ 1
19. f (x) = x + 3 ⇒ f (x) = √ . At a = 1, we have 3
2 x +3
L (x) = f (1) + f (1) (x − 1) = 2 + 14 (x − 1) = 14 x + 74 . Thus, 2
√ √
3.9 = 0.9 + 3 ≈ L (0.9) = 14 (0.9) + 74 = 1.975 and 1
√ √
4.1 = 1.1 + 3 ≈ L (1.1) = 14 (1.1) + 74 = 2.025. 0

-4 -2 0 2 4 6
 Section 2.9 Differentials and Linear Approximations 153

√ 1
20. f (x) = 3
1 − x ⇒ f (x) = 13 (1 − x)−2/3 (−1) = − . At
3 (1 − x)2/3 2

a = 0, we have L (x) = f (0) + f (0) (x − 0) = 1 + − 13 x = − 13 x + 1. 1

√ √
Thus, 3 0.95 = 3 1 − 0.05 ≈ L (0.05) = − 13 (0.05) + 1 ≈ 0.9833 and 0
√ √
3
1.05 = 3 1 − (−0.05) ≈ L (−0.05) = − 13 (−0.05) + 1 ≈ 1.0167. -1

-4 -2 0 2 4

21. For 1.0023 , let f (x) = x 3 and a = 1. Then f (x) = 3x 2 , so L (x) = f (1) + f (1) (x − 1) = 1 + 3 (1) (x − 1) = 3x − 2.
Thus, 1.0023 ≈ L (1.002) = 3 (1.002) − 2 = 1.006.
√ √ 1
22. For 63.8, let f (x) = x and a = 64. Then f (x) = √ , so
2 x
√ 1 √
1 x +4. Thus, 63.8 ≈ L (63.8) = 1 (63.8)+4 = 7.9875.
L (x) = f (64)+ f (64) (x − 64) = 64+ √ (x − 64) = 16 16
2 64
√ √
23. For 5
31.08, let f (x) = 5 x and a = 32. Then f (x) = 15 x −4/5 , so
√
L (x) = f (32) + f (32) (x − 32) = 5 32 + 15 (32)−4/5 (x − 32) = 2 + 80
1 (x − 32) = 1 x + 8 . Thus,
80 5
√
5 1 (31.08) + 8 = 1.9885.
31.08 ≈ L (31.08) = 80 5
24. For sin 0.1, let f (x) = sin x and a = 0. Then f (x) = cos x, so L (x) = f (0) + f (0) (x − 0) = x. Thus,
sin 0.1 ≈ L (0.1) = 0.1.
25. The volume of a cube of side x is V = f (x) = x 3 . The error in the computed volume is V = f (x) dx = 3x 2 dx, where
V 3x 2 dx dx
dx is the error in measuring the side length. The maximum error in the volume is = =3 = 3 (0.02) = 0.06,
V x3 x
or 6%.
26. A = πr 2 , r = 53,200, and dr = 15, so the area of the ring is approximately
d A = 2πr dr = 2π (53,200) (15) ≈ 5,014,000 km2 .

27. P (x) = − 14 x + 7, so P ≈ d P = P (x) dx. When x = 24 and dx = 2, P ≈ − 14 (24) + 7 · 2 = 2, or $2000.

2πr 2
28. a. V = 43 πr 3 + πr 2 (6) = (2r + 9)
3
b. V = 43 πr 3 + 6πr 2 , so dV = 4πr 2 + 12πr dr = 4πr (r + 3) dr and
V dV 4πr (r + 3) dr 6 (r + 3) dV 6 (7)
≈ = 2 = dr. When r = 4 and dr = 0.1, = · 0.1 ≈ 0.062, or 6.2%.
V V 2
πr (2r + 9) r (2r + 9) V 4 (17)
3
kl 4kl 4kl R dR 4kl r4 dr dr
29. R = 4 ⇒ R = − 5 , so R ≈ d R = R dr = − 5 dr . ≈ = − 5 dr · = −4 , so when = 0.1 or
r r r R R r kl r r
R
10%, we have ≈ −4 (0.1) = −0.4, so the resistance decreases by approximately 40%.
R
L 2π 2π 1 π dL
30. T = 2π = √ L 1/2 ⇒ T = √ · = √ √ . If ≤ 0.005, then
g g g 2L 1/2 g L L
√
T dT πd L g 1 dL
≈ =√ √ · √ = ≤ 12 (0.005) = 0.0025 or 14 %.
T T g L 2π L 2 L
√
2πr 3/2 3πr 1/2 dr T dT 3πr 1/2 dr R g 3 dr 3
31. T = √ ⇒T = √ . With = 0.02, ≈ = √ · = = (0.02) = 0.03, so the
R g R g r T T R g 2πr 3/2 2 r 2
change in the period is 3%.
154 Chapter 2 The Derivative

32. S = kW 2/3 ⇒ S = 23 kW −1/3 . With k = 0.1, W = 280, and | W | ≤ 0.5, we find

S dS 1 2 dW S 2 (0.5)
≈ = 23 kW −1/3 dW · = ⇒ ≤ ≈ 0.00119, or about 0.12%.
S S kW 2/3 3 W S 3 (280)
1/2
3/2 1/2 dI 3kV0 dV0 1 3 dV0 dV0
33. I = kV0 ⇒ d I = 32 kV0 d V0 . = · 3/2
= . When = 0.1, we find
I 2 kV0 2 V0 V0
I dI 3 d V0 3
≈ = = (0.1) = 0.15, so the current will increase by 15%.
I I 2 V0 2

50 − p 1/2 50 − p −1/2 d 50 250

34. x = 10 ⇒ x ≈ dx = 5 − 1 dp = − dp. When p = 40 and
p p dp p 50 − p 1/2
p2
p
250
dp = 2, x ≈− · 2 = −0.625, so the quantity demanded drops by 625 units per week.
50 − 40 1/2
402
40

v 02
1 v 2 sin 2θ ⇒
35. R = 32 0 R ≈ dR = (cos 2θ) (2) dθ. When θ = π π π
6 and dθ = −0.5 180 = − 360 ,
32
802 cos π
3 π
R≈ − ≈ −1.75, so it falls short by about 1.75 ft.
16 360
v2 2v 0 R dR 2v 32 2dv 0
36. R = 0 sin 2θ ⇒ R ≈ dR = (sin 2θ) dv 0 ⇒ ≈ = 0 (sin 2θ) dv 0 · 2 = . But
32 32 R R 32 v 0 sin 2θ v0
dv 0 R
= 0.001, so ≈ 2 (0.001) = 0.002, so the range has an error of 0.2%.
v0 R
55 −1 55 (4x) 220x
37. p = = 55 2x 2 + 1 ⇒ p =− =− .
2x 2 + 1 2x 2 + 1
2
2x 2 + 1
2

p dp −220x dx 2x 2 + 1 4x |dx| 4x 2 |dx| |dx|

≈ = 2
· = 2
= 2
. When x = 2.2 and = 0.1, we have
p p 2x 2 + 1 55 2x + 1 2x + 1 x x

| P| 4 (2.2)2
= · 0.1 ≈ 0.181, so the maximum error in the predicted price is 18.1%.
P 2 (2.2)2 + 1
⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎪ r −360 r −361 1 ⎪ ⎪
⎪1 − 1 +
⎨ − r − (−360) 1 + ⎪
12 ⎬
·
20,000r 12 12
38. a. P = ⇒ P = 20,000 ⇒
r −360 ⎪
⎪ r −360 2 ⎪
⎪
1− 1+ ⎪
⎩ 1− 1+ ⎪
⎭
12 12
r −360 r −361
20,000 1 − 1 + − 30r 1 +
12 12
dP = dr
r −360 2
1− 1+
12
b. With r = 0.07 and dr = 0.002, d P ≈ 32.24, so the monthly payment increases by $32.24.
With r = 0.07 and dr = 0.003, d P ≈ 48.35, so the monthly payment increases by $48.35.

x 3/2 x 1/2 1
39. T = 0.0588 1 + ⇒ T ≈ dT = T (x) dx = (0.0588) 32 1+ dx. When x = 22,000
3959 3959 3959
22,000 1/2 1
and dx = −500, T ≈ 0.0588 (1.5) 1 + (−500) ≈ −0.0285236 days ≈ −41.07 minutes or
3959 3959
−0.68 hours. So the period decreases by approximately 0.68 hours.
 Chapter 2 Review 155

πh dD πh π
40. Here a = 12 , L = 10, h = 5, and dh = 0.1. D = a − a cos ⇒ = a sin . Therefore,
2L dh 2L 2L
1π √
aπ πh 2π
D ≈ dD = sin dh = 2 sin π
4 0.1 = = 0.0056, so the difference in the deflection is
2L 2L 2 · 10 800
approximately 0.0056 ft.
I dI k sec2 φ dφ dφ 2 dφ
41. I = k tan φ ⇒ ≈ = = = . The most reliable reading occurs when the relative
I I k tan φ sin φ cos φ sin 2φ
error is smallest, and this occurs when φ = 45◦ .
h dh 150 sec2 θ dθ dθ
42. h = 150 tan θ ⇒ ≈ = = . When θ = π π
3 and dθ = 0.01 3 , we find
h h 150 tan θ sin θ cos θ
h π
h
≈
3 sin π π · (0.01) = 0.024, or about 2.4%.
3 cos 3
43. True. y = f (x + x) − f (x) = [a (x + x) + b] − (ax + b) = a x. On the other hand,
dy
dy = · dx = a dx = a x.
dx x=a
f (x) − f (a) f (x) − f (a)
44. True. From f (a) = lim , we have ≈ f (a) if |x − a| is small. So
x→a x −a x −a
f (x) ≈ f (a) (x − a) + f (a).
45. True. Let y = h (x). Then y = h (x + x) − h (x) ≈ h (x) dx = h (x) x = g ( f (x)) f (x) x, so
h (x + x) ≈ g ( f (x)) f (x) x + g ( f (x)).
√ 1
46. False. Let y = f (x) = x, x > 0. Then f (x) = √ > 0 for x > 0. If x > 0, then
2 x
√ √
√ √ x+ x− x √ √ x
y = f (x + x) − f (x) = x + x − x = √ √ x+ x+ x = √ √ ,
x+ x+ x x+ x+ x
1 x x
dy = f (x) x = √ x, and y = √ √ < √ = dy.
2 x x+ x+ x 2 x

Chapter 2 Review
Concept Review
f (x + h) − f (x)
1. a. f (x) = lim b. limit c. tangent line; (a, f (a))
h→0 h
d. f (x); x; (a, f (a)) e. y = f (a) (x − a) + f (a)

2. a. number; f (x) = |x|; 0 b. continuous; f (x) = |x|; 0; 0

3. a. 0 b. nx n−1
d d d
4. c ( f (x)) = c f (x); f (x) + g (x) = f (x) + g (x); f (x) g (x) = f (x) g (x) + g (x) f (x);
dx dx dx
d f (x) g (x) f (x) − f (x) g (x)
= 2
dx g (x) g (x)
dy
5. 6. a. f (t); f (t); f (t); f (t)
dx
b. > 0; < 0; 0

7. C ; R ; P ; C 8. x; g ( f (x)) · f (x)
156 Chapter 2 The Derivative

n−1
9. a. n f (x) · f (x)
b. cos f (x) · f (x); − sin f (x) · f (x); sec2 f (x) · f (x); sec f (x) tan f (x) · f (x); − csc f (x) cot f (x) · f (x);
− csc2 f (x) · f (x)
dy dy
10. both sides; 11. y; ;a
dx dt
y dy y dx
12. − ;− 13. a. x2 − x1 b. f (x + x) − f (x)
x dt x dt
14. x; x; x; f (x) dx

Review Exercises
f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)2 − 2 (x + h) − 4 − x 2 − 2x − 4
1. f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
x 2 + 2xh + h 2 − 2x − 2h − 4 − x 2 − 2x − 4 h (2x + h − 2)
= lim = lim = lim (2x − 2 + h) = 2x − 2
h→0 h h→0 h h→0

f (x + h) − f (x) 2 (x + h)3 − 3 (x + h) + 2 − 2x 3 − 3x + 2
2. f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
2x 3 + 6x 2 h + 6xh 2 + 2h 3 − 3x − 3h + 2 − 2x 3 − 3x + 2 h 6x 2 + 6xh + 2h 2 − 3
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= lim 6x 2 + 6xh + 2h 2 − 3 = 6x 2 − 3
h→0

3. y» 4. y»
20
4

2
_2 0 2 4 6 x
_1 0 1 2 x
_20
_2

5. a. f (r) measures the rate of change of the amount of money on deposit with respect to the interest rate. The unit is dollars
per unit change in interest.
b. The sign of f (r ) is positive, because the amount of money on deposit increases as the interest rate increases.
c. The change in the amount after 5 years is approximately f (6) (0.01) = (60,775.31) (0.01) ≈ $607.75.
6. f is not differentiable at x = −2 or at x = 5 because the graph of f has corners at the points corresponding to these values
of x. f is not differentiable at x = 0, x = 2, or x = 3 because f is not continuous at these values of x.
7. By comparing the given expression to the derivative of a function, we see that f (x) = 3x 3/2 and a = 4.
8. f (x) = 6x 2 + 2x, so f (1) = 8.
d 1 6
9. f (x) = x − 2x 4 + x 2 − 5 = 2x 5 − 8x 3 + 2x
dx 3
d
10. g (x) = 2x 4 + 3x 1/2 − x −1/3 + x −4 = 8x 3 + 32 x −1/2 + 13 x −4/3 − 4x −5
dx
d 4 1
11. s = 2t 2 − 4t −1 + 2t −1/2 = 4t + 4t −2 − t −3/2 = 4t + 2 − √
dt t t t
d x +1 (x − 1) (1) − (x + 1) (1) 2
12. f (x) = = 2
=−
dx x − 1 (x − 1) (x − 1)2
 Chapter 2 Review 157

d t −1 (2t + 1) (1) − (t − 1) (2) 3

13. g (t) = = =
dt 2t + 1 (2t + 1)2 (2t + 1)2

d x 2x 2 + 3 (1) − x (4x) 3 − 2x 2
14. h (x) = 2
= 2
= 2
dx 2x + 3 2x 2 + 3 2x 2 + 3

u2 + 1 1 u −1/2 − u 1/2 (2u) 1 u 3/2 + 1 u −1/2 − 2u 3/2

d u 1/2 2 2 2 1 − 3u 2
15. h (u) = = = = √
du u2 + 1 u2 + 1
2
u2 + 1
2
2 u u2 + 1
2

1 − t 1/2 (2t) − t 2 − 12 t −1/2 √

d t2 2t − 2t 3/2 + 12 t 3/2 t 4−3 t
16. u = = = = √ 2
dt 1 − t 1/2 1 − t 1/2
2
1 − t 1/2
2
2 1− t
d
17. g (θ) = (cos θ − 2 sin θ) = − sin θ − 2 cos θ
dθ
d
18. f (x) = (x tan x + sec x) = tan x + x sec2 x + sec x tan x
dx
d
19. f (x) = x sin x + x 2 cos x = sin x + x cos x + 2x cos x + x 2 (− sin x) = 1 − x 2 sin x + 3x cos x
dx
d 1 − sin x (1 + sin x) (− cos x) − (1 − sin x) (cos x) 2 cos x
20. y = = =−
dx 1 + sin x (1 + sin x)2 (1 + sin x)2
d t cos t (1 + tan t) (cos t − t sin t) − (t cos t) sec2 t cos t − t sin t + sin t − t sin t tan t − t sec t
21. h (t) = = =
dt 1 + tan t (1 + tan t)2 (1 + tan t)2
d
22. f (x) = (1 + 2x)7 = 7 (1 + 2x)6 (2) = 14 (1 + 2x)6
dx
d 3 −3/2 −5/2 −5/2
23. y = t + 2t + 1 = − 32 t 3 + 2t + 1 3t 2 + 2 = − 32 3t 2 + 2 t 3 + 2t + 1
dt
d 1 3 1 2 1 1 2
24. g (t) = t2 + 2 = 3 t2 + 2 2t − 2t −3 = 6 t − 3 t2 + 2
dt t t t t
d 3/2 3/2 1/2
25. f (s) = s s3 + s + 1 = s3 + s + 1 + s 32 s3 + s + 1 3s 2 + 1
ds
1/2 1/2
= 12 s 3 + s + 1 11s 3 + 5s + 2 = 12 11s 3 + 5s + 2 s 3 + s + 1 = 1
2 s 3 + s + 1 11s 3 + 5s + 2
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
3/2 2 1/2 1 − t 2 (2t) − 1 + t 2 (−2t) 1/2
d ⎣ 1 + t2 ⎦= 3 1 + t ⎣ ⎦= 3 1 + t2 4t
26. y = 2 2 2
dt 1−t 2 1−t 1 − t2 2 1 − t2 1 − t2
2

1/2
6t 1 + t 2
= 5/2
1 − t2
⎡ ⎤
(t + 1)1/2 (1) − t 12 (t + 1)−1/2 −1/2 [2 (t + 1) − t]
27. y =
d 2t
= 2⎣ ⎦ = (t + 1) = √
t +2
dt (t + 1)1/2 t +1 t +1 t +1
3

2
d 1+x 2x 2 + 1 (1) − (1 + x) 2 2x 2 + 1 (4x) 2x 2 + 1 2x 2 + 1 − 8x − 8x 2
28. h (x) = 2
= =
dx 2x 2 + 1 2 2 2x 2 + 1
4
2x 2 + 1

1 − 8x − 6x 2
= 3
2x 2 + 1
d
29. f (x) = cos (2x + 1) = − sin (2x + 1) · 2 = −2 sin (2x + 1)
dx
158 Chapter 2 The Derivative

d 2 d d 2
30. g (t) = t sin (πt + 1) = t 2 sin (πt + 1) + sin (πt + 1) t = πt 2 cos (πt + 1) + 2t sin (πt + 1)
dt dt dt
d sin 2x x cos 2x · 2 − sin 2x · 1 2x cos 2x − sin 2x
31. y = x2 + = 2x + = 2x +
dx x x2 x2

d x +1 x +1 x +1 d x +1 x +1 x + 1 (x − 1) (1) − (x + 1) (1)
32. h (x) = sec = sec tan · = sec tan ·
dx x −1 x −1 x − 1 dx x −1 x −1 x −1 (x − 1)2
2 x +1 x +1
=− 2
sec tan
(x − 1) x −1 x −1

d 2 2 d 2 2 2
33. u = tan = sec2 = − 2 sec2
dx x x dx x x x

d
34. v = (sec 2x + tan 3x) = 2 sec 2x tan 2x + 3 sec2 3x
dx
d d
35. w = cot3 x = 3 cot2 x cot x = −3 cot2 x csc2 x
dx dx
d −1/2 −1/2 d −1/2
36. f (x) = tan x 2 + 1 = sec2 x 2 + 1 x2 + 1
dx dx
−1/2
−1/2 −3/2 x sec2 x 2 + 1
= sec2 x 2 + 1 · − 12 x2 + 1 (2x) = − 3/2
x2 + 1

d d
d cos θ θ2 (cos θ) − (cos θ) θ2 −θ2 sin θ − 2θ cos θ θ sin θ + 2 cos θ
37. f (θ) = = dθ dθ = =−
dθ θ2 θ4 θ4 θ3

d sin (2x + 1) (2x + 1) cos (2x + 1) · 2 − sin (2x + 1) · 2 2 [(2x + 1) cos (2x + 1) − sin (2x + 1)]
38. y = = =
dx 2x + 1 (2x + 1)2 (2x + 1)2

x2 + 1 1 x −1/2 − x 1/2 (2x)

2 17 · 12 · 12 − 2 · 8 47
39. f (4) = 2
= =−
2
x +1 (16 + 1)2 1156
x=4
√ √
40. f π = cos (cos x) d (cos x) = − (sin x) cos (cos x)|π/4 = − sin π π 2 2
4 dx π /4 4 cos cos 4 = − 2 cos 2 ≈ −0.538

d 1 d 2
41. y = x 3 + x 2 − x −1 = 3x 2 + 2x + x −2 = 3x 2 + 2x + 2 ⇒ y = 3x 2 + 2x + x −2 = 6x + 2 − 3
dx x dx x
d 3
42. g (x) = (3x + 1)−1 = −3 (3x + 1)−2 = − ⇒
dx (3x + 1)2
d 18
g (x) = −3 (3x + 1)−2 = 6 (3x + 1)−3 · 3 =
dx (3x + 1)3

d d d
43. y = x (2x − 1)1/2 = x (2x − 1)1/2 + (2x − 1)1/2 (x) = x 12 (2x − 1)−1/2 · 2 + (2x − 1)1/2
dx dx dx
3x − 1
= (2x − 1)−1/2 [x + (2x − 1)] = √ ⇒
2x − 1
d d d
y = (3x − 1) (2x − 1)−1/2 = (3x − 1) (2x − 1)−1/2 + (2x − 1)−1/2 (3x − 1)
dx dx dx
3x − 2
= (3x − 1) − 12 (2x − 1)−3/2 (2) + 3 (2x − 1)−1/2 = (2x − 1)−3/2 [− (3x − 1) + 3 (2x − 1)] =
(2x − 1)3/2
 Chapter 2 Review 159

d x −1 x 2 + 1 (1) − (x − 1) (2x) −x 2 + 2x + 1 x 2 − 2x − 1
44. f (x) = = = =− ⇒
dx x2 + 1 x2 + 1
2
x2 + 1
2
x2 + 1
2

2
d x 2 − 2x − 1 x2 + 1 (2x − 2) − x 2 − 2x − 1 2 x 2 + 1 (2x)
f (x) = − 2
=− 4
dx x2 + 1 x2 + 1
2 x2 + 1 x 2 + 1 (x − 1) − x 2 − 2x − 1 (2x) 2 x 3 − x 2 + x − 1 − 2x 3 + 4x 2 + 2x
=− 4
=− 3
x2 + 1 x2 + 1
2 x 3 − 3x 2 − 3x + 1
= 3
x2 + 1
d d
45. f (x) = cos2 x = 2 cos x (− sin x) = − sin 2x ⇒ f (x) = − (sin 2x) = −2 cos 2x
dx dx
d 1 1 1 1 1
46. f (x) = sin = cos · − 2 = − 2 cos ⇒
dx x x x x x
d 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
f (x) = − cos = − 2 − sin · − 2 − 3 cos = 3 2 cos − sin
dx x 2 x x x x x x x x x x
d θ 1 θ
47. y = cot = − csc2 ⇒
dθ 2 2 2
1 d θ 1 θ θ θ 1 1 θ θ
y =− csc2 =− 2 csc − csc cot = csc2 cot
2 dθ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
d
48. u = [cos (π − 2t) + sin (π + 2t)] = − sin (π − 2t) (−2) + cos (π + 2t) (2) = 2 [sin (π − 2t) + cos (π + 2t)] ⇒
dt
d
u = 2 [sin (π − 2t) + cos (π + 2t)] = 2 [cos (π − 2t) (−2) − sin (π + 2t) (2)] = −4 [cos (π − 2t) + sin (π + 2t)]
dt
d d d
49. f (t) = (t cot t) = t (cot t) + (cot t) (t) = −t csc2 t + cot t ⇒
dt dt dt
d
f (t) = cot t − t csc2 t = − csc2 t − t · 2 csc t (− csc t) cot t + csc2 t = −2 csc2 t (1 − t cot t)
dt
d 1 d 1 1 d 1 1 1
50. h (x) = x 2 cos = x2 cos + cos x 2 = x 2 − sin − 2 + 2x cos
dx x dx x x dx x x x
1 1
= sin + 2x cos ⇒
x x
d 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
h (x) = sin + 2x cos = cos − 2 + 2x − sin − 2 + 2 cos
dx x x x x x x x
1 2 1 1 1
= 2 cos + sin − 2 cos
x x x x x
√ d (2x + 1)1/2 = 1 (2x + 1)−1/2 (2) = (2x + 1)−1/2 ⇒
51. f (x) = 2x + 1 ⇒ f (x) = dx 2
1 1 1
f (x) = − 12 (2x + 1)−3/2 (2) = − ⇒ f (4) = − 3/2 = −
(2x + 1)3/2 9 27

52. f (x) = x tan x ⇒ f (x) = tan x + x sec2 x ⇒ f (x) = sec2 x + sec2 x + 2x sec2 x tan x = 2 sec2 x (1 + x tan x) ⇒

f π = 2 √2 2 1 + π = 4 + π
4 4

53. h (x) = f (x) g (x) ⇒ h (x) = f (x) g (x) + f (x) g (x), so h (2) = f (2) g (2) + f (2) g (2) = (3) (4) + (−1) (2) = 10.
f (x) g (x) f (x) − f (x) g (x) g (2) f (2) − f (2) g (2) (2) (−1) − (3) (4) 7
54. h (x) = ⇒ h (x) = 2
, so h (2) = 2
= 2
=− .
g (x) g (x) g (2) (2) 2
160 Chapter 2 The Derivative

f (x) 1/3 1 f (x) −2/3 g (x) f (x) − f (x) g (x)

55. h (x) = ⇒ h (x) = 2
g (x) 3 g (x) g (x)
d sin f (x) = g (sin f (x)) cos f (x) f (x)
56. h (x) = g (sin f (x)) ⇒ h (x) = g (sin f (x)) dx
dy dy 3x
57. 3x 2 − 2y 2 = 6 ⇒ 6x − 4y =0⇒ =
dx dx 2y
dy dy dy x 2 + y2
58. x 3 + 3x y 2 + y 3 = 1 ⇒ 3x 2 + 3y 2 + 6x y + 3y 2 =0⇒ =−
dx dx dx 2x y + y 2
dy dy y3
59. x −2 + y −2 = 1 ⇒ −2x −3 − 2y −3 =0⇒ =− 3
dx dx x

60. x y 1/2 + yx 1/2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ x 1 y −1/2 dy + y 1/2 + y 12 x −1/2 +

dy 1/2
x = 0⇒
2 dx dx
√ √
x dy y x + 2x 1/2 y 1/2 dy 2x 1/2 y 1/2 + y dy 2 xy + y y
+ 2x 1/2 = − 2y 1/2 + 1/2 ⇒ =− ⇒ = − √ √
y 1/2 dx x y 1/2 dx x 1/2 dx x x + 2x y
dy dy dy dy
61. (x + y)3 + x 3 + y 3 = 0 ⇒ 3 (x + y)2 1 + + 3x 2 + 3y 2 = 0 ⇒ (x + y)2 + (x + y)2 + x 2 + y2 =0⇒
dx dx dx dx
dy dy 2x 2 + 2x y + y 2
(x + y)2 + y 2 = − (x + y)2 + x 2 ⇒ =− 2
dx dx x + 2x y + 2y 2
dy dy sin x + x cos x
62. x sin x + y cos y = 3 ⇒ sin x + x cos x + (cos y − y sin y) =0⇒ =
dx dx y sin y − cos y
dy dy dy sin y − sin (x + y)
63. cos (x + y) + x sin y = 1 ⇒ − sin (x + y) · 1 + + sin y + x (cos y) =0⇒ =
dx dx dx sin (x + y) − x cos y
dy dy cot y − csc x cot x
64. csc x + x cot y = 1 ⇒ − csc x cot x + cot y + x − csc2 y =0⇒ =
dx dx x csc2 y
dy dy y
65. sec x y = 8 ⇒ (sec x y tan x y) y + x =0⇒ =−
dx dx x
dy dy sin x cos x
66. cos2 x + sin2 y = 1 ⇒ (2 cos x) (− sin x) + (2 sin y cos y) =0⇒ =
dx dx sin y cos y
67. By interpreting the limit as a derivative, we find that
2 (x + h)5 − (x + h)3 − 2x 5 + x 3 d
lim = 2x 5 − x 3 = 10x 4 − 3x 2 .
h→0 h dx
√ 1 √ 1
x +h+ − x−
68. By interpreting the limit as a derivative, we find that lim x + h x = d √
x+
1 1 1
= √ − 2.
h→0 h dx x 2 x x
d
69. d f |x=4 = x 1/2 + x −1/2 dx = 12 x −1/2 − 12 x −3/2 dx = 14 − 161 dx = 3 dx
16
dx x=4 x=4

d 1/2 −1/2
70. d f |x=1 = 2x 2 + x + 1 dx = 12 2x 2 + x + 1 (4x + 1) dx = 54 dx
dx x=1 x=1
d 1/3 −2/3 1/3
71. f (x) = x 2x 2 − 1 = x · 13 2x 2 − 1 (4x) + 2x 2 − 1 · 1 ⇒ f (1) = 73 , so
dx
d f |x=1 = f (1) dx = 73 dx.
d π
72. f (x) = sec2 x = 2 sec x · sec x tan x = 2 sec2 x tan x ⇒ f 4 = 2 sec2 π π
4 tan 4 = 4, so
dx
d f |x=π/4 = f π 4 dx = 4 dx.
 Chapter 2 Review 161
√ √
d 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 1 π 3 6 − 3π
73. f (x) = x sin = sin
+ x cos · − 2 = sin − cos ⇒ f = − = , so
dx x x x x x x x π 2 6 2 12
√
d f |x=6/π = f 6 dx = 6 − 3π dx.
π 12

d tan x (1 + cot x) sec2 x − tan x − csc2 x (1 + 1) (2) + (1) (2) 3

74. f (x) = = ⇒ f π = = , so
4
dx 1 + cot x (1 + cot x)2 4 2
d f |x=π/4 = f π dx = 3 dx.
4 2
d x 1 + x2 1/2 1/2 −1/2
75. y = dx = 1 + x2 + x 12 1 + x2 (2x). 3
√ √
When x = 1, y = 2 + 12 √1 (2) = 3 2 2 , so an equation of the 2
2
√ √ √ √
tangent line is y − 2 = 2 (x − 1) ⇔ y = 3 2 2 x − 22 . An equation
3 2
1
√ √ √
of the normal line is y − 2 = − √2 (x − 1) ⇔ y = − 2 x + 4 2 .
3 2 3 3 0

-1
-1 0 1 2 3

76. y = dxd 4 cos2 x = −8 cos x sin x = −4 sin 2x ⇒

4
√
y π 2π
3 = −4 sin 3 = −2 3, so an equation of the tangent line is
√ 3
√ √ 3 + 2 3π . An equation of the
y − 1 = −2 3 x − π 3 ⇔ y = −2 3x + 3 2
√ √
1
normal line is y − 1 = √ x−π 3 18 − 3π .
2 3 3 ⇔y= 6 x+ 18 1

-1 0 1 2 3

77. Differentiating implicitly, we have x 2 + 5x y + y 2 − 7 = 0 ⇒ 2x + 5y + 5x y + 2yy = 0. If x = y = 1, we have

2 + 5 + 5y + 2y = 0 ⇒ y = −1, so an equation of the tangent line is y − 1 = −1 (x − 1) ⇔ y = −x + 2 and an
equation of the normal line is y − 1 = 1 (x − 1) ⇔ y = x.
√
78. Differentiating implicitly, we have x + x y + y = 6 ⇒ 1 + 12 (x y)−1/2 y + x y + y = 0. If x = y = 2, then we have
1 + 12 12 2 + 2y + y = 0 ⇒ y = −1, so an equation of the tangent line is y − 2 = −1 (x − 2) ⇔ y = −x + 4 and an
equation of the normal line is y − 2 = 1 (x − 2) ⇔ y = x.
x 2
79. x 3 + y 3 = 1 ⇒ 3x 2 + 3y 2 y = 0 ⇒ y = − 2 ⇒
y
x2
2x y 2 − 2x 2 y − 2
y 2 (2x) − x 2 2yy y 2x y 3 + x 3 2x
y =− =− =− =− 5
y4 y4 y5 y
cos 2x
80. sin 2x + cos 2y = 1 ⇒ 2 cos 2x − (2 sin 2y) y = 0 ⇒ y = ⇒
sin 2y
(sin 2y) (−2 sin 2x) − (cos 2x) (2 cos 2y) y 2 sin 2x sin2 2y + 2 cos2 2x cos 2y
y = =−
(sin 2y)2 sin3 2y
81. f (x) = cos2 x ⇒ f (x) = 2 cos x (− sin x) = − sin 2x. At a = π
6,
√ √
L (x) = f π
6 + f
π
6 x−π 2 π π
6 = cos 6 − sin 2 6 x−π 3 1
6 = − 2 x + 12 3π + 9 .
162 Chapter 2 The Derivative

√ √
82. For 3 0.00096, let f (x) = 3 x and a = 0.001, so f (x) = 13 x −2/3 and L (x) = f (0.001) + f (0.001) (x − 0.001) ⇔
√ 1 1000x − 1
3
0.001 + 13 (0.001)−2/3 (x − 0.001) = + . Therefore,
10 30
√3 1 1000 (0.00096) − 1 1 0.04
0.00096 ≈ L (0.00096) = + = − ≈ 0.0987.
10 30 10 30
d
83. a. f (x) = x 2 + 1 = 2x. Set f (x) = 2x = 2, giving x = 1. Then y = 2 and the point is (1, 2).
dx
b. m = f (1) = 2, so an equation is y − 2 = 2 (x − 1) or y = 2x.

d
84. a. f (x) = 2x 3 − 3x 2 − 16x + 3 = 6x 2 − 6x − 16. Set 6x 2 − 6x − 16 = −4 ⇒
dx
6x 2 − 6x − 12 = 6 x 2 − x − 2 = 6 (x − 2) (x + 1) = 0 ⇒ x = −1 or 2. The points are (−1, 14) and (2, −25).
b. At (−1, 14), m = f (−1) = −4 and an equation is y − 14 = −4 (x + 1) or y = −4x + 10.
At (2, −25), m = f (2) = −4 and an equation is y + 25 = −4 (x − 2) or y = −4x − 17.
√ √ 3
d sec x (1 + tan x) (sec x tan x) − (sec x) sec2 x (1 + 1) 2 − 2
85. y = = , so y x=π/4 = = 0. Thus, y
dx 1 + tan x (1 + tan x)2 22
is not changing with respect to x when x = π4.
d 3 d
86. a. v = s (t) = t − 12t + 1 = 3t 2 − 12 ft/s ⇒ a = v (t) = 3t 2 − 12 = 6t ft/s2 .
dt dt
b. The particle is stationary when v (t) = 3t 2 − 12 = 0 ⇒ t = 2 s. (We reject the negative root.)
c. sign of t+2 ++++++++++++ v (t) = 3 t 2 − 4 = 3 (t + 2) (t − 2). From the sign diagram for v,
sign of t-2 _ _ _ _ _ _ 0 +++++
we conclude that v (t) ≤ 0 on (0, 2), so the particle moves in the
0 1 2 3 t (s) negative direction for 0 ≤ t < 2, and v (t) > 0 on (2, ∞), so it moves
in the positive direction for t > 2.

d. (e) s (3) = 33 − 12 (3) + 1 = −8. The total distance covered is

|s (2) − s (0)| + |s (3) − s (2)| = |−15 − 1| + |−8 − (−15)|
_15 _1 0 1 2 s (ft)
= 16 + 7 = 23 ft.
d
87. v (t) = s (t) = 10t 2/3 − t 5/3 = 20
3t
−1/3 − 5 t 2/3 ⇒ a (t) = v (t) = − 20 t −4/3 − 10 t −1/3
3 9 9
dt
d
88. a. v (t) = s (t) = 5 cos t + π 4 = −5 sin t + π 4 ⇒ a (t) = v (t) = −5 cos t + 4
π
dt
b. It reaches the origin when s (t) = 5 cos t + π π π π
4 = 0 ⇔ t + 4 = 2 ⇔ t = 4 ≈ 0.7854 s.
c. v π π
4 = −5 ft/s and a 4 = 0 ft/s
2

89. v (r ) = 1000 0.04 − r 2 , so v (0.1) = 30 cm/s and v (0.1) = 1000 (−2r)|r=0.1 = −200 cm/s. At a point 0.1 cm from
the central axis, the speed is 30 cm/s. The speed is decreasing at the rate of 200 cm/s/cm.
90. f (t) = 20t − 45t 0.45 + 50 ⇒ f (t) = 20 − 20.25t −0.55
At 7 A . M ., t = 1, and f (1) = 20 − 20.25 = −0.25 mi/h per hour.
At 8 A . M ., t = 2, and f (2) = 20 − 20.25 (2)−0.55 ≈ 6.17 mi/h per hour.
d 3000 3000
91. N (t) = 2000 (1 + 3t)1/2 = √ , so N (5) = √ = 750 subscribers/month
dt 1 + 3t 16
 Chapter 2 Review 163

d
92. a. C (x) = 0.000002x 3 − 0.02x 2 + 1000x + 120,000 = 0.000006x 2 − 0.04x + 1000 and
dx
d 0.000002x 3 − 0.02x 2 + 1000x + 120,000 d 120,000
C (x) = = 0.000002x 2 − 0.02x + 1000 +
dx x dx x
120,000
= 0.000004x − 0.02 −
x2
b. C (5000) = −0.0048, so at a level of production of 5000 units, the cost of producing an additional printer is dropping
by approximately $0.0048/printer.

93. If H = 183, then S = f (W ) = 0.007184W 0.425 1830.725 ⇒

dS
= (0.007184) 1830.725 (0.425) W −0.575 ≈ 0.0107 m2 /kg, so his surface area is increasing at the rate
dW W =80 W =80
of approximately 0.0107 m2 /kg.

S dS (0.007184) 1830.725 (0.425) W −0.575 dW 0.425 dW

94. ≈ = = . If | W | = |dW | ≤ 0.5, then
S S (0.007184) 1830.725 W 0.425 W
dS 0.425 · 0.5
≤ ≈ 0.00266 or 0.266%.
S 80
2π (t − 79) + 12 ⇒ f (t) = 3 cos 2π (t − 79) · 2π . Therefore, f (79) = 6π ≈ 0.05164. The
95. f (t) = 3 sin 365 365 365 365
number of hours of daylight is increasing at the rate of 0.05 hours per day on March 21 (in a non-leap year).
d dx
96. P ≈ dP = −0.000002x 3 + 6x − 350 dx = −0.000006x 2 + 6 dx. If ≤ 0.1, then
dx x

P dP −0.000006x 2 + 6 (0.1x)
≈ ≤ ≈ 0.0286, so the maximum error in the profit is about
P x=900 P x=900 −0.000002x 3 + 6x − 350
x=900
2.86%.

dV d πr 2 h πr 2
97. a. = =
dh dh 3 3

dV d πr 2 h 2πr h
b. = =
dr dr 3 3

dR d v 02 2v 02
98. a. = sin 2α = cos 2α
dα dα g g
dR
b. = 0 ⇒ cos 2α = 0 ⇔ α = π π
4 , so α0 = 4 .
dα
dR dR
c. If 0 < α < π π π π π
4 , then 0 < 2α < 2 and dα > 0. If 4 < α < 2 , then 2 < 2α < π and < 0.
dα
d. The range R of the projectile is increasing for 0 < α < π π
4 and decreasing for 4 < α <
π and is greatest when the
2
angle of elevation is π ◦
4 = 45 .
dx dy dy x dx dx dy 5·3 15
99. x 2 − y 2 = 9 ⇒ 2x − 2y =0⇒ = . When x = 5, y = 4, and = 3, = = .
dt dt dt y dt dt dt 4 4
dx dy dx sin 2y dy dy
100. sin 2x + cos 2y = 1 ⇒ (2 cos 2x) − (2 sin 2y) =0⇒ = . When x = π
2 , y = 0, and dt = −1,
dt dt dt cos 2x dt
dx sin 0
= (−1) = 0.
dt cos π
 164 Chapter 2 The Derivative

101. Let A denote the position of the spectator and B the position of the boat.
x
dL dx dL x dx B
Then L 2 = x 2 + 1202 ⇒ 2L = 2x ⇒ = . When x = 50
dt dt dt L dt
dx dL 50 (20) L 120»
and = 20, L = 502 + 1202 = 130 ft and = ≈ 7.7 ft/s.
dt dt 130
A

102. We have y = 6000 tan θ and so by the Pythagorean Theorem,

D 2 = 60002 + y 2 = 60002 + 60002 tan2 θ ⇒
dD dθ
2D = 72,000,000 tan θ sec2 θ ⇒
dθ dt
dD 36,000,000 tan θ sec2 θ ddtθ dy dθ
= . But = 6000 sec2 θ , and so
dθ D dt dt
dD 6000 tan θ dy
= dt
. At the instant when θ = 30◦ and dy
dt = 880, we
dθ D
√ 2 √ dD 6000 (tan 30◦ ) 880
have D 2 = 60002 + 60002 33 ⇒ D = 4000 3, and so = √ = 440 ft/rad.
dθ 4000 3
103. Differentiating x 2 − y 2 = a 2 implicitly, we have 2x − 2yy = 0 ⇒ y

x
y = , so the slope of the tangent line to the hyperbola at P (x0 , y0 ) is
y
x0 y P(xü, yü)
and the slope of the normal line there is − 0 . Therefore, an equation
y0 x0
y Q x
of the normal line is y − y0 = − 0 (x − x0 ). To find Q, we set y = 0 to
x0 x@-y@=a@
y
obtain −y0 = − 0 (x − x0 ) ⇒ −x0 y0 = −y0 x + x0 y0 ⇒ x = 2x0 . So
x0

Q (2x0 , 0). Next, we find |O P| = x02 + y02 and

|P Q| = (2x0 − x0 )2 + (0 − y0 )2 = x02 + y02 , as was to be shown.

Challenge Problems
1. Let f (x) = x 10 and g (x) = x 5 . Then
10 10
x 10 − 210 lim x − 2
x 10 − 210 x −2 x→2 x − 2 f (2) 10x 9
lim 5 = lim = = = = 64.
x→2 x − 25 5
x→2 x − 2 5 5 −2
lim xx −
5
g (2) 5x 4
x −2 2 x=2
x→2
x 10 − 210 (x 5 )2 − (25 )2 (x 5 − 25 )(x 5 + 25 )
Alternate Solution: lim = lim = lim = lim x 5 + 25 = 64
x→2 x 5 − 25 x→2 x 5 − 25 x→2 x 5 − 25 x→2
d √ 1 d √
2. y = x+ x+ x= x+ x+ x
dx √ dx
2 x+ x+ x
1 1 d √ 1 1 1
= 1+ √ x+ x = √ 1+ √ 1+
√ 2 x+ x dx 2 x + x √
2 x
2 x+ x+ x 2 x+ x+ x
√ √ √
1 1 1 4 x x + x +2 x +1
= 1+ √ + √ √ =
√ 2 x+ x 4 x x+ x √ √ √
2 x+ x+ x 8 x x+ x x+ x+ x
 Chapter 2 Challenge Problems 165

1 1 x −1+x +2 2x + 1
3. a. + = = 2 and the result is verified.
x +2 x −1 (x + 2) (x − 1) x +x −2
b. Using the result of part (a),
d 2x + 1 d 1 1 d
f (x) = = + = (x + 2)−1 + (x − 1)−1
dx x 2 + x − 2 dx x + 2 x − 1 dx
= − (x + 2)−2 − (x − 1)−2 ⇒
f (x) = 2 (x + 2)−3 + 2 (x − 1)−3 ⇒ f (x) = (−3) (2) (x + 2)−4 − (3) (2) (x − 1)−4 ⇒ · · · ⇒
1 1
f (n) (x) = (−1)n n! + .
(x + 2)n+1 (x − 1)n+1

4. a. If x > 0, then |x| = x ⇒ f (x) = sin |x| = sin x and so f is differentiable. If x < 0, then |x| = −x
⇒ f (x) = sin (−x) = − sin x, which is also differentiable. To investigate whether f is differentiable at 0,
f (0 + h) − f (0) sin |h| sin |h| sin h
consider lim = lim . If h > 0, then lim = lim = 1, and if h < 0,
h→0 h h→0 h h→0+ h h→0+ h
sin |h| − sin h
lim = lim = −1, so f is not differentiable at 0. We conclude that f is differentiable on (−∞, 0)
h→0− h h→0− h
and on (0, ∞).
b. On each of the intervals (2nπ, (2n + 1) π), n any integer, sin x > 0 and so f (x) = |sin x| = sin x is differentiable. On
each of the intervals ((2n − 1) π, 2nπ), n any integer, sin x < 0 and so f (x) = |sin x| = − sin x is differentiable. But
f (0 + h) − f (0) |sin h| |sin h| sin h
consider lim = lim . If h > 0, then lim = lim = 1, and if h < 0,
h→0 h h→0 h h→0+ h h→0+ h
|sin h| − sin h
lim = lim = −1, so f is not differentiable at 0. Similarly, we can show that f is not differentiable
h→0− h h→0− h
at nπ, n any integer. Thus, f is differentiable on all intervals of the form (nπ, (n + 1) π), n any integer.

1+x 2 − (1 − x) 2 √
5. f (x) = √ = √ =√ − 1−x ⇒
1−x 1−x 1−x
d
f (x) = 2 (1 − x)−1/2 − (1 − x)1/2 = 2 − 12 (1 − x)−3/2 (−1) − 12 (1 − x)−1/2 (−1)
dx
= 2 12 (1 − x)−3/2 + 1 12 (1 − x)−1/2 ⇒

f (x) = 2 12 3 (1 − x)−5/2 + 1 1
2 2
1 (1 − x)−3/2 ⇒
2

f (x) = 2 12 3
2
5 (1 − x)−7/2 + 1 1
2 2
1
2
3 (1 − x)−5/2 ⇒
2

f (4) (x) = 2 12 3
2
5
2
7 (1 − x)−9/2 + 1 1
2 2
1
2
3
2
5 (1 − x)−7/2 ⇒ · · · ⇒
2
1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · 19 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · 17
f 10 (x) = (1 − x)−21/2 + (1 − x)−19/2
29 210
1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · 17 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · 17
= (1 − x)−21/2 [2 · 19 + (1 − x)] = (1 − x)−21/2 (39 − x)
210 210

d ax + b (cx + d) a − (ax + b) c ad − bc
6. f (x) = = = ⇒
dx cx + d (cx + d)2 (cx + d)2
d
f (x) = (ad − bc) (cx + d)−2 = −2 (ad − bc) (cx + d)−3 c = −2c (ad − bc) (cx + d)−3 ⇒
dx
f (x) = (−3) (−2) c2 (ad − bc) (cx + d)−4 ⇒ · · · ⇒ f (n) (x) = (−1)n−1 n! cn−1 (ad − bc) (cx + d)−(n+1)

7. Since f (a + x) = f (a) f (x) holds for all real numbers a and x, we can consider x to be constant and differentiate with
respect to a: f (a + x) = f (a) f (x). Now substitute a = 0: f (x) = f (0) f (x).
166 Chapter 2 The Derivative

8. Since f (n) (x) = 0 for every x in (a, b), f (n−1) (x) = k, where k is a constant. But f (n−1) (c) = 0 for some c in (a, b) ⇒
k = 0; that is, f (n−1) (x) = 0 for all x in (a, b). This means that f (n−2) (x) must be a constant function for x ∈ (a, b).
But the fact that f (n−2) (c) = 0 for some c in (a, b) then tells us that f (n−2) (x) = 0 for all x in (a, b). Repeating this
argument, we eventually arrive at the fact that f (x) is a constant function, and since f (c) = 0 for some c in (a, b), we
conclude that f must be the zero function.

d d −1/2 xf 1 + x2
9. F (x) = f 1 + x2 = f 1 + x2 1 + x2 = f 1 + x 2 · 12 1 + x 2 (2x) =
dx dx 1 + x2
10. Both graphs pass through the point of tangency π , 1 , and this implies
6 2
2
that π
6 +b π π 1
6 + c = sin 6 = 2 . Also, at the point of tangency the 2
slopes of the tangent lines of the two graphs are equal, so 1
d d
x 2 + bx + c = (sin x) ⇒ 0
dx x=π /6 dx x=π /6
√ -1
2x + b|x=π/6 = cos x|x=π/6 ⇒ 2 · π π 3
6 + b = cos 6 = 2 . Solving the
⎧ -2
⎨ π2 + π b + c = 1 √ -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
system 36 6 √ 2 gives b = 23 − π 3 and
⎩ π +b = 2
3 2
2
√
c = 12 + π π 3
36 − 12 .
11. | f (x) − f (y)| ≤ (x − y)2 ⇒ − (x − y)2 ≤ f (x) − f (y) ≤ (x − y)2 . If x = y, then without loss of generality,
suppose x > y. Then − (x − y) ≤ f (x)x−y
− f (y)
≤ x − y. Since lim (x − y) = 0, the Squeeze Theorem implies
x→y

− lim (x − y) ≤ lim f (x)x−y− f (y)

≤ lim (x − y) ⇒ 0 ≤ f (y) ≤ 0, so f (y) = 0. Since this is true for all x and y, f is
x→y x→y x→y
a constant function.
tan ax + tan ah
f (x + h) − f (x) tan a (x + h) − tan ax − tan ax
12. f (x) = lim = lim = lim − tan ax tan ah
1
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h

tan ax + tan ah − tan ax + (tan ax)2 tan ah tan ah 1 + tan2 ax

= lim = lim
h→0 h (1 − tan ax tan ah) h→0 h (1 − tan ax tan ah)
tan ah sec2 ax sin ah 1
= lim · lim = lim a sec2 ax = a sec2 ax
h→0 h h→0 1 − tan ax tan ah h→0 ah cos ah
13. 2x 2 + 2x y + x y 2 − 3x + 3y + 7 = 0. Differentiating implicitly with respect to x, we obtain
4x + 2y + 2x y + y 2 + 2x yy − 3 + 3y = 0 (1). Substituting x = 1 and y = −2 gives
4 − 4 + 2y + 4 − 4y − 3 + 3y = 0 ⇒ y = −1. Differentiating (1) with respect to x again, we get
2
4 + 2y + 2y + 2x y + 2yy + 2yy + 2x y + 2x yy + 3y = 0, and substituting x = 1, y = −2, and y = −1 in this
equation, we obtain y = −10.
 3 Applications of the Derivative

3.1 Concept Questions

1. a. The absolute maximum value of a function f is the largest value assumed by f (x) for all x in the domain of f . For
example, if f (x) = 1 − x 2 , then the absolute maximum value of f is 1.
b. f has a relative maximum value at a number c if there exists an open interval I containing c such that f (c) ≥ f (x) for
all x ∈ I . For example, f (x) = sin x has relative maxima at π
2 ± 2nπ, n = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
2. a. A critical number of f is a number c in the domain of f such that f (c) = 0 or f (c) does not exist.
b. f can have a relative extremum only at a critical number.
3. a. If f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then f must attain an absolute maximum value and an absolute minimum
value on [a, b].
b. We find all critical numbers of f on (a, b), then evaluate f at these critical numbers as well as at the endpoints a and b.
The largest and smallest numbers on the list are the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of f on [a, b],
respectively.

3.1 Extrema of Functions

1. The absolute maximum value of f is 3, attained at x = 1. There is no absolute minimum value since f is not bounded
below.
2. There is no absolute maximum value because f is not bounded above. The absolute minimum value is 0, attained at x = 0.
3. The absolute maximum value of f is 1, attained at x = 2n, n an integer. The absolute minimum value of f is 0, attained at
x = 2n + 1, n an integer.
4. There is no absolute maximum value; f (x) can be made as close to 2 as we please by taking x sufficiently close to x = −2,
but the value 2 is never attained. The absolute minimum value of f is −2, attained at all values of x > 0.
5. The absolute maximum value of f is 37, attained at x = 1. The absolute minimum value of f is −5, attained at x = 5.
6. There is no absolute maximum value; f (x) can be made as close to 1 as we please by taking x sufficiently large, but this
value is never attained. There is no absolute minimum value because f is not bounded below.
7. y 8. y

1 1
x
1
1 x

The absolute minimum value of f is 1, attained at x = −1. The absolute minimum value of g is −4, attained at x = 2.
167
168 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

9. y 10. y

1 1

_1 _1
1 t 1 t

_1 _1

There is no absolute minimum or absolute maximum The absolute maximum value of f is 0, attained at t = −1.
value.

11. y 12. y

1
1 x

_2 1 x

g has no absolute extremum. The absolute minimum value of h is 1, attained at x = 0.

13. y 14. y

1 x
1
1 x ( 3, 1
4 _8 )

The absolute minimum value of f is −1, attained at x = 2. The absolute minimum value of g is − 18 , attained at

x = 34 . The absolute maximum value of g is 1, attained at

x = 0.
 Section 3.1 Extrema of Functions 169

15. y 16. y

_1
1 1 x

1 x

The absolute minimum value of f is 1, attained at x = 1. g has no absolute extremum.

17. y 18. y
3
2

2
1

_2 1 x

1 2 x
The absolute minimum value of f is 0, attained at x = 0.
The absolute minimum value of g is 0, attained at x = 12 .
The absolute maximum value of f is 2, attained at
The absolute maximum value of g is 3, attained at x = 2.
x = −2.

19. y 20. y

1
Ï2
1 2

¹ t 1 1 t
4

_1

√
The absolute maximum value of f is 2, attained at t = π
2. The absolute maximum value of h is 22 , attained at

t = 14 .
170 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

21. y 22. y

¹ ¹ ¹ ¬
4 2

¹ ¹ ¬
2

f has no absolute extremum. The absolute minimum value of g is 1, attained at θ = 0.

23. y 24. y
2

1 1

1 x

_1 1 2 x

_1

The absolute minimum value of f is −1, attained at The absolute minimum value of f is −2, attained at x = 0.
x = −1.
d
25. f (x) = (2x + 3) = 2 = 0, so there is no critical number.
dx
d
26. g (x) = (4 − 3x) = −3 = 0, so there is no critical number.
dx
d
27. f (x) = 2x 2 + 4x = 4x + 4 = 4 (x + 1) = 0 ⇔ x = −1, so the only critical number is −1.
dx
d 1 , so the only critical number is 1 .
28. h (t) = 6t 2 − t − 2 = 12t − 1 = 0 ⇔ t = 12 12
dt
d √ √ √
29. f (x) = x 3 − 6x + 2 = 3x 2 − 6 = 3 x 2 − 2 = 0 ⇔ x = ± 2, so the critical numbers are − 2 and 2.
dx
d
30. g (t) = 2t 3 + 3t 2 − 12t + 4 = 6t 2 + 6t − 12 = 6 t 2 + t − 2 = 6 (t + 2) (t − 1) = 0 ⇔ t = −2 or t = 1, so the
dt
critical numbers are −2 and 1.
d
31. f (x) = 2x 3 + 6x + 7 = 6x 2 + 6 = 0 for all x, so there is no critical number.
dx
d 1 3 1 2
32. f (x) = x + 2 x + 2x − 3 = x 2 + x + 2 = 0 because the discriminant 1 − 4 (1) (2) = −7 < 0, and so
dx 3
f (x) = 0 has no real root. Thus, f has no critical number.
d
33. h (x) = x 4 − 4x 3 + 12 = 4x 3 − 12x 2 = 4x 2 (x − 3) = 0 ⇔ x = 0 or x = 3, so the critical numbers are 0 and 3.
dx
d
34. g (t) = 3t 4 + 4t 3 − 12t 2 + 8 = 12t 3 + 12t 2 − 24t = 12t t 2 + t − 2 = 12t (t + 2) (t − 1) = 0 if t = −2, 0, or 1,
dt
so the critical numbers are −2, 0, and 1.
 Section 3.1 Extrema of Functions 171

d
35. f (x) = 3x 4 − 8x 3 − 6x 2 + 24x + 10 = 12x 3 − 24x 2 − 12x + 24 = 12 x 3 − 2x 2 − x + 2
dx
= 12 (x − 1) (x + 1) (x − 2)
f (x) = 0 ⇒ x = −1, 1, or 2, so the critical numbers are −1, 1, and 2.
d
36. h (z) = z 5 − 5z 3 + 10z + 4 = 5z 4 − 15z 2 + 10 = 5 z 4 − 3z 2 + 2 = 5 z 2 − 2 z 2 − 1 = 0 ⇔ z = ±1 or
dz
√ √ √
± 2, so the critical numbers are − 2, −1, 1, and 2.
d 2
37. f (x) = x 2/3 = 23 x −1/3 = 1/3 is discontinuous at x = 0. Since x = 0 is in the domain of f , 0 is a critical
dx 3x
number of f .
d 4 (3t + 1)
38. g (t) = 4t 1/3 + 3t 4/3 = 43 t −2/3 + 4t 1/3 = 43 t −2/3 (1 + 3t) = . g (t) is discontinuous at t = 0 and has a
dt 3t 2/3
zero at t = − 13 . Since both are in the domain of g, the critical numbers of g are − 13 and 0.

d u u 2 + 1 (1) − u (2u) 1 − u2
39. h (u) = 2
= 2
= 2
= 0 ⇒ u = ±1, so −1 and 1 are critical numbers of h.
du u +1 u2 + 1 u2 + 1

d x2 x 2 + 3 (2x) − x 2 (2x) 6x
40. g (x) = 2
= 2
= 2
= 0 ⇒ x = 0, so 0 is a critical number of g.
dx x +3 x2 + 3 x2 + 3
d
41. f (t) = cos2 2t = 2 cos 2t · (− sin 2t) · 2 = −4 cos 2t sin 2t = −2 sin 4t = 0 ⇔ 4t = nπ ⇔ t = n4π ,
dt
n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ., so the critical numbers of f are n4π , n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..
d
42. g (θ) = (2 sin θ − cos 2θ) = 2 cos θ − (− sin 2θ) · 2 = 2 cos θ + 2 sin 2θ = 2 cos θ +
dθ
2 (2 sin θ cos θ) = 2 cos θ (1 + 2 sin θ) = 0 ⇔ cos θ = 0 or sin θ = − 12 ⇔ θ = π 7π
2 + nπ, θ = 6 + 2nπ, or
θ = 116π + 2nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ., so the critical numbers are π 7π 11π
2 + nπ, 6 + 2nπ, and θ = 6 + 2nπ,
n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..
d
43. f (x) = x 2 − x − 2 = 2x − 1 is continuous everywhere and has a zero at x = 12 , giving 12 as the only critical
dx
number of f in the interval. Testing the values of f (x) at the endpoints and the critical number, we find that f (0) = −2,
f 1 = − 94 , and f (2) = 0, so f has an absolute minimum value of − 94 attained at x = 12 and an absolute maximum
2
value of 0 attained at x = 2.
d
44. f (x) = −x 2 + 4x + 3 = −2x + 4, and we see that the only critical number in the interval (−1, 3) is 2.
dx
f (−1) = −2, f (2) = 7, and f (3) = 6, so f has an absolute maximum value of 7 attained at x = 2 and an absolute
minimum value of −2 attained at x = −1.
d
45. h (x) = x 3 + 3x 2 + 1 = 3x 2 + 6x = 3x (x + 2) = 0 ⇔ x = −2 or 0, both of which lie on the interval (−3, 2). We
dx
calculate h (−3) = 1, h (−2) = 5, h (0) = 1, and h (2) = 21, so h has an absolute minimum value of 1 attained at x = −3
and x = 0, and an absolute maximum value of 21 attained at x = 2.
d
46. f (t) = −2t 3 + 3t 2 + 12t + 3 = −6t 2 + 6t + 12 = −6 t 2 − t − 2 = −6 (t − 2) (t + 1), so −1 and 2 are critical
dt
numbers of f on the interval (−2, 3). We calculate f (−2) = 7, f (−1) = −4, f (2) = 23, and f (3) = 12, so f has an
absolute minimum value of −4 attained at t = −1 and an absolute maximum value of 23 attained at t = 2.
d
47. g (x) = 3x 4 + 4x 3 + 1 = 12x 3 + 12x 2 = 12x 2 (x + 1), and so g has critical numbers −1 and 0 on the interval
dx
(−2, 1). We calculate g (−2) = 17, g (−1) = 0, g (0) = 1, and g (1) = 8, so g has an absolute minimum value of 0
attained at x = −1 and an absolute maximum value of 17 attained at x = −2.
172 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

d
48. f (x) = 2x 4 − 83 x 3 − 8x 2 + 12 = 8x 3 − 8x 2 − 16x = 8x x 2 − x − 2 = 8x (x − 2) (x + 1), so f has critical
dx
numbers −1, 0, and 2 on the interval (−2, 3). We calculate f (−2) = 100 26 28
3 , f (−1) = 3 , f (0) = 12, f (2) = − 3 , and
f (3) = 30, so f has an absolute maximum value of 100 28
3 attained at x = −2 and an absolute minimum value of − 3
attained at x = 2.

d x x 2 + 1 (1) − x (2x) 1 − x2 (1 − x) (1 + x)
49. f (x) = = = = = 0 ⇔ x = −1 or x = 1, so 1 is the
dx x2 + 1 x2 + 1
2
x2 + 1
2
x2 + 1
2

only critical number in the interval (−1, 2). We calculate f (−1) = − 12 , f (1) = 12 , and f (2) = 25 , so f has an absolute
maximum value of 12 attained at x = 1 and an absolute minimum value of − 12 attained at x = −1.

d u 1/2 u 2 + 1 12 u −1/2 − u 1/2 (2u) 1 u −1/2 u 2 + 1 − 4u 2

2 1 − 3u 2
50. g (u) = = = = =0⇔
du u2 + 1 u2 + 1
2 2
u +1
2
2u 1/2 u 2 + 1
2
√ √ √ √ √
u = ± 33 , and we see that g has the critical number 33 on the interval (0, 2). g (0) = 0, g 33 = 34 3 ≈ 0.57, and
√ √ √
g (2) = 52 ≈ 0.28, so g has an absolute minimum value of 0 attained at x = 0 and an absolute maximum value of 34 3
√
attained at x = 33 .
d v (v − 1) (1) − v (1) 1
51. g (v) = = =− . g has no critical number in the interval (2, 4), g (2) = 2, and
dv v − 1 (v − 1)2 (v − 1)2
g (4) = 43 . Thus, g has an absolute minimum value of 43 attained at v = 4 and an absolute maximum value of 2 attained at
v = 2.
1 1
52. f (x) = 2x + is discontinuous at x = 0, which lies on the interval (−1, 3). Since lim 2x + = −∞ and
x x→0 − x
1
lim 2x + = ∞, we see that f has no absolute minimum or absolute maximum value.
x→0+ x
d 1 x 1/2 − 1
53. f (x) = x − 2x 1/2 = 1 − x −1/2 = 1 − 1/2 = has 1 as a critical number in the interval (0, 9).
dx x x 1/2
f (0) = 0, f (1) = −1, and f (9) = 3, so f has an absolute minimum value of −1 attained at x = 1 and an absolute
maximum value of 3 attained at x = 9.
d 1 2 t 3/2 − 8
54. f (t) = 8 t − 4t 1/2 = 14 t − 2t −1/2 = 14 t −1/2 t 3/2 − 8 = is discontinuous at t = 0 and has zeros
dt 4t 1/2
where t 3/2 = 8 ⇔ t = 82/3 = 4. Therefore, f has the critical number 4 in the interval (0, 9). We calculate f (0) = 0,
f (4) = −6, and f (9) = − 15
8 . Thus, f has an absolute minimum value of −6 attained at t = 4 and an absolute maximum
value of 0 attained at t = 0.
d d 8 (x + 1) (x − 1)
55. f (x) = x 2/3 x 2 − 4 = x 8/3 − 4x 2/3 = 83 x 5/3 − 83 x −1/3 = 83 x −1/3 x 2 − 1 = is
dx dx 3x 1/3
discontinuous at x = 0 and has zeros at x = ±1, so the critical numbers of f on (−1, 2) are 0 and 1. f (−1) = −3,
f (0) = 0, f (1) = −3, and f (2) = 0, so f has an absolute minimum value of −3 attained at x = −1 and at x = 1, and an
absolute maximum value of 0 attained at x = 0 and at x = 2.
d 1/2 1/2 −1/2 −1/2
56. g (x) = x 4 − x2 = 4 − x2 + x 12 4 − x 2 (−2x) = 4 − x 2 4 − x2 − x2
dx
2 2 − x2 √
= is discontinuous at x = ±2 and has zeros at x = ± 2.
4 − x2
√ √
Therefore, g has the critical number 2 on the interval (0, 2). We calculate g (0) = 0, g 2 = 2, and g (2) = 0, so g has
√
an absolute minimum value of 0 attained at x = 0 and at x = 2, and an absolute maximum value of 2 attained at x = 2.
 Section 3.1 Extrema of Functions 173

d
57. f (x) = (2 + 3 sin 2x) = 6 cos 2x is continuous everywhere and has a zero at π π π
4 on the interval 0, 2 , so x = 4 is
dx
the only critical number in the interval. f (0) = 2, f π π
4 = 5, and f 2 = 2, so f has an absolute minimum value of 2
attained at x = 0 and at x = π π
2 , and an absolute maximum value of 5 attained at x = 4 .

d
58. g (x) = (cos x − sin x) = − sin x − cos x is continuous everywhere and has zeros where − sin x − cos x = 0 ⇔
dx
√ √
tan x = −1 ⇔ x = 34π or x = 74π on the interval (0, 2π). g (0) = 1, g 34π = − 2, g 74π = 2, and g (2π) = 1, so
√ √
g has an absolute minimum value of − 2 attained at x = 34π , and an absolute maximum value of 2 attained at x = 74π .

d
59. g (t) = (2 sin t − t) = 2 cos t − 1 is continuous everywhere and has a zero where 2 cos t = 1 ⇔ cos t = 12 ⇒
dt
√
t = π π π π π π
3 on the interval 0, 2 , so g has the critical number 3 on 0, 2 . g (0) = 0, g 3 = 3 − 3 ≈ 0.68, and
g π π
2 = 2 − 2 ≈ 0.43. Thus, g has an absolute minimum value of 0 attained at t = 0, and an absolute maximum value of
√
3− π π
3 attained at t = 3 .

d
60. f (x) = (x − sin x) = 1 − cos x is continuous everywhere and has zeros where 1 − cos x = 0 ⇔ cos x = 1 ⇒
dx
x = 2nπ, n an integer. Since none of these lies on (0, 2π), f has no critical number in that interval. f (0) = 0 and
f (2π) = 2π, so f has an absolute minimum value of 0 attained at x = 0 and an absolute maximum value of 2π attained at
x = 2π.

d
61. P (x) = −0.000001x 3 + 0.001x 2 + 5x − 500 = −0.000003x 2 + 0.002x + 5 is continuous everywhere
dx
and has zeros where P (x) = 0 ⇒ −0.000003x 2 + 0.002x + 5 = 0 ⇔ 3x 2 − 2000x − 5,000,000 = 0 ⇔
(3x − 5000) (x + 1000) = 0 ⇒ x = 5000
3 or −1000. We reject the root −1000 because it lies outside the interval
(0, 2000), so 5000
3 is the only critical number in (0, 2000). P (0) = −500, P
5000 ≈ 5981, and P (2000) = 5500, so the
3
total daily profit is maximized if the production is approximately 1667 dozen recordable DVDs.

k D k D2 D3 dR 2k D 3D 2 dR
62. R = D 2 − = − ⇒ = − = k D − D 2 = D (k − D). Setting = 0, we have D = 0
2 3 2 3 dD 2 3 dD
or D = k. We consider only D = k (since D > 0). If D < k, then dd DR > 0; and if D > k, then d R < 0. So D = k gives a
dD
relative maximum of R. Since there is only one critical number, D = k gives an absolute maximum of R.

63. Observe that f is continuous on [0, 4]. Next, we compute

√
d 20t − 40t 1/2 + 50 = 20 − 20t −1/2 = 20t −1/2 t 1/2 − 1 = 20 √t−1 . Observe that t = 1 is the only
f (t) = dt
t
critical number of f on (0, 4). Calculating f (0) = 50, f (1) = 30, and f (4) = 50, we see that the average speed of traffic
is highest at 6 A . M . (t = 0) and 10:00 A . M . (t = 4) and lowest at 7 A . M . (t = 1).

d 0.04363t 3 − 0.267t 2 − 1.59t + 14.7

64. P (t) = dt = 0.13089t 2 − 0.534t − 1.59 = 0 ⇒

0.534 ± (−0.534)2 − 4 (0.13089) (−1.59)

t= ≈ −2 or 6.08. We reject the negative root. Calculating P (0) = 14.7,
2 (0.13089)
P (6.08) ≈ 4.97, and P (9) ≈ 10.57, we conclude that t ≈ 6.08 gives a minimum of P. This corresponds to early 1970.
174 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

d 0.000989t 3 − 0.0486t 2 + 0.7116t + 1.46 = 0.002967t 2 − 0.0972t + 0.7116. Using the quadratic formula
65. S (t) = dt

0.0972± (−0.0972)2 −4(0.002967)(0.7116)

to solve the equation f (t) = 0 gives t = 2(0.002967) ≈ 11.0 or 21.7.

t 5 11.0 19
S (t) 3.9 4.7 4.2
From the table, we see that S has an absolute maximum when t ≈ 11. So children with superior intelligence have a cortex
that reaches maximum thickness around 11 years of age.

d −0.00005t 3 − 0.000826t 2 + 0.0153t + 4.55 = −0.00015t 2 − 0.001652t + 0.0153. Using the quadratic
66. A (t) = dt
formula to solve f (t) = 0, we obtain t ≈ −17.01 or 5.997.
t 5 6 19
A (t) 4.5996 4.6013 4.1996
From the table, we see that A has an absolute maximum when t ≈ 6. So the cortex of children of average intelligence
reaches a maximum thickness around the time the children are 6 years old.

50x
67. The revenue function is R (x) = x p = . To find the maximum value of R, we compute
0.01x 2 + 1
0.01x 2 + 1 50 − 50x (0.02x) 0.5 x 2 − 100
R (x) = 2
=− 2
. Now R (x) = 0 ⇒ x = −10 or x = 10. The first
0.01x 2 + 1 0.01x 2 + 1
root is rejected since x ≥ 0. Thus, x = 10 is the only critical number. Next, we compute R (0) = 0, R (10) = 250, and
R (20) = 200, and conclude that R (10) = 250 is the absolute maximum value of R. Thus, the revenue is maximized by
selling 10,000 watches.

d
68. v (r) = k R 2 − r 2 = −2kr is continuous everywhere and has a zero at r = 0, which lies outside the interval
dr
(0, R) and so v does not have a critical number in (0, R). Next, we calculate v (0) = k R 2 and v (R) = 0, so the absolute
maximum value of v is k R 2 cm/s, and this occurs at r = 0. This shows that the flow of blood is fastest along the central
axis. The flow of blood is slowest along the wall of the artery (where r = R).

d d
69. R (x) = [kx (Q − x)] = k Qx − x 2 = k (Q − 2x) is continuous everywhere and has a zero at Q/2; this is the
dx dx
only critical number of R on (0, Q). R (0) = 0, R (Q/2) = k Q 2 /4, and R (Q) = 0, so the absolute maximum value of R,
namely k Q 2 /4 is attained at Q/2, showing that the rate of chemical reaction is greatest when exactly half of the original
substrate has been transformed.

d d
70. v = f (r) = kr 2 (R − r) = k Rr 2 − r 3 = k 2Rr − 3r 2 = rk (2R − 3r ) is continuous everywhere and has
dr dr
4k R 3
zeros at 0 and 23 R. f (0) = 0, f 2R
3 = , and f (R) = 0, so the absolute maximum value of v occurs at 23 R,
27
showing that the velocity of airflow is greatest if the radius is 23 of the normal radius.

dx d
71. = 1.5 (10 − t) − 0.0013 (10 − t)4 = −1.5 − 0.0013 (4) (10 − t)3 (−1) = −1.5 + 0.0052 (10 − t)3 is continuous
dt dt
everywhere and has zeros where 0.0052 10 − t 3 = 1.5 ⇔ (10 − t)3 = 0.0052 1.5 ⇒ t = 10 − 3 1.5 ≈ 3.4, and so x has
0.0052
the critical number 3.4 on (0, 10). x (0) = 2, x (3.4) ≈ 7.4, and x (10) = 0, showing that after 3.4 minutes, the maximum
amount of salt, roughly 7.4 lb, is in the tank.
 Section 3.1 Extrema of Functions 175

d d 3
72. I (t) = 0.03t 3 (t − 7)4 + 60.2 = 0.03 t (t − 7)4 = 0.03 3t 2 (t − 7)4 + 4t 3 (t − 7)3
dt dt
= 0.03t 2 (t − 7)3 [3 (t − 7) + 4t] = 0.21t 2 (t − 3) (t − 7)3
is continuous everywhere and has zeros at 0, 3, and 7, so 3 is the only critical number of I on (0, 7). We calculate
I (0) = 60.2, I (3) ≈ 267.56, and I (7) ≈ 60.2, so the PSI is lowest at 7 A . M . (t = 0) and at 2 P. M . (t = 7), and highest at
10 A . M . (t = 3).

d
73. R (t) = −0.711t 3 + 3.76t 2 + 0.2t + 36.5 = −2.133t 2 + 7.52t + 0.2 = 0 ⇒
dt
−7.52 ± (7.52)2 − 4 (−2.133) (0.2)
t= ≈ −0.03 or 3.55. We reject the negative root, and calculate R (0) = 36.5,
2 (−2.133)
R (3.55) ≈ 52.79, and R (5) ≈ 42.63. Thus, office space rents peaked at $52.79/ft2 after 3.55 years (in the middle of 2000).

d w0 w0
74. y = x 4 − 2Lx 3 + L 3 x = 4x 3 − 6Lx 2 + L 3 , so
dx 24E I 24E I
w0 3 2 w0
y x=L/2 = 4 12 L − 6L 12 L + L 3 = 1 L 3 − 3 L 3 + L 3 = 0, showing that 1 L is a root of the
24E I 24E I 2 2 2

equation 4x 3 − 6Lx 2 + L 3 = 0. Therefore x − L/2 is a factor of 4x 3 − 6Lx 2 + L 3 , and we use long division:
4x 2 − 4Lx − 2L 2
x − L/2 4x 3 − 6Lx 2 + L3
4x 3 − 2Lx 2
−4Lx 2 + L3
−4Lx 2 + 2L 2 x
−2L 2 x + L 3
−2L 2 x + L 3
0

Thus, 4x 3 − 6Lx 2 + L 3 = x − 12 L 4x 2 − 4Lx − 2L 2 = (2x − L) 2x 2 − 2Lx − L 2 . Now 2x 2 − 2Lx − L 2 = 0

√
2L ± 4L 2 + 8L 2 2L ± 2 3L √ √
⇔x = = , that is, x = 12 1 − 3 L or 12 1 + 3 L. Both these roots lie outside the
4 4
5w0 L 4
interval [0, L], so x = 12 L is the only critical number in (0, L). We calculate y (0) = 0, y 12 L = , and y (L) = 0,
384E I
5w0 L 4
so y has an absolute minimum value at x = 12 L (the midpoint), and the maximum deflection is .
384E I

75. a. b. The lowest percentage of new vehicles with diesel

40
engines is about 21.5.
30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4
176 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

76. a. b. The federal debt will be at its highest level in

2010. The level will be approximately
10 $12.39 trillion.

0
0 5 10 15 20

√ d h − 2x
77. R = 2 x (h − x) ⇒ R = 2 [x (h − x)]1/2 = 2 12 [x (h − x)]−1/2 (h − 2x) = √ . R is continuous on
dx x (h − x)
(0, h) and has a zero at h/2, a critical number of R on (0, h). We calculate R (0) = 0, R (h/2) = h, and R (h) = 0. Thus,
the maximum value of R occurs at h/2, and so the orifice should be located halfway up the side of the cylinder.

⎡ ⎤
d t 2 + 10t + 100 t 2 + 20t + 100 (2t + 10) − t 2 + 10t + 100 (2t + 20)
78. P (t) = 100 2 = 100 ⎣ 2
⎦
dt t + 20t + 100 t 2 + 20t + 100

1000 t 2 − 100
= 2
= 0 ⇒ t = 10, the only critical number of P for t > 0.
t 2 + 20t + 100
Since P (t) is negative for 0 < t < 10 and positive for t > 10, we see that the point (10, 75) is the absolute minimum, so
when organic waste is dumped into the pond, the oxygen content drops from 100% to a low of 75% before the restoration
process brings it back close to 100% over time.

d 1000 − x 3/4 1000 − x 5/4

79. y = 500 −
dx 1000 1000

3 1000 − x −1/4 1 5 1000 − x 1/4 1

= 500 − − −
4 1000 1000 4 1000 1000

1 1000 − x 1/4 1000 − x −1/4

= 5 −3
8 1000 1000
1000 − x 1/4 1000 − x −1/4
is continuous on (0, 1000) and has a zero where y = 0 ⇒ 5 =3 ⇒
1000 1000
1000 − x 1/2 3 1000 − x 9
= ⇒ = ⇒ 1000 − x = 360 ⇔ x = 640. We calculate y (0) = 0, y (640) ≈ 92.95, and
1000 5 1000 25
y (1000) = 0, so the maximum distance the boat drifts north is about 93 ft.

d
80. S = 4a 2 sin 2θ − sin2 θ ⇒ S = 4a 2 sin 2θ − sin2 θ = 4a 2 (2 cos 2θ − 2 sin θ cos θ) = 4a 2 (2 cos 2θ − sin 2θ)
dθ
is continuous everywhere and has zeros where S = 0 ⇔ 2 cos 2θ = sin 2θ ⇔ tan 2θ = 2 ⇔ θ = 12 tan−1 2 ≈ 0.5536, a
critical number of S on 0, π 2 π 2
4 . We calculate S (0) = 0, S (0.5536) ≈ 2.47a , and S 4 = 2a . Thus, the maximum value
of S occurs at about 0.5536, where x ≈ a cos 0.5536 ≈ 0.85a and y ≈ a sin 0.5536 ≈ 0.53a.
 Section 3.1 Extrema of Functions 177

d 1/2
81. F = mω2 a 2 cos2 ωt + b2 sin2 ωt
dt
−1/2
= 12 mω 2 a 2 cos2 ωt + b2 sin2 ωt a 2 (2 cos ωt) (− sin ωt) ω + b2 (2 sin ωt) (cos ωt) ω

mω 3 b2 − a 2 sin ωt cos ωt mω 3 b2 − a 2 sin 2ωt

= =
a 2 cos2 ωt + b2 sin2 ωt 2 a 2 cos2 ωt + b2 sin2 ωt
kπ
is continuous everywhere and has zeros where sin 2ωt = 0 ⇔ 2ωt = kπ ⇔ t = , k = 0, 1, 2, . . . for t > 0. The critical
2ω
numbers and the corresponding values of F are given below.
t 0 π/ (2ω) π/ω 3π/ (2ω) 2π/ω ···
F (t) mω 2 a mω 2 b mω 2 a mω 2 b mω 2 a ···
We see that the force is greatest at the points (a, 0) and (−a, 0) and smallest at the points (0, b) and (0, −b).
Intuitively, the force required to keep the mass in orbit should be maximal when it is at the points farthest from the origin,
and the force should be smallest when the mass is at the points closest to the origin.

d μW d
82. a. F = = μW (μ sin θ + cos θ)−1 Ï1+m@
dθ μ sin θ + cos θ dθ m
μW (sin θ − μ cos θ) ¬
= −μW (μ sin θ + cos θ)−2 (μ cos θ − sin θ) =
(μ sin θ + cos θ)2 1
is continuous on 0, π
2 and has a zero where sin θ − μ cos θ = 0 ⇔

θ = tan−1 μ, a critical number of F. To find F tan−1 μ , refer to the diagram. We see that
μW μW μW
F tan−1 μ = = . Now F (0) = μW , F tan−1 μ = , and
μ 1 1 + μ2 1 + μ2
μ +
1 + μ2 1 + μ2
F π
2 = W , so F has an absolute minimum value at tan
−1 μ, the required angle.

μW
b. From the results of part a, we see that the magnitude of the force is lb.
μ2 + 1
0.4 · 60 24
c. F = = . To verify the results of parts a
0.4 sin θ + cos θ 0.4 sin θ + cos θ 60
and b for this special case, we compute F (0) = 24, F (0.38) ≈ 22.3, and
F π
2 = 60.
40

20

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
⎧ W
⎪
⎨ 5 − 3x 2 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
9E I 1/2
83. y = On [0, 1], y = 0 ⇔ x = ± 53 ≈ ±1.291. Both lie outside the
⎪
⎩ W 3x 2 − 18x + 19 if 1 < x ≤ 3
18E I
18 ± (−18)2 − 4 (3) (19)
interval [0, 1], and so y has no critical number in that interval. On (1, 3], y = 0 ⇔ x = ≈ 1.37
6
W W
or 4.63, so 1.37 is a critical number in (1, 3). We calculate y (0) = 0, y (1) ≈ 0.44 , y (1.37) ≈ 0.48 , and y (3) = 0.
EI EI
W
We conclude that the maximum deflection of the beam is about 0.48 .
EI
178 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

84. lim f (x) = lim (−x) = 0 and lim f (x) = lim (x − 1) = −1. Thus, y
x→0− x→0− x→0+ x→0+
lim f (x) does not exist, and so f is discontinuous at 0. From the graph, we see
x→0 1
that the absolute maximum value of f is 1 at x = −1, and the absolute minimum
value of f is −1 at x = 0. This result does not contradict the Extreme Value
1 x
Theorem because f (x) is not continuous on its domain.

85. From the graph of f , we see that f has an absolute maximum value of 5 at x = 2 y

and an absolute minimum value of 1 at x = 0. This does not contradict the

5
Extreme Value Theorem because f (x) is not continuous on its domain.
4

1 2 3 4 x

d
86. f (x) = x 3 + x + 1 = 3x 2 + 1 is continuous on (−∞, ∞) and is never zero, because 3x 2 + 1 ≥ 1 for all x. Since
dx
f does not have a critical number in (−∞, ∞), f cannot have a relative extremum.

87. f is undefined at each integer and f (x) = 0 for all other values of x. Therefore, every real number is a critical number of
f . (See Figure 4 in Section 1.2 for the graph of the greatest integer function.)

88. g has no absolute maximum value. Its absolute minimum value of 0 is attained at y
integer values of x. 1

_1 0 1 2 3 x

d 1 1 1 cos (1/x) 1 π
89. f (x) = sin = cos − 2 =− . Since f (x) = 0 ⇔ = + nπ = π 12 + n ,
dx x x x x2 x 2
1
n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ., we see that f has the critical numbers x = , n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .. Any open interval
π n + 12
containing the origin also contains an infinite number of these critical numbers.

90. a. If f has a relative minimum at c, then there exists a δ > 0 such that f (x) ≥ f (c) whenever x satisfies
c − δ < x < c + δ. Multiplying both sides of f (x) ≥ f (c) by −1 gives − f (x) ≤ − f (c). Since g (x) = − f (x), this
implies g (x) ≤ g (c) whenever x lies in (c − δ, c + δ); that is, g has a relative maximum at c.
b. If f has a relative minimum at c, put g (x) = − f (x). Then, by the result of part a, g has a relative maximum at c. Using
the result of Theorem 1 for the case where the function has a relative maximum at c, we see that g (c) = 0 and this, in
turn, implies that f (c) = −g (c) = 0.
 Section 3.1 Extrema of Functions 179

91. 92.
10 0

5
-2

0
-4
-5
-2 -1 0 1 2 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

From the graph, we see that the absolute maximum value From the graph, we see that the absolute maximum value
of about 7.8 is attained at x ≈ −0.9 and the absolute of about −1.7 is attained at x = 1 and the absolute
minimum value of about −4.16 is attained at x = −2 minimum value of about −4.1 is attained at x ≈ 1.9

93. 94.
1.2
0.04

1.1
0.02

0.00 1.0
0 1 2 3 4 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

From the graph, we see that the absolute maximum value From the graph, we see that the absolute maximum value
of about 0.036 is attained at x ≈ 0.8 and the absolute of about 1.11 is attained at x ≈ 0.54 and the absolute
minimum value of 0 is attained at x = 0. minimum value of 1 is attained at x = 0.

95. a. From the graph, we see that the absolute minimum value of f
8
is approximately 0.978, occurring when x ≈ 0.909, and the
6 absolute maximum value of f is 7, occurring when x = 2.

0
-1 0 1 2

d
b. f (x) = dx 1 x4 − 3 x + 2 = 2x 3 − 32 = 0 ⇒ x = 3 3 . Evaluating f at the critical number 3 3 , we have
2 2 4 4

f 3 1/3 = 12 34
4/3
− 32 34
1/3
+ 2 = 2 − 98 3 3 ≈ 0.978. Next, f (0) = 2 and f (2) = 1 (2)4 − 3 (2) + 2 = 7,
4 4 2 2
so we see that the absolute minimum value of f is 0.978 and the absolute maximum value of f is 7.
180 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

96. a. From the graph, we see that the absolute minimum value of f
2
is approximately −1.414, occurring when x ≈ −0.707, and
1 the absolute maximum value of f is 1, occurring when x = 1.

-1

-2
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0

d x − 1 − x2 1/2 −1/2 1 − x2 + x
b. f (x) = dx = 1 − 12 1 − x 2 (−2x) = =0⇒ 1 − x 2 = −x ⇒
1 − x2
√ √
1 − x 2 = x 2 ⇒ x = ± 22 , but x = − 22 is the only root of 1 − x 2 = −x.
√
x −1 − 22 1
√
f (x) −1 1 − 2
√
From the table, we see that the absolute minimum value is − 2, and the absolute maximum value is 1.

97. a. From the graph, we see that the absolute minimum value of f
1.0
is approximately 0.828, occurring when x ≈ 0.172, and the
absolute maximum value of f is 1, occurring when x = 0 or

0.9
x = 1.

0.8
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

d x +1 x 1/2 + 1 (1) − (x + 1) 12 x −1/2

√
x +2 x −1
b. f (x) = 1/2
= 2
= √ √ 2
. Setting f (x) = 0 gives
dx x +1 x 1/2 + 1 2 x x +1
√ √
x + 2 x − 1 = 0. To solve this disguised quadratic equation , put u = x. This gives u 2 + 2u − 1 = 0 ⇒
√
−2 ± 4 − 4 (1) (−1) √ √
u= = −1 ± 2. Since u must be nonnegative, we see that the required root is u = 2 − 1 and
2
√ 2
so x = 2−1 .
√ 2
x 0 2−1 1
√ √
f (x) 1 2 2 − 2 ≈ 0.828 1
From the table, we see that the absolute maximum value is 1 and the absolute minimum value is approximately 0.828.

98. a. From the graph, we see that the absolute minimum value of f
1.0
is 0, occurring when x = 0, and the absolute maximum value
of f is 0.685, occurring when x ≈ 1.047.

0.5

0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
 Section 3.2 The Mean Value Theorem 181

d (2 sin x − x) = 2 cos x − 1 = 0 ⇒ cos x = 1 or x = π , giving π as the only critical number of f on

b. f (x) = dx 2 3 3
0, π
2 .

x 0 π π
√ 3 2
f (x) 0 3 3−π ≈ 0.685 4−π ≈ 0.429
3 2
From the table, we see that f has an absolute maximum value of about 0.685 and an absolute minimum value of 0.

99. False. Consider f (x) = x 3 . Here f (x) = 3x 2 = 0 ⇔ x = 0, but f has neither a relative maximum nor a relative
minimum at 0.
2
100. False. Consider f (x) = x 2/3 . Then f (x) = 1/3 is not defined at x = 0, but f has a relative minimum at 0.
3x
⎧
⎪
⎨ −x if −1 ≤ x < 0
⎪
101. False. Consider f (x) = 1 if x = 0 f is defined on the closed interval [−1, 1], but does not have an
⎪ 2
⎪
⎩x if 0 < x ≤ 1
absolute minimum value on [−1, 1].
102. False. Consider f (x) = x on the open interval (0, 1). f is continuous on (0, 1), but it has neither an absolute maximum nor
an absolute minimum value on (0, 1).

3.2 Concept Questions

1. See Theorem 1 on page 258. If f is constant on [a, b], then its graph is a horizontal line segment and the slope of the
tangent line to the graph of f is 0 at each number c ∈ (a, b). If f is not a constant function, then its graph must rise above
(or fall below) f (a). Since f assumes the same value at b as it does at a, the graph must eventually turn down (or up), and
consequently there is at least one turning point where the slope of the tangent line is 0.
2. See Theorem 2 on page 260. For a geometric interpretation of the Mean Value Theorem, see page 260.

3. a. b. We find that c1 ≈ 1.7 and c2 ≈ 5.4.

3.2 The Mean Value Theorem

1. f (x) = x 2 − 4x + 3 ⇒ f (x) = 2x − 4. f is continuous on [1, 3] because it is a polynomial function, and f is
differentiable on (1, 3). Furthermore, f (1) = 1 − 4 + 3 = 0 and f (3) = 9 − 12 + 3 = 0, so by Rolle’s Theorem,
f (c) = 2c − 4 = 0 for some c ∈ (1, 3), namely c = 2.
182 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

2. g (x) = x 3 − 9x ⇒ g (x) = 3x 2 − 9. g is continuous on [−3, 3] and differentiable on (−3, 3), g (−3) = −27 − 9 (−3) = 0,
and g (3) = 27 − 9 (3) = 0, so by Rolle’s Theorem, there exists a number c ∈ (−3, 3) such that g (c) = 3c2 − 9 = 0. In
√
this case, c2 = 3 ⇒ c = ± 3.
3. f (x) = x 3 + x 2 − 2x ⇒ f (x) = 3x 2 + 2x − 2. f is continuous on [−2, 0] and differentiable on (−2, 0),
f (−2) = (−2)3 + (−2)2 − 2 (−2) = 0, and f (0) = 03 + 02 − 2 · 0 = 0, so by Rolle’s Theorem, there exists a number c
√ √
2 −2 ± 22 − 4 (3) (−2) −2 ± 28 −1 ± 7
in (−2, 0) such that f (c) = 3c + 2c − 2 = 0. In this case, c = = = .
2 (3) 6 3
√ √
1+ 7 1+ 7
Only − lies on (−2, 0), so c = − .
3 3
4. h (x) = x 3 (x − 7)4 ⇒ h (x) = x 3 (4) (x − 7)3 + 3x 2 (x − 7)4 = x 2 (x − 7)3 [4x + 3 (x − 7)] = 7x 2 (x − 3) (x − 7)3 . h
is continuous on [0, 7] and differentiable on (0, 7), h (0) = 0, and h (7) = 0, so by Rolle’s Theorem, there exists a number c
in (0, 7) such that h (c) = 7c2 (c − 3) (c − 7)3 = 0. In this case, the only such c is 3, because neither 0 nor 7 lies on (0, 7).
5. f (x) = x 1 − x 2 ⇒
d 1/2 1/2 −1/2 −1/2
f (x) = x 1 − x2 = 1 − x2 + x 12 1 − x2 (−2x) = 1 − x 2 1 − x2 − x2
dx
1 − 2x 2
=
1 − x2
f is continuous on [−1, 1] and differentiable on (−1, 1), f (−1) = 0, and f (1) = 0, so by Rolle’s Theorem, there exists a
1 − 2c2 √
number c in (−1, 1) such that f (c) = = 0. In this case, 1 − 2c2 = 0 ⇔ c = ± 22 .
1 − c2
6. f (t) = t 2/3 (6 − t)1/3 ⇒
4−t
f (t) = t 2/3 13 (6 − t)−2/3 (−1) + (6 − t)1/3 23 t −1/3 = 13 t −1/3 (6 − t)−2/3 [−t + 2 (6 − t)] = .
t 1/3 (6 − t)2/3
f is continuous on [0, 6] and differentiable on (0, 6), f (0) = 0, and f (6) = 0, so by Rolle’s Theorem, there exists a
4−c
number c in (0, 6) such that f (c) = = 0. In this case, c = 4.
c1/3 (6 − c)2/3
7. h (t) = sin2 t ⇒ h (t) = 2 sin t cos t = sin 2t. h is continuous on [0, π] and differentiable on (0, π), h (0) = 0, and
h (π) = 0, so by Rolle’s Theorem, there exists a number c in (0, π) such that h (c) = sin 2c = 0. In this case, c = π 2.
8. f (x) = cos 2x − 1 ⇒ f (x) = −2 sin 2x. f is continuous on [0, π] and differentiable on (0, π), f (0) = 1 − 1 = 0,
and f (π) = cos 2π − 1 = 1 − 1 = 0, so by Rolle’s Theorem, there exists a number c in (0, π) such that
f (c) = −2 sin 2c = 0. In this case, c = π
2.
9. f (x) = x 2 + 1 ⇒ f (x) = 2x. f is continuous on [0, 2] and differentiable on (0, 2). Therefore, there exists a number c in
f (2) − f (0) 5−1
the interval (0, 2) such that = f (c) ⇒ = 2c ⇒ c = 1.
2−0 2
10. f (x) = x 3 − 2x 2 ⇒ f (x) = 3x 2 − 4x. f is continuous on [−1, 2] and differentiable on (−1, 2). Therefore, there exists a
f (2) − f (−1) (8 − 8) − (−1 − 2)
number c in the interval (−1, 2) such that = f (c) ⇒ = 3c2 − 4c ⇔ 1 = 3c2 − 4c
2 − (−1) 3
√ √ √
2 4 ± 16 − 4 (3) (−1) 4 ± 28 2± 7
⇔ 3c − 4c − 1 = 0, giving c = = = , both of which lie on (−1, 2).
2 (3) 6 3
1 1
11. h (x) = ⇒ h (x) = − 2 . h is continuous on [1, 3] and differentiable on (1, 3). Therefore, there exists a number c in the
x x
1 −1
h (3) − h (1) 1 1 1 √ √
interval (1, 3) such that = h (c) ⇒ 3 = − 2 ⇒ − = − 2 ⇒ c = ± 3. Since − 3 does not lie in
3−1 2 c 3 c
√
the interval (1, 3), we see that the required value of c is 3.
 Section 3.2 The Mean Value Theorem 183

t (t − 1) (1) − t (1) 1
12. g (t) = ⇒ g (t) = 2
=− . g is continuous on [−2, 0] and differentiable on (−2, 0).
t −1 (t − 1) (t − 1)2
2
g (0) − g (−2) 1
Therefore, there exists a number c in the interval (−2, 0) such that = g (c) ⇒ −2−1 = − ⇔
0 − (−2) 2 (c − 1)2
1 1 √ √
− =− 2
⇔ (c − 1)2 = 3 ⇒ c = 1 ± 3. We reject c = 1 + 3 because it lies outside the interval (−2, 0), so
3 (c − 1)
√
the required value of c is 1 − 3.
√
13. h (x) = x 2x + 1 = x (2x + 1)1/2 ⇒ h (x) = (2x + 1)1/2 +
3x + 1
x 12 (2x + 1)−1/2 (2) = (2x + 1)−1/2 [(2x + 1) + x] = √ . h is continuous on [0, 4] and differentiable on (0, 4).
2x + 1
h (4) − h (0) 4 (3) − 0 3c + 1
Therefore, there exists a number c in the interval (0, 4) such that = h (c) ⇒ =
4−0 4 (2c + 1)1/2
⇔ 3 (2c + 1)1/2 = 3c + 1 ⇔ 9 (2c + 1) = 9c2 + 6c + 1 ⇔ 18c + 9 = 9c2 + 6c + 1 ⇔ 9c2 − 12c − 8 = 0 ⇒
√ √ √ √
12 ± 144 + 4 (9) (8) 12 ± 12 3 2±2 3 2+2 3
c= = = . The required value is c = because the other root lies
18 18 3 3
outside the interval (0, 4).
14. f (x) = sin x ⇒ f (x) = cos x. f is continuous on 0, π π
2 and differentiable on 0, 2 . Therefore, there exists a number c
f π
2 − f (0) = f (c) ⇒ 1 − 0 = cos c ⇒ cos c = 2 ⇔ c = cos−1 2 ≈ 0.88.
in the interval 0, π
2 such that π −0 π π π
2 2
15. f (x) = x + sin x ⇒ f (x) = 1 + cos x. f is continuous on π π
2 , π and differentiable on 2 , π . Therefore,
f (π) − f π π− π
2 +1
there exists a number c in the interval π , π such that 2 = f (c) ⇒ = 1 + cos c ⇔
2 π− π2
π
2
π − 1 = π + π cos c ⇔ cos c = − 2 ⇔ c = cos−1 − 2 ≈ 2.26.
2 2 2 π π

sin t (1 + cos t) (cos t) − sin t (− sin t) 1

16. g (t) = ⇒ g (t) = = . g is continuous on 0, π
2 and differentiable
1 + cos t (1 + cos t)2 1 + cos t
g π
2 − g (0) 1 1
on 0, π π
2 . Therefore, there exists a number c in the interval 0, 2 such that π −0 = g (c) ⇒ π =
2 2 1 + cos c
⇔ 1 + cos c = π
2 ⇒ c = cos
−1 π − 1 ≈ 0.96.
2

17. The function A is continuous on the interval [0, 30] and differentiable on (0, 30). Furthermore, A (0) = A (30) = 0, and so
by Rolle’s Theorem there exists a number c in (0, 30) such that A (c) = 0. This tells us that there is at least one instant
during the 30-minute flight when the plane is neither climbing nor descending.

18. Let S (t) denote the distance covered by the trucker after t hours. Then S is continuous on the time interval 0, 35
12

and differentiable on 0, 35 35
12 . So, by the Mean Value Theorem, there exists a number c in 0, 12 such that

S 35
12 − S (0) 193 − 0 193 · 12
35 − 0
= S (c) ⇒ S (c) = 35
= ≈ 66.17. In other words, there is some time c with 0 < c < 35
12
35
12 12
for which the speed of the trucker was about 66.17 mi/h, exceeding the posted speed limit.
1 t 4 − t 3 + 4t 2 ⇒ h (t) = 1 t 3 − 3t 2 + 8t. The function h is continuous on the interval [0, 8] and differentiable on
19. h (t) = 16 4
1 · 84 − 83 + 4 · 82 = 256 − 512 + 256 = 0. Therefore, by Rolle’s Theorem,
(0, 8). Furthermore, h (0) = 0 and h (8) = 16
there exists a number c in (0, 8) such that h (c) = 14 c3 − 3c2 + 8c = 0 ⇔ 14 c c2 − 12c + 32 = 14 c (c − 8) (c − 4) = 0
⇒ c = 4, since 8 lies outside the interval (0, 8). This suggests that the aircraft attains the highest altitude at t = 4.
184 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

20. r (t) = 10 3 10 2 200 10 2 20 200

81 t − 3 t + 9 t + 56 ⇔ r (t) = 27 t − 3 t + 9 . The function r is continuous on [0, 12] and differentiable
on (0, 12). Furthermore, r (0) = 56 and r (12) = 56. Therefore, by Rolle’s Theorem, there exists a number c in (0, 12)
√
2 − 20 c + 200 = 0 ⇔ c2 − 18c + 60 = 0 ⇒ c = 18 ± 324 − 240 = 9 ± 21. However, 9 + 21
√ √
such that r (c) = 1027 c 3 9 2
√
lies outside the interval (0, 12), so c = 9 − 21 ≈ 4.4 is the required value. The result suggests that the occupancy rate is
highest around the middle of May.
⎧ ⎧
⎨ −x − 1 if x < 0 ⎨ −1 if x < 0
21. f (x) = |x| − 1 = ⇒ f (x) =
⎩ x − 1 if x ≥ 0 ⎩ 1 if x > 0
Thus, f (x) = 0 for x on (−1, 0) ∪ (0, 1). Also, f is not differentiable at x = 0, so f (x) = 0 for all x in the domain.
Rolle’s Theorem is not contradicted because the requirement that f be differentiable on (−1, 1) is not satisfied.

2
22. f (x) = 1 − x 2/3 ⇒ f (x) = − 23 x −1/3 = − 1/3 . Suppose there is a number c satisfying −1 < c < 8 such that
3x
f (b) − f (a) f (8) − f (−1) 2 1 − 82/3 − (1 − 1) 1
f (c) = = . Then − 1/3 = = − ⇔ c1/3 = 2 ⇔ c = 8.
b−a 8 − (−1) 3c 9 3
This contradiction shows that no such c exists. The result does not contradict the Mean Value Theorem because f is not
differentiable on the interval (−1, 8).

23. f does not satisfy the hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem on [0, 2] because it is not
differentiable on (0, 2). In fact, f fails to be differentiable at x = 1. To see this, we calculate
f (1) − f (1 − h) 1 − (1 − h)2 2h − h 2
lim = lim = lim = lim (2 − h) = 2 and
h→0+ h h→0 + h h→0 + h h→0+
f (1) − f (1 − h) 2 − (1 + h) − 1 −h
lim = lim = lim = lim (−1) = −1. Thus, the left-hand limit of the
h→0− h h→0− h h→0− h h→0−
difference quotient is not equal to the right-hand limit, so f (1) does not exist.

24. g (x) = x 4 − 2x 2 + x is continuous on [0, 1] and differentiable on (0, 1). Furthermore, g (0) = 0 = g (1). Therefore, by
Rolle’s Theorem, there exists at least one number c in (0, 1) such that g (c) = 4c3 − 4c + 1 = 0. But g (x) = f (x), and
so f (c) = 0, showing that f has at least one zero in (0, 1).

25. f (x) = x 5 + 6x + 4 is a polynomial function and so it is continuous and differentiable on (−∞, ∞). Next, consider
f (−1) = −1 − 6 + 4 = −3 < 0 and f (0) = 4 > 0. Using the Intermediate Value Theorem, we see that there exists at
least one number r1 on (−1, 0) such that f (r1 ) = 0, and this shows that f has at least one zero in (−1, 0). Now suppose f
has another zero r2 , distinct from r1 , on (−∞, ∞). Then f (r1 ) = f (r2 ) = 0 and Rolle’s Theorem implies that there
exists a number c in the interval (r1 , r2 ) [or in (r2 , r1 ) if r2 happens to be smaller than r1 ] such that f (c) = 0. But
f (x) = 5x 4 + 6 ≥ 6 is never zero, so no such c exists. This contradiction implies that r2 cannot exist, and so f has
exactly one zero, r1 .

26. Let f (x) = x 7 + 6x 5 + 2x − 6. Then f is continuous and differentiable on (−∞, ∞). Evaluating f at x = −1 and
x = 1 gives f (−1) = −15 < 0 and f (1) = 3 > 0. By the Intermediate Value Theorem, there exists a number r1 on
the interval (−1, 1) such that f (r1 ) = 0, and this shows that f has at least one zero in (−1, 1). Now suppose that the
equation has another root r2 , distinct from r1 , in (−∞, ∞). Then f (r1 ) = f (r2 ) = 0 and by Rolle’s Theorem, there
exists a number c in the interval (r1 , r2 ) [or in (r2 , r1 ) if r2 happens to be smaller than r1 ] such that f (c) = 0. But
f (c) = 7c6 + 30c4 + 2 ≥ 2, so no such c exists. This contradiction implies that r2 cannot exist, and this in turn shows that
the assumption that there is another root r2 distinct from r1 is not tenable. We conclude that f has exactly one zero, so the
given equation has exactly one root.
 Section 3.2 The Mean Value Theorem 185

27. Suppose f (x) = x 5 − 12x + c has two distinct zeros r1 and r2 in [0, 1]. We may assume that 0 ≤ r1 < r2 ≤ 1, since
f (r1 ) = f (r2 ) = 0 and f is continuous on r1 , r2 and differentiable on (r1 , r2 ). Rolle’s Theorem implies that there exists
1/4
a number a in (r1 , r2 ) such that f (a) = 5x 4 − 12 = 5a 4 − 12 = 0 ⇔ a = 12
5 ≈ ±1.24. But this implies that a
x=a
does not lie in (0, 1). This contradiction shows that f cannot have more than one zero on [0, 1].
28. Let f (x) = sin x. If a = b, then | f (a) − f (b)| = |sin a − sin b| = 0 and |a − b| = 0. So |sin a − sin b| = |a − b|.
Next, we assume that a < b. The function f is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Using the Mean Value
f (b) − f (a) sin b − sin a
Theorem, we see that there exists a number c in (a, b) such that = = f (c) = cos c. Thus,
b−a b−a
sin b − sin a = (b − a) cos c ⇒ |sin b − sin a| = |b − a| |cos c|. But |cos c| ≤ 1 and so |sin b − sin a| ≤ |b − a| and,
combined with the previous result, we see that the inequality holds for all real numbers a and b.
29. Let f (x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x. Then f (0) = 0, so 0 is a root of the equation f (x) = 0. Now let r > 0
be a positive zero of f . Then f (r ) = 0. Since f is continuous on [0, r] and differentiable on (0, r), there exists a
number c in (0, r) such that f (c) = 0. But f (x) = nan x n−1 + (n − 1) an−1 x n−2 + · · · + a1 , and so we have
f (c) = nan cn−1 + (n − 1) an−1 cn−2 + · · · + a1 = 0. This c satisfying 0 < c < r is a root of the given equation.
30. Let g (x) = cx. Then g (x) = c and so g (x) = f (x). By Theorem 3, g and f must differ by a constant. Thus
f (x) = g (x) + d, where d is constant, and so f (x) = cx + d as desired.

31. a. f (−1) = (−1)4 − 4 (−1) − 1 = 4 > 0 and b.

4
f (1) = (1)4 − 4 (1) − 1 = −4 < 0, so the Intermediate Value Theorem
implies that f has at least one zero r1 in the interval (−1, 1). Next, 2

f (2) = 24 − 4 (2) − 1 = 7 > 0, and so the Intermediate Value Theorem 0

says that f has at least one zero r2 on the interval (1, 2). Clearly r1 and r2 -2
are distinct. Now suppose that f has another zero r distinct from r1 and -4
r2 . Then r must lie in one of the intervals (−∞, r1 ), (r1 , r2 ), and
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
(r2 , ∞). Then by Rolle’s Theorem, there must exist a number c in one of
the intervals (−∞, r1 ), (r1 , 1), (1, r2 ), and (r2 , ∞) such that f (c) = 0. But
f (x) = 4x 3 − 4 = 4 (x − 1) x 2 + x + 1 = 0 only at x = 1. This is a contradiction, and the desired result follows.
⎧
⎨ x sin π if x > 0 π
32. f (x) = x f (x) = 0 where x = 0 or sin = 0 ⇒
⎩0 if x = 0 x
0.5
π 1
= nπ ⇒ x = , n = 1, 2, 3, . . .. f is continuous on [0, 1] and differentiable
x n
0.0
1
on (0, 1). Therefore, we can apply Rolle’s Theorem to each of the intervals ,1 ,
2
-0.5
1 1 1 1 1 1
, , , , . . ., , , . . ., and conclude that there is a number cn in
3 2 4 3 n+1 n 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
1 1
the interval , such that f (cn ) = 0, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .. Thus, f (x) = 0
n+1 n
has infinitely many roots in (0, 1).
33. Let f (x) = cos2 x − 12 cos 2x. Observe that f is continuous and differentiable on (−∞, ∞).
f (x) = 2 cos x (− sin x) − 12 (− sin 2x) (2) = −2 sin x cos x + sin 2x = − sin 2x + sin 2x = 0. Using Theorem 3,
we see that f (x) = C where C is a constant; that is, f (x) = cos2 x − 12 cos 2x = C. To find C, we calculate
f π 1 1 2 1 1 2 1
2 = 0 − 2 (−1) = C ⇔ C = 2 , so cos x − 2 cos 2x = 2 ⇔ cos x = 2 (1 + cos 2x).
186 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

34. Let h = f − g. Then h is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Furthermore,
h (x) − h (a)
h (a) = ( f − g) (a) = f (a) − g (a) = 0. If a < x < b, then the Mean Value Theorem gives = h (c) for
x −a
h (x) − 0
some number c in (a, x). Then h (x) = f (x) − g (x), and we have = f (c) − g (c) < 0, since f (x) < g (x)
x −a
for all x in (a, b). Multiplying both sides by x − a > 0 gives h (x) < 0 ⇔ f (x) − g (x) < 0 ⇔ f (x) < g (x) for all x in
(a, b).

35. f (x) = Ax 2 + Bx + C is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), and f (x) = 2Ax + B.
f (b) − f (a)
By the Mean Value Theorem, there exists a number c in (a, b) such that = f (c) ⇒
b−a
Ab2 + Bb + C − Aa 2 + Ba + C A b2 − a 2 + B (b − a)
= 2Ac + B ⇔ = 2Ac + B ⇔
b−a b−a
A (b + a) (b − a) + B (b − a) a+b
= 2Ac + B ⇒ A (b + a) + B = 2Ac + B ⇔ c = , showing that c lies at the
b−a 2
midpoint of the interval [a, b].

36. f (x) = 2 (x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 3) (x − 4) is a polynomial function, and thus continuous and differentiable on (−∞, ∞).
Furthermore, f (1) = f (2) = f (3) = f (4) = 0. Therefore, by Rolle’s Theorem, there exists at least one number c1 in
(1, 2), at least one number c2 in (2, 3), and at least one number c3 in (3, 4) such that f (c1 ) = f (c2 ) = f (c3 ) = 0.
Therefore, f has at least three real zeros. On the other hand, f is a polynomial of degree three and can have at most three
real zeros. Therefore, f has exactly three zeros.

37. Suppose f has two distinct fixed points c1 and c2 in I , with c1 < c2 . Applying the Mean Value Theorem to f on the interval
f (c2 ) − f (c1 ) c − c1
c1 , c2 contained in I , we see that there exists a number c in (c1 , c2 ) such that f (c) = = 2 = 1,
c2 − c1 c2 − c1
contradicting the assumption that f (x) = 1 for all x in I . This shows that f can have at most one fixed point in I .
d 1
38. f (x) = (x + 6)1/2 = √ = 1 for all x in (0, ∞). Therefore, by the result of Exercise 37, f can
dx 2 x +6
√
have at most one fixed point in (0, ∞). Solving the equation f (c) = c gives c + 6 = c ⇒ c + 6 = c2 ⇔
c2 − c − 6 = (c − 3) (c + 2) = 0 ⇔ c = 3 in (0, ∞). Therefore, (3, 3) is the only fixed point in (0, ∞).

39. Suppose f (x) < d for some number x in (a, b). Since f is continuous on [a, b], the Extreme Value Theorem implies that
f attains an absolute minimum value at some number c in [a, b]. However, the number c cannot be an endpoint because
f (a) = f (b) = d and we have assumed that f (x) < d for some number x in (a, b). Therefore, c must lie in (a, b). Since
f is differentiable on (a, b), f (c) exists, and by Theorem 1, f (c) = 0.
f (b) − f (a)
40. a. By the Mean Value Theorem, there exists a number c in (a, b) such that = f (c). Since a < c < b, we
b−a
c−a c−a
have a − a < c − a < b − a ⇒ 0 < c − a < b − a ⇒ 0 < < 1. Put θ = and h = b − a. Then we have
b−a b−a
f (b) − f (a)
c = a + (b − a) θ = a + θh, and so = f (a + θh), 0 < θ < 1.
b−a
f (a + h) − f (a) (a + h)2 − a 2 a 2 + 2ah + h 2 − a 2
b. = = = 2a + h and f (a + θh) = 2x|x=a+θ h = 2a + 2θh,
h h h
so 2a + h = 2a + 2θh ⇒ θ = 12 .

41. a. f (x) = x 4 − 2x 3 + x − 2 is continuous on [−1, 2] and differentiable on (−1, 2) because f is a polynomial.

f (−1) = (−1)4 − 2 (−1)3 + (−1) − 2 = 0 and f (2) = 24 − 2 23 + 2 − 2 = 0, so the hypotheses of Rolle’s
Theorem are satisfied.
 Section 3.2 The Mean Value Theorem 187

b. f (x) = 4x 3 − 6x 2 + 1. Setting f (x) = 0 and using a calculator or

1
computer, we find the roots of f (x) = 0, and therefore the desired values
0
of c, to be approximately −0.36603, 0.50000, and 1.36603.
-1
c. Using a calculator or computer, we find f (−0.36603) ≈ −2.25,
f (0.50000) ≈ −1.6875, and f (1.36603) ≈ −2.25. The graph of f and -2
the tangent lines y = −2.25 and y = −1.6875 are shown in the figure.
-3
-1 0 1 2

42. a. f (x) = x 2 sin x is continuous on [0, π] and differentiable on (0, π),

f (0) = 0 sin 0 = 0, and f (π) = π 2 sin π = 0, so the hypotheses of
4
Rolle’s Theorem are satisfied.

b. f (x) = 2x sin x + x 2 cos x = x (2 sin x + x cos x). Setting f (x) = 0

2
gives x = 0 or 2 sin x + x cos x = 0. Using a calculator or computer, we
find that the root of this equation is 2.28893, so c ≈ 2.28893.
0
c. f (2.28893) ≈ 3.945. The graph of f and the tangent line y = 3.945 are 0 1 2 3

shown in the figure.

43. a. f (x) = x 4 − 2x 2 + 2 is continuous on [0, 2] and differentiable on (0, 2) and so the hypotheses of the Mean Value

Theorem are satisfied. Therefore, there exists a c such that

f (2) − f (0) 10 − 2
f (c) = 4x 3 − 4x = = =4⇒ 10
x=c 2−0 2
4c3 − 4c = 4 ⇔ c3 − c − 1 = 0. Using a calculator or computer, we
5
find c ≈ 1.325.

b. An equation of the secant line is y − 2 = 4x or y = 4x + 2. Since 0

f (1.325) ≈ 1.571, we see that an approximate equation of the
-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
required tangent line is y − 1.571 = 4 (x − 1.325) or y = 4x − 3.729.
√
44. a. f (x) = sin x is continuous on 0, 14 π 2 and differentiable on 0, 14 π 2 , and so the
hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem are satisfied. Therefore, there exists a c such that
f 1 π2 − f (0)
d 1 √ 1 √ 4 1−0 4
f (c) = sin x 1/2 = √ cos x = √ cos c = 1 π2
= 1 = 2 ⇔
dx 2 x 2 c 2 π
x=c x=c 4 4π
√
√ 8 c
cos c = 2 . Using a graphing calculator, we find c ≈ 0.691.
π
4 4 1.0
b. An equation of the secant line is y − 0 = 2 (x − 0) or y = 2 x.
π π
Since f (0.691) ≈ 0.739, we see that an approximate equation of the
4 0.5
required tangent line is y − 0.739 = (x − 0.691) or
π2
y = 0.405x + 0.459. 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

45. False. Consider f (x) = x 2 on [−1, 2]. f is continuous on [−1, 2] and differentiable on (−1, 2). Furthermore,
f (0) = 2x|x=0 = 0, but f (−1) = 1 = 4 = f (2).
188 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

−x if −1 ≤ x < 0
46. False. Consider f defined on [−1, 2] by f (x) = Then f is not differentiable at 0, and therefore
x2 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
f (2) − f (−1) 4−1
fails to be differentiable on (−1, 2). But c = 12 on (−1, 2) satisfies = = 1, which is equal to
2 − (−1) 3
f 1 = 2x|x=1/2 = 1.
2
f (b) − f (a)
47. True. If a and b are any two real numbers with a < b, then = f (c) for some c in (a, b). But f (c) = 0
b−a
everywhere. So f (b) = f (a). Since a and b are arbitrary, f is a constant function.
f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
48. True. By the Mean Value Theorem, if x1 = x2 , = f (c), where x1 < c < x2 . So
x 2 − x1
| f (x2 ) − f (x1 )| = f (c) |x2 − x1 | ≤ |x2 − x1 |, since f (c) ≤ 1.
f (5) − f (2) | f (5) − f (2)| 6
49. True. = f (c) for 2 < c < 5 ⇒ | f (5) − f (2)| = 3 f (c) ⇔ f (c) = ≤ = 2,
5−2 3 3
contradicting f (x) > 2 on (2, 5).
50. True. By the Mean Value Theorem, there exists a number c with 1 < c < 3 such that
f (3) − f (1) f (3) − f (1)
= = f (c) ⇒ f (3) − f (1) = 2 f (c). Since 2 ≤ f (x) ≤ 4 on (1, 3), we have
3−1 2
4 ≤ f (3) − f (1) ≤ 8 on [1, 3].

3.3 Concept Questions

1. See page 267.
2. See page 268.
3. See page 271.

3.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions and the First Derivative Test
1. a. f is increasing on (−∞, −2), constant on (−2, 2), and decreasing on (2, ∞).
b. f has a relative maximum value of 2 attained at all the values of x on the interval [−2, 2]; f has no relative minimum.
2. a. f is increasing on (−∞, ∞).
b. f has no relative extremum.
3. a. f is decreasing on (−∞, −1) and increasing on (−1, ∞).
b. f has a relative minimum value of 0 attained at −1.
4. a. f is decreasing on (−∞, −1) and (1, ∞) and increasing on (−1, 1).
b. f has a relative minimum value of − 12 attained at −1 and a relative maximum value of 12 attained at 1.
5. a. f is increasing on (−∞, −1) and (−1, ∞).
b. f has no relative extremum.
6. a. f is increasing on (−∞, −2) and (−2, 0) and decreasing on (0, 2) and (2, ∞).
b. f has a relative maximum value of −2 attained at 0.
7. a. f (x) < 0 on approximately (−∞, −2.5) and (2.5, ∞). Therefore, f is decreasing on those intervals. f (x) > 0 on
approximately (−2.5, 2.5), so f is increasing on this interval.
 Section 3.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions and the First Derivative Test 189

b. f (x) = 0 at x ≈ −2.5 and x ≈ 2.5, and these are critical numbers of f . Since f (x) < 0 if x < −2.5, and f (x) > 0
if x > −2.5, we see that f has a relative minimum at −2.5. Next, f (x) > 0 if x < 2.5 and f (x) < 0 if x > 2.5, and
so f has a relative maximum at 2.5.
8. a. f (x) < 0 on (−∞, −2), and so f is decreasing on (−∞, −2). f (x) > 0 on (−2, 0) and (0, ∞), and so f is
increasing on these intervals.
b. f (x) = 0 at x = −2, and this is a critical number of f . Since f (x) < 0 for x < −2 and f (x) > 0 for x > −2, we
see that x = −2 gives a relative minimum.
9. f (x) = x 2 − 2x ⇒ f (x) = 2x − 2 = 2 (x − 1) is continuous everywhere and _ _ _ _ _ 0 +++++ sign of f»
has a zero at 1, the only critical number of f . f (x) is negative for x < 1 and x
0 1 2
positive for x > 1. The sign diagram of f is shown.
a. f is decreasing on (−∞, 1) and increasing on (1, ∞).
b. f has a relative minimum at 1 with value f (1) = −1.
10. f (x) = −x 2 + 4x + 2 ⇒ f (x) = −2x + 4 = −2 (x − 2) is continuous +++++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ sign of f»
everywhere and has a zero at 2, the only critical number of f . f (x) is positive for x
0 2 4
x < 2 and negative for x > 2. The sign diagram of f is shown.
a. f is increasing on (−∞, 2) and decreasing on (2, ∞).
b. f has a relative maximum at 2 with value f (2) = 6.
√ √
11. f (x) = x 3 − 6x + 1 ⇒ f (x) = 3x 2 − 6 = 3 x 2 − 2 = 3 x + 2 x − 2 ++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»
√ √ x
is continuous everywhere and has zeros at − 2 and 2, the critical numbers of f . _Ï2 0 Ï2
The sign diagram of f is shown.
√ √ √ √
a. f is increasing on −∞, − 2 and 2, ∞ and decreasing on − 2, 2 .
√ √ √ √
b. f has a relative maximum of f − 2 = 1 + 4 2 and a relative minimum of f 2 = 1 − 4 2.

12. f (x) = −x 3 + 3x 2 + 1 ⇒ f (x) = −3x 2 + 6x = −3x (x − 2) is continuous _ _ 0 +++++ 0 _ _ sign of f»

everywhere and has zeros at 0 and 2, the critical numbers of f . The sign diagram x
0 1 2
of f is shown.
a. f is decreasing on (−∞, 0) and (2, ∞) and increasing on (0, 2).
b. f has a relative minimum of f (0) = 1 and a relative maximum of f (2) = 5.
13. f (x) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 − 12x + 5 ⇒ f (x) = 6x 2 + 6x − 12 = 6 (x + 2) (x − 1) is ++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»
continuous everywhere and has zeros at −2 and 1, the critical numbers of f . The x
_2 _1 0 1
sign diagram of f is shown.
a. f is increasing on (−∞, −2) and (1, ∞) and decreasing on (−2, 1).
b. f has a relative maximum of f (−2) = 25 and a relative minimum value of f (1) = −2.
14. f (x) = x 3 − 3x 2 − 9x + 6 ⇒ f (x) = 3x 2 − 6x − 9 = 3 (x − 3) (x + 1) is ++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»
continuous everywhere and has zeros at −1 and 3, the critical numbers of f . The x
_1 0 1 2 3
sign diagram of f is shown.
a. f is increasing on (−∞, −1) and (3, ∞) and decreasing on (−1, 3).
b. f has a relative maximum of f (−1) = 11 and a relative minimum of f (3) = −21.
15. f (x) = x 4 − 4x 3 + 6 ⇒ f (x) = 4x 3 − 12x 2 = 4x 2 (x − 3) is continuous _ _ 0 _ _ _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»
everywhere and has zeros at 0 and 3, the critical numbers of f . The sign diagram x
0 1 2 3
of f is shown.
190 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

a. f is decreasing on (−∞, 3) and increasing on (3, ∞).

b. f has a relative minimum of f (3) = −21.

16. f (x) = −x 4 + 2x 2 + 1 ⇒ ++ 0 _ _ 0 ++ 0 _ _ sign of f»

f (x) = −4x 3 + 4x = −4x x 2 − 1 = −4x (x + 1) (x − 1) is continuous x

_1 0 1
everywhere and has zeros at −1, 0, and 1, the critical numbers of f . The sign
diagram of f is shown.
a. f is increasing on (−∞, −1) and (0, 1) and decreasing on (−1, 0) and (1, ∞).
b. f has relative maxima of f (−1) = f (1) = 2 and a relative minimum of f (0) = 1.

1
17. f (x) = x 1/3 − 1 ⇒ f (x) = 13 x −2/3 = is discontinuous at 0 and has no
3x 2/3 f» not defined
zero. Therefore 0 is the only critical number of f . The sign diagram of f is shown. +++++ +++++ sign of f»
x
_1 0 1
a. f is increasing on (−∞, ∞).
b. f has no relative extremum.

18. f (x) = x 1/3 − x 2/3 ⇒ f (x) = 13 x −2/3 − 23 x −1/3 = 13 x −2/3 1 − 2x 1/3 is f» not defined
+++++ ++ 0 _ _ sign of f»
discontinuous at 0 and has a zero at x = 18 . The critical numbers of f are thus 0
x
1
and 18 . The sign diagram of f is shown. 0
8

a. f is increasing on −∞, 18 and decreasing on 18 , ∞ .

b. f has a relative maximum of f 1 = 14 .

8

19. f (x) = x 2 (x − 2)3 ⇒ ++ 0 _ _ 0 +++ 0 ++ sign of f»

f (x) = 2x (x − 2)3 + x 2 (3) (x − 2)2 = x (x − 2)2 [2 (x − 2) + 3x] x

4
0 5
1 2
= x (5x − 4) (x − 2)2

is continuous everywhere and has zeros at 0, 45 , and 2, the critical numbers of f .

The sign diagram of f is shown.
a. f is increasing on (−∞, 0) and 45 , ∞ and decreasing on 0, 45 .

b. f has a relative maximum of f (0) = 0 and a relative minimum of f 4 = −1.10592.

5

20. f (x) = x 3 (x − 6)4 ⇒ ++ 0++0 _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»

f (x) = 3x 2 (x − 6)4 + x 3 (4) (x − 6)3 = x 2 (x − 6)3 [3 (x − 6) + 4x] x

0 18 6
7
= x 2 (7x − 18) (x − 6)3

is continuous everywhere and has zeros at 0, 18

7 , and 6, the critical numbers of f .
The sign diagram of f is shown.
a. f is increasing on −∞, 18 18
7 and (6, ∞) and decreasing on 7 , 6 .

b. f has a relative maximum of f 18 ≈ 2350 and a relative minimum of f (6) = 0.

7
 Section 3.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions and the First Derivative Test 191

1 1 x2 − 1 (x + 1) (x − 1)
21. f (x) = x + ⇒ f (x) = 1 − 2 = = is discontinuous f» not defined
x x x2 x2
++ 0 _ _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»
at 0 and has zeros at ±1, but 0 is not in the domain of f , so the critical numbers of
x
f are −1 and 1. The sign diagram of f is shown. _1 0 1
a. f is increasing on (−∞, −1) and (1, ∞) and decreasing on (−1, 0) and (0, 1).
b. f has a relative maximum of f (−1) = −2 and a relative minimum of f (1) = 2.
x (x − 1) (1) − x (1) 1
22. f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = =− is discontinuous at 1 and has no zeros, but 1 is not in the
x −1 (x − 1)2 (x − 1)2
domain of f , so f has no critical numbers. Furthermore, f (x) is negative on its domain.
a. f is decreasing on (−∞, 1) and (1, ∞).
b. f has no relative extremum.

x2 (x − 1) (2x) − x 2 (1) x 2 − 2x x (x − 2)
23. f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = 2
= = is f» not defined
x −1 (x − 1) (x − 1)2 (x − 1)2
++ 0 _ _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»
discontinuous at 1 and has zeros at 0 and 2. Since 1 is not in the domain of f , only
x
0 and 2 are critical numbers of f . The sign diagram of f is shown. 0 1 2
a. f is increasing on (−∞, 0) and (2, ∞) and decreasing on (0, 1) and (1, 2).
b. f has a relative maximum of f (0) = 0 and a relative minimum of f (2) = 4.
x
24. f (x) = 2 ⇒ _ _ 0 +++++ 0 _ _ sign of f»
x +1
x
(x 2 + 1) (1) − x (2x) 1 − x2 (1 − x) (1 + x) _1 0 1
f (x) = 2
= 2
= 2
is continuous
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 x2 + 1
everywhere and has zeros at ±1, the critical numbers of f . The sign diagram of f is shown.

a. f is decreasing on (−∞, −1) and (1, ∞) and increasing on (−1, 1).

b. f has a relative minimum of f (−1) = − 12 and a relative maximum of f (1) = 12 .

2x − 3 (x 2 − 4) (2) − (2x − 3) (2x) 2x 2 − 8 − 4x 2 + 6x 2(x 2 − 3x + 4)

25. f (x) = 2 ⇒ f (x) = 2 2
= 2 2
=− is discontinuous
x −4 (x − 4) (x − 4) (x 2 − 4)2
at x = ±2 and has no zero. Since ±2 are both outside the domain of f , there is no critical number. f is negative on its
domain.
a. f is decreasing on (−∞, −2), (−2, 2), and (2, ∞).
b. f has no relative extremum.

x 2 − 3x + 2 x 2 − 3x + 2 (x − 2) (x − 1)
26. f (x) = 2 = = ⇒ f» not defined
x + 2x + 1 (x + 1)2 (x + 1)2
++ _ _ _ _ 0 ++ + sign of f»
(x + 1)2 (2x − 3) − (x 2 − 3x + 2)2 (x + 1)
f (x) = x
(x + 1)4 _1 0 17 2
5
(x + 1) (x + 1) (2x − 3) − 2(x 2 − 3x + 2) 5x − 7
= =
(x + 1)4 (x + 1)3
is discontinuous at x = −1 and has a zero at 75 . Since −1 is not in the domain of

f , the only critical number is 75 . The sign diagram of f is shown.

a. f is decreasing on −1, 75 and increasing on (−∞, −1) and 75 , ∞ .

b. f has a relative minimum of f 7 1 .

= − 24
5
192 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

27. f (x) = x 2/3 (x − 3) ⇒ f» not defined

5x − 6 ++ _ _ _ _ 0 ++ + sign of f»
f (x) = 23 x −1/3 (x − 3) + x 2/3 = 13 x −1/3 [2 (x − 3) + 3x] = is
3x 1/3 x
0 16
discontinuous at 0 and has a zero at 65 , so 0 and 65 are critical numbers of f . The 5

sign diagram of f is shown.

a. f is increasing on (−∞, 0) and 65 , ∞ and decreasing on 0, 65 .

b. f has a relative maximum of f (0) = 0 and a relative minimum of f 6 ≈ −2.03.

5
√
28. f (x) = x 4 − x = x (4 − x)1/2 ⇒ ++++++ 0 _ _ sign of f»

f (x) = (4 − x)1/2 + x 1 (4 − x)−1/2 (−1) ) x

2 0 1 2 83 3 4
(3x − 8)
= − 12 (4 − x)−1/2 [−2 (4 − x) + x] = − √
2 4−x
is discontinuous at x = 4 and has a zero at 83 , both critical numbers of f . The sign diagram of f is shown.

a. f is increasing on −∞, 83 and decreasing on 83 , 4 .

b. f has a relative maximum of f 8 ≈ 3.08.

3
1/2
29. f (x) = x x − x 2 = x x − x 2 has domain [0, 1]. +++++0 _ sign of f»

1/2 −1/2 ( ) x
f (x) = x − x 2 + x 12 x − x2 (1 − 2x) 0 3 1
4
−1/2
= 12 x − x 2 2 x − x 2 + x (1 − 2x)
−1/2 x (3 − 4x)
= 12 3x − 4x 2 x − x2 =
2 x − x2
is discontinuous at x = 0 and 1 and has a zero at 34 , the only critical number of f
in (0, 1). The sign diagram of f is shown.
a. f is increasing on 0, 34 and decreasing on 34 , 1 .
√
b. f has a relative maximum of f 3
4 = 3163 .
x x
30. f (x) = = 1/2
; the domain of f is (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞).
x2 − 1 x2 − 1
d −1/2 −1/2 −3/2 −1/2 −3/2
f (x) = x x2 − 1 = x2 − 1 + x − 12 x 2 − 1 (2x) = x 2 − 1 − x2 x2 − 1
dx
−3/2 1
= x2 − 1 x2 − 1 − x2 = − 3/2
has no zero and is negative on its domain.
2
x −1
a. f is decreasing on (−∞ − 1) and (1, ∞).
b. f has no relative extremum.
31. f (x) = x − 2 sin x, 0 < x < 2π ⇒ f (x) = 1 − 2 cos x is continuous on (0, 2π) _ _ 0 +++++ 0 _ _ sign of f»

and has zeros where 1 − 2 cos x = 0 ⇔ cos x = 12 ⇒ x = π 5π

3 or 3 . The sign
x
0 ¹ ¹ 5¹ 2¹
3 3
diagram of f is shown.
a. f is decreasing on 0, π 5π π 5π
3 and 3 , 2π and increasing on 3 , 3 .

b. f has a relative minimum of f π

3 ≈ −0.68 and a relative maximum of f
5π
3 ≈ 6.97.
 Section 3.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions and the First Derivative Test 193

32. f (x) = x − cos x, 0 < x < 2π ⇒ f (x) = 1 + sin x is continuous on (0, 2π) and +++++ 0 + sign of f»

has zeros where 1 + sin x = 0 ⇔ sin x = −1 ⇒ x = 32π , a critical number of f . ( ) x

0 3¹ 2¹
2
The sign diagram of f is shown.
a. f is increasing on (0, 2π). b. f has no relative extremum.

33. f (x) = cos2 x, 0 < x < 2π ⇒ _ _ 0++0 _ _ 0++ sign of f»

f (x) = (2 cos x) (− sin x) = −2 sin x cos x = − sin 2x is continuous on (0, 2π) ( ) x
0 ¹ ¹ 3¹ 2¹
and has zeros where sin 2x = 0 ⇒ x = π 3π
2 , π, or 2 in (0, 2π). These are the
2 2

critical numbers of f . The sign diagram of f is shown.

a. f is decreasing on 0, π 3π π 3π
2 and π, 2 and increasing on 2 , π and 2 , 2π .

b. f has relative minima of f π

2 = f
3π
2 = 0 and a relative maximum of f (π) = 1.

34. f (x) = sin2 2x, 0 < x < π ⇒ ++ 0--0++0-- sign of f»

f (x) = 2 (sin 2x cos 2x) (2) = 4 sin 2x cos 2x = 2 sin 4x is continuous and has ( ) x
0 ¹ ¹ 3¹ ¹
zeros where sin 4x = 0 ⇒ x = π π 3π
4 , 2 , 4 in (0, π). The sign diagram of f is
4 2 4

shown.
a. f is increasing on 0, π π 3π π π 3π
4 and 2 , 4 and decreasing on 4 , 2 and 4 , π .

b. f has relative maxima of f π

4 = f
3π
4 = 1 and a relative minimum of f π
2 = 0.

35. f (x) = x sin x + cos x, 0 < x < 2π ⇒ f (x) = sin x + x cos x − sin x = x cos x ++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»
is continuous everywhere and has zeros where x cos x = 0 ⇒ x = π 3π
2 or 2 in
( ) x
¹ 3¹
0 2
¹ 2
2¹
(0, 2π). The sign diagram of f is shown.
a. f is increasing on 0, π 3π π 3π
2 and 2 , 2π and decreasing on 2 , 2 .

b. f has a relative maximum of f π π

2 = 2 and a relative minimum of f
3π
2 = − 32π .

sin x
36. f (x) = , 0 < x < 2π ⇒ ++0 _ _ _ _ _ 0++
- sign of f»
1 + sin2 x
( ) x
1 + sin2 x cos x − (sin x) (2 sin x) cos x 0 ¹ ¹ 3¹ 2¹
2 2
f (x) = 2
1 + sin2 x

1 − sin2 x cos x cos3 x

= 2
= 2
1 + sin2 x 1 + sin2 x

is continuous everywhere and has zeros at π 3π

2 and 2 , critical numbers of f . The
sign diagram of f is shown.
a. f is increasing on 0, π 3π π 3π
2 and 2 , 2π and decreasing on 2 , 2 .

b. f has a relative maximum of f π 1

2 = 2 and a relative minimum of f
3π
2 = − 12 .
194 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

37. f (x) = tan x 2 + 1 , − π π

2 <x < 2 ⇒ f» not defined
_ _ _ 0 + ++ sign of f»
2x
f (x) = sec2 x 2 + 1 · 2x = is discontinuous where ( ) x
cos x 2 + 1
2
¹ ¹
_2 _ 2 0 2
2

cos2 x 2 + 1 = 0 ⇔ x 2 + 1 = π π
2 + nπ ⇔ x = ± 2 + nπ − 1, _Ϲ/2-1 Ϲ/2-1

n = 0, 1, 2, . . ., and has a zero at x = 0. Only ± π − 1 lie on − π , π , but they

2 2 2

are not in the domain of f , so 0 is the only critical number. The sign diagram of f
is shown.
a. f is decreasing on − π π π
2 , − 2 − 1 and − 2 − 1, 0 and increasing on 0,
π − 1 and
2
π − 1, π .
2 2
b. f has a relative minimum of f (0) ≈ 1.56.

1
38. f (x) = , 0 < x < 2π ⇒ ---- 0 ++++ sign of f»
1 − cos x
d sin x ( ) x
f (x) = (1 − cos x)−1 = − (1 − cos x)−2 sin x = − is 0 ¹ 2¹
dx (1 − cos x)2
continuous on (0, 2π) and has a zero at π. Thus, π is the only critical number of f in (0, 2π). The sign diagram of f is
shown.

a. f is decreasing on (0, π) and increasing on (π, 2π).

b. f has a relative minimum of f (π) = 12 .

39. f is increasing on (20.2, 20.6) and (21.7, 21.8), constant on (19.6, 20.2) and (20.6, 21.1), and decreasing on (21.1, 21.7)
and (21.8, 22.7).

40. h (t) = 0.1t 2 (t − 7)4 ⇒ +++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ _ sign of h»

h (t) = 0.1 2t (t − 7)4 + t 2 (4) (t − 7)3 = 0.2t (t − 7)3 [(t − 7) + 2t] ( ) t

0 1 7 7
3
= 0.2t (3t − 7) (t − 7)3
is continuous everywhere and has zeros at 0, 73 , and 7, so 73 is the only critical number of h in (0, 7).
The sign diagram of h is shown. The rocket is ascending on the time interval 0, 73 and descending on the time interval
7 , 7 . The maximum altitude is h 7 ≈ 258 ft.
3 3

√
41. f (t) = 20t − 40 t + 52 ⇒ _-0++++++++ sign of f»
√
20 t − 1 ( ) t
f (t) = 20 − 20t −1/2 = 20t −1/2 t 1/2 − 1 = √ is continuous on 0 1 2 3 4
t
(0, 4) and has a zero at 1, a critical number of f in (0, 4).
The sign diagram for f is shown. f is decreasing on (0, 1) and increasing on (1, 4), and it has a relative minimum at 1
with value f (1) = 32. The rate of traffic flow is decreasing from 6 A . M . to 7 A . M ., after which it increases from 7 A . M . to
10 A . M . The traffic flow is slowest (32 mi/h) at 7 A . M .
 Section 3.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions and the First Derivative Test 195

136
42. A (t) = + 28, 0 ≤ t ≤ 11 ⇒
1 + 0.25 (t − 4.5)2
d −1 −2
A (t) = 136 1 + 0.25 (t − 4.5)2 = −136 1 + 0.25 (t − 4.5)2 (0.25) (2) (t − 4.5)
dt
68 (t − 4.5)
=− 2
1 + 0.25 (t − 4.5)2
is continuous everywhere and has a zero at 4.5, a critical number of A. A (t) > 0 for t in (0, 4.5), and A (t) < 0 for t in
(4.5, 11). Thus, the PSI is increasing on (0, 4.5), that is, from 7 A . M . through 11:30 A . M ., and decreasing on (4.5, 11), that
is, from 11:30 A . M . through 6 P. M .. The function A has a relative maximum of A (4.5) = 164, so the PSI attains its highest
value, 164, at 11:30 A . M ..

C (x) 5000
43. C (x) = 0.0001x 3 − 0.08x 2 + 40x + 5000 ⇒ C (x) = = 0.0001x 2 − 0.08x + 40 + ⇒
x x
5000
C (x) = 0.0002x − 0.08 − is continuous on (0, ∞) and has zeros where 0.0002x 3 − 0.08x 2 − 5000 = 0 ⇔
x2
2x 3 − 800x 2 − 50,000,000 = 0 ⇔ x 3 − 400x 2 − 25,000,000 = 0. We take advantage of the hint that 500 is a root of the
equation, and use long division:
x 2 + 100x + 50,000
x − 500 x 3 − 400x 2 − 25,000,000
x 3 − 500x 2
100x 2 − 25,000,000
100x 2 − 50,000x
50,000x − 25,000,000
50,000x − 25,000,000
0

Thus, x 3 − 400x 2 − 25,000,000 = (x − 500) x 2 + 100x + 50,000 = 0. This equation has only 500 as a root, so this is

the only critical number of C. Since C (x) < 0 on (0, 500) and C (x) > 0 on (500, ∞), we see that C is decreasing on
(0, 500) and increasing on (500, ∞). The lowest average cost of $35/unit is attained when the level of production is
500 units.

d w w w
44. y = x 4 − 4Lx 3 + 6L 2 x 2 = 4x 3 − 12Lx 2 + 12L 2 x = x x 2 − 3Lx + 3L 2 . The
dx 24E I 24E I 6E I
discriminant of the quadratic equation x 2 − 3Lx + 3L 2 is b2 − 4ac = (−3L)2 − 4 (1) 3L 2 = −3L 2 < 0, so the

equation has no real root. In fact, x 2 − 3Lx + 3L 2 > 0 for x ≥ 0. Therefore, y > 0 for x > 0, and y is increasing on
w wL 4
(0, L). The maximum deflection occurs at x = L and is y|x=L = L 4 − 4L 4 + 6L 4 = ft.
24E I 8E I
196 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

45. H = 4.8 sin π 6 (t − 10) + 7.6 ⇒

d π
H (t) = 4.8 cos π π π π
6 (t − 10) dt 6 (t − 10) = 4.8 6 cos 6 (t − 10) = 0.8π cos 6 (t − 10) . Setting H (t) = 0

gives π π 3π 5π
6 (t − 10) = ± 2 , ± 2 , ± 2 , . . . ⇔ t − 10 = ±3, ±9, ±15, . . .. Since 0 ≤ t ≤ 24, the critical numbers are t = 1,
7, 13, and 19.
From the sign diagram of H at right, we see that H is increasing on +
(0, 1) , (7, 13), and (19, 24), and decreasing on (1, 7) and (13, 19). The 00 -- 0 ++ 0 -- 0 ++ 0 sign of H»(t)
relative minima of H occur at (7, 2.8) and (19, 2.8) and the relative t
maxima occur at (1, 12.4) and (13, 12.4). 01 7 13 19 24

We see that the low tides occur at 7 A . M . and 7 P. M . and the high tides occur at 1 A . M . and 1 P. M .

46. a. b.
600
150

400
100

200 50

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5

Note that S (t) > 0 for t in [0, 5].

c. S (t) = −6.945t 2 + 68.65t + 1.32. Setting S (t) = 0 and solving the resulting 0 ++++++ sign of S»
t
−68.65± (68.65)2 −4(−6.945)(1.32) 0 5
equation, we obtain t = 2(−6.945) ≈ −0.02 or 9.90.
From the sign diagram, we see that S is increasing on the interval [0, 5].

d
47. a. b. f (t) = −0.00447t 3 + 0.09864t 2 + 0.05192t + 0.8
10 dt
= −0.01341t 2 + 0.19728t + 0.05192

5
The graph of f shows that f (t) > 0 on
1.0
(0, 15). Thus, f is increasing on (0, 15).
0.5

0 0.0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15

−1
48. f (x) = 15 0.08333x 2 + 1.91667x + 1 , so by the Chain Rule,
−2 d −15 (0.16666x + 1.91667)
f (x) = −15 0.08333x 2 + 1.91667x + 1 0.08333x 2 + 1.91667x + 1 = 2
<0
dx 0.08333x 2 + 1.91667x + 1
for all x in (0, 11). Therefore, f is decreasing on (0, 11). Our result shows that the predicted number of crash fatalities
drops throughout the age range of 16 to 27 years old.
 Section 3.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions and the First Derivative Test 197

d
49. a. b. S (t) = 0.46t 3 − 2.22t 2 + 6.21t + 17.25 = 1.38t 2 − 4.44t + 6.21.
40 dt
The graph of S shows that S (t) > 0 on
10
30 (0, 4), so S is increasing on (0, 4).
5

20 0
0 1 2 3 4
0 1 2 3 4
d
50. f (x) = 2x 5 + x 3 + 2x = 10x 4 + 3x 2 + 2 ≥ 2 > 0 for all x in (−∞, ∞), so f is increasing on (−∞, ∞).
dx
d
51. a. c. f (x) = x 3 − ax = 3x 2 − a. If a ≤ 0, then f (x) ≥ 0 for all
2 dx
1
x, and so f is increasing everywhere. If a > 0, then f (x) = 0 ⇔
a
0 x =± .
3
-1 ++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»

-2 x
-2 -1 0 1 2 _Ïa/3 0 Ïa/3

From the sign diagram of f , we see that f is decreasing on

The graphs for a < 0 are black, the
a a
graphs for a > 0 are gray, and the graph − , . Thus, in order to guarantee that f be increasing, a
3 3
for a = 0 is dashed.
must not be positive.
b. From part a, it appears that f is
increasing on (−∞, ∞) whenever a ≤ 0.
d
52. f (x) = (cos x − ax + b) = − sin x − a < 0 ⇒ sin x > −a. We require that the last inequality hold for all x on
dx
(−∞, ∞), and this is true provided a > 1.
53. Let f (x) = x + sin x − b ⇒ f (x) = 1 + cos x ≥ 0 for all x, so f is increasing on (−∞, ∞).
If b < 0, then f (0) = −b > 0. Since f is increasing, f (x) > 0 for x > 0, and this implies that f has no positive root.
If b > 0, then f (0) = −b < 0. Since f (x) increases without bound as x increases without bound, f must have at least one
(positive) root. Because f is increasing, it has exactly one such root.
54. f (x) = tan x − x ⇒ f (x) = sec2 x − 1 > 0 for x in 0, π π
2 ⇒ f is increasing on 0, 2 . Since f (0) = 0, we have
f (x) > 0 for x in 0, π π
2 , and so tan x − x > 0 ⇒ tan x > x for x in 0, 2 .
sin x x cos x − sin x cos x (x − tan x)
55. f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = 2
= . Let us show that tan x > x for x ∈ 0, π
2 . Let
x x x2
g (x) = tan x − x ⇒ g (x) = sec2 x − 1 > 0 for x ∈ 0, π 2 . We conclude that f (x) < 0 and so f is decreasing on
sin x 1 2 2 sin x 2x
0, π
2 . Since x→0
lim = 1 and f π 2 = π = π , we have π < x < 1 ⇒ π < sin x < x for x ∈ 0, 2 .
π
+ x 2
56. f (x) = −2x 2 + ax + b ⇒ f (x) = −4x + a. We require that f (2) = 0 ⇔ −4 · 2 + a = 0 ⇒ a = 8, and
f (2) = −2 · 22 + 8 · 2 + b = 4 ⇒ b = −4. Thus, f (x) = −2x 2 + 8x − 4. Since the graph of f is a parabola that opens
downward, (2, 4) is an absolute maximum.
57. f (x) = ax 3 + 6x 2 + bx + 4 ⇒ f (x) = 3ax 2 + 12x + b. We require that f (−1) = 0 ⇔ 3a − 12 + b = 0 and
f (2) = 0 ⇔ 12a + 24 + b = 0; solving these two equations simultaneously gives a = −4 and b = 24. Thus,
f (x) = −4x 3 + 6x 2 + 24x + 4. Using the First Derivative Test, it can be shown that f has a relative minimum at −1 and a
relative maximum at x = 2.
198 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

d ax + b (cx + d) a − (ax + b) c ad − bc
58. f (x) = = = . Since ad − bc = 0 by assumption, f (x) = 0 for all x,
dx cx + d (cx + d)2 (cx + d)2
so f has no critical number and thus no relative extremum. Note that x = −d/c is not in the domain of f , and so cannot be
a critical number.

⎧
⎨ − 2 if x < 0
59. Since f (x) > 0 for x = 0, we see that f has a relative minimum at 0. Also, f (x) = x3 so f (x) > 0
⎩ 2x if x > 0
if x = 0, so f (x) does not change sign as we move across x = 0. This does not contradict the First Derivative Test
because f is not continuous on an interval containing x = 0.

60. Referring to the proof of Theorem 1, we have f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) = f (c) (x2 − x1 ). Now if f (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then
f (c) < 0 by assumption. Therefore, f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) < 0 ⇔ f (x2 ) < f (x1 ), that is, f is decreasing on (a, b).

61. Proof of part b: Using the same notation as in the proof of part a, we have f (x) < 0 on (a, c) ⇒ f is decreasing on
(a, c); and f (x) > 0 on (c, b) ⇒ f is increasing on (c, b). Therefore f (x) ≥ f (c) for all x in (a, b), and f has a relative
minimum at c.
Proof of part c: If f (x) > 0 on (a, c) and (c, b), then for all x in (a, c), f (x) < f (c), and for all x in (c, b),
f (c) < f (x). So f has no relative extremum at c. The case where f (x) < 0 is dealt with in a similar manner.

x3 x3 x2
62. To prove that x − < sin x for x > 0, let f (x) = sin x − x + . Then f (x) = cos x − 1 + . We want to show that
6 6 2
x2
f (x) > 0 for x > 0, so let g (x) = f (x) = cos x − 1 + . Then g (x) = − sin x + x, which is positive for x > 0. This
2
implies that g (x) is increasing for x > 0, and this in turn implies that f (x) is increasing for x > 0. So f (x) > f (0) = 0
x3 x3
⇒ f is increasing on (0, ∞). Therefore, f (x) > f (0) = 0, and this implies that sin x − x + >0⇔x− < sin x.
6 6
To prove that sin x < x for x > 0, let h (x) = x − sin x. Then h (x) = 1 − cos x. So h (x) > 0 for x > 0, and since
h (0) = 0, we have h (x) > 0 for all x > 0. Therefore, h is an increasing function. Since h (0) = 0, we have h (x) > 0 for
x3
all x > 0, and so x > sin x. Combining the two results, we have x − < sin x < x.
6

63. a. b.
5 0.4

0.2

0 0.0

-0.2

-5 -0.4

-2 -1 0 1 2 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4

It appears that f is increasing on approximately f is increasing on approximately (−∞, −1.2),

(−∞, −1.2) and (1.2, ∞), but it is difficult to tell from (−0.2, 0.2), and (1.2, ∞), and decreasing on
this graph what happens near the origin. (−1.2, −0.2) and (0.2, 1.2).
 Section 3.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions and the First Derivative Test 199

64. a.
0.2 0.02

0.1 0.01

0.0 0.00

-0.1 -0.01

-0.2 -0.02

-0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 -0.04 -0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04

1 1 1
b. f (x) = 12 + 2x sin − cos for x = 0, and because of the presence of the term cos , we see that f oscillates
x x x
between positive and negative values in any open interval containing 0, and so f is not monotonic there.
65. a.
4 1.0

2 0.5

0 0.0
-2 -1 0 1 2 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4
⎧ ⎧
⎪ 1 ⎪ 1 1 1
⎪
⎨ −x 2 − sin x if x < 0 ⎪
⎨ − 2 − sin + cos if x < 0
x x x
b. f (x) = ⇒ f (x) =
⎪
⎪ 1 ⎪
⎪ 1 1 1
⎩ x 2 − sin if x > 0 ⎩ 2 − sin + cos if x > 0
x x x x
1 1
If x = , n any integer, then f (x) = 2 + 2nπ > 0. If x = , then f (x) = 2 − (2n + 1) π < 0. This
2nπ (2n + 1) π
shows that f is not monotonic to the left or to the right of 0.
66. True. Let h (x) = f (x) + g (x), and let x1 and x2 be any two numbers in I with x1 < x2 . Then
f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) and g (x1 ) < g (x2 ); that is, f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) > 0 and g (x2 ) − g (x1 ) > 0. Now
h (x2 ) − h (x1 ) = f (x2 ) + g (x2 ) − f (x1 ) − g (x1 ) = f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) + g (x2 ) − g (x1 ) > 0 ⇒ h (x2 ) > h (x1 )
⇒ h is increasing on I .
67. True. Let h (x) = f (x) − g (x), and let x1 and x2 be any two numbers in I with x1 < x2 . Then
f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) ⇒ f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) > 0. Also, g (x2 ) < g (x1 ) ⇒ g (x1 ) − g (x2 ) > 0. Now
h (x2 ) − h (x1 ) = f (x2 ) − g (x2 ) − f (x1 ) − g (x1 ) = f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) + g (x1 ) − g (x2 ) > 0 ⇒ h is increasing
on I .
68. False. Take f (x) = g (x) = x. Then f and g are increasing on (−∞, ∞), but ( f g) (x) = x 2 is not increasing on
(−∞, ∞).
69. True. Let h = f /g and let x1 and x2 be any two numbers in I with x1 < x2 . Then f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) > 0 and
g (x1 ) − g (x2 ) > 0. Now
f (x2 ) f (x1 ) f (x2 ) g (x1 ) − g (x2 ) f (x1 )
h (x2 ) − h (x1 ) = − =
g (x2 ) g (x1 ) g (x2 ) g (x1 )
f (x2 ) g (x1 ) − f (x1 ) g (x1 ) + f (x1 ) g (x1 ) − g (x2 ) f (x1 )
=
g (x2 ) g (x1 )
f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) g (x1 ) + g (x1 ) − g (x2 ) f (x1 )
= > 0 ⇒ h = f /g is increasing on I .
g (x2 ) g (x1 )
200 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative
⎧
⎨ x if x < 0
70. False. Consider f (x) = Then f is increasing on (−∞, ∞), but f (0) does not exist.
⎩ 1 x if x ≥ 0
2
71. False. Consider f (x) = 2x and g (x) = x + 10 on [0, 2]. Then f (x) = 2 > 1 = g (x). But f (1) = 2 < 11 = g (1).

3.4 Concept Questions

1. See page 277.
2. See page 279.
3. See pages 283 and 284.

3.4 Concavity and Inflection Points

1. f is concave upward on (0, ∞) and concave downward on (−∞, 0); it has an inflection point at (0, 0).
2. f is concave downward on (−∞, ∞). It has no inflection point.
3. f is concave upward on (−∞, −4) and (4, ∞) and concave downward on (−4, 4). It has no inflection point.
4. f is concave upward on (−∞, 0) and (1, ∞) and concave downward on (0, 1). It has inflection points at (0, 0) and (1, −1).
5. f is concave downward on (−∞, −2), (−2, 2), and (2, ∞). It has no inflection point.
6. f is concave upward on (0, ∞) and concave downward on (−∞, 0). It has an inflection point at (0, 1).
7. f (x) < 0 on (−∞, −1) and (0, 1), and so the graph of f is concave downward on (−∞, −1) and (0, 1). f (x) > 0 on
(−1, 0) and (1, ∞), so the graph of f is concave upward on (−1, 0) and (1, ∞). The sign of f changes as we move
across x = −1, x = 0, and x = 1, and so f has inflection points at these x-values.
8. f (x) > 0 on (−∞, −0.7) and (0.7, ∞), and so the graph of f is concave upward on (−∞, −0.7) and (0.7, ∞).
f (x) < 0 on (−0.7, 0.7), so the graph of f is concave downward on (−0.7, 0.7). f changes sign as we move across
x = −0.7 and x = 0.7, and so f has inflection points at these x-values.
9. a. is not the graph of f because it does not have an inflection point at x = 3.
b. is the graph of f .
c. is not the graph of f because f (3) is not defined, and so the graph does not have an inflection point at x = 3.
10. a. is not the graph of f because it is not concave upward on (1, ∞).
b. is not the graph of f because it does not have inflection points at x = 0 and x = 1.
c. is the graph of f .
11. f (x) = x 3 − 6x ⇒ f (x) = 3x 2 − 6 ⇒ f (x) = 6x = 0 ⇔ x = 0.
The sign diagram of f is shown at right. We see that f is concave _ _ _ _ _ 0 +++++ sign of f»»
downward on (−∞, 0) and concave upward on (0, ∞). It has an x
inflection point at (0, 0). 0

12. g (x) = x 3 − 6x 2 + 2x + 3 ⇒ g (x) = 3x 2 − 12x + 2 ⇒ g (x) = 6x − 12 = 6 (x − 2).

The sign diagram of f is shown at right. We see that f is concave _ _ _ _ _ 0 +++++ sign of g»»
downward on (−∞, 2) and concave upward on (2, ∞). It has an x
inflection point at (2, −9). 2

13. f (t) = t 4 − 2t 3 ⇒ f (t) = 4t 3 − 6t 2 ⇒ f (t) = 12t 2 − 12t = 12t (t − 1).

The sign diagram of f is shown at right. We see that f is concave ++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»»
upward on (−∞, 0) and (1, ∞) and concave downward on (0, 1). It t
has points of inflection at (0, 0) and (1, −1). 0 1
 Section 3.4 Concavity and Inflection Points 201

14. h (x) = 3x 4 + 4x 3 + 1 ⇒ h (x) = 12x 3 + 12x 2 ⇒ h (x) = 36x 2 + 24x = 12x (3x + 2).
The sign diagram of h is shown at right. We see that h is concave
++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of h»»
upward on −∞, − 23 and (0, ∞) and concave downward on
x
2 0
_3
− 23 , 0 . It has points of inflection at − 23 , 11
27 and (0, 1).

2
15. f (x) = 1 + 3x 1/3 ⇒ f (x) = x −2/3 ⇒ f (x) = − 23 x −5/3 = − .
3x 5/3
The sign diagram of f is shown at right. We see that f is concave f»» not defined
upward on (−∞, 0) and concave downward on (0, ∞). It has an +++++ ----- sign of f»»
inflection point at (0, 1). x
0

2
16. g (x) = 2x − x 1/3 ⇒ g (x) = 2 − 13 x −2/3 ⇒ g (x) = 29 x −5/3 = .
9x 5/3
The sign diagram of g is shown at right. We see that g is concave g»» not defined
downward on (−∞, 0) and concave upward on (0, ∞). It has an ----- +++++ sign of g»»
inflection point at (0, 0). x
0

2 t 1/3 + 1
17. h (t) = 13 t 2 + 35 t 5/3 ⇒ h (t) = 23 t + t 2/3 ⇒ h (t) = 23 + 23 t −1/3 = 23 1 + t −1/3 = .
3t 1/3
The sign diagram of h is shown at right. We see that h is concave h»» not defined
upward on (−∞, −1) and (0, ∞) and concave downward on (−1, 0). ++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ ++ sign of h»»
4
It has inflection points at −1, − 15 and (0, 0). t
_1 0

1/2 −1/2 −1/2

18. f (x) = x − 1 − x 2 ⇒ f (x) = 1 − 12 1 − x 2 (−2x) = 1 + x 1 − x 2 ⇒
−1/2 −3/2 −3/2 1
f (x) = 1 − x 2 + x − 12 1 − x2 (−2x) = 1 − x 2 1 − x2 + x2 = 3/2
.
1 − x2
The sign diagram of f is shown at right. Note that the domain of f
++++++++ sign of f»»
is (−1, 1). We see that f is concave upward on (−1, 1). It has no
( ) x
inflection point. _1 0 1

1/2 −1/2 −1/2

19. h (x) = x 2 − x 4 ⇒ h (x) = 12 x 2 − x 4 2x − 4x 3 = x − 2x 3 x2 − x4 ⇒
−1/2 −3/2
h (x) = 1 − 6x 2 x2 − x4 + x − 2x 3 − 12 x2 − x4 2x − 4x 3

−3/2 x 4 2x 2 − 3
= x2 − x4 1 − 6x 2 x 2 − x 4 − x − 2x 3 x − 2x 3 = 3/2
.
x2 − x4
The sign diagram of h is shown at right. Note that the domain of h h»» not defined
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ sign of h»»
is (−1, 0) ∪ (0, 1), and that h has no zero. We see that h is concave
( ) x
downward on (−1, 0) and (0, 1). It has no inflection point.
_1 0 1
202 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

1 2
20. g (x) = x + ⇒ g (x) = 1 − x −2 ⇒ g (x) = 3 .
x x
The sign diagram of g is shown at right. We see that g is concave g»» not defined
downward on (−∞, 0) and concave upward on (0, ∞). It has no _ _ _ _ _ +++++ sign of g»»
inflection point. Note that g is not defined at 0. x
0

2 x4 + 3
21. h (x) = x 2 + x −2 ⇒ h (x) = 2x − 2x −3 ⇒ h (x) = 2 + 6x −4 = .
x4
The sign diagram of h is shown at right. We see that h is concave h»» not defined
upward on (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞). It has no inflection point. +++++ +++++ sign of h»»
x
0

x (x + 1) − x 2
22. f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = 2
= (x + 1)−2 ⇒ f (x) = − .
x +1 (x + 1) (x + 1)3
The sign diagram of f is shown at right. We see that f is concave f»» not defined
upward on (−∞, −1) and concave downward on (−1, ∞). It has no +++++ _ _ _ _ _ sign of f»»
inflection point. Note that f is not defined at −1. x
_2 _1 0

u u 2 − 1 (1) − u (2u) u2 + 1
23. f (u) = ⇒ f (u) = = − ⇒
u2 − 1 u2 − 1
2
u2 − 1
2

2
− u2 − 1 (2u) + u 2 + 1 (2) u 2 − 1 (2u) (2u) u 2 − 1 −u 2 + 1 + 2u 2 + 2 2u u 2 + 3
f (u) = 4
= 4
= 3
.
u2 − 1 u2 − 1 u2 − 1
The sign diagram of f is shown at right. We see that f is concave f»» not defined
downward on (−∞, −1) and (0, 1) and concave upward on (−1, 0) _ _ ++ 0 _ _ ++ sign of f»»
and (1, ∞). It has an inflection point at (0, 0). u
_1 0 1

x2 − 9 1 − x 2 (2x) − x 2 − 9 (−2x) −16x

24. f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = = ⇒
1 − x2 1 − x2
2
1 − x2
2

2
1 − x2 (−16) + 16x (2) 1 − x 2 (−2x) 16 3x 2 + 1
f (x) = 4
=− 3
.
1 − x2 1 − x2
The sign diagram of f is shown at right. We see that f is concave f»» not defined
upward on (−∞, −1) and (1, ∞) and concave downward on (−1, 1). ++ --- _ _ ++ sign of f»»
It has no inflection point. x
_1 0 1

25. f (x) = sin 2x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π ⇒ f (x) = 2 cos 2x ⇒ f (x) = −4 sin 2x = 0 ⇒ x = π

2 for x ∈ (0, π).
The sign diagram of f is shown at right. We see that f is concave ---- 0 ++++ sign of f»»
downward on 0, π π
2 and concave upward on 2 , π . It has an
( ) x
¹
0 2
¹
inflection point at π
2 ,0 .
 Section 3.4 Concavity and Inflection Points 203

26. g (x) = cos2 x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π ⇒ g (x) = −2 cos x sin x = − sin 2x ⇒ g (x) = −2 cos 2x = 0 ⇒ x = π 3π 5π 7π

4 , 4 , 4 , 4 for
x ∈ (0, 2π).
The sign diagram of g is shown at right. We see that g is concave
- 0 ++ 0 _ _ 0 ++ 0 _ sign of g»»
downward on 0, π 3π 5π 7π
4 , 4 , 4 , and 4 , 2π , and concave ( ) x
0 ¹
4
3¹
4
¹ 5¹
4
7¹
4
2¹
upward on π 3π 5π 7π
4 , 4 and 4 , 4 . It has inflection points at
π, 1 , 3π , 1 , 5π , 1 , and 7π , 1 .
4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2

27. h (t) = sin t + cos t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π ⇒ h (t) = cos t − sin t ⇒ h (t) = − sin t − cos t = 0 ⇔ tan t = −1 ⇒ t = 34π or 74π
in (0, 2π).
The sign diagram of h is shown at right. We see that h is concave
- _ _ _ 0 +++++ 0 _ sign of h»»
downward on 0, 34π and 74π , 2π and concave upward on ( ) t
3¹ 7¹
0 4
¹ 4
2¹
3π , 7π . It has inflection points at 3π , 0 and 7π , 0 .
4 4 4 4

28. f (x) = x − sin x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 4π ⇒ f (x) = 1 − cos x ⇒ f (x) = sin x = 0 ⇒ x = π, 2π, or 3π in (0, 4π).
The sign diagram of f is shown at right. We see that f is concave
+++0 _ _ _ 0+++0 _ _ _ sign of f»»
upward on (0, π) and (2π, 3π) and concave downward on (π, 2π)
( ) x
and (3π, 4π). It has inflection points at (π, π), (2π, 2π), and 0 ¹ 2¹ 3¹ 4¹
(3π, 3π).

29. f (x) = tan 2x, −π < x < π ⇒ f (x) = 2 sec2 2x ⇒ f (x) = 8 sec2 2x tan 2x = 8 1 + tan2 2x tan 2x, which has

discontinuities at x = − 34π , − π π 3π π π
4 , 4 , and 4 , and zeros at x = − 2 , 0, and 2 .
The sign diagram of f is shown at right. We see that f is concave
f»» not defined
upward on −π, − 34π , − π π π π 3π
2 , − 4 , 0, 4 , and 2 , 4 , and + -0+ _ 0+ -0+ _ sign of f»»
( ) x
concave downward on − 34π , − π π π π
2 , − 4 , 0 , 4 , 2 , and _¹ _¹ 0 ¹ ¹
2 2
3π , π . It has inflection points at − π , 0 , (0, 0), and π , 0 .
4 2 2
1
30. g (x) = = (1 − cos x)−1 , 0 < x < 2π ⇒ g (x) = − (1 − cos x)−2 (sin x) ⇒
1 − cos x
g (x) = 2 (1 − cos x)−3 sin2 x − (1 − cos x)−2 cos x = (1 − cos x)−3 2 sin2 x − (1 − cos x) cos x

2 − cos2 x − cos x (cos x + 2) (1 − cos x)

= (1 − cos x)−3 2 sin2 x − cos x + cos2 x = =
(1 − cos x)3 (1 − cos x)3
cos x + 2
= > 0 on (0, 2π). Thus, g is concave upward on (0, 2π) and has no inflection point.
(1 − cos x)2
sin x (1 + cos x) cos x − sin x (− sin x) 1
31. h (x) = , −π < x < π ⇒ h (x) = = ⇒
1 + cos x (1 + cos x)2 1 + cos x
d sin x
h (x) = (1 + cos x)−1 = .
dx (1 + cos x)2
The sign diagram of h is shown at right. We see that h is concave ---- 0 ++++ sign of h»»
downward on (−π, 0) and concave upward on (0, π). It has an ( ) x
inflection point at (0, 0). _¹ 0 ¹
204 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

sin x (1 + sin x) cos x − sin x cos x cos x

32. f (x) = , −π
2 < x < 32π ⇒ f (x) = 2
= ⇒
1 + sin x (1 + sin x) (1 + sin x)2
(1 + sin x)2 (− sin x) − (cos x) 2 (1 + sin x) cos x sin x + sin2 x + 2 cos2 x
f (x) = =−
(1 + sin x)4 (1 + sin x)3
sin x + sin2 x + 2 1 − sin2 x sin2 x − sin x − 2 sin x − 2
=− = = < 0 for all x ∈ − π 3π
2, 2 .
(1 + sin x)3 (1 + sin x)3 (1 + sin x)2
So f is concave downward on − π 3π
2 , 2 and has no inflection point.

33. 34.
10
2

5
0

0
-2
-2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

a. f is concave upward on (−0.4, ∞) and concave a. f is concave downward on (−∞, −1) and
downward on (−∞, −0.4). (0.9, ∞) and concave upward on (−1, 0.9).
b. f has an inflection point at (−0.4, 6.4). b. f has an inflection point at about (0.9, 0.9).

35. 36.
1
1.0

0
0.5

-1 0.0
-4 -2 0 2 4 -2 -1 0 1 2

a. f is concave upward on (−∞, 0) and concave a. f is concave upward on (−2, −0.7) and (0.7, 2)
downward on (0, ∞). and concave downward on (−0.7, 0.7).
b. f has an inflection point at (0, 0). b. f has inflection points at about (−0.7, 0.8) and
(0.7, 0.8).

37. h (t) = 13 t 3 − 2t 2 − 5t − 10 ⇒ h (t) = t 2 − 4t − 5 = (t − 5) (t + 1) = 0 ⇒ t = −1 or 5, the critical numbers of h.

h (t) = 2t − 4 = 2 (t − 2). We use the SDT: h (−1) = −6 < 0, so h has a relative maximum of h (−1) = − 22 3 ; and
h (5) = 6 > 0, so h has a relative minimum of h (5) = − 130
3 .

38. h (x) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 − 12x − 2 ⇒ h (x) = 6x 2 + 6x − 12 = 6 (x + 2) (x − 1) = 0 ⇒ x = −2 or 1, the critical numbers of

h. h (x) = 12x + 6 = 6 (2x + 1). We use the SDT: h (−2) = −18 < 0, so h has a relative maximum of h (−2) = 18;
and h (1) = 18 > 0, so h has a relative minimum of h (1) = −9.

39. f (x) = x 4 − 4x 3 ⇒ f (x) = 4x 3 − 12x 2 = 4x 2 (x − 3) = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or 3, the critical numbers of f .

f (x) = 12x 2 − 24x = 12x (x − 2). We try the SDT: f (0) = 0 and the test is not conclusive, but the FDT shows that
there is no relative extremum at 0. f (3) = 36 > 0, so f has a relative minimum of f (3) = −27.
 Section 3.4 Concavity and Inflection Points 205

40. f (x) = 2x 4 − 8x + 4 ⇒ f (x) = 8x 3 − 8 = 8 (x − 1) x 2 + x + 1 = 0 ⇒ x = 1, the sole critical number of f .

f (x) = 24x 2 , and by the SDT, f (1) = 24 > 0 shows that f has a relative minimum of f (1) = −2.

1 2t 2 − 1 √
2 2
41. f (t) = 2t + ⇒ f (t) = 2 − t −2 = = 0 ⇒ t = ± 2 , the critical numbers of f . f (t) = t 3 , and we use the
t t2
√ √ √ √
SDT: f − 22 < 0, so f has a relative maximum of f − 22 = −2 2; and f 2
2 > 0, so f has a relative
√ √
minimum of f 22 = 2 2.

1 2t 3 − 1 √
3
4 2
42. h (t) = t 2 + ⇒ h (t) = 2t − t −2 = = 0 ⇒ t = 2 , the only critical number of h. h (t) = 2 + t 3 , and we use
t t2
√
3 √
3 √
3
the SDT: h 4 > 0, so h has a relative minimum of h 4 = 3 2 2.
2 2

t t 2 + 1 − t (2t) (1 − t) (1 + t)
43. g (t) = 2 ⇒ g (t) = 2
= 2
= 0 ⇒ t = ±1, the critical numbers of g.
t +1 t2 + 1 t2 + 1
2
d 1 − t2 t2 + 1 (−2t) − 1 − t 2 2 t 2 + 1 2t 2t t 2 − 3
g (t) = 2
= 4
= 3
. We use the SDT:
dt t2 + 1 t2 + 1 t2 + 1
g (−1) = 12 > 0, so g has a relative minimum of g (−1) = − 12 . g (1) = − 12 < 0, so g has a relative maximum of
g (1) = 12 . For this problem, it would have been easier to use the FDT.

1/2 1/2 2 2 − x2 √
44. f (x) = x 4 − x 2 ⇒ f (x) = 12 x 4 − x 2 (−2x) + 4 − x 2 = 1/2
= 0 ⇒ x = ± 2,
4 − x2
the critical numbers of f . Note that f is not defined at x = ±2, but these are the endpoints of the domain
⎡ 1/2 −1/2 ⎤
4 − x2 (−2x) − 2 − x 2 12 4 − x 2 (−2x) 2x x 2 − 6
⎢ ⎥
of f . f (x) = 2 ⎣ ⎦ = . We use the SDT:
4 − x2 4 − x2
3/2

√ √ √
f − 2 = 4 > 0, so f has a relative minimum of f − 2 = −2; and f 2 = −2 < 0, so f has a relative
√
maximum of f 2 = 2.

45. f (x) = sin x + cos x, 0 < x < π π π

2 ⇒ f (x) = cos x − sin x = 0 ⇔ tan x = 1 ⇒ x = 4 in 0, 2 , so this is the only
√
relevant critical number. f (x) = − sin x − cos x, so using the SDT, we find that f π
4 = − 2 < 0, implying that f has
π √
a relative maximum of f 4 = 2.

46. f (x) = sin2 x, 0 < x < 32π ⇒ f (x) = 2 sin x cos x = sin 2x = 0 ⇒ x = π 3π
2 or π in 0, 2 , so these are critical
numbers. f (x) = 2 cos 2x. Using the SDT, we find that f π = −2 < 0, so f has a relative maximum of f π = 1;
2 2
and f (π) = 2 > 0, so f has a relative minimum of f (π) = 0.

47. f (x) = 2 sin x + sin 2x, 0 < x < π ⇒

f (x) = 2 cos x + 2 cos 2x = 2 cos x + 2 2 cos2 x − 1 = 2 2 cos2 x + cos x − 1 = 2 (2 cos x − 1) (cos x + 1) = 0 ⇒

x=π π = −3√3 < 0, so by the SDT, f has a

3 , the only critical number in (0, π). f (x) = −2 sin x − 4 sin 2x and f 3
√
relative maximum of f π 3 3
3 = 2 .
206 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

1 d sin t
48. h (t) = , 0 < t < 2π ⇒ h (t) = (1 − cos t)−1 = − (1 − cos t)−2 sin t = − = 0 ⇒ t = π, the
1 − cos t dt (1 − cos t)2
− (1 − cos t)2 cos t + (sin t) (2) (1 − cos t) sin t
only critical number in (0, 2π). h (t) = and h (π) = 44 = 14 > 0, so h
(1 − cos t)4 2

has a relative minimum of h (π) = 12 .

49. y 50. y

_1 0 1 x _1 0 1 x

_1

51. y 52. y
3
2
2
1
1

_1 _ 2 0 1 x
3
_1 0 1 x

53. a. D1 (t) > 0, D2 (t) > 0, D1 (t) > 0, and D2 (t) < 0 on (0, 12).
b. With or without the proposed promotional campaign, the deposits will increase, but with the promotion, the deposits will
increase at an increasing rate whereas without the promotion, the deposits will increase at a decreasing rate.

54. Note that the tangent line to the graph of N attains its greatest slope at P. This means that the rate at which the average
worker is assembling satellite radios is the greatest—that is, the worker is most efficient—at t = 2, corresponding to
10 A . M .

55. The significance of the inflection point Q is that the restoration process is working at its peak at the time t0 corresponding
to its t-coordinate.

56. a. Both N1 (t) and N2 (t) are increasing on (0, 12).

b. N1 (t) < 0 and N2 (t) > 0 on (0, 12).
c. Although the projected number of crimes increases in either case, a cut in the budget will see an accelerated increase in
the number of crimes committed. With the budget intact, the rate of increase of crimes committed will continue to drop.

57. f (t) increases at an increasing rate until the water level reaches the middle y

of the vase, at which time f (t) is increasing at the fastest rate. This
concave downward
corresponds to the inflection point of f . Though f (t) continues to
inflection point
increase until the vase is filled, it does so at a decreasing rate.

concave upward

t
 Section 3.4 Concavity and Inflection Points 207

58. The behavior of f (t) is just the opposite of that given in the solution to y

Exercise 57. f (t) increases at a decreasing rate until the water level concave upward

reaches the middle of the vase; this corresponds to the inflection point of
f . After that, f (t) increases until the vase is filled, and does so at an inflection point

increasing rate. concave downward

59. a. S (t) = 0.39t + 0.32 > 0 on (0, 7), so sales were increasing through the years in question.
b. S (t) = 0.39 > 0 on (0, 7), so sales continued to accelerate through the years in question.

d 0.010716t 2 + 0.8212t + 313.4 = 0.021432t + 0.8212 is positive for t ≥ 1, so A is increasing on (1, 50),
60. a. A (t) = dt
and this shows that the average amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide was increasing from 1958 through 2007.
b. A (t) = dtd A (t) = d (0.021432t + 0.8212) = 0.021432 > 0, and this shows that the amount of atmospheric carbon
dt
dioxide was increasing at an increasing pace from 1958 through 2007.

d
61. a. P (t) = 44,560t 3 − 89,394t 2 + 234,633t + 273,288 = 133,680t 2 − 178,788t + 234,633.
dt
Observe that P is continuous everywhere and P (t) = 0 has no real solution, since the discriminant
b2 − 4ac = (−178,788)2 − 4 (133,680) (234,633) = −93,497,808,816 < 0. Since P (0) = 234,633 > 0, we may
conclude that P (t) > 0 for all t in (0, 4). So the population is always increasing.
b. P (t) = 267,360t − 178, 788 = 0 ⇒ t = 0.67. The sign diagram of P shows ---- 0 ++++ sign of P»»

that t = 0.67 is an inflection point of the graph of P. This shows that the t
0.67
population was increasing at the slowest pace sometime toward the middle of
August, 1976.

62. A (t) = 1.0974t 3 − 0.0915t 4 ⇒ A (t) = 3.2922t 2 − 0.366t 3 ⇒ A (t) = 6.5844t − 1.098t 2 . Setting A (t) = 0, we
obtain t 2 (3.2922 − 0.366t) = 0, and this gives t = 0 or t ≈ 8.995 ≈ 9. Using the Second Derivative Test, we find
A (9) = 6.5844 (9) − 1.098 (81) = −29.6784 < 0, and this tells us that t ≈ 9 gives rise to a relative maximum of A. Our
analysis tells us that on that May day, the level of ozone peaked at approximately 4 P. M ..

d
63. a. N (t) = −0.9307t 3 + 74.04t 2 + 46.8667t + 3967 = −2.7921t 2 + 148.08t + 46.8667. N is continuous
dt
−146.08± (148.08)2 −4(−0.9307)(46.86667)
everywhere and has zeros at t = 2(−2.7921) ≈ −0.1053 or 53.1406. Both these points lie
outside the interval of interest. Picking t = 0 for a test point, we see that N (0) = 46.86667 > 0 and conclude that N is
increasing on (0, 16). This shows that the number of participants is increasing over the years in question.
d
b. N (t) = −2.7921t 2 + 148.08t + 46.86667 = −5.5842t + 148.08. Since N (t) > 0 on (0, 16), we see that
dt
N (t) is increasing on (0, 16), and the desired conclusion follows.

d 6.08t 3 − 26.79t 2 + 53.06t + 69.5 = 18.24t 2 − 53.58t + 53.06. In solving the equation N (t) = 0, we
64. a. N (t) = dt

see that the discriminant is (−53.58)2 − 4 (18.24) (53.06) = −1000.4412 < 0. Thus, N (t) = 0. But
N (0) = 53.06 > 0, and so N (t) > 0 on (0, 4). This shows that N is increasing on (0, 4).
208 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

--- 0 + + + + sign of N»»

d 18.24t 2 − 53.58t + 53.06 = 36.48t − 53.58 = 0 gives
b. N (t) = dt ( ) t
0 1.5 4
t = 1.46875. From the sign diagram for N , we see that N has an
inflection point when t ≈ 1.5. This says that N is increasing least rapidly
at t ≈ 1.5, so the number of communities using surveillance cameras is increasing least rapidly around the middle of
2004. The rate of increase is N (1.46875) = 18.24 1.468752 − 53.58 (1.46875) + 53.06 ≈ 13.71, approximately
14 communities annually.

65. a. The number of measles deaths in 1999 is given by N (0) = 506, representing 506,000. The number of measles deaths in
2005 is given by N (6) = −2.42 63 + 24.5 62 − 123.3 (6) + 506 = 125.48, representing 125,480 deaths.
d −2.42t 3 + 24.5t 2 − 123.3t + 506 = −7.26t 2 + 49t − 123.3. Since the discriminant is
b. N (t) = dt

(49)2 − 4 (−7.26) (−123.3) = −1179.6 < 0, we see that N (t) has no zero. Because N (0) = 123.3 < 0, we conclude
that N (t) < 0 on (0, 6). This shows that N is decreasing on (0, 6) and implies that the number of measles deaths was
dropping from 1999 through 2005.
c. N (t) = −14.52t + 49 = 0 ⇔ t ≈ 3.37, so the number of measles deaths was decreasing most rapidly in April 2002.
The rate is given by N (t) = −7.26 (3.37)2 + 49 (3.37) − 123.3 ≈ −40.62, representing a decrease of approximately
41,000 deaths annually.

⎡ ⎤
d t 2 + 10t + 100 t 2 + 20t + 100 (2t + 10) − t 2 + 10t + 100 (2t + 20)
66. f (t) = 100 2 = 100 ⎣ 2
⎦
dt t + 20t + 100 t 2 + 20t + 100

1000 t 2 − 100 1000 (t − 10)

= 2
= ⇒
t 2 + 20t + 100 (t + 10)3
d t − 10 (t + 10)3 − 3 (t − 10) (t + 10)2 1000 (t + 10)2 [(t + 10) − 3 (t − 10)]
f (t) = 1000 = 1000 =
dt (t + 10)3 (t + 10)6 (t + 10)6
2000 (t − 20)
=−
(t + 10)4
The only root of f (t) = 0 is t = 20. Since f (t) > 0 for t < 20 and f (t) < 0 for t > 20, we see that f has an
inflection point at approximately (20, 78).
 Section 3.4 Concavity and Inflection Points 209
⎧
⎨ − x 3 − 1 if x < 1
67. a. Note that x 3 − 1 = ⇒ f»» not defined
⎩ x 3 − 1 if x ≥ 1 _ _ 0 +++++ _ _ sign of f»»
⎧
⎨ 1 + x 3 if x < 1 x
3
f (x) = 2 − x − 1 = ⇒ 0 1
⎩ 3 − x 3 if x ≥ 1 c. y
⎧
⎨ 3x 2 if x < 1
f (x) = ⇒
⎩ −3x 2 if x > 1
⎧ 1
⎨ 6x if x < 1
f (x) = From the sign diagram, we see that f
⎩ −6x if x > 1
_1 1 x
is concave downward on (−∞, 0) and (1, ∞), and concave upward
on (0, 1).

b. No, there is no inflection point at x = 1 because the graph of f does

not have a tangent line at (1, 2).
⎧ ⎧ ⎧
⎨ −x if x < 0 ⎨ −x 2 if x < 0 ⎨ −2x if x < 0
68. Since |x| = we find that f (x) = x |x| = ⇒ f (x) = ⇒
⎩ x if x ≥ 0 ⎩ x 2 if x ≥ 0 ⎩ 2x if x > 0
⎧
⎨ −2 if x < 0
f (x) =
⎩ 2 if x > 0

So f is concave downward on (−∞, 0) and concave upward on (0, ∞). Therefore (0, 0) is an inflection point of f . To
show that f does not exist at 0, observe that if we define f (0) = 0, then f (x) = 2 |x|, and the result of Example 6 in
Section 2.1 tells us that f (0) does not exist.
69. f (x) = x 4 + 2x 3 + cx 2 + 2x + 2 ⇒ f (x) = 4x 3 + 6x 2 + 2cx + 2 ⇒ f (x) = 12x 2 + 12x + 2c. For f to be concave
upward everywhere, we require that f (x) ≥ 0 for all x on (−∞, ∞). This is true provided the discriminant b2 − 4ac ≤ 0
⇒ 144 − 4 (12) (2c) ≤ 0 ⇒ c ≥ 32 .
d
70. f (x) = ax 4 + bx 3 + cx 2 + dx + e = 4ax 3 + 3bx 2 + 2cx + d ⇒ f (x) = 12ax 2 + 6bx + 2c. The requirement
dx
that f has inflection points implies that f (x) must change sign at least twice on (−∞, ∞), and this is true if and only if
f (x) = 0 has two distinct real roots. This is true if B 2 − 4AC > 0 ⇒ (6b)2 − 4 (12a) (2c) > 0 ⇔ 36b2 − 96ac > 0 ⇔
3b2 − 8ac > 0. This is the required condition on a, b, and c.
71. No. Consider the function f (x) = x 2 − 1 on (−1, 1). f is concave up, since f (x) = 2 > 0 on (−1, 1). Now if h = f 2
2 2
on (−1, 1), then h (x) = f (x) = x2 − 1 = x 4 − 2x 2 + 1 on (−1, 1). h (x) = 4x 3 − 4x ⇒

h (x) = 12x 2 − 4 = 4 3x 2 − 1 . The sign diagram for h

1
√ √
shows that h is concave downward on − 33 , 33 , and so it
cannot be concave upward on (−1, 1). 0
++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of h»»
( ) x
_1 _Ï3/3 0 Ï3/3 1 -1
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0

f is graphed in black and h = f 2 is graphed in gray.

210 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

d 2
72. Let h = f 2 . Then h (x) = f (x) = 2 f (x) f (x) and
dx
2 2
h (x) = 2 f (x) + 2 f (x) f (x) = 2 f (x) + f (x) f (x) . Since f is concave upward on I , we have
f (x) > 0 on I . Also, f (x) > 0 on I by assumption, so h (x) > 0 on I , and thus h is concave upward on I .
73. The polynomial function has the form f (x) = a2n+1 x 2n+1 + a2n x 2n + · · · + a2 x 2 +a1 x + a0 , where a2n+1 = 0 and n ≥ 1.
Thus, f (x) = (2n + 1) a2n+1 x 2n + 2na2n x 2n−1 + · · · + 2a2 x + a1 and f (x) = (2n + 1) (2n) a2n+1 x 2n−1 + · · · + 2a2 .
Since a2n+1 = 0, f is a polynomial of odd degree and thus has at least one real root. (See Exercise 85 in Section 1.4.)
This implies that there is at least one number at which f changes concavity, showing that f has at least one inflection point.
74. f (x) = a2n x 2n + a2n−2 x 2n−2 + · · · + a2 x 2 + a0 ⇒ f (x) = 2na2n x 2n−1 + (2n − 2) a2n−2 x 2n−3 + · · · + 2a2 x ⇒
f (x) = 2n (2n − 1) a2n x 2n−2 + (2n − 2) (2n − 3) a2n−2 x 2n−4 + · · · + 2a2 , a polynomial in which every term has an
even power. Since all the coefficients are positive, f (x) > 0 for all x on (−∞, ∞), and thus f is concave upward.
Finally, the absolute minimum value of f is f (0) = a0 .
75. Since (a, f (a)) is an inflection point of f , f (a) = 0. This shows that a is a critical number of f . Next, f changes
concavity at (a, f (a)). If the concavity changes from concave downward to concave upward [ f (x) < 0 for x < a and
f (x) > 0 for x > a], then f has a relative minimum at a. On the other hand, if the concavity changes from concave
upward to concave downward [ f (x) > 0 for x < a and f (x) < 0 for x > a], then f has a relative maximum at a.
Thus, f has a relative extremum at a.

76. a. f (a) = 0 ⇒ a is a critical number of f . Since f (a) = 0, a is also a candidate to be an inflection point of f . Suppose
f (a) > 0. Then there exists an interval I containing a such that f is increasing on I . In this case, f (x) < 0 for all
x < a in I , and f (x) > 0 for all x > a in I . This shows that f has an inflection point at a. The case where f (a) < 0
can be dealt with similarly.
d x2 x3
b. f (x) = cos x − 1 + − = − sin x + x − 12 x 2 = 0 ⇒ x = 0, and so 0 is a critical number of f . In fact,
dx 2 6
this is the only zero of f (x). To see this, observe that f (x) = 0 ⇒ sin x = − 12 x 2 + x. The functions
g (x) = sin x and h (x) = − 12 x 2 + x have graphs that pass through c.
the origin, and the graph of h lies below that of g. To investigate the
1
nature of the critical number 0, compute f (x) = − cos x + 1 − x.
Since f (0) = 0, the Second Derivative Test is inconclusive. Now 0
f (x) = sin x − 1. Since f (0) = −1 = 0, the result of part a
shows that (0, 0) is an inflection point of f , and this implies that -1

(0, 0) is not a relative extremum of f . So f has no relative extremum. -2 -1 0 1 2

77. False. For example, f (x) = x 1/3 has an inflection point at 0, but f (0) is not defined.
⎧
⎨ x 3 if x = 0
78. False. Consider f (x) = Then f is not continuous at x = 0, and so (0, 1) cannot be an inflection point
⎩ 1 if x = 0

of f .
79. True. If f is a polynomial of degree 3, then f must be a linear function which has exactly one zero. Also, the sign of f
must change as we move across that zero.
80. True. Since f is concave upward on I , f (x) > 0 for all x in I . If h = − f , then h (x) = − f (x) < 0 for all x in I , and
this shows that h is concave downward, so − f is concave downward.
 Section 3.5 Limits Involving Infinity and Asymptotes 211

3.5 Concept Questions

1. a. lim f (x) = ∞ means f (x) can be made as large as we please by taking x sufficiently close to (but not equal to) 3.
x→3
b. lim f (x) = −∞ means f (x) can be made as large in absolute value as we please (but negative) by taking x
x→2−
sufficiently close to (but less than) 2.
2. a. lim f (x) = 2 means f (x) can be made as close to 2 as we please by taking x sufficiently large in absolute value and
x→−∞
negative.
b. lim f (x) = −5 means f (x) can be made as close to −5 as we please by taking x sufficiently large.
x→∞
3. a. See page 292.
b. See page 296.

4. a. The graph of a function can have infinitely many vertical asymptotes. For y

example, f (x) = tan x has vertical asymptotes at x = π

2 ± nπ,
n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . ..
1
2 x

b. The graph of a function can have zero, one, or two horizontal asymptotes. For example, f (x) = x 2 has no asymptote,
1
f (x) = 2 has y = 0 as its only horizontal asymptote, and f (x) = tan−1 x has horizontal asymptotes at y = ± π
2.
x +1
y y y
¹/2

1
1

2 x

1
1 x 1 x
_¹/2

3 3
5. a. lim = ∞ means that given a positive number M there exists a number δ > 0 such that >M
x→2 (x − 2)2 (x − 2)2
whenever 0 < |x − 2| < δ.
2x 2 + x + 1 2 2x 2 + x + 1 2
b. lim = means that given any ε > 0, there exists a number B such that − <ε
x→∞ 3x 2 + 4 3 3x 2 + 4 3
whenever x > B.

3.5 Limits Involving Infinity and Asymptotes

1. a. lim f (x) = −∞ b. lim f (x) = ∞ c. lim f (x) = ∞ d. lim f (x) = −∞
x→0− x→0+ x→∞ x→−∞
212 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

2. a. lim f (x) = ∞ b. lim f (x) = −∞ c. lim f (x) = ∞ d. lim f (x) = ∞

x→0− x→0+ x→∞ x→−∞

3. a. lim f (x) = −∞ b. lim f (x) = 0 c. lim f (x) = 0

x→0 x→−∞ x→∞

4. a. lim f (x) = 1 b. lim f (x) = 1

x→−∞ x→∞
5. lim f (x) = ∞
x→2n π

6. a. lim f (x) does not exist. b. lim f (x) does not exist.
x→−∞ x→∞
1
7. lim = −∞ since the numerator is positive and the denominator approaches 0 through negative values as
x→−1− x +1
x → −1 from the left.
t
8. lim = −∞ since the numerator approaches −3 and the denominator approaches 0 through positive values as
t→−3 + t + 3
t → −3 from the right.
1+x
9. lim = ∞ since the numerator approaches 2 and the denominator approaches 0 through positive values as x → 1
x→1− 1 − x
from the left.
x +1
10. lim = −∞ since the numerator approaches 2 and the denominator approaches 0 through negative values as x → 1
x→1+ 1 − x
from the right.
u2 + 1
11. lim = ∞ since the numerator approaches 17 and the denominator approaches 0 through positive values as u → 4
u→4+ u − 4
from the right.
t3
12. lim = ∞ since the numerator approaches 1 and the denominator approaches 0 through positive values as t → 1.
t→1 t 2 − 1 2

x +1
13. lim √ = ∞ since the numerator approaches 1 and the denominator approaches 0 through positive values as
+
x→0 x (x − 1)2
x → 0 from the right.
1 1
14. lim − = −∞. As x → −1 from the right, the first term approaches −1 but the second term approaches ∞.
x→−1+ x x +1
1 x
15. lim − = ∞. As x → −2 from the right, the first term approaches 1 but the second term approaches
x→−2+ x +3 x +2
−∞.
1
16. lim = ∞ since the numerator is positive and the denominator approaches 0 through positive values as x → 0 from
x→0+ sin x
the right.
2
17. lim = ∞ since the numerator is positive and the denominator approaches 0 through positive values as x → π
2
x→(π /2)− cos x
from the left.
cos 2x
18. lim cot 2x = lim = ∞ since the numerator approaches 1 and the denominator approaches 0 through positive
x→0+ sin 2x
x→0+
values as x → 0 from the right.
1
19. lim sec πt = lim = ∞ since the numerator is positive and the denominator approaches 0 through
t→(−3/2)− t→(−3/2)− cos πt
positive values as t → 32 from the left.
 Section 3.5 Limits Involving Infinity and Asymptotes 213

1+ 1 4
3+
x +1 x =1 3x + 4 x = 3
20. lim = lim 5
21. lim = lim 3
x→∞ x − 5 x→∞ 1 − x→−∞ 2x − 3 x→−∞ 2 − 2
x x
2 1 1 2
2x − 1 2 −
x2 = 1 1 − 2x 2 x3
−x
22. lim = lim 23. lim = lim =0
x→∞ 4x 2 + 1 x→∞ 4 + 1 2 x→−∞ x 3 + 1 x→−∞ 1 + 1
x2 x 3

2x 2 1+ 1 + 3
2x 3 + x 2 + 3 2x 2x 3
24. lim = lim 1
=∞
x→−∞ x +1 x→−∞ 1+ x
⎡ ⎤
x3 x2 x 3 (3x + 1) − x 2 3x 2 − 2 x 3 + 2x 2
25. lim 2
− = lim ⎣ ⎦ = lim
x→∞ 3x − 2 3x + 1 x→∞ 3x 2 − 2 (3x + 1) x→∞ 3x 2 − 2 (3x + 1)

1 + 2x 1
= lim =
x→∞
3 − 22 3 + 1x 9
x

x4 + 1 x + 13
26. lim = lim x = −∞
x→−∞ x 3 + 1 x→−∞ 1 + 1
3 x
−2x 4 −2 2
27. lim = lim =−
x→∞ 3x 4 − 3x 2 + x + 1 x→∞ 3 − 3 + 1 + 1 3
x2 x3 x4
⎛ ⎞
1
1 x2 + 1 1 ⎝ 1 + x2 ⎠
28. lim 1 + = lim 1 + =1
x→∞ x x2 − 1 x→∞ x 1 − 12
x
⎛ ⎞
t +1 2t 2 − 1 1 + 1t 2 − 12
29. lim + = lim ⎝ + 1 t ⎠ = 1 − 2 = −1
t→∞ 2t − 1 1 − 3t 2 x→∞ 2 − 1
t − 3 2 3 6
t2
⎛ ⎞
s s2 1 1 ⎠ 1 1
30. lim − 2 = lim ⎝ − =1− =
s→−∞ s + 1 2s + 1 s→−∞ 1 + 1 2+ 2 1 2 2
s s
√
2x 2 2 2 3
31. lim = lim =√ =
x→∞ 3x 2 + 1 x→∞
3+ 1 3 3
x2
1
2t 2 2t 2 2 2
32. lim = lim · t1 = lim =2
t→−∞ t4 + t2 t→−∞ t4 + t2 t→−∞
t2 1 + 12
t
1 cos 2x 1 cos 2x
33. Since − ≤ ≤ , we apply the Squeeze Theorem to obtain lim = 0.
|x| x |x| x→∞ x
1 1
34. lim cos = 1 because as x → ∞, → 0 and cos 0 = 1.
x→∞ x x
1 sin 1x 1 sin h
35. lim x sin = lim . Letting h = , this is equal to lim = 1.
x→∞ x x→∞ 1 x h→0 h
x
x 1 1
36. lim = lim =
x→∞ 3x + cos x x→∞ 3 + cos x 3
x
1 1
37. lim f (x) = lim = −∞, lim f (x) = lim 1 = 1, lim f (x) = lim = 0, and
x→0− x→0− x x→0+ x→0+ x→−∞ x→−∞ x
lim f (x) = lim 1 = 1.
x→∞ x→∞

1 x2 + x x2 π
38. lim f (x) = lim = lim 1+ = ∞. lim f (x) = lim sin 2x does not exist.
x→−∞ x→−∞ π x→−∞ π x x→∞ x→∞
214 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

1 sin x 1
39. a. Since |sin x| ≤ 1 ⇔ −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1, we have − ≤ ≤ c.
x x x 0.4
for x > 0.
0.2
1
b. Noting that lim = 0 and applying the Squeeze Theorem to the 0.0
x→∞ x
sin x -0.2
inequalities in part a, we obtain lim = 0.
x→∞ x
-0.4

0 5 10 15 20

1 cos x 2 1 1
40. −1 ≤ cos x 2 ≤ 1 ⇒ − √ ≤ √ ≤ √ , and since lim √ = 0, the Squeeze Theorem implies that
x x x x→∞ x

cos x 2
lim √ = 0.
x→∞ x

41. a. b.
1.0 x 10 100 1000 10,000
f (x) 0.49876 0.49999 0.50000 0.50000

0.5 lim x x 2 + 1 − x ≈ 12
x→∞

0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100

lim x x 2 + 1 − x ≈ 12
x→∞

x x2 + 1 − x x2 + 1 + x x 1 1
c. lim x x 2 + 1 − x = lim · = lim = lim =
x→∞ x→∞ 1 x2 + 1 + x x→∞ x2 + 1 + x x→∞ 2
1 + 12 + 1
x

42. a. b.
10 x −5 −10 −100 −1000 −10,000
f (x) −5 −2.92893 −2.53206 −2.50313 −2.50031

0 lim x+ x 2 + 5x ≈ −2.5
x→−∞

-10
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0

lim x+ x 2 + 5x ≈ −2.5
x→−∞

x+ x 2 + 5x x− x 2 + 5x 5x
c. lim x+ x 2 + 5x = lim · = lim −
x→−∞ x→−∞ 1 x− x 2 + 5x x→−∞ x− x 2 + 5x
⎛ ⎞
5x 5x
− ⎜ ⎟ 5
⎜|x| |x| ⎟ −5
= lim = lim ⎜− ⎟=− =−
x→−∞ x 1 x→−∞ ⎝ x 5 ⎠ −1 − 1 2
− x 2 + 5x − 1+
|x| |x| |x| x
 Section 3.5 Limits Involving Infinity and Asymptotes 215

43. a. b.
x 10 100 1000 10,000
1.0
f (x) 0.77122 0.71411 0.70781 0.70718

lim 2x 2 + 3x + 4 − 2x 2 + x + 1 ≈ 0.707
0.5 x→∞

0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100

lim 2x 2 + 3x + 4 − 2x 2 + x + 1 ≈ 0.7
x→∞

c. lim 2x 2 + 3x + 4 − 2x 2 + x + 1
x→∞
2x 2 + 3x + 4 − 2x 2 + x + 1 2x 2 + 3x + 4 + 2x 2 + x + 1
= lim ·
x→∞ 1 2x 2 + 3x + 4 + 2x 2 + x + 1
√
2x + 3 2 + 3x 2 2
= lim = lim = √ =
x→∞ 2x 2 + 3x + 4 + 2x 2 + x + 1 x→∞ 2
2 + 3x + 42 + 1 1
2+ x + 2 2 2
x x
44. a. b.
2 x 10 100 1000 10,000
f (x) 1.62649 1.63232 1.63293 1.63299
√ √
1 3x + 2 − 3x
lim √ √ ≈ 1.633
x→∞ 2x + 1 − 2x

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
√ √
3x + 2 − 3x
lim √ √ ≈ 1.6
x→∞ 2x + 1 − 2x
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
3x + 2 − 3x 3x + 2 + 3x 2x + 1 + 2x 2 2x + 1 + 2x
c. lim √ √ ·√ √ ·√ √ = lim √ √ ·
x→∞ 2x + 1 − 2x 3x + 2 + 3x 2x + 1 + 2x x→∞ 3x + 2 + 3x 1
√ √ √
2 + x1 + 2 4 2 2 6
= lim 2 · √ = 2√3 = 3
x→∞
3 + x2 + 3
45. y = ±1 are horizontal asymptotes since lim f (x) = 1 and lim f (x) = −1.
x→∞ x→−∞
46. y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote since lim f (x) = 0; x = 1 is a vertical asymptote since lim f (x) = ∞.
x→−∞ x→1−
47. y = −1 is a horizontal asymptote since lim f (x) = −1; x = ±1 are vertical asymptotes since lim f (x) = ∞ and
x→∞ x→−1+
lim f (x) = ∞.
x→1−
48. y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote since lim f (x) = 1; x = −1 is a vertical asymptote since lim f (x) = −∞.
x→−∞ x→−1+
1 1
49. lim = 0, so y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote. lim
= ∞, so x = −2 is a vertical asymptote.
x→∞ x + 2 x +2
x→−2+
x x
50. lim = 1, so y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote. lim = −∞, so x = −1 is a vertical asymptote.
x→∞ x +1 x→−1 x + 1
+

x −1 x −1
51. lim = 1, so y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote. lim = −∞, so x = −1 is a vertical asymptote.
x→∞ x +1 x→−1+ x + 1
216 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

t2 t2 t2
52. lim = 1, so y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote. lim = ∞ and lim = −∞ so
t→∞ t 2 − 4 t→−2− (t + 2) (t − 2) t→2− (t + 2) (t − 2)
t = ±2 are vertical asymptotes.
2x 2x 2x
53. lim = 0, so y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote. lim = ∞ and lim = ∞,
x→∞ x 2 − x − 6 x→−2+ (x + 2) (x − 3) x→3+ (x + 2) (x − 3)
so x = −2 and x = 3 are vertical asymptotes.

2 − x2 2 − x2 2 − x2
54. lim = −1, so y = −1 is a horizontal asymptote. lim = ∞ and lim = ∞, so x = −1
x→∞ x 2 + x x→−1− x (x + 1) x→0 + x (x + 1)
and x = 0 are vertical asymptotes.

t2 − 2 t2 − 2 t2 − 2
55. lim = 1, so y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote. lim = ∞ and lim = ∞, so
t→∞ t 2 − 4 t→−2− (t + 2) (t − 2) t→2+ (t + 2) (t − 2)
t = ±2 are vertical asymptotes.
√
56. If x > 0, then x 6 = x 3 . Dividing the numerator and the denominator of f (x) by x 3 , we have
2x 3 2 2 2 2
f (x) = = = = = , so
3x 6 + 2 1 1 1 2
3x 6 + 2 √ 3x 6 + 2 3x 6+2 3 +
x3 x6 x6 x6
√ √
2 2 2 3
lim f (x) = lim =√ = . We conclude that y = 2 3 3 is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f .
x→∞ x→∞ 2 3 3
3+ 6
x
√
Next, if x < 0, then x 6 = x 3 = −x 3 . Dividing the numerator and the denominator of f (x) by
2 2 2 2
−x 3 , we have f (x) = = = − = − , so
1 1 1 2
3x 6 + 2 −√ 3x 6 + 2 3x 6+2 3 +
x3 x6 x6 x6
√ √
−2 2 2 3
lim f (x) = lim = −√ = − . We see that y = − 2 3 3 is also a horizontal asymptote of the graph
x→−∞ x→−∞ 2 3 3
3+ 6
x
of f .

57. y 58. y
¹/2
1
1

x _1 0 1 x

_1
_1
_¹/2

59. y 60. y
1 3

2
_2 _1 1 2 x 1

_1
1 2 3 x
 Section 3.5 Limits Involving Infinity and Asymptotes 217

0.5x
61. a. The denominator of C (x) = is equal to zero if x = 100. b.
100 − x 10
Also, lim C (x) = ∞. Therefore, x = 100 is a vertical asymptote
x→100−
of C. This means that the cost increases dramatically as the amount of
5
pollutant removed approaches 100%.

0
0 20 40 60 80 100

1735.2
62. lim C (x) = lim + 38.6 = 38.6. As the number of miles driven increases, the driving cost drops and
x→∞ x→∞ x 1.72
approaches 38.6 cents per mile.

25t 2 + 125t + 200

63. a. lim P (t) = lim b.
t→∞ t→∞ t 2 + 5t + 40 30
25 + 125 200
t + t2
= lim = 25 20
t→∞ 1 + 5 + 40
t 2 t
so the population approaches 25,000 in the long run.
10

0
0 5 10 15 20

t 2 + 10t + 100
64. a. lim f (t) = lim 100 b.
t→∞ t→∞ t 2 + 20t + 100 100
⎛ ⎞
1 + 10t + 100
2
= 100 lim ⎝ t ⎠ = 100 90
t→∞ 1 + 20 + 100
t 2t
so in the long run, the oxygen content approaches the original level. 80

70
0 50 100 150 200

65. v

terminal velocity

0 t
218 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

66. a. b.
t (s) v (t) (m/s) 60

0 0
40
10 44.85
20 51.02 20
30 51.86
40 51.98 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
50 52
60 52 c. lim v (t) = lim 52 1 − (0.82)t = 52 lim 1 − lim (0.82)t
t→∞ t→∞ t→∞ t→∞

= 52 m/s

m0
67. lim = ∞ since the numerator is positive and the denominator m
v→c− v2
1− 2
c
approaches 0 through positive values as v → c from the left.

mü

0 c v

E0 2 E0 2
68. a. lim v = lim c 1 − =c lim 1− =c b. v
E→∞ E→∞ E E→∞ E
c
c. The speed of light is the “ultimate” speed.

0 Eü E

69. a. b.
1.0 x f (x)
10 0.578156
100 0.577430
0.5
1000 0.577358
10,000 0.577351
0.0 100,000 0.577350
0 20 40 60 80 100
From the table, we estimate lim f (x) ≈ 0.577.
x→∞
From the graph, we estimate lim f (x) ≈ 0.6.
x→∞
√ √ √ √
√ √ 3x + x− 3x − x 3x + x+ 3x − x
c. lim 3x + x− 3x − x = lim · √ √
x→∞ x→∞ 1 3x + x+ 3x − x
√ √
2 x 2 2 3
= lim √ lim
√ = x→∞ √ √ = √ =
x→∞ 3x + x+ 3x − x 3 + 1/ x + 3 − 1/ x 2 3 3
 Section 3.5 Limits Involving Infinity and Asymptotes 219

70. a. b.
x f (x)
4 10 1.807172
100 1.079010
2 1000 1.667890
10,000 1.666789
0 100,000 1.666679
0 20 40 60 80 100
From the table, we estimate lim f (x) ≈ 1.7.
x→∞
From the graph, we estimate lim f (x) ≈ 1.7.
x→∞
1/3 1/3
c. Let A = x 3 + 2x 2 + 3x − 1 and B = x 3 − 3x 2 + x − 4 . Then A3 = x 3 + 2x 2 + 3x − 1 and

A3 − B 3
B 3 = x 3 − 3x 2 + x − 4. Using the identity A3 − B 3 = (A − B) A2 + AB + B 2 ⇔ A − B = , we
A2 + AB + B 2
have
1/3 1/3
x 3 + 2x 2 + 3x − 1 − x 3 − 3x 2 + x − 4

x 3 + 2x 2 + 3x − 1 − x 3 − 3x 2 + x − 4
= 2/3 1/3 1/3 2/3
x 3 + 2x 2 + 3x − 1 + x 3 + 2x 2 + 3x − 1 x 3 − 3x 2 + x − 4 + x 3 − 3x 2 + x − 4
so
1/3 1/3
lim x 3 + 2x 2 + 3x − 1 − x 3 − 3x 2 + x − 4
x→∞

5x 2 + 2x + 3
= lim
x→∞ x 3 + 2x 2 + 3x − 1 2/3 + x 3 + 2x 2 + 3x − 1 1/3 x 3 − 3x 2 + x − 4 1/3 + x 3 − 3x 2 + x − 4 2/3

5 + 2x + 32
= lim x
x→∞ 2 3 1 2/3 2 3 1 1/3 1/3 2/3
1+ x + 2 − 3 + 1+ x + 2 − 3 1 − x3 + 12 − 43 + 1 − 3x + 12 − 43
x x x x x x x x
5
=
3

v 02 R
71. a. lim
√ = ∞ since the numerator approaches a positive c. H
v 0 → 2g R 2g R − v 02

number and the denominator approaches 0 through positive values.

√
Thus v 0 = 2g R is a vertical asymptote. The result states that as the
initial velocity of the rocket approaches the escape velocity, the height
attained by the rocket increases without bound.
√ √
b. The escape velocity is 2g R = 2 (32) (4000) (5280) ≈ 36,765 ft/s 0 vü
Ï2gR
or about 25,067 mi/h.

2x 2 + 3 2x 2 + 3 − (x + 1) (ax + b) (2 − a) x 2 − (a + b) x + 3 − b
72. lim − ax − b = lim = lim .
x→∞ x +1 x→∞ x +1 x→∞ x +1
If the limit is 0, then 2 − a = 0 ⇒ a = 2. Then the limit reduces to
3−b
− (2 + b) x + 3 − b − (2 + b) +
lim = lim x = − (2 + b). Setting − (2 + b) = 0 gives b = −2.
x→∞ x +1 x→∞ 1
1+
x
220 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

an x n−m + a n−m−1 + · · · + a0
an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a0 n−1 x
73. If n > m, then lim = lim xm = ±∞.
x→∞ bm x m + bm−1 x m−1 + · · · + b0 x→∞ b b0
bm + m−1 + · · · + m
x x
a a
an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a0 an + n−1 + · · · + 0n
If n = m, then lim = lim x x = an .
x→∞ bm x m + bm−1 x m−1 + · · · + b0 x→∞ bm−1 b bm
bm + + · · · + 0n
x x
a a
an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a0 an + n−1 + · · · + 0n
If n < m, then lim = lim x x = 0, and the result
x→∞ bm x m + bm−1 x m−1 + · · · + b0 x→∞ b
bm x m−n + bm−1 x m−n−1 + · · · + 0n
x
follows.

1 1 1
74. Put x = ⇔ t = . As x → ∞, t → 0+ , so lim f (x) = lim f .
t x x→∞ t→0+ t

1 1 1 sin t
75. Put x = ⇔ t = . As x → ∞, t → 0+ , so lim x sin = lim = 1.
t x x→∞ x t→0 + t

1 1
76. Put x = ⇔ t = . As x → ∞, t → 0+ , so
t x
1 tan t sin t 1 sin t 1
lim x tan = lim = lim · = lim lim = 1.
x→∞ x t→0+ t t→0+ t cos t t→0+ t t→0+ cos t

2 2 2 1/4 2 1/4
77. Let M > 0 be given. Consider 4 > M ⇒ x 4 < ⇒ |x| < , so pick δ = > 0. Then 0 < |x| < δ ⇒
x M M M
2 2 2
4
> 4
= M, and since M is arbitrary, lim 4 = ∞.
x x→0 x
(2/M)1/4

1 √ 1 1 1
78. Let M > 0 be given. Consider √ > M ⇒ x < ⇒ x < 2 for x > 0, so pick δ = 2 > 0. Then 0 < x < δ ⇒
x M M M
1 1 1
√ > = M, and since M is arbitrary, lim √ = ∞.
x 1/M 2 x→0 + x

1 1 1
79. Let N < 0 be given. If
< N for x < 0, then x > , so take δ = − > 0. If 0 < |x| < δ, then −x < δ, implying that
x N N
1 1 1
x > −δ = ⇔ < N , so lim = −∞.
N x x→0 x
−

x x |x| |x| 1 1 1
80. Let ε > 0 be given. Now
−0 = 2 = 2 < 2 = < ε ⇒ x > for x > 0, so pick N = . Then
x2 + 1 x +1 x +1 x x ε ε
x 1 1 x
x>N⇒ 2 < < = ε. Since ε is arbitrary, lim 2 = 0.
x +1 x N x→∞ x +1
 Section 3.6 Curve Sketching 221

x −1 1 1 1
81. Let ε > 0 be given, and consider −1 = = < ε ⇔ |x + 1| > ⇒ x + 1 > or
x +1 x +1 |x + 1| ε ε
1 1 1 1
x +1 < − ⇒ x < − 1+ . Pick N = − 1 + < 0. Then if x < N , we have x < − 1 + , so that
ε ε ε ε
1 1 1 x 1 1
x + 1 < −1 − + 1 = − and |x + 1| > , so −1 = < = ε. Since ε is arbitrary, we have shown
ε ε ε x +1 |x + 1| 1/ε
x
that lim = 1.
x→−∞ x + 1

M M M
82. Let M > 0 be given. Then 3x > M ⇔ x > , so pick N = > 0. Then x > N ⇒ 3x > 3 = M. Since M is
3 3 3
arbitrary, we have shown that lim 3x = ∞.
x→∞

1 1 1
83. False. lim = −∞ and lim = ∞, so lim does not exist.
x→2− x −2 x→2 x − 2
+ x→2 x − 2

84. True. Write f (x) = c and let ε > 0 be given. Then pick N to be any positive number. Then x > N ⇒
| f (x) − c| = |c − c| < ε.

2x y
85. False. The graph of f (x) = 2 crosses its horizontal asymptote
x +1
y = 0.
0 x

x2 − 4 (x + 2) (x − 2)
86. False. Let f (x) = . Then lim f (x) = lim = 4, and so x = 2 is not a vertical asymptote.
x −2 x→2 x→2 x −2

x y
87. True. Let f (x) = . Then y = −1 and y = 1 are horizontal
x2 + 1
asymptotes.
0 x

1 1 1 1
88. False. Let f (x) = x + 2. Then lim f (x) = 2 = L, but lim f = lim +2 =2= = .
x→0+ x→∞ x x→∞ x 2 L

3.6 Concept Questions

1. See page 307.

1 1
2. a. If |x| is very large, then 2 is very small, and so for large values of |x|, the graph of f (x) = x 2 + 2 behaves like that
x x
of g (x) = x 2 .
1
b. lim f (x) = lim x 2 + 2 = ∞ since the second term in the function grows arbitrarily large as x approaches 0.
x→0 x→0 x
222 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

c. (1) The domain of f is (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞). (2) There is no x- or f» not defined
1 1 _ _ 0 ++ _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»
y-intercept. (3) f (−x) = (−x)2 + 2
= x 2 + 2 = f (x), so
(−x) x x
_1 0 1
the graph of f is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
1 1 (10) y
(4) x2 + 2
lim = lim x2 + 2 =∞
x→−∞ x x→∞ x
1
(5) lim x2 + 2 = ∞, and so x = 0 is a vertical asymptote.
x→0 x
There is no horizontal asymptote.

2 2 x4 − 1
(6) f (x) = 2x − 3 = ⇒ ±1 are critical numbers of
x x3
1
f . From the sign diagram for f , we see that f is decreasing on
1 x
(−∞, −1) ∪ (0, 1) and increasing on (−1, 0) ∪ (1, ∞). (7) f has
6
relative minima at (−1, 2) and (1, 2). (8) f (x) = 2 + 4 > 0 for x in (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞), so f is concave upward
x
on (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞). (9) f has no inflection point.

3.6 Curve Sketching

y y
1. 2.

5
1
1
1 x
x

y y
3. 4.
1
1 x

1 x
 Section 3.6 Curve Sketching 223

5. g (x) = 4 − 3x − 2x 3 (10) y

(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). (2) Setting x = 0 gives y = 4 as the

y-intercept. Setting y = g (x) = 0 gives a cubic equation which is not
easily solved, so we will not attempt to find the x-intercept. (3) There is
10
no symmetry. (4) lim g (x) = ∞ and lim g (x) = −∞.
x→−∞ x→∞ 1 x

(5) There is no asymptote. (6) g (x) = −3 − 6x 2 = −3 2x 2 + 1 < 0

for all values of x, and so g is decreasing on (−∞, ∞). (7) The
preceding step shows that g has no critical number and hence has no
relative extremum. (8) g (x) = −12x. Since g (x) > 0 for x < 0 and g" (x) < 0 for x > 0, we see that g is concave
upward on (−∞, 0) and concave downward on (0, ∞). (9) From step 8, we see that (0, 4) is an inflection point of g.

6. f (x) = x 3 − 3x 2 + 2 _ _ _ _ _ 0 +++++ sign of f»»

(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). (2) The y-intercept is 2. The ++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»
x-intercepts are not easily found, so we will not use this information. x
0 1 2
(3) There is no symmetry. (4) lim f (x) = −∞ and
x→−∞
lim f (x) = ∞. (5) There is no asymptote. (10) y
x→∞

(6) f (x) = 3x 2 − 6x = 3x (x − 2) = 0 ⇔ x = 0 or x = 2, so 0 and 2

are critical numbers of f . From the sign diagram for f , we see that f is
increasing on (−∞, 0) and (2, ∞) and decreasing on (0, 2). (7) f has a 1
relative maximum at (0, 2) and a relative minimum at (2, −2). 1 x

(8) f (x) = 6x − 6 = 6 (x − 1) = 0 ⇔ x = 1. From the sign diagram for

f , we see that f is concave downward on (−∞, 1) and concave upward
on (1, ∞). (9) f has an inflection point at (1, 0).

7. f (x) = x 3 − 6x 2 + 9x + 2 _ _ _ _ _ 0 +++++ sign of f»»

(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). (2) The y-intercept is 2. The ++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»
x-intercepts are not easily found, so we will not use this information. x
1 2 3
(3) There is no symmetry. (4) lim f (x) = −∞ and
x→−∞
lim f (x) = ∞. (5) f is a polynomial function, so there is no (10) y
x→∞
asymptote.

(6) f (x) = 3x 2 − 12x + 9 = 3 x 2 − 4x + 3 = 3 (x − 3) (x − 1) = 0

⇔ x = 1 or 3, the critical numbers of f . From the sign diagram for f , we

see that f is increasing on (−∞, 1) and (3, ∞) and decreasing on (1, 3).
1
(7) From (6), we know that 1 and 3 are critical numbers of f . f changes 1 x
sign from positive to negative as we move across x = 1, so f has a relative
maximum of f (1) = 6, and similarly, f (3) = 2 is a relative minimum.
(8) f (x) = 6x − 12 = 6 (x − 2) = 0 ⇔ x = 2. The sign diagram for f shows that f is concave downward on (−∞, 2)
and concave upward on (2, ∞). (9) From (8), we see that f changes sign as we move across x = 2. Since f (2) = 4, f
has an inflection point at (2, 4).
224 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

8. f (t) = 2t 3 − 15t 2 + 36t − 20 ++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»

(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). (2) f (0) = −20 is the y-intercept. t
Setting y = f (t) = 0 leads to a cubic equation that is not easily solved, so 2 3
we will not attempt to find the t-intercept. (3) There is no symmetry.
y
(4) lim f (t) = −∞ and lim f (t) = ∞. (5) There is no asymptote. (10)
t→−∞ t→∞
20
(6) f (t) = 6t 2 − 30t + 36 = 6(t 2 − 5t + 6) = 6 (t − 3) (t − 2). From
the sign diagram for f , we see that f is increasing on (−∞, 2) and 10
(3, ∞) and decreasing on (2, 3). (7) f has a relative maximum at (2, 8)
and a relative minimum at (3, 7). (8) f (t) = 12t − 30 = 6 (2t − 5).
0 1 2 3 4 t
Setting f (t) = 0 gives t = 52 as a candidate for an inflection point of f .
Since f " (t) < 0 for t < 52 and f (t) > 0 for t > 52 , f is concave _10

downward on −∞, 52 and concave upward on 52 , ∞ . (9) f has an

_20
inflection point at 52 , 15
2 .

9. f (x) = 2x 3 − 9x 2 + 12x − 3 _ _ _ _ _ _ 0 +++ sign of f»»

(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). (2) The y-intercept is −3. The +++++ 0 _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»
x-intercept is not easily found, so we will not use this information. x
0 1 3 2
(3) There is no symmetry. (4) lim f (x) = −∞ and 2
x→−∞
lim f (x) = ∞. (5) There is no asymptote. (10) y
x→∞
(6) f (x) = 6x 2 − 18x + 12 = 6 (x − 2) (x − 1) = 0 ⇔ x = 1 or x = 2, 8

the critical numbers of f . From the sign diagram for f , we see that f is 6

increasing on (−∞, 1) and (2, ∞) and decreasing on (1, 2). (7) f has a 4

relative maximum at (1, 2) and a relative minimum at (2, 1). 2

(8) f (x) = 12x − 18 = 6 (2x − 3) = 0 ⇔ x = 32 . From the sign

0 1 2 3 x
_2
diagram of f , we see that f is concave downward on −∞, 32 and
_4
concave upward on 32 , ∞ (9) f has an inflection point at 32 , 32 . _6

10. f (t) = 3t 4 + 4t 3 = t 3 (3t + 4) ++++ 0 _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»»

(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). (2) The y-intercept is 0. Setting
_ _ 0 +++++ 0 ++ sign of f»
y = f (t) = 0 gives 0 and − 43 as the t-intercepts. (3) There is no t
_1 2 0
symmetry. (4) lim f (t) = ∞ and lim f (t) = ∞. (5) There is _3
t→−∞ t→∞
no asymptote. (6) f (t) = 12t 3 + 12t 2 = 12t 2 (t + 1). From the sign (10) y

diagram for f , we see that f is increasing on (−1, ∞) and decreasing on

(−∞, −1). (7) f has a relative minimum of f (−1) = −1.
1
(8) f (t) = 36t 2 + 24t = 12t (3t + 2) = 0 ⇔ t = − 23 or t = 0. From

the sign diagram for f , we see that f is concave upward on −∞, − 23

1 t
and (0, ∞) and concave downward on − 23 , 0 . (9) f has inflection

points at − 23 , − 16
27 and (0, 0).
 Section 3.6 Curve Sketching 225

11. g (x) = x 4 + 2x 3 − 2 ++ + + 0 _ _ 0 ++ + sign of g»»

(1) The domain of g is (−∞, ∞). (2) The y-intercept is −2. _ _ _ 0 ++ + 0 + + + sign of g»
(3) There is no symmetry. (4) lim g (x) = lim g (x) = ∞. x
x→∞
_ 32 _1
x→−∞
0
(5) There is no asymptote. (6) g (x) = 4x 3 + 6x 2 = 2x 2 (2x + 3) = 0
⇔ x = 0 or − 32 , the critical numbers of f . From the sign diagram for g , (10) y

we see that g is decreasing on −∞, − 32 and increasing on − 32 , ∞ .

(7) g has a relative minimum at − 32 , − 59

16 .

(8) g (x) = 12x 2 + 12x = 12x (x + 1) = 0 ⇔ x = 0 or −1. From the

sign diagram of g , we see that g is concave upward on (−∞, −1) and 1
1 x
(0, ∞) and concave downward on (−1, 0). (9) g has inflection points at
(−1, −3) and (0, −2).

12. f (x) = (x − 2)4 + 1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 0 +++ sign of f»

(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). (2) The y-intercept is 17. There is no x
x-intercept. (3) There is no symmetry. (4) lim f (x) = ∞ and 0 2
x→−∞
lim f (x) = ∞. (5) There is no asymptote. (10) y
x→∞

(6) f (x) = 4 (x − 2)3 = 0 ⇔ x = 2. From the sign diagram for f , we

see that f is decreasing on (−∞, 2) and increasing on (2, ∞). (7) f has
a relative minimum at (2, 1). (8) f (x) = 12 (x − 2)2 = 0 ⇔ x = 2,
but f is positive for x = 2, so f is concave upward on (−∞, ∞). 10
(9) f has no inflection point.

1 x

13. f (x) = 4x 5 − 5x 4 +++ 0 _ _ _ 0 +++ sign of f»

(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). (2) The y-intercept is 0 and the x
0 1
x-intercepts are 0 and 54 . (3) There is no symmetry.
(4) lim f (x) = −∞ and lim f (x) = ∞. (5) There is no _ _ _ 0 _ _ _ 0 +++ sign of f»»
x→−∞ x→∞
x
asymptote. (6) f (x) = 20x 4 − 20x 3 = 20x 3 (x − 1) = 0 ⇔ x = 0 or 0 3
4
1, the critical numbers of f . From the sign diagram for f , we see that f is
increasing on (−∞, 0) and (1, ∞) and decreasing on (0, 1). (7) f has a (10) y

relative maximum at (0, 0) and a relative minimum at (1, −1).

(8) f (x) = 80x 3 − 60x 2 = 20x 2 (4x − 3) = 0 ⇔ x = 0 or x = 34 .
1
From the sign diagram of f , we see that f is concave downward on

−∞, 34 and concave upward on 34 , ∞ (9) f has an inflection point 1 x

at 34 , − 128
81 .
226 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

√
14. g (x) = 12 x − x _ _ _ _ 0 +++++ sign of g»
(1) The domain of g is [0, ∞). (2) The y-intercept is 0. To find the ( x
√ √ 0 1
x-intercept, set y = 0 ⇔ 12 x − x = 0 ⇔ x = 2 x ⇔ x 2 = 4x ⇔
x (x − 4) = 0 ⇔ x = 0 or x = 4. y
(10)
1x − √ 2
(3) lim x = lim 12 x 1 − √ =∞ (4) There is no
x→∞ 2 x→∞ x
symmetry. (5) There are no asymptotes.
√ 1
x −1
(6) g (x) = 12 − 12 x −1/2 = 12 x −1/2 x 1/2 − 1 = √ =0⇔
2 x
x = 1. From the sign diagram for g , we see that g is decreasing on (0, 1)
1 x
and increasing on (1, ∞). (7) From the sign diagram of g , we see that
g (1) = − 12 is a relative minimum.
1
(8) g (x) = − 12 − 12 x −3/2 = > 0 for x > 0, and so g is
4x 3/2
concave upward on (0, ∞). (9) There is no inflection point.

15. y = (x + 2)3/2 + 1 (10) y

(1) The domain of y is [−2, ∞). (2) The y-intercept is y = 23/2 + 1.

(3) There is no symmetry. (4) lim (x + 2)3/2 + 1 = ∞ (5) There is
x→∞

no asymptote. (6) y = 32 (x + 2)1/2 > 0 for all x in (−2, ∞), so y is

increasing on (−2, ∞). (7) There is no relative extremum.
3
(8) y = 34 (x + 2)−1/2 = √ > 0 for all x in (−2, ∞), so the 1
4 x +2
1 x
graph of y is concave upward on (−2, ∞). (9) There is no inflection
point.

16. f (t) = t2 − 4
(1) f is defined where t 2 − 4 ≥ 0 ⇔ t ≤ −2 or t ≥ 2, so the domain of f is (−∞, −2] ∪ [2, ∞). (2) Since
t = 0 does not lie in the domain of f , there is no y-intercept. Setting y = f (t) = 0 gives the t-intercepts as
−2 and 2. (3) lim f (t) = lim f (t) = ∞ (4) Since f (−t) = f (t), the graph of f is symmetric with
t→−∞ t→∞

t2 − 4
respect to the y-axis. (5) There is no vertical or horizontal asymptote, but because lim = 1 and
t→∞ t
t2 − 4
lim = 1, and furthermore lim t 2 − 4 − t = 0, we see that by symmetry y = ±t are slant asymptotes.
t→−∞ −t t→∞
−1/2 −1/2 t
(6) f (t) = 12 t 2 − 4 (2t) = t t 2 − 4 = . Setting f (t) = 0 gives t = 0, but this lies outside the
t2 − 4
domain of f and so there is no critical number.
 Section 3.6 Curve Sketching 227

From the sign diagram for f , we see that f is decreasing on (−∞, −2) _ _ _ +++ sign of f»
and increasing on (2, ∞). (7) f has no relative extremum. ) ( t
−1/2 −3/2 _2 0 2
(8) f (x) = t 2 − 4 + t − 12 t2 − 4 (2t)
−3/2 (10) y
4
= t2 − 4 t2 − 4 − t2 = − 3/2
. Since f (t) < 0 for all
t2 − 4
t in the domain of f , we see that f is concave downward everywhere
(9) From (8), we see that there is no inflection point.

_2 1 2 t

x
17. f (x) = f» and f»» not defined
x +1
++ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ sign of f»»
(1) The domain of f is (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, ∞). (2) The x- and
++ ++++++++ sign of f»
y-intercepts are 0. (3) There is no symmetry. (4) lim f (x) = 1
x→−∞ x
_1 0 1
and lim f (x) = 1. (5) y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote. Also,
x→∞
(10) y
lim f (x) = ∞ and lim f (x) = −∞, so x = −1 is a vertical
x→−1− x→−1+
(x + 1) − x 1
asymptote. (6) f (x) = = , so f has no critical
(x + 1)2 (x + 1)2
number. From the sign diagram for f , we see that f is increasing on 2
1 x
(−∞, −1) and (−1, ∞). (7) f has no relative extremum.
2
(8) f (x) = −2 (x + 1)−3 = − . From the sign diagram of f ,
(x + 1)3
we see that f is concave upward on (−∞, −1) and concave downward on
(−1, ∞). (9) f has no inflection point. (Note that −1 is not in the
domain of f .)
x +1
18. g (x) = g» and g»» not defined
x −1
_ _ _ _ _ _ ++++ sign of g»»
(1) The domain of g is (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞). (2) The y-intercept is
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ sign of g»
g (0) = −1 and the x-intercept is also −1. (3) There is no symmetry.
x
(4) lim g (x) = lim g (x) = 1. (5) y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote. 0 1
x→−∞ x→∞
Also, lim g (x) = −∞ and lim g (x) = ∞, so x = 1 is a vertical (10) y
x→1− x→1+
(x − 1) − (x + 1) 2
asymptote. (6) g (x) = =− . From the
(x − 1)2 (x − 1)2
sign diagram for g, we see that g is decreasing on (−∞, 1) and (1, ∞). 2
(7) g has no relative extremum because it has no critical number (1 is not 1 x
4
in the domain of g). (8) g (x) = . From the sign diagram for
(x − 1)3
g , we see that g is concave downward on (−∞, 1) and concave upward
on (1, ∞). (9) There is no inflection point (1 is not in the domain of g).
228 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

x
19. h (x) = 2 h» and h»» not defined
x −9
_ _ ++ 0 _ _ ++ sign of h»»
(1) The domain of h is (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, 3) ∪ (3, ∞). (2) The x- and
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ sign of h»
−x x
y-intercepts are 0. (3) h (−x) = 2
=− 2 = −h (x), so x
(−x) − 9 x −9
_3 0 3
the graph of h is symmetric with respect to the origin.
(10) y
(4) lim h (x) = 0 and lim h (x) = 0. (5) From (4), we see that
x→−∞ x→∞
y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote. Since lim h (x) = lim h (x) = −∞
x→−3− x→3−
and lim h (x) = lim h (x) = ∞, x = ±3 are vertical asymptotes. 1
x→−3+ x→3+
1 x
x 2 − 9 − x (2x) x2 + 9
(6) h (x) = 2
=− 2
. From the sign diagram
x2 − 9 x2 − 9
for h we see that h is decreasing on its domain. (7) f has no relative
extremum.
2
x2 − 9 (2x) − x 2 + 9 2 x 2 − 9 (2x) 2x x 2 + 27
(8) h (x) = − 4
= 3
. From the sign diagram of h , we see that h
x2 − 9 x2 − 9
is concave downward on (−∞, −3) and (0, 3) and concave upward on (−3, 0) and (3, ∞). (9) h has an inflection point
at (0, 0). Neither of ±3 is in the domain of h.

t
20. f (t) = 2 _ 0 +++ 0 --- 0 + sign of f»»
t +1
(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). (2) The t- and y-intercepts are 0. _ _ _ 0 + + + 0 _ _ _ sign of f»

−t t t
(3) f (−t) = =− 2 = − f (t), so f is symmetric with _Ï3 _1 0 1 Ï3
2
(−t) + 1 t +1
respect to the origin. (4) lim f (t) = lim f (t) = 0 (5) From (4), (10) y
t→−∞ t→∞
we see that y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote. There is no vertical asymptote
0.5
because the denominator is never zero.
t 2 + 1 − t (2t) (1 + t) (1 − t)
(6) f (t) = 2
= 2
= 0 ⇒ t = ±1, the 1 t
t2 + 1 t2 + 1
critical numbers of f . From the sign diagram for f , we see that f is _0.5
decreasing on (−∞, −1) and (1, ∞) and increasing on (−1, 1). (7) f

has a relative minimum at −1, − 12 and a relative maximum at 1, 12 .

2
t2 + 1 (−2t) − 1 − t 2 (2) t 2 + 1 (2t) 2t t 2 + 1 t 2 + 1 + 2 − 2t 2 2t t 2 − 3
(8) f (t) = 4
=− 3
=0⇒ 4
=
t2 + 1 t2 + 1t2 + 1
√ √ √
t = 0 or ± 3. From the sign diagram for f , we see that f is concave downward on −∞, − 3 and 0, 3 and
√ √ √ √ √ √3
concave upward on − 3, 0 and 3, ∞ . (9) f has inflection points at − 3, − 43 and 3, 4 .
 Section 3.6 Curve Sketching 229

x2
21. f (x) = _ _ 0 +++++ 0 _ _ sign of f»»
1 + x2
x
(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). (2) The x- and y-intercepts are 0.
_Ï3/3 0 Ï3/3
(3) Since f (−x) = f (x), the graph is symmetric about the y-axis.
(10) y
x2 x2
(4) lim = lim = 1 (5) The results of (4) show that
x→−∞ 1 + x 2 x→∞ 1 + x 2
y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote. There is no vertical asymptotes because
the denominator is never 0.
1
1 + x 2 (2x) − x 2 (2x) 2x
(6) f (x) = 2
= 2
= 0 ⇒ x = 0, the
1 + x2 1 + x2
only critical number of f . Since f (x) < 0 if x < 0 and f (x) > 0 if
x > 0, we see that f is decreasing on (−∞, 0) and increasing on (0, ∞).
_1 1 x
(7) The results of (6) show that (0, 0) is a relative minimum.
2
1 + x2 (2) − 2x (2) 1 + x 2 (2x) 2 1 + x 2 [ 1 + x 2 − 4x 2 ] 2 1 − 3x 2 √
(8) f (x) = 4
= 4
= 3
= 0 ⇒ x = ± 33 .
1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2
√ √
From the sign diagram of f , we see that f is concave downward on −∞, − 33 and 3
3 , ∞ and concave upward on
√ √ √ √
− 33 , 33 . (9) The results of (8) show that − 33 , 14 and 3 1
3 ,4 are inflection points.

x2 − 9
22. g (x) = 2 f» and f»» not defined
x −4
_ _ +++++ _ _ sign of f»»
(1) The domain is (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, 2) ∪ (2, ∞). (2) The y-intercept is
9 and the x-intercepts are ±3. _ _ -- 0 ++ ++ sign of f»
4 (3) Since f (−x) = f (x), there is
x
9 _2 0 2
x2 − 9 1− 2
x = 1.
symmetry about the y-axis. (4) lim 2 = lim y
x→∞ x − 4 x→∞ 1 − 4 (10)
2 x
x2 − 9
Similarly, lim = 1. (5) From the results of (4), we see that
x→−∞ x 2 − 4
y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote. Now the denominator is 0 when
x 2 − 4 = 0 ⇔ x = ±2. Since the numerator x 2 − 9 is not zero at x = ±2, 1
we see that x = ±2 are vertical asymptotes.
1 x
x 2 − 4 (2x) − x 2 − 9 (2x) 10x
(6) f (x) = 2
= 2
= 0 ⇒ x = 0,
x2 − 4 x2 − 4
and f (x) is discontinuous at x = ±2. From the sign diagram for f , we see that f is increasing on
(0, 2) and (2, ∞) and decreasing on (−∞, −2) and (−2, 0). (7) The point 0, 94 is a relative minimum.
2
x2 − 4 (10) − (10x) (2) x 2 − 4 (2x) 10 x 2 − 4 x 2 − 4 − 4x 2 −10 3x 2 + 4
(8) f (x) = 4
= 4
= 3
, which is
x2 − 4 x2 − 4 x2 − 4
not defined at x = ±2. From the sign diagram for f , we see that f is concave upward on (−2, 2) and concave downward
on (−∞, −2) and (2, ∞). (9) There is no inflection point. Note that x = ±2 are not in the domain of f .
230 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

1
23. h (x) = 2 h» and h»» not defined
x −x −2
++ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ++ sign of h»»
(1) Note that the denominator x 2 − x − 2 = (x − 2) (x + 1) = 0 ⇔
++ ++++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ _ sign of h»
x = −1 or x = 2, so the domain of h is (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 2) ∪ (2, ∞).
x
(2) Setting x = 0 gives − 12 as the y-intercept. (3) There is no symmetry. _1 0 1 1 2
2
(4) lim h (x) = lim h (x) = 0 (5) The results of (4) show that
x→−∞ x→∞ (10) y
y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote. Furthermore, the denominator is 0 at
x = −1 or 2, where the numerator is not equal to 0. Therefore, x = −1
and x = 2 are vertical asymptotes. 1
d −1 −2 1
(6) f (x) = x2 − x − 2 = − x2 − x − 2 (2x − 1) x
dx
1 − 2x
= 2
2
x −x −2
Setting f (x) = 0 gives x = 12 . The sign diagram of h shows that h is

increasing on (−∞, −1) and −1, 12 and decreasing on 12 , 2 and

(2, ∞). (7) The results of (5) show that 12 , − 49 is a relative maximum.

(x 2 − x − 2)2 (−2) − (1 − 2x) 2(x 2 − x − 2) (2x − 1) 2(x 2 − x − 2)[−(x 2 − x − 2) + (2x − 1)2 ]

(8) h (x) = 2 4
=
(x − x − 2) (x 2 − x − 2)4
6(x 2 − x + 1)
=
(x 2 − x − 2)3
h (x) has no zero and is discontinuous at x = −1 and x = 2. The sign diagram of h shows that the graph of h is concave
upward on (−∞, −1) and (2, ∞) and concave downward on (−1, 2). (9) There is no inflection point.

24. f (x) = x 9 − x 2
(1) The domain of f is [−3, 3]. (2) The x-intercepts are ±3; the y-intercept is 0.

(3) f (−x) = (−x) 9 − (−x)2 = −x 9 − x 2 = − f (x), so f is symmetric with respect

to the origin. (4) lim f (x) and lim f (x) do not exist. (5) There is no asymptote.
x→−∞ x→∞
d 1/2 1/2 −1/2 2x 2 − 9 √
(6) f (x) = x 9 − x2 = 9 − x2 + x 12 9 − x2 (−2x) = − = 0 ⇒ x = ±322.
dx 9 − x2
√ √ √ √
f is decreasing on −3, − 3 2 2 and 3 2 2 , 3 and increasing on − 3 2 2 , 3 2 2 . (7) f has a relative minimum at
√ √
− 3 2 2 , − 92 and a relative maximum at 3 2 2 , 92 .
 Section 3.6 Curve Sketching 231

d −1/2
(8) f (x) = − 2x 2 − 9 9 − x2 ++++ 0 _ _ _ _ sign of f»»
dx
_ 0 +++++ 0 _ sign of f»
−1/2 −3/2
= − 4x 9 − x 2 + 2x 2 − 9 − 12 9 − x2 (−2x) ( ) x
_3 0 3
_ 3Ï2 3Ï2
−3/2
= −x 9 − x 2 4 9 − x 2 + 2x 2 − 9 2 2

x 2x 2 − 27 √ (10) y
= 3/2
= 0 ⇔ x = 0 or ± 3 2 6
9 − x2
However of these roots, only x = 0 lies in (−3, 3). f is concave upward
on (−3, 0) and concave downward on (0, 3). (9) f has an inflection 1
point at (0, 0). 1 x

25. f (x) = x − sin x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π 0 +++ 0 _ _ _ 0 sign of f»»

(1) The domain of f is [0, 2π]. (2) The x-intercept is 0; the y-intercept 0 +++++++ 0 sign of f»

is 0. (3) There is no symmetry. (4) Not applicable (5) There is no ( ) x

0 ¹ 2¹
asymptote. (6) f (x) = 1 − cos x = 0 ⇔ cos x = 1 ⇒ x = 0 or 2π. (10) y

From the sign diagram for f , we see that f is increasing on (0, 2π).
(7) From (6), we see that f has no relative extremum.
(8) f (x) = sin x = 0 ⇒ x = 0, π, or 2π. From the sign diagram for f ,
we see that f is concave upward on (0, π) and concave downward on
(π, 2π). (9) f has an inflection point at (π, π).
1

¹ 2¹ x

26. g (x) = 2 sin x + sin 2x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π +0 _ _ 0 _ _ 0 + sign of f»

(1) The domain of g is [0, 2π]. (2) The x-intercepts are 0, π, and 2π; ( ) x
¹ 5¹
0 3 ¹ 3 2¹
the y-intercept is 0. (3) There is no symmetry. (4) Not applicable
(5) There is no asymptote. (6) f (x) = 2 cos x + 2 cos 2x = 0 ⇒
-- 0 + 0 - 0 ++ sign of f»»
x=π 5π
3 or x = 3 . From the sign diagram of f , we see that f is ( ) x
0 Œ ¹ º 2¹
increasing on 0, π 5π π 5π
3 and 3 , 2π and decreasing on 3 , 3 .
√ y
(10)
(7) f has a relative maximum at π 3 3 and a relative minimum at
3, 2
√
5π , − 3 3 . (8) f (x) = −2 sin x − 4 sin 2x = 0 ⇒
3 2
1
x = α = cos−1 − 14 ≈ 1.82, π, or β = 2π − cos−1 − 14 ≈ 4.46. So 2¹
¹ x
f is concave downward on (0, 1.82) and (π, 4.46) and concave upward on
(1.82, π) and (4.46, 2π). (9) From (8), we see that (1.82, 1.45), (π, 0),
and (4.46, −1.45) are inflection points.
232 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

1
27. f (x) = , −2π < x < 2π f» and f»» not defined
1 − cos x
+++++ +++++ sign of f»»
(1) The domain of f is (−2π, 0) ∪ (0, 2π). (2) There is no intercept. _ _ 0++ _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»
1 1 ( ) x
(3) f (−x) = = = f (x), so f is symmetric with
1 − cos (−x) 1 − cos x _2¹ _¹ 0 ¹ 2¹
respect to the y-axis. (4) Not applicable (5) From (4), we see that (10) y

there is no horizontal asymptote. The vertical asymptotes are x = 0 and

d
x = ±2π. (6) f (x) = (1 − cos x)−1 = − (1 − cos x)−2 (sin x)
dx
sin x
=− = 0 ⇒ x = ±π.
(1 − cos x)2
Also, f (0) is undefined, so ±π are critical numbers of f . From the sign
1
diagram for f , we see that f is decreasing on (−2π, −π) and (0, π) and
_2¹ _¹ ¹ 2¹ x
increasing on (−π, 0) and (π, 2π). (7) f has minima at −π, 12 and

π, 12 .
d
(8) f (x) = − sin x (1 − cos x)−2 = − cos x (1 − cos x)−2 + sin x (−2) (1 − cos x)−3 sin x
dx
cos2 x + cos x − 2
= − (1 − cos x)−3 cos x (1 − cos x) − 2 sin2 x = −
(1 − cos x)3
cos x + 2
= is undefined at x = 0.
(1 − cos x)2
From the sign diagram of f , we see that f is concave upward on (−2π, 0) and (0, 2π). (9) f has no inflection point.

28. y = cos2 x, −π ≤ x ≤ π _0 + 0 _ 0 + 0 _ sign of y»»

(1) The domain is [−π, π]. (2) The x-intercepts are ± π 2 ; the
_ _ 0++0 _ _ 0++ sign of y»
( ) x
y-intercept is 1. (3) cos2 (−x) = cos2 x = y, so the graph is symmetric _¹ _ ¹ 2
0 ¹ ¹ 3¹
4 2 4
¹
with respect to the y-axis. (4) Not applicable. (5) There is no (10) y
asymptote. (6) y = −2 cos x sin x = − sin 2x = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or ± π
2 on
(−π, π). From the sign diagram for y , we see that y is decreasing on
1
−π, − π π π π
2 and 0, 2 and increasing on − 2 , 0 and 2 , π . (7) y
π π
has relative minima at − 2 , 0 and 2 , 0 and a relative maximum at

(0, 1). (8) y = −2 cos 2x = 0 ⇔ x = ± π 3π

4 or ± 4 on (−π, π). From
the sign diagram of f , we see that f is concave downward on
_¹ ¹ x
−π, − 34π , − π π 3π
4 , 4 , and 4 , π , and concave upward on

− 34π , − π π 3π
4 and 4 , 4 . (9) y has inflection points at − 34π , 12 ,

−π 1 π 1 3π 1
4 , 2 , 4 , 2 , and 4 , 2 .
 Section 3.6 Curve Sketching 233

sin x
29. g (x) = . Throughout this solution, g» not defined
1 + sin x
n represents any integer. + + + 0 _ _ _ +++ 0 _ _ _ +++ 0 sign of g»

(1) The domain of g is the set of all real numbers x

5¹ 3¹ ¹ ¹ 3¹ 5¹
_ 2 _2¹ _ 2 _¹ _ 2 0 2 ¹ 2 2¹ 2
except 32π + 2nπ.
(10) y
(2) The x-intercepts are nπ and the y-intercept is 0. 1
(3) There is no symmetry. (4) lim g (x) and lim g (x) do not exist.
x→−∞ x→∞
(5) From (4), we see that g has no horizontal asymptote. g has vertical _3¹ _2¹ _¹ ¹ 2¹ 3¹ x

asymptotes at x = 32π + 2nπ.

(1 + sin x) cos x − sin x cos x cos x _1
(6) g (x) = = is
(1 + sin x)2 (1 + sin x)2
discontinuous at 32π + 2nπ and has zeros at π
2 + 2nπ. From the sign
_2

diagram, we see that g is decreasing on π 3π

2 + 2nπ, 2 + 2nπ and

increasing on 32π + 2nπ, 52π + 2nπ . (7) g has relative maxima at π 1

2 + nπ, 2 .

(1 + sin x)2 (− sin x) − (cos x) 2 (1 + sin x) cos x (1 + sin x) (1 + sin x) (− sin x) − 2 cos2 x
(8) g (x) = =
(1 + sin x)2 (1 + sin x)4
sin2 x − sin x − 2 (sin x − 2) (sin x + 1) sin x − 2
= 3
= 3
=
(1 + sin x) (1 + sin x) (1 + sin x)2
g is discontinuous at 32π + 2nπ and negative on its domain, so g is concave downward on 32π + 2nπ, 72π + 2nπ .
(9) f has no inflection point.

30. f (x) = 2x − tan x, − π

2 <x < 2
π
++++ 0 _ _ _ _ sign of f»»
_ _ 0 +++ 0 _ _ sign of f»
(1) The domain of f is − π π
2, 2 . (2) The x- and y-intercepts are 0.
( ) x
(3) f (−x) = 2 (−x) − tan (−x) = −2x + ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹
_2 _4 0 4 2
tan x = − (2x − tan x) = − f (x), so the graph of f is symmetric with (10) y
respect to the origin. (4) Not applicable (5) From (4), we see that
there is no horizontal asymptote. There are vertical asymptotes at
√
x = ±π (6) f (x) = 2 − sec2 x = 0 ⇔ sec x = ± 2 ⇒ x = ± π 1
2. 4,
the critical numbers of f on − π π
2 , 2 . From the sign diagram for f , we x
_¹
2
¹
2
see that f is decreasing on − π π π π
2 , − 4 and 4 , 2 and increasing on
−π π
4, 4 . (7) f has a relative minimum at − π π
4 , 1 − 2 and a relative
maximum at π π
4 , −1 + 2 .
(8) f (x) = −2 sec x (sec x tan x) = −2 sec2 x tan x. From the sign
diagram of f , we see that f is concave upward on − π 2 , 0 and concave
downward on 0, π 2 . (9) f has an inflection point at (0, 0).
234 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

u3 + 1 g (u) u 2 + 1/u
31. g (u) = 2 . lim = lim = 1 = m and y
u − 1 u→∞ u u→∞ u 2 − 1

u3 + 1 1+u
lim g (u) − u = lim −u = lim = 0 = b, so
u→∞ u→∞ u2 − 1 u→∞ u 2 − 1

y = u is a slant asymptote. Using the curve sketching guidelines, we 2

obtain the graph at right. 1 u

x3 + 1
32. h (x) = . y
x (x + 1)
h (x) x 2 + 1/x 1 + 1/x 3
lim = lim 2
= lim = 1 = m and
x→∞ x x→∞ x + x x→∞ 1 + 1/x

x3 + x x − x2 1
lim [h (x) − mx] = lim −x = lim
x→∞ x→∞ x2 + x x→∞ x 2 + x _1 1 x

1/x − 1
= lim = −1 = b
x→∞ 1 + 1/x
so y = x − 1 is a slant asymptote. Using the curve sketching guidelines,
we obtain the graph at right.

x 2 − 2x − 3
33. f (x) = . y
2x − 2
f (x) x − 2 − 3/x 1 − 2/x − 3/x 2 1
lim = lim = lim = =m
x→∞ x x→∞ 2x − 2 x→∞ 2 − 2/x 2
1
and
x 2 − 2x − 3 x −x − 3 1 x
lim f (x) − mx = lim − = lim
x→∞ x→∞ 2x − 2 2 x→∞ 2x − 2

= − 12 = b, so y = 12 x − 12 is a slant asymptote.
Using the curve sketching guidelines, we obtain the graph at right.

x 2 − 2x + 2 f (x) x − 2 + 2/x
34. f (x) = . lim = lim = 1 = m and y
x −1 x→∞ x x→∞ x −1
x 2 − 2x + 2 −x + 2
lim f (x) − mx = lim −x = lim
x→∞ x→∞ x −1 x→∞ x − 1

= −1 = b, so y = x − 1 is a slant asymptote. 1
1 x
Using the curve sketching guidelines, we obtain the graph at right.
 Section 3.6 Curve Sketching 235

2x 2 − 3
35. f (x) = ⇒
x −2
f (x) 2x − 3/x 2 − 3/x 2
lim = lim = lim = 2 = m and
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x − 2 x→−∞ 1 − 2/x

2x 2 − 3 −3 + 4x −3/x + 4
lim f (x) − mx = lim − 2x = lim = lim = 4 = b, so y = 2x + 4 is a
x→−∞ x→−∞ x −2 x→−∞ x − 2 x→−∞ 1 − 2/x

slant asymptote.
36. f (x) = 1 + x 2 + 2x ⇒
f (x) 1 + x 2 + 2x x 1/x 2 + 1 1
lim = lim = lim +2 = lim +1+2 = 3 = m and
x→∞ x x→∞ x x→∞ x x→∞ x2
1 + x2 − x 1 + x2 + x 1
lim f (x) − 3x = lim 1 + x 2 − x = lim · = lim = 0 = b,
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ 1 1 + x2 + x x→∞ 1 + x2 + x
so y = 3x is a slant asymptote.
f (x) |x| 1/x 2 + 1
lim = lim +2
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x 10

= lim − 1/x 2 + 1 + 2 = 1 = m and

x→−∞ 5

lim f (x) − x = lim 1 + x2 + x

x→−∞ x→−∞ 0
1 + x2 + x 1 + x2 − x
= lim · -5
x→−∞ 1 1 + x2 − x
-4 -2 0 2 4
1
= lim =0=b
x→−∞ 1 + x2 − x
so y = x is also a slant asymptote.

37. N (t) = − 12 t 3 + 3t 2 + 10t ++++ 0 _ _ _ sign of N»»

(1) The domain of N is [0, 4]. (2) The y-intercept is 0. (3) There is no ( x
0 2
symmetry. (4) This is not applicable because the domain of N (t) is
(10) y
[0, 4]. (5) There is no asymptote. 60

(6) N (t) = − 32 t 2 + 6t + 10 = − 12 3t 2 − 12t − 20 > 0 on the domain

40
of N , so N is increasing on (0, 4). (7) There is no relative extremum in
20
(0, 4). (8) N (t) = −3t + 6 = −3 (t − 2) = 0 when t = 2. From the
sign diagram of N , we see that N is concave upward on (0, 2) and 1 2 3 4 t
concave downward on (2, 4). (9) The point (2, 28) is an inflection point.
The average worker’s efficiency increases until 10:00 A . M . and then
begins to decrease.

38. Using the guidelines for curve sketching, we obtain the graph of y
120
N (t) = −0.1t 3 + 1.5t 2 + 80. Note that N (t) = −0.3t 2 + 3t and
100
N (t) = −0.6t + 3 = 0 ⇔ t = 5. Since N (t) > 0 for t < 5 and N (t) < 0
for t > 5, we see that N has an inflection point at (5, 105). This shows that the 80
rate of increase of N , which was itself increasing from 0 to 5, begins to
decrease thereafter. Therefore, the program is working.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 t
236 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

d
39. S (t) = 1.0974t 3 − 0.0915t 4 = 3.2922t 2 − 0.366t 3 = 0 ⇒ t = 0 or
dt
t ≈ 9. S has a relative maximum of S (9) ≈ 200. 200

S (t) = 6.5844t − 1.098t 2 = t (6.5844 − 1.098t) = 0 ⇔ t = 0 or t ≈ 6. S

has an inflection point at about (6, 118). The level of ozone increases from 100
0 PSI at 7 A . M . to a maximum of about 200 PSI at about 4 P. M ., dropping back
to 121 PSI at about 6 P. M . The rate of increase of the ozone level is maximum at
0
about 1 P. M . 0 5 10

40. f (x) = 0.000003x 2 − 0.006x + 5 ⇒ f (x) = 0.000006x − 0.006 = 0 ⇒ 15000

x = 1000. The total daily cost of production increases as the number of
multi-packs of DVDs produced increases, but at a slowing rate, until production 10000
reaches 1000 multi-packs per day. The rate of increase of the rate is smallest at
that level, and from that level up to the maximum production level of 5000
3000 per day, the rate of change of the cost of production increases, perhaps due
to overtime costs. 0
0 1000 2000 3000

1.5
41. f (t) = −1.5 + 0.0052 (10 − t)3 = 0 ⇔ (10 − t)3 = ⇒ t ≈ 3.39,
0.0052 10
and f (3.39) ≈ 7.43. The amount of salt increases to a peak level of
approximately 7.43 lb after approximately 3.4 minutes, and then it declines.
Ten minutes after the beginning of the experiment, all of the salt is removed. 5
(Note that at that time, the tank is empty.)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10

√
42. f (t) = 20t − 40 t + 52. Using the guidelines for curve sketching, we obtain y

the graph of f at right. The speed of traffic flow at 6 A . M . is 52 mi/h. It 60

decreases until it reaches 32 mi/h at 7 A . M ., and then increases again until it 50

gets back to 52 mi/h at 10 A . M . 40

30

20

10

1 2 3 4 5 t

43. Using the guidelines for curve sketching, we obtain the graph of f at right. f(v)
Observe that the domain of f is 0 ≤ v ≤ c and lim f (v) = ∞. When a
v→c−
particle is at rest, its mass is m 0 . But as its speed increases, so does its mass. As
its speed approaches the speed of light, c, the mass of the particle increases
without bound.
mü

c v
 Section 3.6 Curve Sketching 237

44. f (t) = 4.8 sin π

6 (t − 10) + 7.6. The graph of f is shown at right. The water
level is approximately 11.8 ft at 12 A . M .. Over the next 24 hours it has relative 10
minima of approximately 2.8 ft at 7 A . M . and at 7 P. M .. The water level is
highest, at about 12.4 ft, at about 1 A . M . and about 1 P. M .. Twenty-four hours
5
later, the water level is back at approximately 11.8 ft.

0
0 10 20 30

45. 46.
10
1

0
0

-10 -1
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -2 -1 0 1 2

47. 48.
4
40
2

0
20
-2

0 -4

-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8

49.
15

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
238 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

50. a.
1 1 1

0 0 0

-1 -1 -1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

n=1 n=5 n = 10

1 1 1

0 0 0

-1 -1 _1

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 _3 _2 _1 0 1 2 3

n = 100 n = 1000 n→∞

b. If x = ±1, then f (x) = 0. If −1 < x < 1, then lim x 2n = 0. (If |x| < 1, then the larger the power n is, the smaller
n→∞
2n
x −1 1 − 1/x 2n
x 2n is.) Finally, if |x| > 1, then lim 2n = lim = 1, leading to the limiting function
n→∞ x + 1 n→∞ 1 + 1/x 2n
⎧
⎪
⎪ 1 if |x| > 1
⎨
f (x) = 0 if |x| = 1
⎪
⎪
⎩ −1 if |x| < 1

3.7 Concept Questions

1. a. See pages 249 and 320.

b. See page 320.

2. See page 320.

3.7 Optimization Problems

1. Let x and y denote the two numbers. We want to maximize P = x y. But x + y = 100 ⇒ y = 100 − x, so P = x (100 − x).
Furthermore, x > 0 and y > 0, so x < 100. The problem reduces to finding the maximum of P = f (x) = −x 2 + 100x
on (0, 100). f (x) = −2x + 100 = 0 ⇔ x = 50, a critical number of f . Since f (50) = −2 < 0, we see that f is
maximized if x = 50. Note that 50 is the only critical number in (0, 100). Thus, y = 100 − 50 = 50, and so the two
numbers are both 50.
 Section 3.7 Optimization Problems 239

2. Let x and y denote the two numbers. We want to minimize P = x y subject to the condition y − x = 50 ⇔ y = x + 50. We
write P = x y = x (x + 50) = x 2 + 50x ⇒ P = 2x + 50 ⇒ x = −25 is a critical number of P. Because P = 2 > 0,
the graph of P is concave upward, and so x = −25 gives the absolute minimum of P. The corresponding value of y is
y = −25 + 50 = 25. So the required numbers are −25 and 25.

3. Let x and y denote the two numbers. Then x y = 54 ⇔ y = 54/x. We want to minimize Q = x + y 2 , which can be written
√
as Q = f (x) = x + (54/x)2 = x + 2916/x 2 , x > 0. Now f (x) = 1 − 2 (2916) /x 3 = 0 ⇒ x = 3 5832 = 18, a critical
number of f . Since f (x) = 2 (2916) (3) /x 4 , we see that f (18) > 0. By the SDT, f has a relative minimum at x = 18.
Since 18 is the only critical number, we see that x = 18 gives the absolute minimum of f . So one number is x = 18 and the
other is y = 54/x = 54/18 = 3.

4. Let x denote the positive number. We want to minimize f (x) = x + 1/x, 0 < x < ∞. We calculate
x2 − 1 (x + 1) (x − 1)
f (x) = 1 − 1/x 2 = 2
= , which is 0 if x = ±1 and undefined if x = 0. Only 1 lies in (0, ∞), so it
x x2
is the only critical number of f . Since f (x) = 2/x 3 > 0 in (0, ∞), we see that x gives rise to the absolute minimum of
f . Thus, the required number is 1.

5. Let x and y denote the lengths of two adjacent sides of the rectangle. We want to maximize A = x y. But the perimeter is
2x + 2y and this is equal to 100. So 2x + 2y = 100 ⇔ y = 50 − x. Therefore A = f (x) = x (50 − x) = −x 2 + 50x,
0 ≤ x ≤ 50. A = −2x + 50 = 0 ⇒ x = 25 is the only critical number of f . Since A (25) = −2 < 0, we see that A is
maximized for x = 25, so the required dimensions are 25 m by 25 m.

6. Let x and y denote the lengths of two adjacent sides of the rectangle. The perimeter of the rectangle is P = 2x + 2y and is
288 288 2x 2 − 288
to be minimized. But x y = 144 ⇒ y = 144/x ⇒ P = f (x) = 2x + , x > 0. f (x) = 2 − 2 = , which
x x x2
has a zero when 2x 2 − 288 = 0 ⇒ x = 12 in (0, ∞). So 12 is a critical number of f . f (x) = 576/x 3 > 0 on (0, ∞),
so f is concave upward. Therefore, x = 12 gives the absolute minimum value of f . The corresponding value of y is
y = 144/x = 144/12 = 12. So the required dimensions are 12 ft by 12 ft.

7. Let x and y be the dimensions of the corral, as shown in the figure. The area of
the corral is A = x y and is to be maximized. The fencing required is 2x + 3y y
and this is equal to 400. So 2x + 3y = 400 ⇔ y = − 23 x + 400
3 . Since y must
be positive, we have − 23 x + 400 x
3 > 0 ⇒ x < 200. Thus, the function to be

maximized is A = f (x) = x − 23 x + 400

3 = − 23 x 2 + 400
3 x, 0 < x < 200.
We calculate f (x) = − 43 x + 400 4
3 = 0 ⇒ x = 100. Since f (100) = − 3 < 0 and 100 is the only critical number of f ,
we see that the absolute maximum of f is attained at x = 100. The corresponding value of y = − 23 (100) + 400 200
3 = 3 , so
the required dimensions are 100 × 66 23 .

8. We have 2x + y = 3000 and we want to maximize the function

A = f (x) = x y = x (3000 − 2x) = 3000x − 2x 2 , (0, 1500). The critical
number of A is obtained by solving f (x) = 3000 − 4x = 0 ⇒ x = 750. Since
f (750) = −4 < 0, we conclude by the SDT that x = 750 yields the absolute x
maximum value of A. Thus, the required dimensions are 750 × 1500 yards. The
y
maximum area is 1,125,000 yd2 .
240 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

9. The volume of the box is V = f (x) = x (16 − 2x) (10 − 2x). But we must have x > 0, 16 − 2x > 0, and 10 − 2x > 0;
these conditions imply 0 < x < 5. So the problem reduces to maximizing the continuous function f on the interval (0, 5).
d
We calculate f (x) = 4x 3 − 52x 2 + 160x = 12x 2 − 104x + 160 = 4 3x 2 − 26x + 40 = 4 (3x − 20) (x − 2) = 0
dx
⇒ x = 20 20
3 or 2. But 3 lies outside (0, 5), so it is rejected. Since f (2) = 4 (6x − 26)|x=2 = −56 < 0, we conclude by
the SDT that the required dimensions are 12 × 6 × 2 .
10. Let each square that is cut out have side length x. Then the dimensions of the x
x
box are (10 − 2x) by (10 − 2x) by x and its volume is
V = f (x) = x (10 − 2x)2 = 4x 3 − 40x 2 + 100x, 0 < x < 5 ⇒ 10-2x
f (x) = 12x 2 − 80x + 100 = 4 (x − 5) (3x − 5) = 0 ⇒ x = 5 or x = 53 .

Since f 5 = (24x − 80)|x=5/3 = −40 < 0, we conclude by the SDT that

3 10-2x

x = 53 gives an absolute maximum of f . So the dimensions of the desired box x

are 20 20 5
3 by 3 by 3 . 10-2x
10-2x

11. Let x denote the length of one side of the base and h its height in inches. Then the
amount of material needed is S = x 2 + 4xh. But the volume is 216 in3 , so h

x 2 h = 216 ⇔ h = 216/x 2 . Therefore,

S = f (x) = x 2 + 4x 216/x 2 = x 2 + 864/x, x > 0 ⇒ x
x
864 2x 3 − 864 √
f (x) = 2x − 2
= 2
= 0 ⇒ x 3 = 432 ⇔ x = 6 3 2 ≈ 7.6.
x x
√
Now f (x) = 2 + 1728/x 3 > 0 for x > 0, so the graph of f is concave upward. Thus, S is minimized at x = 6 3 2. The
√ 2 √
corresponding value of h is h = 216/ 6 3 2 = 3 3 2 ≈ 3.8, so the required dimensions are about 7.6 × 7.6 × 3.8 .

12. The length plus the girth of the box is 4x + h = 108 and h = 108 − 4x. Then V = x 2 h = x 2 (108 − 4x) = 108x 2 − 4x 3
⇒ V = 216x − 12x 2 . We want to maximize V on the interval (0, 27). Setting V (x) = 0 and solving for x, we obtain
x = 18 and x = 0. Since V (18) = (216 − 24x)|x=18 = −216 < 0, the SDT implies that V is maximized when x = 18.
Thus, the dimensions of the box are 18 × 18 × 36 , and the maximum volume is approximately 11,664 in3 .
13. We take 2πr + = 108. We want to maximize V = πr 2 = πr 2 (−2πr + 108) = −2π 2r 3 + 108πr 2 subject to the
condition that 0 < r < 54 2 2 36
π . Now V (r) = −6π r + 216πr = −6πr (πr − 36). Since V = 0, we find that r = π is the
critical number of V . Since V 36 = −12π2r + 216π = −216π < 0, we conclude by the SDT that the
π r=36/π
maximum volume of 46π ,656
in.3 occurs when r = 36 36
π ≈ 11.5 inches and = 108 − 2π( π ) = 36 inches.
14. Let r denote the radius of the container and h its height. Then the amount of material used is given by the surface area of the
container S = 2πr 2 + 2πr h, the quantity to be minimized. Since the capacity of the can is 12 fluid ounces (12 × 1.805 in.3 ),
21.66 21.66 43.32
we have πr 2 h = 12 (1.805) ⇔ h = , so we want to minimize S = f (r) = 2πr 2 + 2πr = 2πr 2 + ,
πr 2 πr 2 r

43.32 4 πr 3 − 10.83 10.83 1/3 86.64

r > 0 ⇒ f (r) = 4πr − 2
= 2
=0⇒r = ≈ 1.51. Since f (r) = 4π + 3 > 0
r r π r
for all r > 0, we see that the graph of f is concave upward, so f is minimized at r ≈ 1.51. The corresponding value of
21.66
h≈ ≈ 3.02. So the radius of the container is approximately 1.51 , and its height is approximately 3.02 .
π (1.51)2
 Section 3.7 Optimization Problems 241

15. Let y denote the height and x the width of the cabinet. Then y = 32 x. Since the volume is to be 2.4 ft3 , we have
2.4 (2) 1.6
x yd = 2.4, where d is the depth of the cabinet and x 32 x d = 2.4 ⇔ d = 2
= 2 . The cost for constructing
3x x
1.6 3 1.6 3 640
the cabinet is C = 80 (2xd + 2yd) + 40 (2x y) = 160 + x 2
+ 80x x = + 120x 2 ⇒
x 2 x 2 x
640 240x 3 − 640 √ √
C (x) = − 2 + 240x = = 0 if x = 3 83 = 23 3 9. Therefore, x = 23 3 9 is a critical number of C. Next,
x x2
1280 √
C (x) = 3 + 240 > 0 for all x > 0, telling us that the graph of C is concave upward. So x = 23 3 9 ≈ 1.39 yields an
x
absolute minimum. The required dimensions are about 1.39 × 2.08 × 0.83 .

50
16. x y = 50 and so y = 50/x. The printed area is A = (x − 1) (y − 2) = (x − 1) −2 = −2x + 52 − 50
x ⇒
x

50 −2 x 2 − 25
A = −2 + 2 = = 0 ⇒ x = ±5. Since A = − 100 < 0 for x > 0, we see that the graph of A is
x x2 x3
concave downward on (0, ∞), and so x = 5 yields an absolute maximum. The dimensions of the paper should therefore be
5 × 10 .

17. We want to maximize A = f (x) = 2x y = 2x 4 − x 2 for 0 < x < 2.

d 1/2 1/2 −1/2 −1/2
A (x) = 2x 4 − x 2 = 2 4 − x2 + 2x 12 4 − x 2 (−2x) = 2 4 − x 2 4 − x2 − x2
dx
4 2 − x2 √ √
= = 0 ⇒ x = ± 2, but we reject − 2 since it lies outside (0, 2).
4 − x2
√
The FDT shows that the sole critical number 2 gives a relative maximum, so the absolute maximum value of f is attained
√ √ 2 √ √ √
at x = 2. The corresponding value of y is 4 − 2 = 2, so the required dimensions are 2 2 × 2.

18. We want to maximize A = 12 (2x) y = x 9 − x 2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 3.

d 1/2 1/2 −1/2 −1/2
A = x 9 − x2 = 9 − x2 + x 12 9 − x2 (−2x) = 9 − x 2 9 − x2 − x2
dx
9 − 2x 2 √
= = 0 ⇒ x = 3 2 2 since x must lie in (0, 3).
9 − x2
√
The FDT shows that the sole critical number 3 2 2 gives a relative maximum. The corresponding value of
√ 2 √ √ √
y= 9 − 3 2 2 = 3 2 2 . Thus, the base of the triangle is 3 2 and its height is 3 2 2 .

19. The area of the shaded region is A = x y, but (x, y) lies on the line with equation y = − 23 x + 2, so we maximize
A = x − 23 x + 2 on (0, 3). A = − 43 x + 2 = 0 ⇔ x = 32 , so 32 is a critical number of A. The FDT shos that the sole

critical number 32 gives a relative maximum, so A is maximized at x = 32 and y = − 32 23 + 2 = 1. The dimensions are
3 × 1.
2
242 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

1/2
20. The area of the trapezoid is A = 12 (2x + 6) y = (x + 3) 9 − x 2 . We want to maximize
1/2 1/2 −1/2 2x 2 + 3x − 9
f (x) = (x + 3) 9 − x 2 (0 ≤ x < 3). f (x) = 9 − x 2 + (x + 3) 12 9 − x2 (−2x) = − .
9 − x2
Setting f (x) = 0 gives 2x 2 + 3x − 9 = (2x − 3) (x + 3) = 0, or x = 32 (we reject the negative root). Since
−2x 2 + 6x + 9
f (x) = < 0 for all x on [0, 3), f reaches its absolute maximum at x = 32 . For this value of x, we have
(x − 3) 9 − x 2
2 √ √
y= 9 − 32 = 3 2 3 . So the trapezoid has parallel sides of length 6 and 3 and height 3 2 3 .

21. Let d denote the distance between a point (x, y) on the line y = 2x + 5 and the origin. Then
d 2 = x 2 + y 2 = x 2 + (2x + 5)2 = 5x 2 + 20x + 25 = 5 x 2 + 4x + 5 . We want to minimize f (x) = x 2 + 4x + 5.
Setting f (x) = 2x + 4 = 0, we find x = −2. Since f (x) = 2 > 0, we see that x = −2 does give a minimum value of f .
So the required point is (−2, 1).

x2 y2
22. Let d denote the distance between a point (x, y) on the hyperbola − = 1 and the point (0, 3). Then
4 9
d 2 = x 2 + (y − 3)2 = x 2 + y 2 − 6y + 9. But x 2 = 4 + 49 y 2 , so d 2 = f (y) = 4 + 49 y 2 + y 2 − 6y + 9 = 13 2
9 y − 6y + 13.

To minimize d, it suffices to minimize d 2 . Now f (y) = 26 27 2 4 27 2 = 9000 ⇒

9 y − 6 = 0 ⇒ y = 13 . Next, x = 4 + 9 13 1521
√ √ √
x = ± 101310 ≈ ±2.43, so the required points are − 101310 , 27
13 and
10 10 , 27 .
13 13

y
23. Let d be the distance between the point (−1, 1) and a point (x, y) on the hyperbola
1
x y = 1. Then d 2 = (x + 1)2 + (y − 1)2 = x 2 + 2x + 1 + y 2 − 2y + 1, but y = , d
x (_1, 1)
1
1 2
so d 2 = f (x) = x 2 + 2x + 2 − + 2. To minimize d, it suffices to minimize d
x x 1 x
2 2
f (x). f (x) = 2x + 2 − 3 + 2 = 0 ⇒ x 4 + x 3 + x − 1 = 0. Using a graphing
x x
6 4
utility or a CAS, we find x ≈ −1.6180 or 0.6180. Since f (x) = 2 + 4 − 3 ,
x x
f (−1.6180) ≈ 3.7191 > 0 and f (0.6180) ≈ 26.1866 > 0, so both critical
numbers −1.6180 and 0.6180 give rise to relative minima of f . The required
points are (−1.6180, −0.6180) and (0.6180, 1.6180).

y
24. Without loss of generality, we may assume that p > 0. Let d denote the distance
between P and the point lying on the parabola y 2 = 2 px. Then (x, y)

d 2 = (x − a)2 + y 2 = x 2 − 2ax + a 2 + 2 px = x 2 + 2 ( p − a) x + a 2 . To
d
minimize d, it suffices to minimize d 2 for x ≥ 0. f (x) = 2x + 2 ( p − a) = 0 ⇒
0 P(a, 0) x
x = a − p. f (x) = 2 > 0 shows that the x-coordinate of the point on the
parabola that is closest to P is a − p if a > p and 0 if a ≤ p.
y@=2px
 Section 3.7 Optimization Problems 243

25. The semicircle is described by the equation f (x) = 16 − x 2 . The area of the y
1/2 4
rectangle is A = f (x) = 2x y = 2x 16 − x 2 ⇒

d 1/2
f (x) = 2x 16 − x 2
dx _4 4 x
1/2 1 −1/2
= 2 16 − x 2 + 2x 2 16 − x 2 (−2x)

−1/2 4 8 − x2
= 2 16 − x 2 16 − x 2 − x 2 = =0⇒
16 − x 2
√ √
x = 2 2 is the only critical number in (0, 4). The FDT shows that the only critical number 2 2 gives a relative maximum,
√ √ √
and this implies that A is maximized at 2 2. The required dimensions are 4 2 × 2 2.

26. The distance between (x, y) and (3, 2) is d = (x − 3)2 + (y − 2)2 . We want y

to minimize d or, equivalently, d 2 . Since y must satisfy y = 1 − x, we (3, 2)

minimize f (x) = (x − 3)2 + (1 − x − 2)2 = 2x 2 − 4x + 10 ⇒ 1

(x, y)
f (x) = 4x − 4 = 0 ⇔ x = 1, so 1 is a critical number. f (x) = 4 > 0 for all 1 x
x, so f is concave upward everywhere and x = 1 yields the absolute minimum x+y=1
value of f on (−∞, ∞). Thus, the required point is (1, 0).

27. The distance between (x, y) and (−3, −4) is d = (x + 3)2 + (y + 4)2 . We need to minimize d or, equivalently, d 2 . Since
2 2
(x, y) lies on the parabola y = 4 − x 2 , we minimize f (x) = d 2 = (x + 3)2 + 4 − x 2 + 4 = (x + 3)2 + 8 − x 2 ⇒

f (x) = 2 (x + 3) + 2 8 − x 2 (−2x) = 2 2x 3 − 15x + 3 . Using a graphing utility, we find the real root of the

equation 2x 3 − 15x + 3 = 0 to be x ≈ −2.834. The corresponding value of y is about −4.032, and so the required point is
about (−2.834, −4.032).
y
1

0
1
1 x

(_3, _4)
-1
(x, y) -2.90 -2.88 -2.86 -2.84 -2.82 -2.80

x 2.8 12
28. The fuel cost is 2.80 = x dollars/mile and the labor cost is dollars/mile. Therefore, the total cost per mile is
600 600 x
12 2.8 12 2.8 12 (600) 36
C (x) = + x ⇒ C (x) = − 2 + = 0 ⇔ x2 = ⇒ x ≈ 50.71. C (x) = 3 > 0 for all x > 0,
x 600 x 600 2.8 x
and so C is concave upward. Therefore x ≈ 50.71 gives the absolute minimum, so the most economical speed is about
50.71 mi/h.

29. Let x denote the number of trees beyond 22 per acre. Then the yield is Y = (36 − 2x) (22 + x) = −2x 2 − 8x + 792.
Y = −4x − 8 = 0 ⇔ x = −2 is the critical number of Y . Now Y = −4 < 0, so x = −2 gives the absolute maximum of
Y . So we should plant 20 trees/acre.
244 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

30. Let us denote the length of the base by x and the height by y (both measured in feet). Then its volume
20
is V = x 2 y and is to be 20 ft3 , so x 2 y = 20 ⇒ y = 2 . Next, the cost of constructing the box is
x
20 x2 8 dC 8
C = 0.3x 2 + (0.1) (4x y) + 0.2x 2 = 0.5x 2 + 0.4x 2
= + , x > 0. To minimize C, we set =x− 2 =0⇒
x 2 x dx x
d 2C 16
x 3 = 8 or x = 2. Since = 1+ 3 = 3 > 0, the SDT shows that x = 2 gives the absolute minimum (C
dx 2 x x=2
x=2
has just one critical number). Thus, the required dimensions are 2 ft × 2 ft × 5 ft.

31. Let us denote the length of the base by x and the height by y (both measured in feet). Then the cost is
C = 0.3x 2 + (0.15) (4x y) + 0.2x 2 . Since the cost is to be $2, we have 0.5x 2 + 0.6x y = 2 ⇔ 5x 2 + 6x y = 20 ⇔
20 − 5x 2 20 − 5x 2 10x 5x 3
y= . We want to maximize V = x 2 y = x 2 = − , x > 0. We set V = 10 5 2
3 − 2x = 0 ⇒
6x 6x 3 6
√ √ √
x 2 = 43 ⇒ x = 2 3 3 (since x must be positive). Since V 2 3
= −5x|2√3/3 = − 103 3 < 0, the SDT shows that
3

√ 20 − 5 43 √
10 3
x = 2 3 3 gives the absolute maximum (V has just one critical number). Since y = √ = , the required
6 2 3 9
3
√ √ √ √
dimensions are 2 3 3 ft × 2 3 3 ft × 109 3 ft and the required volume is 4027 3 ft3 .

32. We want to maximize the function R (x) = (200 + x) (300 − x) = −x 2 + 100x + 60,000 ⇒ R (x) = −2x + 100 = 0 ⇔
x = 50, a critical number of R. Since R (x) = −2 < 0, we see that x = 50 gives an absolute maximum of R. Therefore,
the number of passengers should be 250. The fare will then be $250/passenger and the revenue will be $62,500.

33. Let x denote the number of passengers per day, p the fare per ride, and R the MTA’s revenue. Observe that the
given data imply that when x = 6000, p = 3, and when x = 5000, p = 3.50. Therefore, the points (6000, 3) and
3.50 − 3
(5000, 3.50) lie on a straight line. The slope of the line is m = = −0.0005 and the equation of the line is
5000 − 6000
p − 3 = −0.0005 (x − 6000) ⇒ p = −0.0005x + 6. Therefore, the revenue R = f (x) = x p = −0.0005x 2 + 6x is the
quantity to be maximized on the interval (0, 12000), since both p and x must be positive. f is continuous on (0, 12000),
and we compute f (x) = −0.001x + 6 = 0 ⇒ x = 6000. Since R (6000) = −0.001 < 0 and x = 6000 is the sole critical
number, the SDT implies that x = 6000 gives the absolute maximum value. Thus, the maximum revenue of $18,000/day is
realized when the ridership is 6000/day and the optimum fare is therefore $3.00, as recommended by the consultants.

34. We want to maximize S = kh 2 w. But h 2 + w2 = 242 ⇔ h 2 = 576 − w2 , so

S = f (w) = kw 576 − w2 = k 576w − w3 . Now setting f (w) = k 576 − 3w2 = 0 gives
√
w = ± 192 ≈ ±13.86. Only the positive root is a critical number of interest. Next, we find f (w) = −6kw, and in
√ √
particular, f 192 = −6 192k < 0, so that w ≈ 13.86 gives a relative maximum of f . Since f (w) < 0 for w > 0,
√
we see that the graph of f is concave downward on (0, ∞), and so w = 192 gives an absolute maximum of f . We find
h 2 = 576 − 192 = 384 ⇔ h ≈ 19.60. So the width and height of the log should be approximately 13.86 inches and
19.60 inches, respectively.
 Section 3.7 Optimization Problems 245

3/2
35. h = 232 − w2 . The figure is similar to that of Exercise 34. S = kwh 3 = kw 529 − w2 , 0 < w < 23 ⇒
3/2 1/2 1/2
S = k 529 − w2 + kw 32 529 − w2 (−2w) = k 529 − w2 529 − w2 − 3w2
1/2
= k 529 − w2 529 − 4w2 = 0 ⇒

w = ±23 or w = ± 23 23
2 . We reject the negative roots. The FDT shows that 2 gives a relative maximum and since it is
the only critical number, we conclude that a width of 11.5 yields the absolute maximum. The corresponding height is
h= 232 − w2 ≈ 19.9 .

36. The area of the cross-section is A = (2) 12 (5 cos θ) (5 sin θ) + 5 (5 sin θ) = 25 (cos θ sin θ + sin θ), 0 < θ < π
2 ⇒
dA
= 25 − sin2 θ + cos2 θ + cos θ = 25 cos2 θ − 1 + cos2 θ + cos θ
dθ
= 25 2 cos2 θ + cos θ − 1 = 25 (2 cos θ − 1) (cos θ + 1)
dA
Setting = 0 gives cos θ = 12 or cos θ = −1 ⇒ θ = π π
3 , the only critical number in 0, 2 . Next,
dθ
A = 25 sin θ (4 cos θ + 1) < 0 for all θ on 0, π π
2 , so the absolute maximum of A occurs at θ = 3 . The desired angle is
60◦ .

37. We want to maximize V = 13 πr 2 h, but 2πr = 2π (12) − 12θ ⇒

12
12π − 6θ ¬
r= , and also h = 144 − r 2 . Thus,
π
1/2
V = f (θ) = 13 πr 2 144 − r 2 ⇒

V = f (θ) =
d 1 πr 2 144 − r 2 1/2 dr
12
dr 3 dθ h
1/2 −1/2
= 13 π 2r 144 − r 2 + r 2 12 144 − r 2 (−2r) 6
−π r

−1/2 2r 288 − 3r 2
= −2r 144 − r 2 2 144 − r 2 − r 2 = − =0⇒
144 − r 2
√
√ √ 12π − πr 2π 3 − 6
r = 0 or r = ±4 6, but only 4 6 is meaningful. In that case, θ = = . We calculate
6 3
⎛ √ ⎞
2π 3 − 6 √ √
f (0) = 0, f ⎝ ⎠ = 128π 3, and f (2π) = 0, so the maximal volume of 128π 3 in3 is obtained when
3
√
2π 3 − 6
θ= rad, or about 66◦ .
3

38. Since the perimeter of the window is 28 ft, we have 2x + 2y + πx = 28 ⇔ y = 12 (28 − πx − 2x). We want to
maximize A = 2x y + 12 πx 2 = 12 πx 2 + x (28 − πx − 2x) = 12 πx 2 + 28x − πx 2 − 2x 2 = 28x − π 2 2
2 x − 2x . Now
A = 28 − πx − 4x = 0 ⇔ x = 4+ 28 is a critical number of A. Since A = −π − 4 < 0, the number yields a maximum of
π
1 28π 56 1 112 + 28π − 28π − 56 28
A. The corresponding value of y = 28 − − = · = .
2 4+π 4+π 2 4+π 4+π
246 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

1
39. We want to minimize S = 3πr 2 + 2πr h. But πr 2 h + 23 πr 3 = 504π ⇔ h = 2 504 − 23 r 3 , so
r
1 2r 3 1008π 4πr 2 5πr 2 1008π
S = f (r ) = 3πr 2 + 2πr · 2 504 − = 3πr 2 + − = + . Now
r 3 r 3 3 r
10πr 1008π 10πr 3 − 3024π 3024π 1/3
f (r ) = − 2
= 2
= 0 ⇔ r3 = ⇔ r = 1512 5 ≈ 6.7 is a critical number of
3 r 3r 10π
10π 2016π
f . Since f (r) = + > 0 for all r in (0, ∞), we see that r ≈ 6.7 does yield an absolute minimum of h.
3 r3
Therefore, the radius should be approximately 6.7 ft and the height should be approximately 6.7 ft.

40. The area enclosed by the rectangular region of the racetrack is A = ( ) (2r) = 2r . The length of the racetrack is 2πr + 2 ,
and this is equal to 1760, so 2 (πr + ) = 1760 ⇔ πr + = 880 ⇔ = 880 − πr. Therefore, we want to maximize
A = f (r) = 2r (880 − πr) = 1760r − 2πr 2 . The restriction on r is 0 ≤ r ≤ 880
π . To maximize A, we compute
f (r ) = 1760 − 4πr. Setting f (r) = 0 gives r = 1760 440
4π = π ≈ 140. Since f (0) = f
880
π = 0, we see that the

maximum rectangular area is enclosed if we take r = 440 440

π and = 880 − π π = 440. So r = 140 and = 440. The

total area enclosed is 2r + πr 2 = 2 440 440 2 = 2(440)2 + 4402 = 580,800 ≈ 184, 874 ft2 .
π (440) + π π π π π

64
41. We want to minimize the surface area of the container S = 2πr 2 + 2πr h. But πr 2 h = 64 ⇔ h = . Therefore,
πr 2
64 128 128 4πr 3 − 128 32
S = 2πr 2 + 2πr = 2πr 2 + , r > 0 ⇒ S = 4πr − 2 = =0⇒r = 3 ≈ 2.17. Since
πr 2 r r r3 π
256
S = 4π + > 0 for r > 0, we see that the graph of S is concave upward, and r ≈ 2.17 gives the absolute minimum
r3
64 32
value of S. The corresponding value of h is h = 2/3
=23 ≈ 4.34. Notice that the height is twice the radius.
π
π 32
π

42. We want to maximize A = 12 r 2 θ. But 2r + s = 50 and s = rθ, so s

s 50 − 2r 50 − 2r
θ= = . Therefore A = 12 r 2 θ = 12 r 2 = 25r − r 2 ⇒
r r r
¬ r
A = 25 − 2r = 0 ⇔ r = 25 25
2 and 2 is a critical number of A. A = −2 < 0
and the graph of A is concave downward everywhere. Therefore 25
2 gives a
maximum value of A (r ), and the desired radius is 12.5 ft.

43. Let x denote the distance between O and M. Then we want to minimize D = 52 + x 2 + (12 − x)2 + 22 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 12
x 12 − x x 12 − x
⇒D = − =0⇔ = . The easiest way to solve this equation is to
25 + x 2 (12 − x)2 + 4 25 + x 2 (12 − x)2 + 4
x 12 − x
find the intersection of the functions f (x) = and g (x) = using a graphing utility. We find
25 + x 2 (12 − x)2 + 4
that this is x ≈ 8.57. Physical considerations tell us that this is obviously the desired solution, so M must be located
approximately 8.6 mi from O.
 Section 3.7 Optimization Problems 247

12 − x x2 + 9
44. The time taken for the flight is T = f (x) = + , 0 ≤ x ≤ 12 ⇒
6 4
−1/2 x 3x − 2 x 2 + 9
f (x) = − 16 + 14 12 x2 + 9 (2x) = − 16 + = . Setting f (x) = 0 gives
4 x2 + 9 12 x 2 + 9
√
3x = 2 x 2 + 9 ⇔ 9x 2 = 4 x 2 + 9 ⇔ 5x 2 = 36. Therefore, x = ± 6 5 5 . We reject the negative root. Since
√
f (0) = 2.75, f 6 5 5 ≈ 2.56, and f (12) ≈ 3.09, we see that x ≈ 2.7 miles gives an absolute minimum for T .

x +1 (x + 1)2 4 (x + 1)
45. a. f (x) = √ and D (x) = (x − 0)2 + (y − 2)2 = x 2 + y 2 − 4y + 4 = x2 + − √ + 4,
x x x
x > 0.
b. We find the minimum value of D to be about 0.45, and so the closest the
speedboat came to the disabled boat is approximately 0.45 mi.
4

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

46. Suppose the distance between the two ports is D miles. Then it takes the ship D/v hours to travel from one port to the
D a
other. Therefore, the total cost incurred in making the trip is C = a + bv 3 = + bv 2 dollars. We want to
v v
a −a + 2bv 3 a 1/3 2a
minimize C for v > 0, so we calculate C = − 2 + 2bv = =0⇒v = . Since C = 3 + 2b > 0
v v2 2b v
a
for v > 0, the graph of C is concave upward and so the critical number 3 gives rise to the absolute minimum value of
2b
a
C. So the ship should sail at 3 mi/h.
2b
d E2 R (R + r)2 − R (2) (R + r) E 2 (r − R)
47. P = = E2 = = 0 ⇒ R = r, so r is a critical number of P.
dR (R + r )2 (R + r)4 (R + r)3
(R + r )3 (−1) − (r − R) (3) (R + r)2 2E 2 (R − 2r) −2E 2 r E2
Since P = E 2 = and P (R) R=r = = − < 0,
(R + r)6 (R + r)4 (2r )4 8r 3
the SDT and physical considerations both imply that R = r gives a relative maximum value of P. The maximum power is
E 2r E2
P= = watts.
(2r)2 4r
km h km h 2km 2km 2km
48. A (q) = − 2 + = 0 ⇔ 2 = ⇔ q 2 = ⇔q =± . We reject the negative root, so q = is the
q 2 q 2 h h h
2km 2km 2km
only critical number. Next, A (q) = > 0 for q > 0, so A > 0 and the SDT implies that q = gives
q3 h h
a relative minimum. Since A is concave upward, it is the absolute minimum.

d L C d L C 1/2 k L C −1/2 1 C k L2 − C2
49. v = k + =k + = + − 2 = = 0 ⇒ L = ±C. v
dL C L dL C L 2 C L C L L C
+ 2C L 2
C L
is not defined for L = −C, and so we reject that root. The length of the wave with minimum velocity is C.
248 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

50. Let the circle have equation x 2 + y 2 = a 2 . Since y = a 2 − x 2 , the area of y

x@+y@=a@
a
the inscribed isosceles triangle is f (x) = 12 (2x) (y + a) = x a2 − x 2 + a
B A
1/2
for 0 ≤ x ≤ a. We want to maximize f (x) = x a2 − x 2 + a on the
0 a x
closed interval [0, a].
1/2 −1/2
f (x) = a2 − x 2 + a + x 12 a2 − x 2 (−2x) C

−1/2 1/2
= a2 − x 2 a2 − x 2 + a a2 − x 2 − x2

a 2 − 2x 2 + a a 2 − x 2
=
a2 − x 2
Setting f (x) = 0 gives a 2 − 2x 2 + a a 2 − x 2 = 0 ⇔ 2x 2 − a 2 = a a 2 − x 2 . Squaring both sides of this equation
√ √
leads to 4x 4 − 4a 2 x 2 + a 4 = a 4 − a 2 x 2 ⇒ x 2 4x 2 − 3a 2 = 0, so x = 0 or x = ± 23 a. Thus, 23 a is the only critical
√ √ √
number in (0, a). We calculate f (0) = 0, f 3
= 3 4 3 a 2 , and f (a) = a 2 , so f attains a maximum value at x = 23a .
2 a
√ √
To show that the triangle with this value of x is equilateral, we find |AB| = 2x = 2 23a = 3a. Next, for this value of
√ √ 2
2 2 2 √
x, |BC|2 = |AC|2 = x 2 + a + a2 − x 2 3 a2 − 3a = 3a 2 ⇒ |BC| = |AC| = 3a.
= 2 a + a+ 2

Since |AB| = |BC| = |AC|, the triangle is equilateral.

y
51. Let the circle have equation x 2 + y 2 = a 2 . Then the area of the inscribed
x@+y@=a@
a
rectangle is A = (2x) (2y) = 4x y = 4x a 2 − x 2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ a. We want to
1/2
maximize f (x) = 4x a 2 − x 2 on the closed interval [0, a]. Then
0 a x
1/2 1 −1/2
f (x) = 4 a 2 − x 2 + 4x 2 a2 − x 2 (−2x)

−1/2 4 a 2 − 2x 2
= 4 a2 − x 2 [ a2 − x 2 − x 2] =
a2 − x 2
√ √
Setting f (x) = 0 gives a 2 − 2x 2 = 0 ⇒ x = ± 22a . So 22a is the only critical number in (0, a). f (0) = 0,
√ √
f 22 a = 2a 2 , and f (a) = 0, so f attains a maximum value at x = 22 a. The dimensions of the rectangle for this value
√ √ √ 2 √
of x are 2x = 2 2a = 2a by 2y = 2 a 2 − 22a = 2a. Since the sides have equal length, we conclude that the
2
rectangle of maximum area is indeed a square.

5−h 5
52. We want to maximize V = πr 2 h. By similar triangles, = ⇒
r 3
15 − 5r 15 − 5r
h= , and so V = f (r) = πr 2 = 53π 3r 2 − r 3 , 5-h
3 3 5
r
0 ≤ r ≤ 3 ⇒ f (r) = 53π 6r − 3r 2 = 5πr (2 − r ) = 0 ⇔ r = 2.
h
f (0) = 0, f (2) = 203π , and f (3) = 0. We see that V is maximized if the
3
radius of the cylinder is 2 and its height is 53 .
 Section 3.7 Optimization Problems 249

H −h r
53. We want to maximize S = 2πr h. By similar triangles, = ⇒
H R
r r r2 H-h
h = H 1− , and so S = f (r) = 2πr H 1 − = 2π H r − ⇒
R R R H
r
2r 2π H R
f (r ) = 2π H 1 − = (R − 2r) = 0 ⇔ r = . h
R R 2
4π H R
f (r) = − < 0, so the graph of f is concave downward everywhere, and
R
r = R/2 yields the absolute maximum of f . The required radius is R/2 and the
height is H/2.

54. We want to maximize S = 4πx y. But x 2 + y 2 = a 2 ⇔ y = a2 − x 2, y

0 ≤ x ≤ a, and so S = f (x) = 4πx a 2 − x 2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ a ⇒

1/2 −1/2 x
f (x) = 4π a2 − x 2 + x 12 a2 − x 2 (−2x)
y

−1/2 4π a 2 − 2x 2
= 4π a 2 − x 2 a2 − x 2 − x 2 = =0 ⇒ a x
a2 − x 2
√ √
x = 22 a since x must be nonnegative. f (0) = 0, f 2
2 a = 2πa 2 , and
√
f (a) = 0. We see that the required radius is 22 a and the height is
√ √
2y = 2 a 2 − 12 a 2 = 2 22 a = 2a.

55. We want to minimize A = 12 x y. Let m denote the slope of the line. Then its y

equation is y − 2 = m (x − 1) or y = mx − m + 2. The x-intercept of this line

2 (1, 2)
m−2
is x = and the y-intercept is −m + 2, so
m
1 m−2 1 4 1 x
A = 12 x y = (−m + 2) = − m−4+ ⇒
2 m 2 m
1 4
A =− 1 − 2 = 0 ⇔ m = ±2. If m = 2, then the equation of the line is y = 2x and it does not form a triangle as
2 m
4
described in the problem. So we reject this root. Since A = − 3 > 0 if m < 0, we see that m = −2 gives rise to the
m
absolute minimum of A, so the required equation is y = −2x + 4.
d v 02 2v 02 2
π = v 0 , and R π = 0, so the
56. R = sin 2θ = cos 2θ = 0 ⇔ cos 2θ = 0 ⇔ θ = π
4 . R (0) = 0, R 4 2
dθ g g g
required angle of elevation is π ◦
4 or 45 .
k cos θ h h kh
57. P = where k is the constant of proportionality. cos θ = = , so P = 3/2
,0≤h ≤8⇒
r2 r h 2 + 25 h 2 + 25
d −3/2 −3/2 −5/2
P =k h h 2 + 25 =k h 2 + 25 + h − 32 h 2 + 25 (2h)
dh
k 25 − 2h 2 √
−5/2 5 2
= k h 2 + 25 h 2 + 25 − 3h 2 = 5/2
=0⇒h = since h ≥ 0.
h 2 + 25 2
√ √
Now P (0) = 0, P 5 2 2 ≈ 0.0154k, and P (8) ≈ 0.0095k, so the required height is 5 2 2 ≈ 3.54 ft.
250 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative
√
3 2 3 − cos θ
58. a. S (θ) = 6ab + b ⇒
2 sin θ
⎡ √ ⎤ √ √
3 2 ⎣ sin θ (sin θ) − 3 − cos θ (cos θ) 3 2 sin2 θ − 3 cos θ + cos2 θ 3b2 1 − 3 cos θ
S (θ) = b ⎦ = b =
2 sin2 θ 2 sin2 θ 2 sin2 θ
√ √ √
Setting S (θ) = 0 gives 3 cos θ = 1 ⇔ cos θ = √1 = 33 ≈ 54.7◦ and θ = cos−1 33 .
3
2
√ 2
√ √
3b 3 cos θ − 2 3 cos θ
S (θ) = > 0 for all θ on 0, π
2 ⇒ S (θ) has its absolute minimum at θ = cos
−1 3 .
3
2 sin3 θ

b. Either by zooming in or using an extremum finder, we see that f has a

2.0
minimum at θ ≈ 0.9553. This agrees with the result obtained in part a,
√
because x = cos−1 33 ≈ 0.9553.
1.5

1.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

59. Let be the length of the pipe. We can write = 1 + 2 = 8 sec θ + 4 csc θ,
jª
d 4 ft
0<θ< π 2 . Now dθ = 8 sec θ tan θ − 4 csc θ cot θ = 0 ⇔ ¬
8 sin θ 4 cos θ jÁ
8 sec θ tan θ = 4 csc θ cot θ ⇔ = ⇔ 2 sin3 θ = cos3 θ
cos θ cos θ sin θ sin θ ¬
1 ≈ 0.6709. Since → ∞ as θ → 0 and
⇔ tan3 θ = 12 ⇔ θ = tan−1 √
3
2
→ ∞ as θ → π 8 ft
2 , we see that θ ≈ 0.6709 gives the absolute minimum value
of on 0, π
2 , which is l ≈ 8 sec 0.6709 + 4 csc 0.6709 ≈ 16.65 ft. So a 16 ft
pipe can be carried around the corner.

60. With respect to the coordinate system shown, the position of plane A at time t is y
√ √
− 12 (300 − 500t) , 23 (300 − 500t) = −150 + 250t, 3 (150 − 250t) A
30¡
and the position of plane B is (200 − 500t, 0). Therefore, the distance between
the two planes is
B x
√ 2
D= [−150 + 250t − (200 − 500t)]2 + 3 (150 − 250t)

= 100 75t 2 − 75t + 19

To minimize D, it suffices to minimize D 2 = f (t) = 75t 2 − 75t + 19. We find that f (t) = 150t − 75 = 0 ⇔ t = 12 .
Since f (t) = 150 > 0 for all t ≥ 0, we see that t = 12 yields the absolute minimum value of f (t), and thus for D.
2
D 12 = 100 75 12 − 75 12 + 19 = 50, so the aircraft will be closest to each other half an hour later. The smallest
distance between them is 50 miles.
 Section 3.7 Optimization Problems 251

16r 2
61. We need to maximize V̂ = 2
− r 2 . Now
r + 12
2 3
r + 12 (32r) − 16r 2 · 2 r + 12 32r r + 12 − 32r 2 16r − 2r r + 12
V̂ = 4
− 2r = 3
− 2r = 3
r + 12 r + 12 r + 12
3
2r 8 − r + 12
= 3
r + 12
3 3
so V̂ = 0 ⇔ 8 − r + 12 = 0 ⇔ r + 12 = 8 ⇔ r + 12 = 2 ⇔ r = 32 . Next,
2
3
16 2 2 2
V̂ 3 − 32 = 32 (4 − 1) = 3 94 = 27 16 − 1 = 16
2 =
22 4 , so h = 2 4 − 1 = 3. Thus, the dimensions are
r+ 12

r = 32 and h = 3. We have V̂ (0) = 0, V̂ 32 = 27 7 3

4 , and V̂ 2 = 0, so V is maximized if r = 2 . The radius is 1.5 ft and
the height is 3 ft.

d Q x Q d −3/2 Q −3/2 −5/2

62. F = = x x 2 + a2 = x 2 + a2 + x − 32 x 2 + a2 (2x)
dx 4πε0 x 2 + a 2 3/2 4πε0 dx 4πε0

Q −5/2 Q 2x 2 − a 2 √
2
= x 2 + a2 x 2 + a 2 − 3x 2 = − = 0 ⇔ x = ± 2 a.
4πε0 4πε0 x 2 + a 2 5/2

Q 6x 3 − 9a 2 x √ √
We reject the negative root. F = ⇒F 2 < 0, so F is maximized when x = 22 a.
7/2 2 a
4πε0 x 2 + a 2

d v3 (v − u) 3v 2 − v 3
E
63. a. E (v) = aL = aL b.
dv v −u (v − u)2
aL 2v 3 − 3uv 2 aLv 2 (2v − 3u)
= = =0 ⇔
(v − u)2 (v − u)2
v = 0 or v = 32 u, and 32 u is a critical number of E in (0, ∞).
_ _ _ _ _ _ 0 +++++ sign of E»
0 u 3 u 2u v
v 2
3
0 u 2u 2u

From the sign diagram, we see that the speed that minimizes E is 32 u ft/s.

d 2 −1/2 2 −3/2 d 2
64. g (γ) = F ω − γ2 + 4λ2 γ 2 = F − 12 ω2 − γ 2 + 4λ2 γ 2 ω2 − γ 2 + 4λ2 γ 2
dγ dγ
2 2 2 −2Fγ γ 2 + 2λ2 − ω 2 2Fγ γ + ω 2 − 2λ2 γ − ω 2 − 2λ2
F 2 ω − γ (−2γ) + 8λ γ
=− 3/2
= 3/2
=− 3/2
2 2 2 2
ω 2 − γ 2 + 4λ2 γ 2 ω 2 − γ 2 + 4λ2 γ 2 ω 2 − γ 2 + 4λ2 γ 2

Setting g (γ) = 0 gives γ = 0 or γ = ω 2 − 2λ2 . From 0 +++++ 0 ----- sign of g»

the sign diagram for g , we see that g is maximized at 

0 Ï×@-2Â@
γ= ω 2 − 2λ2 .
252 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

x 2 + 1 10 − x
65. The time taken to get to Q is T (x) = + , 0 ≤ x ≤ 10 ⇒ 10
3 4 x 10-x
1 d 1/2 1 d P R Q
T (x) = x2 + 1 + (10 − x)
3 dx 4 dx
1 1 −1/2 1 x 1 1
= x2 + 1 (2x) − = −
3 2 4 3 x2 + 1 4

x 1 √
Setting T (x) = 0 gives = ⇔ 4x = 3 x 2 + 1 ⇔ 16x 2 = 9 x 2 + 1 ⇔ 7x 2 = 9 ⇔ x = 3 7 7 , since x
3 x2 + 1 4
√ √ √
3 7 3 7
must be positive. T (0) = 17
6 ≈ 2.83, T 7 ≈ 2.72, and T (10) = 101 3 ≈ 3.35. We see that x = 7 ≈ 1.134
yields the absolute minimum value for T , so she should land at the point R located about 1.134 mi from P. She requires
√ √
T 3 7 7 = 30 +
12
7
≈ 2.72 hours.

66. a. The distance from P to Q is d1 and the radius of the pipe is R; the distance from Q to S is d2 and the radius of the pipe
kd kd
is r. By Poiseuille’s law, E = 41 + 42 , where k is the constant of proportionality.
R r
b. Referring to the figure in the text, we see that d1 = a − b cot θ and d2 = b csc θ. The result follows.
dE b b b b
c. = k − 4 − csc2 θ + 4 (− csc θ cot θ) = 0 ⇔ 4 csc2 θ = 4 csc θ cot θ ⇔
dθ R R R r
r4 1 cos θ −1 r
4
= cot θ · = · sin θ = cos θ ⇔ θ = cos
R4 csc θ sin θ R4

67. The time it takes the ray of light to travel from A to C is A

a2 + x 2 b2 + (d − x)2
T = + ,0≤x ≤d ⇒ a
v1 v2
1 d 1/2 1 d 1/2 ¬Á
T (x) = a2 + x 2 + b2 + (d − x)2
v 1 dx v 2 dx
x d−x
= − ¬ª b
v1 a2 + x 2 v 2 b2 + (d − x)2
B
x
d

Setting T (x) = 0 and solving for x gives the critical number of T . We first show that this hypothetical critical number
does give a minimum:
1 d −1/2 1 d −1/2
T (x) = x a2 + x 2 − (d − x) b2 + (d − x)2
v 1 dx v 2 dx
1 −1/2 −3/2
= a2 + x 2 + x − 12 a2 + x 2 (2x)
v1
1 −1/2 −3/2
− 2 − b2 + (d − x)2 + (d − x) − 12 b2 + (d − x)2 2 (d − x) (−1)
v
1 −3/2 1 2 −3/2 2
= a2 + x 2 a2 + x 2 − x 2 + b + (d − x)2 b + (d − x)2 − (d − x)2
v1 v2
a2 b2
= 3/2
+ 3/2
>0
v1 a2 + x 2 v 2 b2 + (d − x)2
 Section 3.7 Optimization Problems 253

x d−x
showing that this is indeed the case. Now since = sin θ1 and = sin θ 2 , we see that the
a2 + x 2 b2 + (d − x)2
sin θ1 sin θ2
condition for the existence of the absolute minimum value of T is T (x) = 0, or = , as desired.
v1 v2
68. a. The sum of the squares of the errors is
2 2 2
g (a) = y1 − f (x1 ) + y2 − f (x2 ) + · · · + yn − f (xn ) = (y1 − ax1 )2 + (y2 − ax2 )2 + · · · + (yn − axn )2 .

b. g (a) = 2 (y1 − ax1 ) (−x1 ) + 2 (y2 − ax2 ) (−x2 ) + · · · + 2 (yn − axn ) (−xn )

= 2 −x1 y1 + ax12 − x2 y2 + ax22 + · · · − xn yn + axn2

= 2 a x12 + x22 + · · · + xn2 − (x1 y1 + x2 y2 + · · · + xn yn ) = 0 ⇒
x y + x y + · · · + xn yn
a = 1 1 2 2 22 , a critical number of g. Since g (a) = 2 x12 + x22 + · · · + xn2 > 0, the number a
x1 + x2 + · · · + xn2
gives an absolute minimum of g.
0 + 0.1 (1.68) + 0.2 (3.18) + 0.3 (4.84) + 0.4 (6.36) + 0.5 (8.02)
69. a. a = ≈ 16.02, so the best straight line is
02 + (0.1)2 + (0.2)2 + (0.3)2 + (0.4)2 + (0.5)2
approximately y = 16.02x.
b. c. F = kx ⇔ k ≈ 16.02, so the spring constant is about
8 16.02 lb/ft.
6

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

2 2 2 2 2 2
70. a. g (a) = y1 − f (x1 ) + y2 − f (x2 ) + · · · + yn − f (xn ) = y1 − ax12 + y2 − ax22 + · · · + yn − axn2

b. g (a) = 2 y1 − ax12 −x12 + 2 y2 − ax22 −x22 + · · · + 2 yn − axn2 −xn2

= 2 − x12 y1 + x22 y2 + · · · + xn2 yn + a x14 + x24 + · · · + xn4 =0⇒

x 2 y1 + x 2 y2 + · · · + xn2 yn
a = 1 4 24 , a critical number of g. g (a) = 2 x14 + x24 + · · · + xn4 > 0, so a does minimize g.
x1 + x2 + · · · + xn4
0 + (0.1)2 (0.1608) + (0.2)2 (0.6416) + · · · + (0.7)2 (7.8614)
71. a. a = ≈ 16.04, so y = 16.04t 2 .
04 + 0.14 + 0.24 + · · · + 0.74
b. c. Comparing s = 12 gt 2 with y = 16.04t 2 , we see that
10
g ≈ 32.08 ft/s2 .

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
254 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

3.8 Concept Questions

1. See page 336.
2. See page 337.
3. No. See page 340.

3.8 Newton’s Method

d f (xn ) −x 3 − 2xn + 2 2x 3 + 2
1. f (x) = −x 3 − 2x + 2 = −3x 2 −2. We use the iteration xn+1 = xn − = xn − n 2 = n2 .
dx f (xn ) −3xn − 2 3xn + 2
2 (1) + 2 2 (0.8)3 + 2
x0 = 1, x1 = = 0.8, x2 = ≈ 0.77143, and x3 ≈ 0.77092 ≈ x4 , so the desired root is about 0.7709.
3 (1) + 2 3 (0.8)2 + 2
d
2. f (x) = 2x 3 − 15x 2 + 36x − 20 = 6x 2 − 30x + 36. We use the iteration
dx
f (xn ) 2x 3 − 15x 2 + 36xn − 20 4x 3 − 15xn2 + 20 4 − 15 + 20
xn+1 = xn − = xn − n 2 n = n2 . x0 = 1, x1 = = 0.75,
f (xn ) 6xn − 30xn + 36 6xn − 30xn + 36 6 − 30 + 36
4 (0.75)3 − 15 (0.75)2 + 20
x1 = ≈ 0.78519, and x2 ≈ 0.78599 ≈ x3 , so the desired root is about 0.7860.
6 (0.75)2 − 30 (0.75) + 36
d 3 x 4 − 2x 3 − 6x 2 + 8
3. f (x) = 2 = 6x 3 − 6x 2 − 12x. We have the iteration
dx
3 x 4 − 2x 3 − 6x 2 + 8
f (xn ) n n n 4.5xn4 − 4xn3 − 6xn2 − 8
xn+1 = xn − = xn − 2 3 2
= . x0 = 1, x1 = 1.125, x2 ≈ 1.12192 ≈ x3
f (xn ) 6xn − 6xn − 12xn 6xn xn2 − xn − 2
gives one root at about 1.1219, and x0 = 3, x1 ≈ 2.70139, x2 ≈ 2.59044, x3 ≈ 2.57478, x4 ≈ 2.57448 ≈ x5 gives the
other root, about 2.5745.

d 1/2 −1/2 x+ 1 − x2
4. f (x) = x − 1 − x2 = 1 − 12 1 − x 2 (−2x) = . So
dx 1 − x2

f (xn ) xn − 1 − xn2 1
xn+1 = xn − = xn − = . x0 = 0.5, x1 ≈ 0.73205, x2 ≈ 0.70756,
f (xn )
xn + 1 − xn2 xn + 1 − xn2

1 − xn2
x3 ≈ 0.70711 ≈ x4 , so the root is about 0.7071.

x 2 − sin xn x 2 − xn cos xn + sin xn

5. Let h (x) = f (x) − g (x) = x 2 − sin x. Then h (x) = 2x − cos x. xn+1 = xn − n = n .
2xn − cos xn 2xn − cos xn
x0 = 1, x1 ≈ 0.89140, x2 ≈ 0.87698, x3 ≈ 0.87673 ≈ x4 , so the point of intersection is about (0.8767, 0.7686).

6. Let h (x) = f (x) − g (x) = tan x + x − 1. Then h (x) = sec2 x + 1.

tan xn + xn − 1 xn sec2 xn − tan xn + 1
xn+1 = xn − 2
= . x0 = 1, x1 ≈ 0.64808, x2 ≈ 0.49060, x3 ≈ 0.47977,
sec xn + 1 sec2 xn + 1
x4 ≈ 0.47973, so the point of intersection is about (0.4797, 0.5203).
1 cos x − x
n n xn sin x + cos xn
7. Let h (x) = f (x) − g (x) = 12 cos x − x. Then h (x) = − 12 sin x − 1. xn+1 = xn − 2 1 = .
− 2 sin xn − 1 sin xn + 2
x0 = 0.5, x1 ≈ 0.45063, x2 ≈ 0.45018 ≈ x3 , so the point of intersection is about (0.4502, 0.4502).
 Section 3.8 Newton’s Method 255

sin xn − 0.2xn xn cos xn − sin xn

8. Let h (x) = f (x) − g (x) = sin x − 0.2x ⇒ h (x) = cos x − 0.2. xn+1 = xn − = .
cos xn − 0.2 cos xn − 0.2
x0 = 2, x1 ≈ 2.82658, x2 ≈ 2.60457, x3 ≈ 2.59576, x4 ≈ 2.59574, so the two points of intersection are about
(±2.5957, ±0.5191).

d x 3 + xn − 4 2x 3 + 4
9. f (x) = x 3 + x − 4 = 3x 2 + 1 ⇒ xn+1 = xn − n 2 = n2 . x0 = 1 ⇒ x1 = 1.5, x2 ≈ 1.38710,
dx 3xn + 1 3xn + 1
x3 ≈ 1.37884, and x4 ≈ 1.37880, so the zero is about 1.37880.

d x 3 + 2x 2 + xn − 6 2x 3 + 2xn2 + 6
10. f (x) = x 3 + 2x 2 + x − 6 = 3x 2 + 4x + 1 ⇒ xn+1 = xn − n 2 n = n2 . x0 = 1.5 ⇒
dx 3xn + 4xn + 1 3xn + 4xn + 1
x1 ≈ 1.25455, x2 ≈ 1.21946, and x3 ≈ 1.21878 ≈ x4 , so the zero is about 1.21878.

d x 5 + xn − 1 4x 5 + 1
11. f (x) = x 5 + x − 1 = 5x 4 + 1 ⇒ xn+1 = xn − n 4 = n4 . x0 = 0.5 ⇒ x1 ≈ 0.85714,
dx 5xn + 1 5xn + 1
x2 ≈ 0.77068, x3 ≈ 0.75528, and x4 ≈ 0.75488 ≈ x5 , so the zero is about 0.75488.

d x 5 + 2x 4 + 2xn − 4 4x 5 + 6xn4 + 4
12. f (x) = x 5 + 2x 4 + 2x − 4 = 5x 4 + 8x 3 + 2 ⇒ xn+1 = xn − n 4 n 3 = n4 . x0 = 0.5
dx 5xn + 8xn + 2 5xn + 8xn3 + 2
⇒ x1 ≈ 1.35849, x2 ≈ 1.09867, x3 ≈ 0.96234, x4 ≈ 0.92766, and x5 ≈ 0.92572 ≈ x6 , so the zero is about 0.92572.
d 5xn + cos xn − 5 5 − xn sin xn − cos xn
13. f (x) = (5x + cos x − 5) = 5 − sin x ⇒ xn+1 = xn − = . x0 = 0.5 ⇒
dx 5 − sin xn 5 − sin xn
x1 ≈ 0.85890, x2 ≈ 0.87121, and x3 ≈ 0.87122 ≈ x4 , so the zero is about 0.87122.
d xn − sin xn − 0.5 sin xn − xn cos xn + 0.5
14. f (x) = (x − sin x − 0.5) = 1 − cos x ⇒ xn+1 = xn − = . x0 = 1 ⇒
dx 1 − cos xn 1 − cos xn
x1 ≈ 1.74282, x2 ≈ 1.52289, x3 ≈ 1.49764, and x4 ≈ 1.49730 ≈ x5 , so the zero is about 1.49730.

d x 3 + 3x 2 − 3 2x 3 + 3x 2 + 3
15. f (x) = x 3 + 3x 2 − 3 = 3x 2 + 6x ⇒ xn+1 = xn − n 2 n = n 2 n . x0 = −1 ⇒ x1 = − 43 ,
dx 3xn + 6xn 3xn + 6xn
x2 ≈ −1.3472222, and x3 ≈ −1.3472964 ≈ x4 , so the zero is about −1.347296.

d x 3 − xn − 1 2x 3 + 1
16. f (x) = x 3 − x − 1 = 3x 2 − 1 ⇒ xn+1 = xn − n 2 = n2 . x0 = 1.5 ⇒ x1 ≈ 1.3478261,
dx 3xn − 1 3xn − 1
x2 ≈ 1.3252004, x3 ≈ 1.3247182, and x4 ≈ 1.3247180, so the required zero is about 1.324718.
d cos xn − xn xn sin xn + cos xn
17. f (x) = (cos x − x) = − sin x − 1 ⇒ xn+1 = xn − = . x0 = 1 ⇒ x1 ≈ 0.7503639,
dx − sin xn − 1 1 + sin xn
x2 ≈ 0.7391129, and x3 ≈ 0.7390851 ≈ x4 , so the required zero is about 0.739085.
d 2xn − sin xn − 2 2 + sin xn − xn cos xn
18. f (x) = (2x − sin x − 2) = 2 − cos x ⇒ xn+1 = xn − = . x0 = 2 ⇒
dx 2 − cos xn 2 − cos xn
x1 ≈ 1.5485777, x2 ≈ 1.4993295, x3 ≈ 1.4987012, and x4 ≈ 1.4987011, so the required zero is about 1.498701.

f (x0 ) f (x1 ) f (x0 )

19. If x0 is a zero of f , then f (x0 ) = 0, so x1 = x0 − = x0 , x2 = x1 − = x0 − = x0 , . . ., xn = x0 ,
f (x0 ) f (x) f (x0 )
. . .. So all the terms in the sequence are equal to x0 .
20. f is continuous everywhere. Since f (0) = −2 and f (1) = 2 − 9 + 12 − 2 = 3, the Intermediate Value Theorem
implies that there is at least one number c in (0, 1) such that f (c) = 0. To find c we use Newton’s Method:
d 2x 3 − 9x 2 + 12xn − 2 4xn3 − 9xn2 + 2
f (x) = 2x 3 − 9x 2 + 12x − 2 = 6x 2 − 18x + 12 ⇒ xn+1 = xn − n 2 n = .
dx 6xn − 18xn + 12 6 xn2 − 3xn + 2
Taking x0 = 0.5, we find x1 ≈ 0.05556, x2 ≈ 0.17905, x3 ≈ 0.19337, and x4 ≈ 0.19356 ≈ x5 , so the required zero is
about 0.1936.
256 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

21. f is continuous everywhere. Since f (1) = −3 and f (2) = 1, the Intermediate Value Theorem implies that there is at least
d
one number c in (1, 2) such that f (c) = 0. To find c we use Newton’s Method: f (x) = x 3 − 3x − 1 = 3x 2 − 3 ⇒
dx
x 3 − 3xn − 1 2x 3 + 1
xn+1 = xn − n 2 = n2 . Taking x0 = 1.5, we find x1 ≈ 2.06667, x2 ≈ 1.90088, x3 ≈ 1.87972, and
3xn − 3 3xn − 3
x4 ≈ 1.87939, so the required zero is about 1.8794.

d x2 − 3 x2 + 3
22. f (x) = x 2 − 3 = 2x ⇒ xn+1 = xn − n = n . x0 = 1.5 ⇒ x1 = 1.75, x2 ≈ 1.73214, and
dx 2xn 2xn
x3 ≈ 1.73205, so the required root is about 1.7321.

d x2 − 6 x2 + 6
23. f (x) = x 2 − 6 = 2x ⇒ xn+1 = xn − n = n . x0 = 2.5 ⇒ x1 = 2.45 and x2 ≈ 2.44949 ≈ x3 , so the
dx 2xn 2xn
required root is about 2.4495.

d x3 − 7 2x 3 + 7
24. f (x) = x 3 − 7 = 3x 2 ⇒ xn+1 = xn − n 2 = n 2 . x0 = 2 ⇒ x1 ≈ 1.916667, x2 ≈ 1.912938, and
dx 3xn 3xn
x3 ≈ 1.912931, so the required root is about 1.9129.

d x 4 − 20 3x 4 + 20
25. f (x) = x 4 − 20 = 4x 3 ⇒ xn+1 = xn − n 3 = n 3 . x0 = 2.1 ⇒ x1 ≈ 2.114898 and
dx 4xn 4xn
x2 ≈ 2.114743 ≈ x3 , so the required root is about 2.1147.

d xk − A kx k − x k + A 1 A
26. a. f (x) = x k − A = kx k−1 , so xn+1 = xn − n k−1 = n k−n1 = (k − 1) xn + k−1 .
dx kxn kxn k xn
1 50
b. Take k = 10 and A = 50. Then xn+1 = 9xn + 9 . Let us take x0 = 1.2. Then x1 ≈ 2.04903, x2 ≈ 1.85198,
10 xn
√
x3 ≈ 1.68629, x4 ≈ 1.56301, x5 ≈ 1.49652, x6 ≈ 1.47968, and x7 ≈ 1.47876 ≈ x8 , so 10 50 ≈ 1.4788.

27. We cannot use x0 = 1 because f (1) does not exist. In fact, y

d 1/2 −1/2 1
f (x) = x − 1 − x2 = 1 − 12 1 − x 2 (−2x)
dx
x
=1+ , which is undefined at x = 1.
_1 1 x
1 − x2
1
Using the result of Exercise 4, we have xn+1 = . If we take _1
xn + 1 − xn2
1
x0 = 1, then x1 = = 1, x2 = 1, and so forth. Therefore, 1 cannot be
1+0
1
used as an initial guess. If we take x0 = 0, then x1 = √ = 1 and we have
0+ 1
the same problem.

28. We need to find the roots of the equation −0.05t 3 + 0.4t 2 + 3.8t + 15.6 = 0. Let f (t) = 0.05t 3 − 0.4t 2 − 3.8t − 15.6.
0.05tn3 − 0.4tn2 − 3.8tn − 15.6 0.1tn3 − 0.4tn2 + 15.6
Then f (t) = 0.15t 2 − 0.8t − 3.8 and tn+1 = tn − = . Let us take
0.15tn2 − 0.8tn − 3.8 0.15tn2 − 0.8tn − 3.8
t0 = 12. Then t1 ≈ 15.951220, t2 ≈ 14.796808, t3 ≈ 14.646924, t4 ≈ 14.644481, and t5 ≈ 14.644480. So the required
root is about 14.6445, corresponding to approximately 14 h 39 min. Thus, the temperature was 0◦ F at approximately
8:39 P. M .
 Section 3.8 Newton’s Method 257

29. a. The square of the distance D between the submarine and the sonobuoy is
2
D 2 = g (x) = (x − 3)2 + (y − 0)2 = (x − 3)2 + x 2 + 1 = x 4 + 3x 2 − 6x + 10. To minimize D 2 = g (x), we

calculate g (x) = 4x 3 + 6x − 6 = 2 2x 3 + 3x − 3 = 0.

b. To solve 2x 3 + 3x − 3 = 0, let f (x) = 2x 3 + 3x − 3 ⇒ f (x) = 6x 2 + 3. Using Newton’s Method, we write

f (xn ) 2x 3 + 3xn − 3 4x 3 + 3
xn+1 = xn − = xn − n 2 = n2 . Choosing x0 = 2, we find x1 ≈ 1.296296, x2 ≈ 0.895339,
f (xn ) 6xn + 3 6xn + 3
x3 ≈ 0.751740, x4 ≈ 0.735332, and x5 ≈ 0.735139 ≈ x6 , so the root is about 0.7351.

c. The distance is D ≈ (0.7351)4 + 3 (0.7351)2 − 6 (0.7351) + 10 ≈ 2.74 miles.

d. The function is g (x) = x 4 + 3x 2 − 6x + 10 (see part a). From the

4
graph of g, we find that the absolute minimum of g occurs when
x ≈ 0.738 with a corresponding value of y ≈ 2.739.

2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

y
30. Let f (θ) = θ − 0.5 sin θ − 1. We want to solve the equation f (θ) = 0, so we
3/4
calculate f (θ) = 1 − 0.5 cos θ.
θn − 0.5 sin θ n − 1 1 + 0.5 sin θn − 0.5θn cos θn
θn+1 = θ n − = . We take 1/2
1 − 0.5 cos θn 1 − 0.5 cos θn
θ0 = 1.5. Then θ1 ≈ 1.498701 ≈ θ2 , so the desired angle is about 1.4987 rad or 1/4
about 85.87◦ .

1 x

r −12 N
31. Let f (r) = Ar + 12k 1+ − 1 . Then
12
r −12 N −1 1 r −12 N −1
f (r ) = A + 12k (−12N ) 1 + = A − 12N K 1 + . The iteration formula is
12 12 12
rn −12 N
Arn + 12k 1 + −1
f (rn ) 12
rn+1 = rn − = rn − .
f (rn ) rn −12 N −1
A − 12N k 1 +
12

32. Here A = 360,000, k = 2106, and N = 25, so

rn −12(25)
360,000rn + 12 (2106) 1+ −1
f (rn ) 12
rn+1 = rn − = rn −
f (rn ) rn −12(25)−1
360,000 − 12 (25) (2106) 1 +
12
rn −300
360,000rn + 25,272 1 + −1
12
= rn −
rn −301
360,000 − 631,800 1 +
12
Let us pick r0 = 0.06 (that is, 6%). Then r1 ≈ 0.050930, r2 ≈ 0.050079, and r3 ≈ 0.050070. Thus, the rate is about 0.05,
that is, 5% per annum.
258 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

33. Here A = 200,000, k = 1287.40, and N = 30, so

rn −12(30)
200,000rn + 12 (1287.4) 1+ −1
f (rn ) 12
rn+1 = rn − = rn −
f (rn ) rn −12(30)−1
200,000 − 12 (30) (1287.4) 1 +
12
rn −360
200,000rn + 15,448.8 1 + −1
12
= rn −
rn −361
200,000 − 463,464 1 +
12
Let us pick r0 = 0.05, that is, 5%. Then r1 ≈ 0.070590, r2 ≈ 0.066850, r3 ≈ 0.066762, and r4 ≈ 0.066782. Thus,
r ≈ 0.067, that is, 6.7% per annum.

1/3
f (xn ) xn
34. a. f (x) = 13 x −2/3 , so Newton’s iteration is xn+1 = xn − = xn − = −2xn . Now if we pick x0 = 0 as
f (xn ) 1 x −2/3
3 n
an initial guess, then x1 = −2x0 , x2 = 4x0 , x3 = −8x0 , . . ., xn = (−1)n 2n x0 , which grows arbitrarily large in absolute
value as n → ∞.
b. If x0 = 1, then f (x0 ) = f (1) = 1 and f (x0 ) = f (1) = 13 , so an
2
equation of the tangent line at (1, 1) is y − 1 = 13 (x − 1) ⇔ y = 13 x + 23 .
1
Next, with x1 = −2, we find f (−2) = (−2)1/3 = −21/3 and
1 1 1 0
f (−2) = · = , so an equation of the tangent line at
3 (−2)2/3 3 22/3 -1
1 1
−21/3 , is y + 21/3 = (x + 2) ⇔ -2
3 · 22/3 3 22/3 -4 -2 0 2 4

1 24/3
y= x− . The graph of f is shown along with the two
3 22/3 3
tangent lines.

35. a. f (x) = x 3 − 1.5x 2 − 6x + 2 ⇒ f (x) = 3x 2 − 3x − 6 ⇒

f (xn ) x 3 − 1.5xn2 − 6xn + 2 2xn3 − 1.5xn2 − 2
xn+1 = xn − = xn − n = . For the choices x0 = −1 or x0 = 2, the
f (xn ) 3xn2 − 3xn − 6 3xn2 − 3xn − 6
denominator of xn+1 is 3x02 − 3x0 − 6 = 0 and so Newton’s method fails.

b. If x0 = −2.5, then x1 ≈ −2.1049383, x2 ≈ −2.0062395, c.

x3 ≈ −2.0000242, and x4 ≈ −2.0000000 ≈ x5 , so r1 = −2. 5
If x0 = 1, then x1 = 0.25, x2 ≈ 0.3142857, x3 ≈ 0.3138594, and
0
x4 ≈ 0.3138593 ≈ x5 , so r2 ≈ 0.313859.
If x0 = 2.5, then x1 ≈ 3.7857143, x2 ≈ 3.3159488, x3 ≈ 3.1943677,
-5
x4 ≈ 3.1861770, and x5 ≈ 3.1861407 ≈ x6 , so r3 ≈ 3.186141.
-10
-2 0 2 4
 Chapter 3 Review 259

Chapter 3 Review

Concept Review
1. a. f (x) ≤ f (c); absolute maximum value b. f (c) ≤ f (x); open interval

2. a. domain; = 0; does not exist b. critical number c. relative extremum

3. continuous; absolute maximum value; absolute minimum value
f (b) − f (a)
4. a. (a, b); f (c) = 0 b.
b−a
5. a. f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) b. increasing; decreasing c. < 0

6. a. f b. > 0 c. upward; downward

d. relative maximum; relative extremum

7. a. values; arbitrarily large; a b. values; to L; sufficiently large c. arbitrarily large; decreases

8. a. lim f (x) = ±∞; lim f (x) = ±∞; b. lim f (x) = L; lim f (x) = L
x→a − x→a + x→∞ x→−∞
lim f (x) = ±∞
x→a

9. a. M > 0; δ > 0; f (x) > M b. M > 0; N ; x < N ; f (x) > M

Review Exercises
1. f (x) = −x 2 + 4x − 3 is continuous on [−1, 3]. f (x) = −2x + 4 = 0 ⇔ x = 2, a critical number of f . f (−1) = −8,
f (2) = 1, and f (3) = 0, so the absolute minimum value is −8 attained at −1; and the absolute maximum value is 1
attained at 2.
2. g (x) = 13 x 3 − x 2 + 1 is continuous on [0, 2]. So g (x) = x 2 − 2x = x (x − 2) = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or x = 2, so g has no critical
number in (0, 2). g (0) = 1 and g (2) = − 13 , so the absolute maximum value is 1 attained at 0, and the absolute minimum
value is − 13 attained at 2.

3. h (x) = x 3 − 6x 2 is continuous on [2, 5]. h (x) = 3x 2 − 12x = 3x (x − 4) = 0 ⇔ x = 0 or x = 4, so 4 is the only critical

number of h in (2, 5). h (2) = −16, h (4) = −32, and h (5) = −25, so the absolute maximum value is −16 attained at 2,
and the absolute minimum value is −32 attained at 4.

t t 2 + 1 − t (2t) (1 + t) (1 − t)
4. f (t) = 2 is continuous on [0, 5]. f (t) = 2
= 2
= 0 ⇒ t = ±1, so 1 is the only
t +1 t2 + 1 t2 + 1
critical number of f in (0, 5). f (0) = 0, f (1) = 12 , and f (5) = 26
5 , so the absolute maximum value is 1 attained at 1, and
2
the absolute minimum value is 0 attained at 0.

1 2 4x 3 + 2 2 2x 3 + 1 1
5. f (x) = 4x − 2 is continuous on [1, 3]. f (x) = 4 + 3 = = = 0 ⇒ x = −√ , so f has no
x x x3 x3 3
2
critical number in (1, 3). f (1) = 3 and f (3) = 107 107
9 , so the absolute maximum value is 9 attained at 3, and the absolute
minimum value is 3 attained at 1.
260 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

6. g (x) = x 1 − x 2 is continuous on [−1, 1].

d 1/2 1/2 −1/2
g (x) = x 1 − x2 = 1 − x2 + x 12 1 − x2 (−2x)
dx
−1/2 1 − 2x 2
= 1 − x2 1 − x2 − x2 = =0⇒
1 − x2
√ √ √
x = ± 22 , both critical numbers of g in (−1, 1). g (−1) = 0, g − 22 = − 12 , g 2
= 12 , and g (1) = 0, so the
2
√ √
absolute maximum value is 12 attained at 22 , and the absolute minimum value is − 12 attained at − 22 .
d
7. f (x) = −2x 3 + 9x 2 − 12x + 6 = −6x 2 + 18x − 12 = −6 (x − 2) (x − 1) = 0 ⇒ x = 1 or 2, both critical
dx
numbers of f in (0, 3). f (1) = 1, f (2) = 2, and f (3) = −3. Observe, however, that the interval (0, 3] is open on the left
and lim f (x) = 6. Since 6 is not attained, there is no absolute maximum value. The absolute minimum value is −3
x→0+
attained at x = 3.
d
8. g (x) = x 3 − 2x 2 − 4x + 4 = 3x 2 − 4x − 4 = (3x + 2) (x − 2) = 0 ⇒ x = − 23 or 2, both critical numbers of f
dx
on (−1, 3). f − 23 = 148
27 and f (2) = −4, but note that although (−1, 3) is open at both ends, x→−
lim g (x) = 5, and
1+
lim g (x) = 1, so g does have an absolute minimum value of −4 attained at 2 and an absolute maximum value of 148
27
x→3−
attained at − 23 .
9. f (x) = cos x − sin x is continuous on [0, 2π]. f (x) = − sin x − cos x = 0 ⇔ tan x = −1 ⇒ x = 34π or 74π in (0, 2π).
√ √ √
f (0) = 1, f 34π = − 2, f 74π = 2, and f (2π) = 1, so the absolute maximum value is 2 attained at 74π , and
√
the absolute minimum value is − 2 attained at 34π .
10. f (x) = sin 2x − 2 sin x is continuous on [−π, π].
f (x) = 2 cos 2x − 2 cos x = 2 2 cos2 x − cos x − 1 = 2 (2 cos x + 1) (cos x − 1) = 0 ⇔ cos x = − 12 or cos x = 1
√
⇒ x = ± 23π or 0, all of which are critical numbers of f in (−π, π). f (−π) = 0, f − 23π = 3 2 3 , f (0) = 0,
√ √
f 2π = − 3 2 3 , and f (π) = 0, so the absolute maximum value is 3 2 3 attained at − 23π , and the absolute minimum
3
√
value is − 3 2 3 attained at 23π .
d
11. f (x) = 1 x − sin x
2 = 12 − cos x = 0 ⇔ x = cos−1 12 = π π
3 , the only critical number of f in 0, 2 . f (0) = 0,
dx
√
f π −3 3+π , and f (π) = π , but π is not attained because π is not in the domain of f . The absolute minimum
3 = 6 2 2
√
value is −3 63+π attained at π 3 , and there is no absolute maximum value.
d
12. f (x) = (x tan x) = tan x + x sec2 x = 0 ⇒ x = 0, f (x) < 0 for x < 0, and f (x) > 0 for x > 0. Since
dx
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = ∞, we see that f has an absolute minimum value of 0, and no absolute maximum
x→(−π /2)+ x→(π /2)−
value.
13. f (x) = x 3 is continuous on [−2, 1] and differentiable on (−2, 1). So there exists a number c in (−2, 1) such that
f (1) − f (−2) 1 − (−8)
f (c) = 3x 2 = 3c2 = = ⇒ c = ±1. We reject 1 because it lies outside (−2, 1), so
x=c 1 − (−2) 3
c = −1.
√
14. g (x) = x is continuous on [0, 4] and differentiable on (0, 4). So there exists a number c in (0, 4) such that
1 1 g (4) − g (0) 2−0 1 √
g (c) = √ = √ = = = ⇔ c = 1 ⇒ c = 1.
2 x x=c 2 c 4−0 4 2
 Chapter 3 Review 261

1
15. h (x) = x + is continuous on [1, 3] and differentiable on (1, 3). So there exists a number c in (1, 3) such that
x
10 − 2
1 c2 − 1 h (3) − h (1) 3 2 √ √
h (c) = 1 − 2 = = = = ⇔ c2 − 1 = 23 c2 ⇒ c = ± 3. We reject − 3 because
x x=c c2 3−1 2 3
√
it does not lie in (1, 3), so c = 3.
1
16. f (x) = √ is continuous on [0, 3] and differentiable on (0, 3). So there exists a number c in (0, 3) such that
x +1
1 −1
1 1 f (3) − f (0) 1
f (c) = − =− = = 2 = − ⇔ (c + 1)3/2 = 3 ⇔ c + 1 = 32/3 ⇒
2 (x + 1)3/2 x=c 2 (c + 1)3/2 3−0 3 6
√
c = 3 9 − 1.
17. f (x) = x − sin x is continuous on 0, π π π
2 and differentiable on 0, 2 . So there exists a number c in 0, 2 such that
π
f 2 − f (0) π −1
f (c) = 1 − cos x|x=c = 1 − cos c = π −0 = 2 π =1− π 2 ⇔ cos c = 2 ⇔ c = cos−1 2 .
π π
2 2
18. g (x) = cos 2x is continuous on 0, π π π
2 and differentiable on 0, 2 . So there exists a number c in 0, 2 such that
g π
2 − g (0) = −2 = − 4 ⇔ sin 2c = 2 ⇔ c = 1 sin−1 2 .
g (c) = −2 sin 2x|x=c = −2 sin 2c = π −0 π π 2 π
2 2 π
x (x + 1) − x 1 f (0) − f (−2) 1 0−2
19. f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = = . So f (c) = ⇒ = = −1 ⇒
x +1 (x + 1)2 (x + 1)2 0 − (−2) (c + 1)2 2
(c + 1)2 = −1, which is impossible. So no such value of c exists. This does not contradict the Mean Value Theorem
because f is undefined at x = −1 and thus not continuous on [−2, 0].
⎧ ⎧
⎨ − (x − 1) if 0 ≤ x < 1 f (2) − f (0) 1−1 ⎨ −1 if 0 < x < 1
20. f (x) = |x − 1| = ⇒ = = 0. But f (x) = and
⎩ x − 1 if 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 2−0 2 ⎩ 1 if 1 < x < 2

f (2) − f (0)
f (0) does not exist. So there is no value of c in (0, 2) such that f (c) = = 0. This does not contradict the
2−0
Mean Value Theorem, however, because f is not differentiable on (0, 2).
21. a. f (x) = 13 x 3 − x 2 + x − 6 ⇒ f (x) = x 2 − 2x + 1 = (x − 1)2 . f (x) = 0 gives x = 1, the critical number of f . Now
f (x) > 0 for all x = 1, so f is increasing on (−∞, ∞).
b. Since f (x) does not change sign as we move across the critical number x = 1, the First Derivative Test implies that
x = 1 does not give rise to a relative extremum of f .
c. f (x) = 2 (x − 1). Setting f (x) = 0 gives x = 1 as a candidate for an inflection point of f . Since f (x) < 0 for
x < 1 and f (x) > 0 for x > 1, we see that f is concave downward on (−∞, 1) and concave upward on (1, ∞).
d. The results of part c imply that 1, − 17
3 is an inflection point.

22. a. f (x) = (x − 2)3 ⇒ f (x) = 3 (x − 2)2 > 0 for all x = 2. Therefore, f is increasing on (−∞, ∞).
b. There is no relative extremum.
c. f (x) = 6 (x − 2). Since f (x) < 0 if x < 2 and f (x) > 0 if x > 2, we see that f is concave downward on (−∞, 2)
and concave upward on (2, ∞).
d. The results of part c. show that (2, 0) is an inflection point.

23. a. f (x) = x 4 − 2x 2 ⇒ -- 0 ++ 0 -- 0 ++ sign of f»

x
f (x) = 4x 3 − 4x = 4x x 2 − 1 = 4x (x + 1) (x − 1). The sign _1 0 1

diagram of f shows that f is decreasing on (−∞, −1) and (0, 1) and

increasing on (−1, 0) and (1, ∞).
262 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

b. The results of part a and the First Derivative Test show that (−1, −1) and (1, −1) are relative minima and (0, 0) is a
relative maximum.
√
c. f (x) = 12x 2 − 4 = 4 3x 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ x = ± 33 . The sign diagram ++ 0 ----- 0 ++ sign of f»»
√ √ x
shows that f is concave upward on −∞, − 33 ∪ 33 , ∞ and _Ï3/3 0 Ï3/3
√ √
concave downward on − 33 , 33 .
√ √
d. The results of part c show that − 33 , − 59 and 33 , − 59 are inflection points.

4 4 x2 − 4 (x − 2) (x + 2) f» not defined
24. f (x) = x + ⇒ f (x) = 1 − 2 = = . Setting
x x x2 x2 ++ 0-- _ _ 0++ sign of f»
f (x) = 0 gives x = −2 and x = 2 as critical numbers of f . f (x) is x
undefined at x = 0 as well. _2 0 2
a. f is increasing on (−∞, −2) ∪ (2, ∞) and decreasing on (−2, 0) ∪ (0, 2).
b. f (−2) = −4 is a relative maximum and f (2) = 4 is a relative minimum.
c. f (x) = 83 . Since f (x) < 0 for x < 0 and f (x) > 0 for x > 0, we see that f is concave downward on (−∞, 0)
x
and concave upward on (0, ∞).
d. There is no inflection point. Note that x = 0 is not in the domain of f and is therefore not a candidate for an inflection
point.

x2 f» not defined
25. a. f (x) = ⇒
x −1 ++ 0-- _ _ 0++ sign of f»
(x − 1) (2x) − x 2 (1) x 2 − 2x x (x − 2) x
f (x) = = = . The sign 0 1 2
(x − 1)2 (x − 1)2 (x − 1)2
diagram of f shows that f is increasing on (−∞, 0) and (2, ∞) and
decreasing on (0, 1) and (1, 2).
b. The results of part a show that (0, 0) is a relative maximum and (2, 4) is a relative minimum.
(x − 1)2 (2x − 2) − x (x − 2) 2 (x − 1) 2 (x − 1) [(x − 1)2 − x (x − 2)]
2
c. f (x) = = = . Since f (x) < 0
(x − 1)4 (x − 1)4 (x − 1)3
if x < 1 and f (x) > 0 if x > 1, we see that f is concave downward on (−∞, 1) and concave upward on (1, ∞).
d. Since x = 1 is not in the domain of f , there is no inflection point.

√ 1
26. a. f (x) = x − 1 ⇒ f (x) = 12 (x − 1)−1/2 = √ . Since f (x) > 0 if x > 1, we see that f is increasing on
2 x −1
(1, ∞).
b. Since there is no critical number in (1, ∞), f has no relative extremum.
1
c. f (x) = − 14 (x − 1)−3/2 = − < 0 if x > 1, and so f is concave downward on (1, ∞).
4 (x − 1)3/2
d. There is no inflection point because f (x) = 0 for all x in (1, ∞).

1 f» not defined
27. f (x) = (1 − x)1/3 ⇒ f (x) = − 13 (1 − x)−2/3 = − .
3 (1 − x)2/3 _ _ _ _ _ _ ---- sign of f»
x
0 1
a. f is decreasing on (−∞, ∞).
b. There is no relative extremum.
 Chapter 3 Review 263

2 f»» not defined

c. Next, we compute f (x) = − 29 (1 − x)−5/3 = − . We find
9 (1 − x)5/3 _ _ _ _ _ _ ++++ sign of f»»
f that is concave downward on (−∞, 1) and concave upward on (1, ∞). x
0 1

d. x = 1 is a candidate for an inflection point of f . Referring to the sign diagram for f , we see that (1, 0) is an inflection
point.

√
28. f (x) = x x − 1 = x (x − 1)1/2
3x − 2
a. f (x) = x 12 (x − 1)−1/2 + (x − 1)1/2 = 12 (x − 1)−1/2 [x + 2 (x − 1)] = . Setting f (x) = 0 gives
2 (x − 1)1/2
x = 23 , but this lies outside the domain of f , which is [1, ∞). Thus, f has no critical number. Now, f (x) > 0 for all
x ∈ (1, ∞), so f is increasing on (1, ∞).
b. Since there is no critical number, f has no relative extremum.
1 (x − 1)1/2 (3) − (3x − 2) 12 (x − 1)−1/2 1
1 (x − 1)−1/2 [6 (x − 1) − (3x − 2)]
2
c. f (x) = =
2 x −1 2 (x − 1)
3x − 4
=
4 (x − 1)3/2
f (x) = 0 implies that x = 43 . f (x) < 0 if x < 43 and f (x) > 0 if x > 43 , so f is concave downward on 1, 43 and

concave upward on 43 , ∞ .
√
d. From the results of part c, we conclude that 43 , 4 9 3 is an inflection point of f .

2x (x + 1) (2) − 2x (1) 2
29. a. f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = = > 0 if x = −1. Therefore f is increasing on
x +1 (x + 1)2 (x + 1)2
(−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, ∞).
b. Since there is no critical number, f has no relative extremum.
4
c. f (x) = −4 (x + 1)−3 = − . Since f (x) > 0 if x < −1 and f (x) < 0 if x > −1, we see that f is concave
(x + 1)3
upward on (−∞, −1) and concave downward on (−1, ∞).
d. There is no inflection point since f (x) = 0 for all x in the domain of f .

1 2x
30. f (x) = − 2
⇒ f (x) = 2
1+x 1 + x2
a. Setting f (x) = 0 gives x = 0 as the only critical number of f . For x < 0, f (x) < 0 and for x > 0, f (x) > 0.
Therefore, f is decreasing on (−∞, 0) and increasing on (0, ∞).
b. f has a relative minimum at f (0) = −1.
2
1 + x2 (2) − 2x (2) 1 + x 2 (2x) 2 1 + x2 1 + x 2 − 4x 2 2 3x 2 − 1
c. f (x) = 4
= 4
=− 3
and we see that
1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2
√
x = ± 33 are candidates for inflection points of f .

From the sign diagram, we see that f is concave downward on _ _ 0 +++++ 0 _ _ sign of f»»
√ √ √ √ x
−∞, − 33 ∪ 33 , ∞ and concave upward on − 33 , 33 . _Ï3/3 0 Ï3/3
√ √
d. − 33 , − 34 and 33 , − 34 are inflection points of f .
264 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

31. Put f (x) = x 5 + 5x − 2. Then f is continuous everywhere. Now f (0) = −2 and f (1) = 4, and the Intermediate Value
Theorem implies that f has at least one real zero on the interval (0, 1). Next, suppose f has two distinct real zeros x1 and
x2 with x1 < x2 . f is continuous on x1 , x2 and differentiable on (x1 , x2 ), so the Mean Value Theorem implies that there
f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
exists at least one number c in (x1 , x2 ) such that = f (c). But f (x2 ) = f (x1 ) = 0 ⇔ f (c) = 0. Since
x2 − x1
f (x) = 5x 4 + 5 ≥ 5 = 0 for all x on (−∞, ∞), no such c can exist. This contradiction shows that f has at most one zero,
and so f has exactly one zero; that is, x 5 + 5x − 2 = 0 has exactly one real root.
32. Put f (x) = x 5 + 3x 3 + x − 2. Then f is continuous everywhere. Note that f (0) = −2 and f (1) = 3 > 0, and so the
Intermediate Value Theorem implies that f has at least one zero in (0, 1). The proof that there exists at most one real zero is
similar to that in Exercise 31. Here f (x) = 5x 4 + 9x 2 + 1 ≥ 1 = 0.
x2
33. lim = −∞. As x approaches 2 from the left, the numerator approaches 4 but the denominator approaches 0
x→2− x − 2
through negative values. Thus, the quotient is negative and becomes arbitrarily large in absolute value.
1 − 2x
34. lim = −∞. As x approaches −2 from the right, the numerator approaches 5, but the denominator approaches 0
x→−2+ x 2 − 4
through negative values. Thus, the quotient is negative and becomes arbitrarily large in absolute value.
2 − 3x
35. lim = −∞. As x approaches 3, the numerator approaches −7, but the denominator approaches 0 through
x→3 (x − 3)2
positive values. Thus, the quotient is negative and becomes arbitrarily large in absolute value.
x2 − x + 1 x2 − x + 1
36. lim = lim = −∞. As x approaches 2 from the left, the numerator approaches 3, but the
x→2− x 2 − x − 2 x→2− (x − 2) (x + 1)
denominator approaches 0 through negative values. Thus, the quotient is negative and becomes arbitrarily large in absolute
value.
√
x x 1
37. lim = lim ·√ = ∞. As x approaches 0 from the right, the first factor approaches 1, whereas the
x→0+ sin x x→0+ sin x x
second factor becomes arbitrarily large.
2x + sin x
38. lim = 0. As x approaches π2 from the left, the numerator approaches π + 1 and the denominator
x→(π /2)− (tan x)2
approaches ∞, so the quotient approaches 0.
1 − 2 +3
1 − 2x + 3x 2 x2 x
39. lim = lim =3
x→∞ x2 − 1 x→∞ 1 − 1
2 x
x +4 1 + x4
40. lim = lim =1
x→∞ x2 − 1 x→∞
1 − 12
x
√
2−x 2 1
√ √ − 2 −
2−x − x 2 x x
41. lim = lim = lim =0
x→−∞ x + 2 x→−∞ x + 2 x→−∞ 2
1+
x x
x 1 1
42. lim = lim sin x =−
x→−∞ sin x − 2x x→−∞ −2 2
x
1 1
43. lim = lim = 0 and so y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote. Since the denominator is equal to zero at
x→−∞ 2x + 3 x→∞ 2x + 3
x = − 32 but the numerator is not, we see that x = − 32 is a vertical asymptote.
x2 + x x2 + x
44. lim = lim = 1, so y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote. Next observe that the denominator is equal to
x→−∞ x 2 − x x→∞ x 2 − x
zero at x = 0 and at x = 1. Since the numerator is not equal to zero at x = 1, we see that x = 1 is a vertical asymptote.
 Chapter 3 Review 265

45. f (x) = x 2 − 4x + 3 _ _ _ _ _ 0 +++++ sign of f»

(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). x
1 2 3
(2) x 2 − 4x + 3 = (x − 3) (x − 1) = 0 ⇒ x = 1 and 3 are the x-intercepts.
(10) y
The y-intercept is 3. (3) There is no symmetry with respect to the y-axis
or the origin. (4) lim f (x) = lim f (x) = ∞ (5) There is no
x→−∞ x→∞

asymptote. (6) f (x) = 2x − 4 = 2 (x − 2) = 0 ⇔ x = 2, the critical

number of f . From the sign diagram for f , we see that f is decreasing on
(−∞, 2) and increasing on (2, ∞). (7) f has a relative minimum at 2 1
with value f (2) = −1. (8) f (x) = 2 > 0 for all x on (−∞, ∞), so f 1 x
is concave upward on (−∞, ∞). (9) There is no inflection point.

46. f (x) = 2x 3 − 6x 2 + 6x + 3 _ _ _ _ _ 0 +++++ sign of f»»

(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). (2) The y-intercept is 3. The +++++ 0 +++++ sign of f»
x-intercept cannot easily be found. (3) There is no symmetry. x
0 1 2
(4) lim f (x) = −∞ and lim f (x) = ∞. (5) There is no
x→−∞ x→∞ (10) y

asymptote. (6) f (x) = 6x 2 − 12x + 6 = 6 (x − 1)2 = 0 ⇔ x = 1.

From the sign diagram for f , we see that f is increasing on (−∞, ∞).
(7) f has no relative extremum.
(8) f (x) = 12x − 12 = 12 (x − 1) = 0 ⇔ x = 1. From the sign
diagram of f , we see that f is concave downward on (−∞, 1) and 1

concave upward on (1, ∞) (9) f has an inflection point at (1, 5). 1 x

47. g (x) = 3x 4 − 4x 3 ++ 0 _ _ _ 0 ++++ sign of g»»

_ _ 0 _ _ _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of g»
(1) The domain of g is (−∞, ∞). (2) g (x) = x 3 (3x − 4) = 0 ⇔
x
x = 0 or 43 , the x-intercepts. The y-intercept is 0. (3) There is no 0 2 1
3
symmetry. (4) lim g (x) = lim g (x) = ∞ (5) There is no (10) y
x→−∞ x→∞

asymptote. (6) g (x) = 12x 3 − 12x 2 = 12x 2 (x − 1) = 0 ⇔ x = 0 or

x = 1, the critical numbers of f . From the sign diagram for g , we see that
g is decreasing on (−∞, 1) and increasing on (1, ∞). (7) g has a
relative minimum at (1, −1). 1
(8) g (x) = 36x 2 − 24x = 12x (3x − 2) = 0 ⇔ x = 0 or 23 . From the
1 x
sign diagram of g , we see that g is concave upward on (−∞, 0) and
2 , ∞ and concave downward on 0, 2 . (9) g has inflection points at
3 3

(0, 0) and 23 , − 16
27 .
266 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

48. h (x) = 2x + 3/x h» and h»» not defined

(1) The domain of h is (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞). (2) There is no intercept. _ __ _ _ + ++++ sign of h»»
(3) h (−x) = −2x − 3/x = −h (x), so the graph of h is symmetric with ++ 0 _ _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of h»

respect to the origin. (4) lim h (x) = −∞ and lim h (x) = ∞. x

x→∞ 0
_ Ï3 Ï3
x→−∞
2 2
(5) x = 0 is a vertical asymptote. There is a slant asymptote of y = 2x,
(10) y
since lim [h (x) − 2x] = lim (3/x) = 0.
x→∞ x→∞

3 2x 2 − 3
(6) h (x) = 2 − 2 = . From the sign diagram for h , we see that
x x2
4
h is increasing on −∞, − 32 and 3,∞
2 and decreasing on 1 x

− 32 , 0 and 0, 3 .
2 (7) h has a relative maximum at − 32 with

value roughly −4.9, and a relative minimum at 3 with value roughly 4.9.
2
d
(8) h (x) = 2 − 3x −2 = 6/x 3 . From the sign diagram of h , we see that h is concave downward on (−∞, 0) and
dx
concave upward on (0, ∞). (9) h has no inflection point. Note that 0 is not in the domain of h.

49. f (x) = x 2 + 1/x f» and f»» not defined

(1) The domain of f is (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞). (2) The x-intercept is −1. ++ 0 _ _ _ +++++ sign of f»»

(3) There is no symmetry. (4) lim f (x) = lim f (x) = ∞ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»

x→−∞ x→∞
x
_1 0 1
1 2x 3 − 1 Î2
(5) x = 0 is a vertical asymptote. (6) f (x) = 2x − 2 = =0
x x2
1 (10) y
3 , and f (0) is not defined. From the sign diagram for f , we
⇔x = √
2

see that f is decreasing on (−∞, 0) and 0, √1 and increasing on

3
2

1 1 with value about 1.9.

3 ,∞ .
√ (7) f has a relative minimum at √
3
2 2
1
d 1 2 2 1 + x3 1 x
(8) f (x) = 2x − 2 =2+ 3 = = 0 ⇔ x = −1.
dx x x x3
From the sign diagram of f , we see that f is concave upward on
(−∞, −1) and (0, ∞) and concave downward on (−1, 0). (9) f has an
inflection point at (−1, 0).
 Chapter 3 Review 267

2
50. f (x) = ++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»»
1 + x2
+++++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ sign of f»
(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). (2) The y-intercept is 2; there is no
2 2 x
0
x-intercept. (3) f (−x) = = = f (x), so the graph _ Ï3 Ï3
1 + (−x)2 1 + x2 3 3

of f is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. (10) y

(4) lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 0 (5) From (4), we see that y = 0 is a
x→−∞ x→∞
horizontal asymptote.
d −1 4x
(6) f (x) = 2 1 + x2 =− 2
= 0 ⇔ x = 0, the
dx 1 + x2 1

critical number of f . From the sign diagram for f , we see that f is

increasing on (−∞, 0) and decreasing on (0, ∞). (7) f has a relative
1 x
maximum at (0, 2).
⎡ 2 ⎤
d x 1 + x2 − x (2) 1 + x 2 (2x) 4 3x 2 − 1 √
⎢ ⎥
(8) f (x) = −4 2
= −4 ⎣ 4 ⎦ = 3
= 0 ⇔ x = ± 33 . From
dx 1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2
√ √
the sign diagram of f , we see that f is concave upward on −∞, − 33 and 3
3 , ∞ and concave downward on
√ √ √
− 33 , 33 . (9) f has inflection points at ± 33 , 32 .

x2
51. f (x) = 2 f» and f»» not defined
x −1
++ _ _ _ _ _ ++ sign of f»»
(1) The domain of f is (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 1) ∪ (1, ∞). (2) The x- and
++ ++ 0 _ _ _ _ sign of f»
(−x)2
x2 x
y-intercepts are 0. (3) f (−x) = = 2 = f (x), so
2
(−x) − 1 x −1 _1 0 1

there is symmetry with respect to the y-axis. (10) y

(4) lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 1 (5) x = ±1 are vertical
x→−∞ x→∞
asymptotes. From (4), we see that y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote.
1
x 2 − 1 (2x) − x 2 (2x) 2x
(6) f (x) = =− . From the sign
2 2 1 x
x2 − 1 x2 − 1
diagram for f , we see that f is increasing on (−∞, −1) and (−1, 0) and
decreasing on (0, 1) and (1, ∞). (7) f has a relative maximum at (0, 0).

⎡ 2 ⎤
d x x 2 − 1 − x (2) x 2 − 1 (2x) 2 3x 2 + 1
⎢ ⎥
(8) f (x) = −2 = −2 ⎣ ⎦ = . From the sign diagram of f ,
dx x 2 − 1 2 x2 − 1
4
x2 − 1
3

we see that f is concave upward on (−∞, −1) and (1, ∞) and concave downward on (−1, 1) (9) f has no inflection
point because ±1 lie outside the domain of f .
268 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

x2
52. f (x) = 4 ++ 0 _ _ 0 + + 0 _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»»
x +1
+++ 0 _ _ 0 ++ 0 _ _ _ sign of f»
(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). (2) The x- and y-intercepts are 0.
* * * * x
(−x)2 x2 _1 0 1
(3) f (−x) = 4
= 4 = f (x), so f is symmetric with _0.54 1.41
(−x) + 1 x +1 _1.41 0.54
respect to the y-axis. (4) lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 0 (5) From y
x→−∞ x→∞ (10)
(4), we see that y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.
1
x 4 + 1 (2x) − x 2 4x 3 2x 1 − x 4 2
(6) f (x) = 2
= 2
x4 + 1 x4 + 1
2x 1 + x 2 (1 − x) (1 + x)
= 2
=0⇔
x4 + 1
1 x
x = ±1 and 0 are critical numbers of f . From the sign diagram for f , we
see that f is increasing on (−∞, −1) and (0, 1) and decreasing on (−1, 0)
and (1, ∞).

(7) f has relative maxima at ±1, 12 and a relative minimum at (0, 0).
⎡ 2 ⎤
d x−x 5 x4 + 1 1 − 5x 4 − x − x 5 (2) x 4 + 1 4x 3
⎢ ⎥
(8) f (x) = 2 2
= 2⎣ 4 ⎦
dx x4 + 1 x4 + 1

2 x4 + 1 x4 + 1 1 − 5x 4 − 8x 3 x − x 5 2 3x 8 − 12x 4 + 1
= 4 3
=
x4 + 1 x4 + 1
√
Setting f (x) = 0 gives x 4 = 12± 144
6
−12
, so x ≈ ±1.41 or ±0.54. From the sign diagram of f , we see that f is
concave upward on approximately (−∞, −1.4), (−0.54, 0.54), and (1.4, ∞); and concave downward on approximately
(−1.4, −0.54) and (0.54, 1.4). (9) f has inflection points at approximately (−1.4, 0.4), (−0.54, 0.27), (0.54, 0.27), and
(1.41, 0.4).

53. f (x) = (1 − x)1/3 f» and f»» not defined

(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). (2) The x- and y-intercepts are both _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ++ sign of f»»
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ sign of f»
1. (3) There is no symmetry. (4) lim f (x) = ∞ and
x→−∞
x
lim f (x) = −∞. (5) There is no asymptote. 0 1
x→∞
1 (10) y
(6) f (x) = 13 (1 − x)−2/3 (−1) = − . From the sign
3 (1 − x)2/3
diagram for f , we see that f is decreasing on (−∞, ∞). (7) f has no 1

relative extremum.
2
(8) f (x) = − 13 − 23 (1 − x)−5/3 (−1) = − . From the _2 _1 1 2 3 4x
9 (1 − x)5/3
sign diagram of f , we see that f is concave downward on (−∞, 1) and
_1
concave upward on (1, ∞) (9) f has an inflection point at (1, 0). Note
that although 1 is not in the domain of f , it is in the domain of f , and the
concavity of f changes there.
 Chapter 3 Review 269

54. g (x) = x + cos x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π _ _ 0 ++++ 0 _ _ sign of g»»

(1) The domain of g is [0, 2π]. (2) If x = 0, then y = 1, giving the ++ 0 +++++++ sign of g»

y-intercept as 1. The x-intercept, if there is one, is difficult to find. ( ) x

¹ 3¹
0 2 ¹ 2 2¹
(3) There is no symmetry. (4) Not applicable (5) There is no
(10) y
asymptote. (6) g (x) = 1 − sin x = 0 ⇔ sin x = 1 ⇔ x = π 2 in
(0, 2π). From the sign diagram for g , we see that g is increasing on
(0, 2π). (7) g has no relative extremum. (8) g (x) = − cos x = 0 ⇔
x=π 3π
2 or 2 in (0, 2π). From the sign diagram of g , we see that g is
1
concave downward on 0, π 3π
2 and 2 , 2π and concave upward on
¹ 2¹ x
π , 3π . (9) g has inflection points at π π 3π , 3π .
2 2 2 , 2 and 2 2

55. h (x) = 2 sin x − sin 2x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π + 0 _ _ 0 ++ 0 _ sign of h»»

(1) The domain of h is [0, 2π]. (2) h (0) = 0, so the y-intercept is 0. +++ 0 _ _ 0 +++ sign of h»

There are x-intercepts at 0, π, and 2π. (3) There is no symmetry. ( ) x

0 2¹ ¹ 4¹ 2¹
(4) Not applicable (5) There is no asymptote. 3 3
1.32 4.97
(6) h (x) = 2 cos x − 2 cos 2x = 2 cos x − 2 2 cos2 x − 1 = 0 ⇔ (10) y

2 cos2 x − cos x − 1 = (2 cos x + 1) (cos x − 1) = 0 ⇒ x = 23π , 43π , or

π. From the sign diagram for f , we see that f is increasing on 0, 23π 1

and 43π , 2π and decreasing on 23π , 43π . (7) h has a relative ¹ 2¹ x

√ √
maximum at 2π , 3 3 and a relative minimum at 4π , − 3 3 .
3 2 3 2

(8) h (x) = −2 sin x + 4 sin 2x = −2 sin x + 8 sin x cos x = 0 ⇔

sin x (1 − 4 cos x) = 0 ⇔ x = cos−1 41 ≈ 1.32, π, or
2π − cos−1 14 ≈ 4.97. From the sign diagram of h , we see that h is concave upward on approximately (0, 1.32) and
(π, 4.97) and concave downward on approximately (1.32, π) and (4.97, 2π). (9) h has inflection points at approximately
(1.32, 1.46) and (4.97, −1.44) and exactly (π, 0).

1
56. f (x) = , − 32π < x < 52π
1 − sin x
(1) The domain of f is − 32π , π π 5π
2 ∪ 2, 2 . (2) If x = 0, then y = 1, so 1 is the y-intercept. There is no x-intercept.

(3) There is no symmetry. (5) The denominator of f is 0 at − 32π , π

(4) Not applicable 5π
2 , and 2 , but the numerator is
cos x
nonzero. Thus, x = − 32π , x = π 5π
2 , and x = 2 are vertical asymptotes. (6) f (x) = = 0 ⇒ x = −π 2
(1 − sin x)2
or 32π , and f is undefined at x = π
2 . From the sign diagram for f , we f» not defined
_ _ 0 ++ _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»
see that f is decreasing on − 32π , − π π 3π
2 and 2 , 2 and decreasing on ( ) x
3¹ ¹ ¹ 3¹ 5¹
_2 _2
−π π 3π 5π
2 , 2 and 2 , 2 .
2 2 2
270 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

(7) f has relative minima at − π 1 3π 1

2 , 2 and 2 , 2 . (10) y

(1 − sin x)2 (− sin x) − (cos x) 2 (1 − sin x) (− cos x)

(8) f (x) =
(1 − sin x)4
sin2 x + sin x − 2
=− > 0 on its domain.
(1 − sin x)3
1
Thus, f is concave upward on − 32π , π π 5π
2 and 2 , 2 . (9) f has no
inflection point.
_¹ ¹ 2¹ 3¹ x

d
57. R (x) = k x (M − x) = k [(M − x) + x (−1)] = k (M − 2x). Setting R (x) = 0 gives M − 2x = 0 ⇔ x = M/2, a
dx
critical number of R. Since R (x) = −2k < 0, we see that x = M/2 gives a maximum; that is, R is greatest when half of
the population is infected.

d
58. P (x) = −0.000002x 3 + 6x − 350 = −0.000006x 2 + 6 = 0 ⇔ x = ±1000. We reject the negative root. Since
dx
P (x) = −0.000012x and P (1000) = −0.012 < 0, we see that P has an absolute maximum at 1000 with value
P (1000) = −0.000002 (1000)3 + 6 (1000) − 350 = 3650, corresponding to $3650 per day.

59. a. P (t) = −0.0006t 2 + 0.036t − 0.36 = 0 ⇔ t 2 − 60t + 600 = 0, so

_ _ 0 +++ sign of P»
60± (−60)2 −4(1)(600)
t= ≈ 12.7 or 47.3. We reject the latter root ( ) x
2 0 12.7 30
because it lies outside [0, 30]. The sign diagram for P shows that P is
decreasing on (0, 12.7) and increasing on (12.7, 30).
b. The absolute minimum of P occurs at t = 12.7 and P (12.7) ≈ 7.9.
c. The smallest percentage of women over 65 in the workforce was about 7.9% in late 1982.

60. The distance between a point (x, y) on the graph of y = x 2 + 1 and the point (3, 1) is
2
d= (x − 3)2 + x 2 + 1 − 1 = x 4 + x 2 − 6x + 9. It suffices to minimize d 2 = f (x) = x 4 + x 2 − 6x + 9 ⇒

f (x) = 4x 3 + 2x − 6 = 2 2x 3 + x − 3 . By inspection, x = 1 is a root of 2x 3 + x − 3, so we use long division:

2x 2 + 2x + 3
x −1 2x 3 + x − 3
2x 3 − 2x 2
2x 2 + x − 3
2x 2 − 2x
3x − 3
3x − 3
0

Thus f (x) = 2 (x − 1) 2x 2 + 2x + 3 = 0 ⇔ x = 1, and since f (x) = 12x 2 + 2 > 0, we see that 1 gives the absolute
minimum of f . The required point is (1, 2).
 Chapter 3 Review 271

x2 y2
61. A = 4x y, but from + = 1, we have y = 25 100 − x 2 . Thus, y
100 16
4
1/2
A = f (x) = 85 x 100 − x 2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 10 ⇒ x y
_10 10 x
1/2 −1/2
f (x) = 85 100 − x 2 + x 12 100 − x 2 (−2x) _4

−1/2 8 100 − 2x 2
= 85 100 − x 2 100 − x 2 − x 2 =
100 − x 2
√ √ √
Setting f (x) = 0 gives x = 50 = 5 2. Now A (0) = 0, A 5 2 = 80, and A (100) = 0, so f is maximized at
√ √ √
x = 5 2. The required dimensions are 10 2 × 4 2.

62. Let x and y denote the two numbers. Then x + y = 8. We want to minimize S = x 3 + y 3 or, equivalently,
f (x) = x 3 + (8 − x)3 . We calculate f (x) = 3x 2 + 3 (8 − x)2 (−1) = 48 (x − 4). Setting f (x) = 0 gives x = 4, and so
f has a critical number 4. Since f (4) = 48|x=4 > 0, we see that f does have an absolute minimum at x = 4. So the
required numbers are 4 and 4.

63. We want to minimize D 2 = x 2 + y 2 subject to y = (x − 3)2 . So we want 2x 2 − 14x + 27

to minimize f (x) = x 2 + (x − 3)4 . We calculate x −2 2x 3 − 18x 2 + 55x − 54

f (x) = 2x + 4 (x − 3)3 = 4x 3 − 36x 2 + 110x − 108 2x 3 − 4x 2

−14x 2 + 65x − 54
= 2 2x 3 − 18x 2 + 55x − 54
−14x 2 + 28x
By trial and error, we see that x = 2 is a root of f (x) = 0. Using long 27x − 54
division, we see that f (x) = 2 (x − 2) 2x 2 − 14x + 27 . We see that 27x − 54
0
x = 2 is the only real root of f . Since

f (2) = 2 6x 2 − 36x + 55 = 14 > 0, we see that x = 1 gives rise to a relative (and therefore absolute) minimum
x=2
of f . So the required point is (2, 1).

64. If D denotes the distance between (5, −1) and a point (x, y) on the 4x 2 + 4x + 10
2 2 x −1 4x 3 + 6x − 10
parabola, then D 2 = (x − 5)2 + y − (−1) = (x − 5)2 + x 2 + 1 .
4x 3 − 4x 2
To minimize D, it suffices to minimize
4x 2 + 6x − 10
2
D 2 = f (x) = (x − 5)2 + x 2 + 1 . Now 4x 2 − 4x
10x − 10
f (x) = 2 (x − 5) + 2 x 2 + 1 (2x) = 4x 3 + 6x − 10. Using a graphing
10x − 10
calculator or a CAS, we find the x = 1 is a root of this last equation. Using
0
long division to factor 4x 3 + 6x − 10, we see that

f (x) = (x − 1) 4x 2 + 4x + 10 = 2 (x − 1) 2x 2 + 2x + 5 . Setting f (x) = 0 gives 1 as the only critical number of

f . Since f (x) = 12x 2 + 6 ≥ 6 for all x, the graph of f is concave upward. So the critical number 1 gives the absolute
minimum value of f . Therefore, the required point is (1, 1).
272 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

65. a. b. D (t) = −34.1925t 2 + 571.982t − 1467.73 = 0 ⇒ t = 3.16 or

30000
t = 13.56. Since D (0) = 23, 755, D (3.16) ≈ 21, 613,
D (13.56) ≈ 28, 021, and D (18) ≈ 23, 527, we see that the system
capacity of 31,000 MW was not exceeded.
25000

20000
0 5 10 15

66. a. b. N (t) = 5.0304t 3 − 79.071t 2 + 255.96t + 82.3 ⇒

1000 N (t) = 15.0912t 2 − 158.142t + 255.96 = 0 ⇒ t ≈ 2 or t ≈ 8.48.

We reject the root 8.48 since it lies outside the interval [0, 8]. From

500 the graph of N , we see that 2 gives rise to an inflection point of N ,

and therefore we conclude that the number of canceled flights was

0 increasing at the fastest rate on February 8.

0 2 4 6 8

c. N (t) = 0 ⇒ t ≈ −0.29, t ≈ 5.09, or t ≈ 10.92. Only the root t = 5.09 lies in the interval [0, 8]. From the graph of N ,
we conclude that the maximum number of canceled flights is given by N (5.09) = 1146.

67. V (t) = 56π 1 − cos π2t ⇒ V (t) = 56π sin π2t · π 3 πt πt

2 = 5 sin 2 = 0 ⇔ 2 = nπ ⇔ t = 2n,
n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .. So 0, 2, 4, . . . , 2n, . . . are the critical numbers of V . V (t) = 35 cos π2t · π 3π πt
2 = 10 cos 2 . Now
⎧
⎨ 3π > 0 if n is even
V (nπ) = 10 So by the Second Derivative Test, the rate of flow of air is at a minimum when
⎩ − 3π < 0 if n is odd
10
t = 0, 4, 8, 12, . . ., and at a maximum when t = 2, 6, 10, 14, . . ..

68. Let each square that is cut out have side length x. Then the dimensions of the x
x
box are 8 − 2x by 8 − 2x by x, and its volume is V = f (x) = x (8 − 2x)2 . We
want to maximize f on [0, 4], so we calculate f (x) = (8 − 2x)2 + 8-2x
x (2) (8 − 2x) (−2) = (8 − 2x) [(8 − 2x) − 4x] = (8 − 2x) (8 − 6x) = 0 ⇔
x = 4 or 43 . x = 43 is a critical number in (0, 4). f (0) = 0, f 4
3 = 1024
27 , and
8-2x
f (4) = 0, so x = 43 yields an absolute maximum for f , and the dimensions of
x
the box should be 16 16 4
3 × 3 × 3 in.
8-2x
8-2x
 Chapter 3 Review 273
r s
69. The cost is C = 2 (0.30) 2x 2 + 2 (0.20) (2xh + xh) = 1.2x 2 + 1.2xh, but h

2 2.4 x
2x 2 h = 4 ⇒ h = 2 ⇒ C = f (x) = 1.2x 2 + ,x >0⇒
x x 2x
2.4
f (x) = 2.4x − 2 = 0 ⇔ x 3 = 1 ⇒ x = 1 is a critical number of f .
x
4.8
f (x) = 3 > 0 for x > 0, so the graph of f is concave upward, and the
x
critical number 1 gives the absolute maximum of f . The required dimensions
are 1 × 2 × 2 .

70. Let the cost of the material for the side be $a/ft. Then the cost for the top and r

bottom is $2a/ft, and the total cost is C = 2πr 2 · 2a + 2πr h · a. But

32 64πa h
πr 2 h = 32π ⇔ h = 2 , so C = f (r ) = 4πar 2 + ,r >0⇒
r r
64πa
f (r ) = 8πar − 2 = 0 ⇔ 8πar 3 = 64πa ⇔ r = 2.
r
128πa
f (r) = 8πa + > 0 for r > 0, so f is concave upward and r = 2 gives the absolute minimum value of C. The
r3
32 32
corresponding height is 2 = 2 = 8 ft.
r 2
√
71. The distance from the center of the table to a corner is 2 ft. From the figure, d
k sin θ S
h ¬
I (θ) = 2
, where k is the constant of proportionality. But d = 2 + h 2 ,
d
h kh r s−3/2 2
so since sin θ = , I (h) = 3 = kh 2 + h 2 ⇒
d d 2
vr s−3/2 r sr s−5/2 w
I (h) = k 2 + h 2 + h − 32 2 + h 2 (2h) +++++ 0 _ _ sign of I»
r s h
r s−5/2 r s 2k 1 − h 2 0 1
= k 2 + h2 2 + h 2 − 3h 2 = b c5/2 = 0 ⇒
2 + h2
h = 1, a critical number. From the sign diagram for I , we see that h = 1 gives rise to a relative maximum of I . Since there
is only one critical number in (0, ∞), we conclude that h = 1 actually gives the absolute maximum value of I . So the light
should be placed approximately 1 ft above the table.

72. The length of the wire is

S T
L (x) = x 2 + 1202 + (500 − x)2 + 3002 ⇒
300 ft
x 500 − x
L (x) = b c1/2 − K L1/2 = 0 ⇔ 120 ft
2
x + 1202
(500 − x)2 + 3002
x 500-x
x2 (500 − x)2
2
= ⇔
x + 14,400 (500 − x)2 + 90,000
x 2 (500 − x)2 + 90,000x 2 = x 2 (500 − x)2 + 14,400 (500 − x)2 ⇔ 90,000x 2 = 14,400 (500 − x)2 ⇔ x = 1000 7 ft.
r s
L (0) ≈ 703.1, L 1000 1000
≈ 653.0, and L (500) ≈ 814.2, so the stake should be placed 7 ≈ 142.86 ft to the right of the
7
shorter tower.
274 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

d x 3 + 2xn + 2 2x 3 − 2
73. f (x) = x 3 + 2x + 2 = 3x 2 + 2, so we have xn+1 = xn − n 2 = n2 . Taking x0 = −0.5, we have
dx 3xn + 2 3xn + 2
x1 ≈ −0.81818, x2 ≈ −0.77226, and x3 ≈ −0.77092 ≈ x4 , so the root is approximately −0.7709.
d x 4 + xn − 4 3x 4 + 4
74. f (x) = x 4 + x − 4 = 4x 3 + 1, so we have xn+1 = xn − n 3 = n3 . Taking x0 = 1, we have
dx 4xn + 1 4xn + 1
x1 = 1.4, x2 ≈ 1.29633, x3 ≈ 1.28394, and x4 ≈ 1.28378 ≈ x5 , so the root is approximately 1.2838.
d x 2 − sin xn x 2 − xn cos xn + sin xn
75. f (x) = x 2 − sin x = 2x − cos x, so we have xn+1 = xn − n = n . Taking
dx 2xn − cos xn 2xn − cos xn
x0 = π
4 , we have x 1 ≈ 0.88990, x 2 ≈ 0.87694, and x 3 ≈ 0.87673 ≈ x4 , so the root is approximately 0.8767.
b _ _ --- 0 +++++ sign of f»
76. f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c ⇒ f (x) = 2ax + b = 2a x + . Then f is
2a
x
b _b/2a
continuous everywhere and has a zero at x = − . If a > 0, f is decreasing on
2a Sign diagram for a > 0
b b
−∞, − and increasing on − , ∞ , and if a < 0, f is increasing on
2a 2a +++++ 0 ----- sign of f»
b b x
−∞, − and decreasing on − , ∞ .
2a 2a _b/2a
Sign diagram for a < 0

77. f (x) = x 2 + ax + b ⇒ f (x) = 2x + a. We require that f (2) = 0, so (2) (2) + a = 0 ⇔ a = −4. Next, f (2) = 7
implies that f (2) = 22 + (−4) (2) + b and b = 11, so f (x) = x 2 − 4x + 11. Since the graph of f is a parabola that opens
upward, (2, 7) is a relative minimum.
78. f (x) = x 4 + 2x 3 + cx 2 + 2x + 2 ⇒ f (x) = 4x 3 + 6x 2 + 2cx + 2 ⇒ f (x) = 12x 2 + 12x + 2c. For f to be concave
upward everywhere, we require that f (x) ≥ 0 for all x on (−∞, ∞) . This is true provided the discriminant b2 − 4ac ≤ 0
⇔ 144 − 4 (12) (2c) ≤ 0 ⇔ c ≥ 32 .

79. f (x) = 6ax 5 + 4bx 3 + 2cx ⇒ f (x) = 30ax 4 + 12bx 2 + 2c > 0 for all values of x. This shows that the graph of f is
always concave upward, and so it cannot have an inflection point.

80. a. f (x) = 3x 2 if x = 0. We see that f (x) > 0 for x < 0 as well as for x > 0. In other words f (x) does not change sign.
b. f (0) = 2 and is larger than f (x) for x near x = 0. Therefore, f has a relative maximum at x = 0. This does not
contradict the First Derivative Test because f is not continuous at x = 0.

Challenge Problems
⎧ ⎧
⎪ 3 3 ⎪ 2 2
⎨ −x − (x − 1) if x < 0
⎪ ⎨ −3x − 3 (x − 1) if x < 0
⎪
1. f (x) = x 3 − (x − 1)3 if 0 ≤ x < 1 ⇒ f (x) = 3x 2 − 3 (x − 1)2 if 0 ≤ x < 1
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎩ x 3 + (x − 1)3 if x ≥ 1 ⎩ 3x 2 + 3 (x − 1)2 if x ≥ 1

f (x) < 0 if x < 0 and f (x) > 0 if x > 1. For 0 < x < 1,
_ _ _ -- 0 +++++ sign of f»
f (x) = 3x 2 − 3 x 2 − 2x + 1 = 6x − 3 = 0 ⇔ x = 12 . x
_1 1 1
2
From the sign diagram for f , we see that f has a relative minimum at 12

with value f 1 = 14 . Therefore, the absolute minimum value of f is 14 .

2
 Chapter 3 Challenge Problems 275

d (x + a) (x + b) (x − a) (x − b) [(x + b) + (x + a)] − (x + a) (x + b) [(x − b) + (x − a)]

2. f (x) = =
dx (x − a) (x − b) (x − a)2 (x − b)2
x 2 − a 2 (x − b) + x 2 − b2 (x − a) − x 2 − a 2 (x + b) − x 2 − b2 (x + a)
=
(x − a)2 (x − b)2
x 2 − a 2 (−2b) + x 2 − b2 (−2a) 2 (a + b) x 2 − ab
= =−
(x − a)2 (x − b)2 (x − a)2 (x − b)2
If a + b = 0, then f (x) = 0 ⇔ x 2 = ab.
If ab < 0 (a and b have opposite signs), then f has no critical number
2 (a + b) x 2
If ab = 0 (one of a and b is 0), then 0 is a critical number. In this case f (x) = − does not change sign
(x − a)2 (x − b)2
as we move across 0, and so 0 does not give rise to a relative extremum.
√
If ab > 0 (a and b have the same sign), then f has critical numbers at ± ab. We have two subcases:
i. a + b > 0
f» not defined

_ _ _ 0 ++++++++++ ++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ _ sign of f»
x
_Ïab 0 a Ïab b
√ √
√ √ − ab + a − ab + b
The sign diagram shows that f has a relative minimum at − ab with value f − ab = √ √ ,
− ab − a − ab − b
√ √
√ √ ab + a ab + b
and a relative maximum at ab with value f ab = √ √ .
ab − a ab − b
√
ii. a + b < 0: The sign diagram for f is the opposite of the one in case I, and f has a relative maximum at − ab and a
√
relative minimum at ab.

−x ± x2 − 4 x2 − 3 −x ± 3 4 − x2
3. The graph of x 2 + x y + y 2 = 3 is described by the two functions y = = .
2 2
The common domain of these functions is [−2, 2]. To find the maximum and minimum values of these functions, we need
2x + y
to find y . But it is easier to use implicit differentiation: 2x + x y + y + 2yy = 0 ⇒ y = − . Setting y = 0 gives
x + 2y
y = −2x, and substituting this into the original equation gives x 2 + x (−2x) + (−2x)2 = 3 ⇔ x = ±1, the critical
numbers. The corresponding points on the curve are (−1, 2) and (1, −2). Also, note that y is undefined if x + 2y = 0, so
⎧
⎨ x + 2y = 0
we solve the system giving x = ±2. The corresponding points are (−2, 1) and (2, −1). We
⎩ x + x y + y2 = 3
2

conclude that the highest point on the curve is (−1, 2), and the lowest point is (1, −2).

4. If n = 1 or if y = x, then the inequalities are obvious. So suppose that n > 1 and 0 ≤ x ≤ y. Define f (t) = t n for n > 1.
Then f is continuous on x, y and differentiable on (x, y). By the Mean Value Theorem, there exists a number c in
f (y) − f (x) yn − x n
(x, y) such that f (c) = = . But f (t) = nt n−1 and f (t) = n (n − 1) t n−2 > 0 for all t if
y−x y−x
n > 1. This implies that f is increasing on (0, ∞) and in particular, in (x, y). Therefore, f (x) < f (c) < f (y) ⇔
yn − x n
nx n−1 < < ny n−1 ⇔ nx n−1 (y − x) < y n − x n < ny n−1 (y − x).
y−x
276 Chapter 3 Applications of the Derivative

5. a. Define the function f by f (x) = 1 + x p − (1 + x) p for x ≥ 0. Then

1 1
f (x) = px p−1 − p (1 + x) p−1 = p 1− p − > 0 for all x in (0, ∞), since 1 − p ≥ 0. Therefore, f is
x (1 + x)1− p
increasing on (0, ∞), and so f (x) = 1 + x p − (1 + x) p > f (0) = 0 ⇒ (1 + x) p < 1 + x p . Equality holds if x = 0,
and the result follows.
a p a p
b. If we put x = a/b, where a and b are positive numbers, into the inequality of part a, we obtain 1 + ≤1+
b b
or, upon multiplying both sides of the inequality by b p , (a + b) p < a p + b p .
c. If we put p = 1/n in the inequality in part b, we obtain (a + b)1/n < a 1/n + b1/n , the required result.

6. Solving x 4 = x 2 − y 2 for y in terms of x yields y = ± x 2 − x 4 . We take y = x 2 − x 4 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 because we are

1/2
interested only in the part of the curve in the first quadrant. On this portion of the curve, f (x) = x + y = x + x 2 − x 4

−1/2 x 2 − x 4 + x − 2x 3
⇒ f (x) = 1 + 12 x 2 − x 4 2x − 4x 3 = =0⇔ x 2 − x 4 = 2x 3 − x ⇒
x2 − x4
√ √
x 2 − x 4 = 4x 6 − 4x 4 + x 2 ⇒ x 4 4x 2 − 3 = 0 ⇔ x = ± 23 . We reject − 23 since it lies outside the interval [0, 1]. So
√ √ √
3 3 = 3 4 3 , and f (1) = 1, so the maximum value of f is
2 is the only critical number of f in (0, 1). f (0) = 0, f 2
√
3 3.
4

7. Suppose there are two roots a and b between 0 and 1, and suppose that 0 ≤ a < b ≤ 1. Observe that the polynomial
function f (x) = x 5 − 5x + c is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Furthermore, f (a) = f (b) = 0. So by
Rolle’s Theorem, there exists at least one number c satisfying a < c < b such that f (c) = 0. But f (x) = 5x 4 − 5, so
f (c) = 5 c4 − 1 = 0 ⇒ c = 1. This contradicts the fact that c lies strictly between 0 and 1. Therefore, f cannot have
two zeros on (0, 1), and the result follows.
T 2
8. Let f (υ) = υ3 − υ + 1. Then ++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»
2α
T T T T x
f (υ) = 3υ 2 − υ = 3υ υ − = 0 ⇔ υ = 0 or , so 0 and are 0 T
α 3α 3α 3α 3Œ
f(Ã)
critical numbers of f . From the sign diagram of f , we see that f is increasing
T T
on (−∞, 0) and , ∞ and decreasing on 0, , and has a relative
3α 3α
T
maximum at 0 with value f (0) = 1, and a relative minimum at . A typical 1
3α
graph of f is shown at right.
0 T Ã
3Œ

The Intermediate Value Theorem, coupled with the fact that f is increasing on (−∞, 0), implies that f has exactly one
negative zero. The function f has no positive root if the relative minimum value of f is greater than 0; that is, if
T T T 2 T T T3
f = υ2 υ − +1 = − +1 = − + 1 > 0 ⇔ T 3 < 54α3 ⇔
3α 2α υ =T /(3α) 3α 3α 2α 54α3
√ T
T < 3 3 2α. The function f has two positive roots if the relative minimum value of f is negative; that is, if f <0
3α
√
⇔ T > 3 3 2α.
 Chapter 3 Challenge Problems 277

9. Since f is a polynomial function, it is continuous and differentiable on (−∞, ∞). Let a and b be two roots of f with a < b.
Then f (a) = f (b) = 0. The hypothesis of Rolle’s Theorem is satisfied, and so there exists a number c in (a, b) such that
d
f (c) = 0. Now f (x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 = nan x n−1 + (n − 1) an−1 x n−2 + · · · + a1 , and so
dx
0 = f (c) = nan cn−1 + (n − 1) an−1 cn−2 + · · · + a1 = g (c), showing that c is a root of g (x).
10. a. The Mean Value Theorem applied to f guarantees that there exists a number c1 in (a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a) = f (c1 ) (b − a), and when applied to g, it guarantees the existence of a number c2 in (a, b) such that
g (b) − g (a) = g (c2 ) (b − a). Since c1 and c2 are not necessarily equal, the stated theorem does not necessarily follow
from these two equations.
b. The function h is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Also, h (a) = h (b) = 0,
and so by Rolle’s Theorem, there exists a number c in (a, b) such that h (c) = 0, that is,
d f (b) − f (a) f (b) − f (a)
h (c) = f (x) − f (a) − g (x) − g (a) = 0 ⇔ f (c) − g (c) = 0 ⇔
dx g (b) − g (a) x=c g (b) − g (a)
f (b) − f (a) f (c)
= .
g (b) − g (a) g (c)
a a an n+1
11. Let g (x) = a0 x + 1 x 2 + 2 x 3 + · · · + x . Then g is continuous and differentiable everywhere, and
2 3 n+1
a a an
in particular, on (0, 1). Furthermore, g (0) = 0 and, by assumption, g (1) = a0 + 1 + 2 + · · · + = 0.
2 3 n+1
Therefore, by Rolle’s Theorem, there exists at least one number c in (0, 1) such that g (c) = 0, and this implies that
g (c) = a0 + a1 c + a2 c2 + · · · + an cn = f (c) = 0. This shows that f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x n has at least one zero
in (0, 1).
12. F is continuous on x0 , x1 and differentiable on (x0 , x1 ). So, by the Mean Value Theorem, there exists a number c1 in
(x0 , x1 ) such that F (x1 ) − F (x0 ) = f (c1 ) (x1 − x0 ), where f (c1 ) = F (c1 ). Applying the MVT to F on the interval
x1 , x2 , we have F (x2 ) − F (x1 ) = f (c2 ) (x2 − x1 ) for some c2 in (x1 , x2 ). Continuing, we see that there exists a
number cn in xn−1 , xn such that F (xn ) − F xn−1 = f (cn ) xn − xn−1 . Adding the respective sides of these
equations together, we obtain
F (xn ) + F xn−1 + F xn−1 − F xn−2 + · · · + F (x2 ) − F (x1 ) + F (x1 ) − F (x0 )
= f (cn ) xn − xn−1 + f cn−1 xn−1 − xn−2 + · · · + f (c2 ) (x2 − x1 ) + f (c1 ) (x1 − x0 )
or
F (xn ) − F (x0 ) = F (b) − F (a) = f (cn ) xn − xn−1 + f cn−1 xn−1 − xn−2 + · · · + f (c1 ) (x1 − x0 )

13. The function f is continuous on x0 , x1 and differentiable on (x0 , x1 ). Therefore, Rolle’s Theorem implies the
existence of a number c(1,1) in (x0 , x1 ) such that f c(1,1) = 0. Similarly, there exist numbers c(2,1) , . . . , c(n,1) in
(x1 , x2 ) , . . . , xn−1 , xn such that f c(2,1) = · · · = f c(n,1) = 0. Next, we apply Rolle’s Theorem again to f
in the intervals c(1,1) , c(2,1) , . . . , c(n−1,1) , c(n,1) to find numbers c(1,2) , . . . , c(n,2) in each respective interval
such that f c(1,2) = · · · = f c(n,2) = 0. Carrying on, we find numbers c(n−1,n−1) and c(n,n−1) such that
f (n− 1) c(n−1,n−1) = f (n−1) c(n,n−1) = 0, and finally, a number c in c(n−1,n−1) , c(n,n−1) such that f (n) (c) = 0.
 4 Integration

4.1 Concept Questions

1. An antiderivative of a function f on an interval I is a function F such that F (x) = f (x) for all x in I . For example,
F (x) = x 2 is an antiderivative of f (x) = 2x on (−∞, ∞).
2. f (x) = g (x) + C, where C is an arbitrary constant.
3. An antiderivative of f on I is a function F such that F (x) = f (x) for all x in I , whereas the indefinite integral of f is a
family of antiderivatives of the form F (x) + C on I , where F = f and C is an arbitrary constant.
4. See pages 355 and 356.

4.1 Indefinite Integrals

1. (x + 2) dx = 12 x 2 + 2x + C

2. 6x 2 − 2x + 1 dx = 2x 3 − x 2 + x + C

3. 3 − 2x + x 2 dx = 13 x 3 − x 2 + 3x + C

4. x 3 − 2x 2 + x + 1 dx = 14 x 4 − 23 x 3 + 12 x 2 + x + C

5. 2x 9 − 4x 6 + 4 dx = 15 x 10 − 47 x 7 + 4x + C

6. 2x 2/3 − 4x 1/3 + 4 dx = 65 x 5/3 − 3x 4/3 + 4x + C

√ 3 √
7. x+√ dx = x 1/2 + 3x −1/2 dx = 23 x 3/2 + 6 x + C
x
8. x 2/3 (x − 1) dx = x 5/3 − x 2/3 dx = 38 x 8/3 − 35 x 5/3 + C

9. t 1/3 (t − 1)2 dt =
t 7/3 − 2t 4/3 + t 1/3 dt = 10
3 t 10/3 − 6 t 7/3 + 3 t 4/3 + C
7 4
1 − 3 1
10. dx = x dx = − 2 + C
x3 2x
3 √
11. √ du = 3u −1/2 du = 6 u + C
u
x2 + 1 1
12. dx = 1 + x −2 dx = x − x −1 + C = x − +C
x2 x
3x 4 − 2x 2 + 1 2 1
13. dx = 3 − 2x −2 + x −4 dx = 3x + 2x −1 − 13 x −3 + C = 3x + − 3 + C
x4 x 3x
√
t2 − 2 t + 1 4 1
14. dt = 1 − 2t −3/2 + t −2 dt = t + 4t −1/2 − t −1 + C = t + √ − + C
t2 t t
x 2 − 2x + 3
15. √ dx = x 3/2 − 2x 1/2 + 3x −1/2 dx = 25 x 5/2 − 43 x 3/2 + 6x 1/2 + C
x
16. π 2 + π + 1 dx = π 2 + π + 1 x + C
279
280 Chapter 4 Integration

17. (2x − 1) (x + 3)2 dx = 2x 3 + 11x 2 + 12x − 9 dx = 12 x 4 + 11 3 2

3 x + 6x − 9x + C
18. (2t + 3 cos t) dt = t 2 + 3 sin t + C
19. (3 sin x − 4 cos x) dx = −3 cos x − 4 sin x + C
20. csc θ cot θ − 3 sec2 θ dθ = − csc θ − 3 tan θ + C
√
21. csc2 x + x dx = − cot x + 23 x 3/2 + C

22. sec u (tan u + sec u) du = sec u tan u + sec2 u du = sec u + tan u + C

cos x cos x
23. dx = dx = cot x csc x dx = − csc x + C
1 − cos2 x sin2 x
sin 2x 2 sin x cos x
24. dx = dx = 2 sin x dx = −2 cos x + C
cos x cos x
1 − 2 cot2 x
25. dx = sec2 x − 2 csc2 x dx = tan x + 2 cot x + C
cos2 x
cos 2x cos2 x − sin2 x (cos x + sin x) (cos x − sin x)
26. dx = dx = dx = (cos x + sin x) dx
cos x − sin x cos x − sin x cos x − sin x
= sin x − cos x + C
1 sin2 x + cos2 x
27. dx = dx = sec2 x + csc2 x dx = tan x − cot x + C
sin2 x cos2 x sin2 x cos2 x
28. tan2 x dx = sec2 x − 1 dx = tan x − x + C
dx 1 1 + sin x 1 + sin x sin x
29. = · dx = dx = sec2 x dx + dx
1 − sin x 1 − sin x 1 − sin x cos2 x cos2 x
= sec2 x dx + sec x tan x dx = tan x + sec x + C

30. cot2 x dx = csc2 x − 1 dx = − cot x − x + C

31. a. (x − 3) dx = 12 x 2 − 3x + C 32. a. 3x 2 + x − 1 dx = x 3 + 12 x 2 − x + C

b. 5 b.
4
2
0
0
-2
-5
-4
-2 0 2 4 6 8 -2 -1 0 1 2

33. a. (2x + sin x) dx = x 2 − cos x + C 34. a. 1 + sec2 x dx = x + tan x + C

b. b.
5 5

0
0

-5

-2 -1 0 1 2 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
 Section 4.1 Indefinite Integrals 281

35. f (x) = f (x) dx = (2x + 1) dx = x 2 + x + C. f (1) = 3 ⇒ 1 + 1 + C = 3 ⇒ C = 1. Thus, f (x) = x 2 + x + 1.

36. f (x) = f (x) dx = 3x 2 − 6x dx = x 3 − 3x 2 + C. f (2) = 4 ⇒ 8 − 12 + C = 4 ⇒ C = 8. Thus,

f (x) = x 3 − 3x 2 + 8.
1
37. f (x) = f (x) dx = √ dx = x −1/2 dx = 2x 1/2 + C. f (4) = 2 ⇒ 4 + C = 2 ⇒ C = −2. Thus,
x
√
f (x) = 2 x − 2.
1 1
38. f (x) = f (x) dx = 1 + x −2 dx = x − + C. f (1) = 2 ⇒ 1 − 1 + C = 2 ⇒ C = 2. Thus, f (x) = x − + 2.
x x
39. f (x) = f (x) dx = (x + sin x) dx = 12 x 2 − cos x + C. f (0) = 0 ⇒ 0 − 1 + C = 0 ⇒ C = 1. Thus,
f (x) = 12 x 2 − cos x + 1.
√ √ √
40. f (t) = f (t) dt = sec2 t + 2 cos t dt = tan t + 2 sin t + C. f π
4 = 2⇒1+2 2
2 +C = 2 ⇒ C = −1.
Thus, f (t) = tan t + 2 sin t − 1.
41. f (x) = f (x) dx = 6 dx = 6x + C1 . f (1) = 2 ⇒ 6 + C1 = 2 ⇒ C1 = −4, so f (x) = 6x − 4. Then
f (x) = f (x) dx = (6x − 4) dx = 3x 2 − 4x + C2 . f (1) = 4 ⇒ 3 − 4 + C2 = 4 ⇒ C2 = 5. Thus,
f (x) = 3x 2 − 4x + 5.

42. f (x) = f (x) dx = (2x + 1) dx = x 2 + x + C1 . f (0) = 1 ⇒ 0 + C1 = 1, so f (x) = x 2 + x + 1. Then

f (x) = f (x) dx = x 2 + x + 1 dx = 13 x 3 + 12 x 2 + x + C2 . f (0) = 5 ⇒ 0 + C2 = 5 or C2 = 5. Thus,

f (x) = 13 x 3 + 12 x 2 + x + 5.

43. f (x) = f (x) dx = 6x 2 + 6x + 2 dx = 2x 3 + 3x 2 + 2x + C1 . f (−1) = 2 ⇒ −2 + 3 − 2 + C1 = 2 ⇒ C1 = 3,

so f (x) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 + 2x + 3. Then f (x) = f (x) dx = 2x 3 + 3x 2 + 2x + 3 dx = 12 x 4 + x 3 + x 2 + 3x + C2 .

f (−1) = 12 ⇒ 12 − 1 + 1 − 3 + C2 = 12 ⇒ C2 = 3. Thus, f (x) = 12 x 4 + x 3 + x 2 + 3x + 3.

1 1
44. f (x) = f (x) dx = x −3 dx = − + C1 . f (1) = 12 ⇒ − 12 + C1 = 12 ⇒ C1 = 1, so f (x) = − 2 + 1.
2x 2 2x
1
Then f (x) = f (x) dx = − 12 x −2 + 1 dx = + x + C2 . f (1) = 1 ⇒ 12 + 1 + C2 = 1 ⇒ C2 = − 12 . Thus,
2x
1 1
f (x) = +x− .
2x 2

45. f (t) = f (t) dt = t −3/2 dt = −2t −1/2 + C1 . f (4) = 3 ⇒ −2 4−1/2 + C1 = 3 ⇒ C1 = 4, so

f (t) = −2t −1/2 + 4. Then f (t) = f (t) dt = −2t −1/2 + 4 dt = −4t 1/2 + 4t + C2 . f (4) = 1 ⇒

−4 41/2 + 4 (4) + C2 = 1 ⇒ C2 = −7. Thus, f (t) = −4t 1/2 + 4t − 7.

46. f (t) = f (t) dt = (2 sin t + 3 cos t) dt = −2 cos t + 3 sin t + C1 . f π = 2 ⇒ −2 (0) + 3 (1) + C = 2 ⇒

2 1
C1 = −1, so f (t) = −2 cos t + 3 sin t − 1.
f (t) = f (t) dt = (−2 cos t + 3 sin t − 1) dt = −2 sin t − 3 cos t − t + C2 . f π
2 = 1⇒
−2 (1) − 3 (0) − π π π
2 + C2 = 1 ⇒ C2 = 3 + 2 . Thus, f (t) = −2 sin t − 3 cos t − t + 3 + 2 .

47. We are given that f (x) = x 2 −2x +3 and f (1) = 2, so f (x) = f (x) dx = x 2 − 2x + 3 dx = 13 x 3 − x 2 +3x +C.

f (1) = 2 ⇒ 13 − 1 + 3 + C = 2 ⇒ C = − 13 , so the required function is f (x) = 13 x 3 − x 2 + 3x − 13 .

282 Chapter 4 Integration

48. f (x) = f (x) dx = 36x 2 + 24x dx = 12x 3 + 12x 2 + C1 . Since the graph of f has a horizontal tangent

line at (0, 1), we have f (0) = 0, so f (0) = 0 + C1 = 0 ⇒ C1 = 0 and f (x) = 12x 3 + 12x 2 . Then
f (x) = f (x) dx = 12x 3 + 12x 2 dx = 3x 4 + 4x 3 + C2 . The graph passes through (0, 1), so f (0) = 1. Thus,

f (0) = 0 + 0 + C2 = 1 ⇒ C2 = 1. Thus, the required function is f (x) = 3x 4 + 4x 3 + 1.

49. y 50. y
10
1 1
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x 5
_1 2 2
_2
_2 _1 0 1 x

Curve 1 represents the function and curve 2 represents its _5

antiderivative. Observe that the slope of curve 2 is 0 at Curve 1 is the graph of f and curve 2 is the graph of its
x = 1 — that is, the tangent line at (1, −1) is horizontal antiderivative. The tangent lines to curve 1 at x = −1 and
— and curve 1 has value 0 at x = 1. x = 0 are horizontal, and so its slope is 0 at −1 and 0,
where curve 2 has value 0.

51. s (t) = v (t) dt = 6t 2 − 4t + 1 dt = 2t 3 − 2t 2 + t + C. s (1) = −1 ⇒ 2 − 2 + 1 + C = −1 ⇒ C = −2, so

s (t) = 2t 3 − 2t 2 + t − 2.
52. s (t) = v (t) dt = (2 sin t − 3 cos t) dt = −2 cos t − 3 sin t + C. s (0) = −2 ⇒ −2 + 0 + C = −2 ⇒ C = 0, so
s (t) = −2 cos t − 3 sin t.
53. v (t) = a (t) dt = (6t − 4) dt = 3t 2 − 4t + C1 . v (0) = 4 ⇒ 0 + C1 = 4 ⇒ C1 = 4, so v (t) = 3t 2 − 4t + 4.
s (t) = v (t) dt = 3t 2 − 4t + 4 dt = t 3 − 2t 2 + 4t + C2 . s (0) = −2 ⇒ 0 + C2 = −2 ⇒ C2 = −2, so

s (t) = t 3 − 2t 2 + 4t − 2.
54. v (t) = a (t) dt = −6t 2 + 4t + 8 dt = −2t 3 + 2t 2 + 8t + C1 . v (1) = 4 ⇒ −2 + 2 + 8 + C1 = 4 ⇒ C1 = −4, so

v (t) = −2t 3 + 2t 2 + 8t − 4. s (t) = v (t) dt = −2t 3 + 2t 2 + 8t − 4 dt = − 12 t 4 + 23 t 3 + 4t 2 − 4t + C2 . s (1) = 76

⇒ − 12 + 23 + 4 − 4 + C2 = 76 ⇒ C2 = 1, so s (t) = − 12 t 4 + 23 t 3 + 4t 2 − 4t + 1.
55. v (t) = a (t) dt = (sin t − 2 cos t) dt = − cos t − 2 sin t + C1 . v (0) = 0 ⇒ −1 + 0 + C1 = 0 ⇒ C1 = 1, so
v (t) = − cos t − 2 sin t + 1. s (t) = v (t) dt = (− cos t − 2 sin t + 1) dt = − sin t + 2 cos t + t + C2 . s (0) = 3 ⇒
0 + 2 + 0 + C2 = 3 ⇒ C2 = 1, so s (t) = − sin t + 2 cos t + t + 1.
56. v (t) = a (t) dt = 6 sin t dt = −6 cos t + C1 . v (0) = −4 ⇒ −6 + C1 = −4 ⇒ C1 = 2, so v (t) = −6 cos t + 2.
s (t) = (−6 cos t + 2) dt = −6 sin t + 2t + C2 . s (π) = π ⇒ −6 sin π + 2π + C2 = π ⇒ C2 = −π, so
s (t) = −6 sin t + 2t − π.
57. Suppose the track is placed along a coordinate line with the station at the origin. Then
s (t) = v (t) dt = (0.2t + 3) dt = 0.1t 2 + 3t + C. The initial condition is s (0) = 0, and this implies that 0 + 0 + C = 0
⇒ C = 0, so s (t) = 0.1t 2 + 3t.
58. Here a (t) = −32, so v (t) = −32 dt = −32t + C1 . But v (0) = 40 and this implies 0 + C1 = 40 ⇒ C1 = 40. So
v (t) = −32t + 40. Its height is h (t) = v (t) dt = (−32t + 40) dt = −16t 2 + 40t + C2 . Since h (0) = 3, we have
0 + 0 + C2 = 3 ⇒ C2 = 3, so h (t) = −16t 2 + 40t + 3. At the highest point, h (t) = −32t + 40 = 0 ⇒ t = 54 , and so its
maximum height is h 54 = 28 ft.
 Section 4.1 Indefinite Integrals 283

59. a. Let the positive direction h (t) be directed upward. Then a (t) = −32. So v (t) = a (t) dt =
(−32) dt = −32t + C1 .
v (0) = 0 ⇒ 0 + C1 = 0 ⇒ C1 = 0 ⇒ v (t) = −32t. h (t) = v (t) dt = 2
(−32t) dt = −16t + C2 . h (0) = 400 ⇒
0 + C2 = 400 ⇒ C2 = 400, so h (t) = −16t 2 + 400.
b. It hits the ground when h (t) = 0; that is, when −16t 2 + 400 = 0 ⇔ t = ±5. We reject the negative root. Thus, it strikes
the ground 5 seconds after it is dropped.
c. Its velocity when it strikes the ground is given by v (t) = −32 (5) = −160, or 160 ft/s downward.

60. Here v (0) = 16 and s (0) = 128. v (t) = a (t) dt =(−32) dt = −32t + C1 . v (0) = 16 ⇒ 0 + C1 = 16 ⇒ C1 = 16,
so v (t) = −32t + 16. s (t) = v (t) dt = (−32t + 16) dt = −16t 2 + 16t + C2 . s (0) = 128 ⇒ 0 + C2 = 128 ⇒
C2 = 128, so s (t) = −16t 2 + 16t + 128. It strikes the ground when s (t) = 0, that is, when −16t 2 + 16t + 128 = 0
√ √
or t 2 − t − 8 = 0. So t = 1± 21+32 . We reject the negative root, so t = 12 1 + 33 ≈ 3.37. Its impact velocity is
approximately v (3.37) ≈ −32 (3.37) + 16 or 91.8 ft/s downward.

61. v (t) = a (t) dt = a dt = at + C1 . v (0) = v 0 ⇒ C1 = v 0 ⇒ v (t) = at + v 0 .

x (t) = v (t) dt = (at + v 0 ) dt = 12 at 2 + v 0 t + C2 . x (0) = x0 ⇒ 0 + C2 = x0 ⇒ C2 = x0 . Thus,
x (t) = 12 at 2 + v 0 t + x0 .
62. From the results of Exercise 61, we see that v = at + v 0 ⇒ t = (v − v 0 ) /a. Substituting this value of t into the equation
v − v0 v − v0 v − v0 v + v0 v 2 − v 02
x = x0 + v 0 t + 12 at 2 , we obtain x − x0 = t v 0 + 12 at = v 0 + 12 a = · =
a a a 2 2a
⇒ v 2 − v 02 = 2a (x − x0 ) or v 2 = v 02 + 2a (x − x0 ).

63. a (t) = −32, so v (t) = a (t) dt = (−32) dt = −32t + C1 . v (0) = v 0 ⇒ C1 = v 0 ⇒ v (t) = −32t + v 0 ,
s (t) = v (t) dt = (−32t + v 0 ) dt = −16t 2 + v 0 t + C2 , and s (0) = s0 ⇒ C2 = s0 ⇒ s (t) = −16t 2 + v 0 t + s0 .

d 2s ds ds ds
64. Let s denote the distance fallen. Then 2
=g⇒ = g dt = gt + C1 . But = 0 ⇒ C1 = 0 ⇒ = gt ⇒
dt dt dt t=0 dt
s= gt dt = 12 gt 2 + C2 . But s (0) = 0 ⇒ C2 = 0 as well, so s = 12 gt 2 = 16t 2 . Thus, the time taken for the stone to
√
travel s ft is t1 = s = s . The time for the sound to reach Kaitlyn’s ears is t = s . Therefore, the total time is
16 4 2 1128
√
s s
4 + 1128 = 4.22. Solving for s with the aid of a graphing calculator or CAS gives s ≈ 255 ft.

d 2s ds ds
65. = −3.72 ⇒ = (−3.72) dt = −3.72t + C1 . v (0) = 4 ⇒ v = = −3.72t + 4.
dt 2 dt dt
s = v (t) dt = (−3.72t + 4) dt = −1.86t 2 + 4t + C2 . s (0) = 0 ⇒ C2 = 0 ⇒ s (t) = −1.86t 2 + 4t. At
the maximum height, v (t) = 0 ⇒ −3.72t + 4 = 0 ⇒ t = 3.472 . Therefore, the maximum height attained is
2
s 3.472 = −1.86 3.472 + 4 3.472 ≈ 2.15 m.

d2s
On Earth, = −9.8 ⇒ v (t) = −9.8t + 4 and s (t) = −4.9t 2 + 4t. At the maximum height, v (t) = 0 ⇒ t = 94.8 . The
dt 2
maximum height is s 94.8 ≈ 0.82 m.

66. Using the result of Exercise 61, we have x = x0 + v 0 t + 12 at 2 , where x0 is the initial position and v 0 is the initial velocity
of the car. Here x0 = 0 and v 0 = 66, so v = 66 + at and x = 66t + 12 at 2 . When v = 88, we have 88 = 66 + at ⇒ t = 22 a .

At that instant, x = 440, and so 66t + 12 at 2 = 440 ⇒ 66 22 1 22 2 = 440 ⇒ 66 + 11 = 20 ⇒ 20a = 77 ⇒

a + 2a a a a
a = 3.85 ft/s2 .
284 Chapter 4 Integration

67. Using the results of Exercise 61, we have x = x0 + v 0 t + 12 at 2 and v = v 0 + at, where x0 is the initial position and v 0 the
initial velocity. Here v 0 = 88 and v (9) = 0. We find 0 = 88 + 9a ⇒ a = − 88 2
9 ft/s . The stopping distance would be
x = 0 + 88 (9) − 12 88
9 92 = 396 ft.

68. Using the results of Exercise 61, we have v = v 0 + at and x = x0 + v 0 t + 12 at 2 . Here a = 12 and v = 88 ft/s (60 mi/h), so
88 = v 0 + 12t ⇒ v 0 = 88 − 12t. Also, at that instant, x = 242. Since x0 = 0, we have 242 = (88 − 12t) t + 12 (12) t 2 ⇒
3t 2 − 44t + 121 = 0 ⇒ t = 11 11
3 or 11. We reject the root 11 because the distance covered would exceed 242 ft. If t = 3 ,
then v 0 = 88 − 12 11
3 = 44 ft/s. Thus, the car was traveling at 44 ft/s or 30 mi/h.

69. The time taken by runner A to reach the finish line is t1 = 200 100
22 = 11 s. Runner B, with an initial speed of v 0 = 20 ft/s, has
to cover a distance of 220 ft in t1 seconds in order to reach the finish line at the same time as runner A. So, using the result

of Exercise 61, 220 = 20 100 1 100 2 ⇒ a ≈ 0.924. Thus, runner B must have an acceleration greater than about
11 + 2 a 11
0.924 ft/s2 .

70. At any time t with 0 < t < T , f (t) > g (t). This implies that car A is moving faster than car B. Therefore, car A will be
ahead of car B at time T .

71. Since f (t) ≥ g (t) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 180, we see that money was being deposited into branch A at a rate faster than that at
branch B. Therefore, branch A has a larger amount on deposit than branch B at the end of 180 days.

72. We use the result of Exercise 61. At the time of collision, the particle starting at A has traveled a distance of
d1 = 10t + 12 · 12 t 2 and the particle starting at B has traveled a distance of d2 = 5t + 12 · 34 t 2 . But d1 + d2 = 100 and so
10t + 14 t 2 + 5t + 38 t 2 = 100 ⇒ 58 t 2 + 15t = 100 ⇒ t ≈ 5.4 s. Thus, d1 ≈ 10 (5.4) + 14 (5.4)2 ≈ 61.3 ft.

73. R (x) = R (x) dx = (10,000 − 200x) dx = 10,000x − 100x 2 + C. R (0) = 0 ⇒ C = 0, so R (x) = 10,000x − 100x 2 .

74. C (x) = C (x) dx = 0.000006x 2 − 0.04x + 1000 dx = 0.000002x 3 − 0.02x 2 + 1000x + K . C (0) = 120,000 ⇒

K = 120,000, so C (x) = 0.000002x 3 − 0.02x 2 + 1000x + 120,000.

75. a. f (x) = r (x) dx = 0.004641x 2 − 0.3012x + 4.9 dx = 0.001547x 3 − 0.1506x 2 + 4.9x + C.

f (30) = 0.14 yields 0.001547 303 − 0.1506 302 + 4.9 (30) + C = 0.14 ⇒ C = −53.09, so

f (x) = 0.001547x 3 − 0.1506x 2 + 4.9x − 53.09.

b. The risk of Down syndrome at delivery when the maternal age is 40 is given by
f (40) = 0.001547 403 − 0.1506 402 + 4.9 (40) − 53.09 ≈ 0.958 or approximately 0.96 percent. When the
maternal age is 45, the risk is f (45) ≈ 3.416, or approximately 3.42 percent.

76. a. Let S (t) denote the share of online advertisement at time t (in years). Then
S (t) = R (t) dt = −0.033t 2 + 0.3428t + 0.07 dt = −0.011t 3 + 0.1714t 2 + 0.07t + C. S (0) = 2.9 ⇒ C = 2.9,

so S (t) = −0.011t 3 + 0.1714t 2 + 0.07t + 2.9.

b. S (6) = −0.011 63 + 0.1714 62 + 0.07 (6) + 2.9 ≈ 7.11%.

77. A (t) = A (t) dt = 3.2922t 2 − 0.366t 3 dt = 1.0974t 3 − 0.0915t 4 + C. A (0) = 34 ⇒ C = 34, so

A (t) = 1.0974t 3 − 0.0915t 4 + 34.

 Section 4.1 Indefinite Integrals 285

78. a. S (t) = R (t) dt = 3t 3 − 17.9445t 2 + 28.7222t + 26.632 dt = 0.75t 4 − 5.9815t 3 + 14.3611t 2 + 26.632t + C.

S (0) = 108 ⇒ 0 + C = 108 ⇒ C = 108, so S (t) = 0.75t 4 − 5.9815t 3 + 14.3611t 2 + 26.632t + 108.
b. The total sales of organic milk in 2004 were
S (5) = 0.75 54 − 5.9815 53 + 14.3611 52 + 26.632 (5) + 108 = 321.25 or $321.25 million.
dh 1
√ 1 t dt = − 1
√ 1 t 2 + C. h (0) = 20 ⇒ C = 20, so
79. h (t) = dt = − 25 20 − 50 25 20t − 100
dt
√
1 2 5t − 1 t 2 + 20.
h (t) = − 25 100
1 wx 2 wLx 1 wx 2 wLx 1 wx 3 wLx 2
80. a. y = − ⇒y = y dx = − dx = − + C1 .
EI 2 2 EI 2 2 EI 6 4

1 wx 3 wLx 2 1 wx 4 wLx 3
y= y dx = − + C1 dx = − + C1 x + C2 . y (0) = 0 ⇒ C2 = 0
EI 6 4 EI 24 12

1 wx 4 wLx 3 1 wL 4 wL 4 wL 3
⇒y= − + C1 x . y (L) = 0 ⇒ − + C1 L = 0 ⇒ C1 = , so
EI 24 12 EI 24 12 24E I

1 wx 4 wLx 3 wL 3 x wx
y= − + = x 3 − 2Lx 2 + L 3 .
EI 24 12 24 24E I

1 wx 3 wLx 2 wL 3 L
b. Setting y = 0 gives − + =0⇒x = .
EI 6 4 24 2

L 1 wL 2 wL 2 wL 2 L
y = − =− < 0 ⇒ the maximum value of y occurs at x = . Thus, the maximum
2 EI 8 4 8E I 2

L w L L3 L2 5wL 4
deflection is y = − 2L + L3 = .
2 24E I 2 8 4 384E I
d
81. True, because f (x) + C = f (x), which is the integrand.
dx
82. False. Let F (x) = 1 and G (x) = x. Then f (x) = F (x) = 0 and g (x) = G (x) = 1, but f (x) g (x) dx = 0 dx = C,
where C is an arbitrary constant. But F (x) G (x) + C = x + C = f (x) g (x) dx.
83. False. Let F (x) = x, so that f (x) = F (x) = 1. Then x f (x) dx = x (1) dx = 12 x 2 + C1 = F (x) + C = x 2 + C.
84. True. By Rules 1 and 2 of Integration,
2 f (x) − 3g (x) dx = 2 f (x) dx − 3g (x) dx = 2 f (x) dx − 3 g (x) dx
= 2F (x) + C1 − 3G (x) + C2 (where F = f and G = g)
= 2F (x) − 3G (x) + C
2x 1 1
85. False. Let P (x) = 2x and Q (x) = 4x 3 . Then R (x) dx = dx = x −2 dx = − + C, but
4x 3 2 2x
P (x) dx 2x dx x 2 + C1 1
= 3
= 4 =− + C.
Q (x) dx 4x dx x + C2 2x
d d
86. True, because G (x) + C1 x + C2 = G (x) + C1 = F (x) + C1 and F (x) + C1 = f (x).
dx dx
286 Chapter 4 Integration

4.2 Concept Questions

1. See page 362.
2. If we put u = x 3 + 1, then du = 3x 2 dx ⇒ x 2 dx = 13 du, so
x 2 cos x 3 + 1 dx = 13 cos u du = 13 sin u + C = 13 sin x 3 + 1 + C. However, the substitution does not work for
the second integral.

4.2 Integration by Substitution

1. u = 2x + 3 ⇒ du = 2 dx ⇒ dx = 12 du, so (2x + 3)5 dx = 12 1 u 6 + C = 1 (2x + 3)6 + C.
u 5 du = 12 12

2. u = x 3 + 2 ⇒ du = 3x 2 dx ⇒ x 2 dx = 13 du, so
3
x 2 x 3 + 2 dx = 13 u 1/2 du = 29 u 3/2 + C = 29 x3 + 2 + C.

3. u = x 2 + 1 ⇒ du = 2x dx ⇒ x dx = 12 du, so
x 1 du 1
dx = √ = u −1/2 du = u 1/2 + C = x 2 + 1 + C.
x2 + 1 2 u 2

4. u = 5x ⇒ du = 5 dx ⇒ dx = 15 du, so cos 5x dx = 15 cos u du = 15 sin u + C = 15 sin 5x + C.

5. u = tan x ⇒ du = sec2 x dx, so tan3 x sec2 x dx = u 3 du = 14 u 4 + C = 14 tan4 x + C.

6. u = cos x ⇒ du = − sin x dx ⇒ sin x dx = −du, so
sin x du 1 1
2
dx = − 2
= − u −2 du = + C = + C = sec x + C.
cos x u u cos x
4 5
7. For I = 2x x 2 + 1 dx, let u = x 2 + 1 ⇒ du = 2x dx. Then I = u 4 du = 15 u 5 + C = 15 x 2 + 1 + C.
4
8. For I = x 2 2x 3 − 1 dx, let u = 2x 3 − 1 ⇒ du = 6x 2 dx ⇒ x 2 dx = 16 du. Then

I = 16 1 u 5 + C = 1 2x 3 − 1 5 + C.
u 4 du = 30 30

9. For I = (2x − 4)3/5 dx, let u = 2x − 4 ⇒ du = 2 dx ⇒ dx = 12 du. Then

I = 12 u 3/5 du = 12 5 u 8/5 + C = 5 (2x − 4)8/5 + C.
8 16

10. For I = (1 − 3x)1.4 dx, let u = 1 − 3x ⇒ du = −3 dx ⇒ dx = − 13 du. Then

I = − 13 u 1.4 du = − 13 · 21.4 u 2.4 + C = − 71.2 (1 − 3x)2.4 + C.
5
11. For I = 3x 2x 2 + 3 dx, let u = 2x 2 + 3 ⇒ du = 4x dx ⇒ x dx = 14 du. Then
6
I = 34 u 5 du = 34 16 u 6 + C = 18 2x 2 + 3 + C.
−4
12. For I = x 2 2x 3 − 1 dx, let u = 2x 3 − 1 ⇒ du = 6x 2 dx ⇒ x 2 dx = 16 du. Then
−3
I = 16 u −4 du = 16 − 13 u −3 + C = − 18
1 2x 3 − 1 + C.
3
13. For I = x2 + x − 1 (2x + 1) dx, let u = x 2 + x − 1 ⇒ du = (2x + 1) dx. Then
4
I = u 3 du = 14 u 4 + C = 14 x 2 + x − 1 + C.
 Section 4.2 Integration by Substitution 287

3
14. For I = x2 − 1 x 3 − 3x dx, let u = x 3 − 3x ⇒ du = 3x 2 − 3 dx ⇒ x 2 − 1 dx = 13 du. Then
4
I = 13 u 3 du = 13 1 u 4 + C = 1 x 3 − 3x
4 12 + C.
√
15. For I = 1 − 2x dx, let u = 1 − 2x ⇒ du = −2 dx ⇒ dx = − 12 du. Then
√ √
1 − 2x dx = − 12 u du = − 12 23 u 3/2 + C = − 13 (1 − 2x)3 + C.
3
16. For I = 2x 1 − 4x 2 dx, let u = 1 − 4x 2 ⇒ du = −8x dx ⇒ x dx = − 18 du. Then
4
u 1/3 du = − 14 34 u 4/3 + C = − 16
3
I = 2 − 18 3 1 − 4x 2 + C.
3/2
17. For s3 s4 − 1 ds, let u = s 4 − 1 ⇒ du = 4s 3 ds ⇒ s 3 ds = 14 du. Then

I = 14 1 s 4 − 1 5/2 + C.
u 3/2 du = 14 25 u 5/2 + C = 10

18. For I = x −1/3 x 2/3 − 1 dx, let u = x 2/3 − 1 ⇒ du = 23 x −1/3 dx ⇒ x −1/3 dx = 32 du. Then
3
I = 32 u 1/2 du = 32 23 u 3/2 + C = x 2/3 − 1 + C.
x
19. For I = 3
dx, let u = 2x 2 + 3 ⇒ du = 4x dx ⇒ x dx = 14 du. Then
2
2x + 3
1 du 1 1 1 1
I = = u −3 du = − u −2 + C = − + C.
4 u3 4 4 2 2
8 2x + 3
2

x 2 + 23
20. For I = 2
dx, let u = x 3 + 2x ⇒ du = 3x 2 + 2x dx = 3 x 2 + 23 dx. Then
x 3 + 2x
1 du 1 1 1 1
I = 2
= u −2 du = − +C =− + C.
3 u 3 3 u 3x x 2 + 2
4u
21. For I = du, let v = 4 − u 2 ⇒ dv = −2u du ⇒ u du = − 12 dv. Then
4 − u2
1 dv
I =4 − = −2 v −1/2 dv = −2 2v 1/2 + C = −4 4 − u 2 + C.
2 v 1/2
1 + u −1
22. For I = du, let v = 1 + u −1 ⇒ dv = −u −2 du. Then
u2
3
I = − v 1/2 dv = − 23 v 3/2 + C = − 23 1 + u −1 + C.
x
23. For I = √ dx, let u = x − 1 ⇒ du = dx and x = u + 1. Then
x −1
(u + 1) du √
I = = u 1/2 + u −1/2 du = 23 u 3/2 + 2u 1/2 + C = 23 u 1/2 (u + 3) + C = 23 (x + 2) x − 1 + C.
u 1/2
2x 2 + 1
24. For I = 3
dx, let u = 2x 3 + 3x + 1 ⇒ du = 6x 2 + 3 dx = 3 2x 2 + 1 dx. Then
2x 3 + 3x + 1
1 du 2
= 13 u −1/3 du = 13 32 u 2/3 + C = 12
3
I = 2x 3 + 3x + 1 + C.
3 u 1/3
x5
25. For I = dx, let u = 1 + x 2 ⇒ du = 2x dx ⇒ x dx = 12 du and x 2 = u − 1. Then
1 + x2
2
x2 (x dx) 1 (u − 1)2 1 u 2 − 2u + 1
I = = du = du = 12 u 3/2 − 2u 1/2 + u −1/2 du
1 + x2 2 u 1/2 2 u 1/2
5/2 3/2 1/2
= 12 25 u 5/2 − 43 u 3/2 + 2u 1/2 + C = 15 1 + x 2 − 23 1 + x 2 + 1 + x2 + C.
288 Chapter 4 Integration

√
26. For I = (2x + 3) x − 1 dx, let u = x − 1 ⇒ du = dx and x = u + 1. Then
I = [2 (u + 1) + 3] u 1/2 du = 2u 3/2 + 5u 1/2 du = 45 u 5/2 + 10
3u
3/2 + C

2 u 3/2 (6u + 25) + C = 2 (x − 1)3 + C.

= 15 15 (6x + 19)
x x
27. For I = 2 cos dx, let u = ⇒ du = 12 dx ⇒ dx = 2 du. Then
2 2
x
I = 4 cos u du = 4 sin u + C = 4 sin + C.
2
28. For I = x sin x 2 dx, let u = x 2 ⇒ du = 2x dx ⇒ x dx = 12 du. Then
I = 12 sin u du = − 12 cos u + C = − 12 cos x 2 + C.
29. For I = x cos πx 2 dx, let u = πx 2 ⇒ du = 2πx dx ⇒ x dx = 21π du. Then
I = 21π cos u du = 21π sin u + C = 21π sin πx 2 + C.
30. For I = x 2 sec2 x 3 dx, let u = x 3 ⇒ du = 3x 2 dx ⇒ x 2 dx = 13 du. Then
I = 13 sec2 u du = 13 tan u + C = 13 tan x 3 + C.
du
31. For I = sin πx cos πx dx, let u = cos πx ⇒ du = −π sin πx dx ⇒ sin πxdx = − . Then
π
1
I = −π u du = − 21π u 2 + C = − 21π cos2 πx + C. If we let u = sin πx, then I = 21π sin2 πx + C.
32. For I = cot3 x csc2 x dx, let u = cot x ⇒ du = − csc2 x dx. Then I = − u 3 du = − 14 u 4 + C = − 14 cot4 x + C.
33. For I = tan 3x sec 3x dx, let u = 3x ⇒ du = 3 dx. Then I = 13 tan u sec u du = 13 sec u + C = 13 sec 3x + C.
√ √
34. For I = sin θ cos θ dθ, let u = sin θ ⇒ du = cos θ dθ. Then I = u du = 23 u 3/2 + C = 23 sin3 θ + C.
sin u −1
35. For I = du, let v = u −1 ⇒ dv = −u −2 du. Then I = − sin v dv = cos v + C = cos u −1 + C.
u2
sin x
36. For I = dx, let u = 1 + cos x ⇒ du = − sin x dx. Then
(1 + cos x)3
du 1
I =− 3
= − u −3 du = 12 u −2 + C = + C.
u 2 (1 + cos x)2
csc2 3x
37. For I = dx, let u = cot 3x ⇒ du = − csc2 3x · 3 dx ⇒ csc2 3x dx = − 13 du. Then
cot3 3x
1 du 1
I =− = − 13 u −3 du = 16 u −2 + C = + C = 16 tan2 3x + C.
3 u3 6 cot2 3x
√
sin x √ 1 1
38. For I = √ dx, let u = x = x 1/2 ⇒ du = 12 x −1/2 dx = √ dx ⇒ √ dx = 2 du. Then
x 2 x x
√
I = 2 sin u du = −2 cos u + C = −2 cos x + C.
cos 2t
39. For I = √ dt, let u = 2 + sin 2t ⇒ du = 2 cos 2t dt. Then
2 + sin 2t
1 du √
I = √ = 12 u −1/2 du = u 1/2 + C = 2 + sin 2t + C.
2 u
40. For I = csc2 x (cot x − 1)3 dx, let u = cot x − 1 ⇒ du = − csc2 x dx. Then
I = − u 3 du = − 14 u 4 + C = − 14 (cot x − 1)4 + C.
sec x tan x
41. For I = dx, let u = sec x − 1 ⇒ du = sec x tan x dx. Then
(sec x − 1)2
du 1 1 1
I = 2
=− +C =− +C = + C.
u u sec x − 1 1 − sec x
 Section 4.2 Integration by Substitution 289

√
42. For I = sec2 (x + 1) 1 + tan (x + 1) dx, let u = 1 + tan (x + 1) ⇒ du = sec2 (x + 1) dx. Then

I = u 1/2 du = 23 u 3/2 + C = 23 [1 + tan (x + 1)]3 + C.

1 − cos 2πx 1 dx − 1
43. For I = sin2 πx dx = dx = 2 2 cos 2πx dx, let u = 2πx in the second integral. Then
2
I = 12 x − 12 · 21π cos u du = 12 x − 41π sin u + C = 12 x − 41π sin 2πx + C.
1 + sin x 1 sin x sin x
44. For I = dx = + dx = sec2 x dx + dx, let u = cos x in the second integral.
cos2 x cos2 x cos2 x cos2 x
du 1 1
Then du = − sin x dx, so I = sec 2 x dx − 2
= tan x + + C = tan x + + C = tan x + sec x + C.
u u cos x
√
45. For I = x x − 4 dx, let u = x − 4 ⇒ du = dx and x = u + 4. Then
√
I = (u + 4) u du = u 3/2 + 4u 1/2 dx = 25 u 5/2 + 83 u 3/2 + C

2 u 3/2 (3u + 20) + C = 2 (3x + 8) (x − 4)3 + C.

= 15 15

46. For I = x 2 (1 − x)7 dx, let u = 1 − x ⇒ du = −dx and x = 1 − u. Then

I = − (1 − u)2 u 7 du = − 1 − 2u + u 2 u 7 du = − 1 u 10 + 2 u 9 − 1 u 8 + C
u 9 − 2u 8 + u 7 du = − 10 9 8
1 (1 − x)10 + 2 (1 − x)9 − 1 (1 − x)8 + C.
= − 10 9 8
5/2
47. For I = x3 x2 + 1 dx, let u = x 2 + 1 ⇒ du = 2x dx and x 2 = u − 1. Then
5/2
I = x2 x2 + 1 (x dx) = 12 (u − 1) u 5/2 du = 12 u 7/2 − u 5/2 du = 12 29 u 9/2 − 27 u 7/2 + C
9/2 7/2
= 19 x 2 + 1 − 17 x 2 + 1 + C.

x +1 √ √
48. For I = √ 3/2
dx, let u = x − 1, so x = u + 1 ⇒ x = u 2 + 2u + 1 and dx = 2 (u + 1) du. Then
x −1
u 2 + 2u + 2 (u + 1) u 3 + 3u 2 + 4u + 2
I =2 du = 2 du = 2 u 3/2 + 3u 1/2 + 4u −1/2 + 2u −3/2 du
u 3/2 u 3/2
= 2 25 u 5/2 + 2u 3/2 + 8u 1/2 − 4u −1/2 + C
√ 5/2 √ 3/2 √ 1/2 √ −1/2
= 45 x −1 +4 x −1 + 16 x − 1 −8 x −1 + C.
√ √ √ √
dx 1 x − x +1 x − x +1 √ √
49. For I = √ √ = √ √ ·√ √ dx = dx = x + 1 dx − x dx, let
x + x +1 x + x +1 x − x +1 −1
u = x + 1 ⇒ du = dx in the first integral. Then
I = u 1/2 du − x 1/2 dx = 23 u 3/2 − 23 x 3/2 + C = 23 (x + 1)3/2 − 23 x 3/2 + C.

a2 − x 2 1 1 1
50. For I = 4
dx, let x = ⇒ dx = − 2 dt and t = . Then
x t t x
a 2 − 1/t 2 1
I = − 2 dt = − t a 2 t 2 − 1 dt. Now let u = a 2 t 2 − 1 ⇒ du = 2a 2 t dt, so
(1/t)4 t
3/2
1 1 2 u 3/2 + C = − 1 3/2 1 a2
I =− u 1/2 du = − 3 a2t 2 − 1 +C =− −1 +C
2a 2 2a 2 3a 2 3a 2 x2
3/2
a2 − x 2
=− + C.
3a 2 x 3
290 Chapter 4 Integration

51. f (x) = f (x) dx = x 1 + x 2 dx. Let u = 1 + x 2 ⇒ du = 2x dx. Then

3/2
f (x) = 12 u 1/2 du = 12 23 u 3/2 + C = 13 1 + x 2 + C. f (0) = 1 ⇒ 13 + C = 1 ⇒ C = 23 , so
3/2
f (x) = 13 1 + x 2 + 23 .
x
52. f (x) = f (x) dx = 3/2
dx. Let u = 2x 2 + 1 ⇒ du = 4x dx. Then
2x 2 + 1
1 du 1
f (x) = = 14 u −3/2 du = 14 −2u −1/2 + C = − + C. f (2) = − 16 ⇒ − 16 + C = − 16 ⇒ C = 0,
4 u 3/2 2
2 2x + 1
1
so f (x) = − .
2 2x 2 + 1
53. x (t) = v (t) dt = t 16 − t 2 dt. Let u = 16 − t 2 ⇒ du = −2t dt. Then
3/2
x (t) = − 12 u 1/2 du = − 13 u 3/2 + C = − 13 16 − t 2 + C. x (0) = 0 ⇒ − 13 163/2 + C = 0 ⇒ C = 64
3 , so
3/2
x (t) = − 13 16 − t 2 + 64
3 .

2t 2t
54. Let P be the population at time t. Then P (t) = r (t) dt = 400 1+ dt = 400t + 400 dt.
24 + t 2 24 + t 2
du
Let u = 24 + t 2 ⇒ du = 2t dt. Then P (t) = 400t + 400 = 400t + 800u 1/2 + C = 400t + 800 24 + t 2 + C.
u 1/2
√ √ √
P (0) = 60,000 ⇒ 800 24+C = 60,000 ⇒ C = 60,000−1600 6 ⇒ P (t) = 400t+800 24 + t 2 +60,000−1600 6.
√ √
Five years from now, the population will be P (5) = 400 (5) + 800 24 + 25 + 60,000 − 1600 6 ≈ 63,681.
5.45218
55. g (t) = g (t) dt = dt. Let u = 1 + 1.09t ⇒ du = 1.09 dt. Then
(1 + 1.09t)0.9
1 5.45218
g (t) = du ≈ 50.02u 0.1 + C = 50.02 (1 + 1.09t)0.1 + C. g (0) = 50.02 ⇒ 50.02 + C = 50.02
1.09 u 0.9
⇒ C = 0, so g (t) = 50.02 (1 + 1.09t)0.1 . The life expectancy at birth of a female born in the year 2000 is
g (100) = 50.02 1100.1 ≈ 80.04 years.
225 − 10x 225 x
56. R (x) = R (t) dt = √ dx = dx − 10 dx. Let u = 225 − 5x ⇒
225 − 5x (225 − 5x)1/2 (225 − 5x)1/2
du = −5 dx ⇒ dx = − 15 du and x = 45 − 15 u. Then

225 du 10 45 − 15 u
du 2
R (x) = − /
+ du = 45
− u 1/2 du = 45 2u 1/2 − 25 23 u 3/2 + C
5 u 1 2 5 u 1/2u 1/ 2 5
2 u + C = 2√225 − 5x 225 − 450 + 10x + C = 2 (2x − 45) √225 − 5x + C.
= 2u 1/2 45 − 15
15 3
√ √
R (0) = 0 ⇒ 23 (−45) 225 + C = 0 ⇒ C = 450, so R (x) = 23 (2x − 45) 225 − 5x + 450.

57. The required volume is V = 2 cos π t + C = − 1.2 cos π t + C. When t = 0,

R(t)dt = 0.6 sin π2t dt = −(0.6) π 2 π 2
V = 0, and so 0 = − 1π.2 + C and C = 1π.2 . Therefore, V = 1π.2 1 − cos π2t .

58. R = 2 5 − 4 cos π6t dt = 10t − 8 π

6 sin π t + C; R (0) = 0 ⇒ C = 0. Thus, R (t) = 10t − 48 sin πt .
6 π 6

59. v (t) = a (t) dt = (−4 cos 2t − 3 sin 2t) dt = −2 sin 2t + 32 cos 2t + C. v (0) = 32 + C = 32 ⇒ C = 0, so
v (t) = −2 sin 2t + 32 cos 2t. Now s (t) = v (t) dt = −2 sin 2t + 32 cos 2t dt = cos 2t + 34 sin 2t + C.

s (0) = 1 + C = 0 ⇒ C = −1, so s (t) = cos 2t + 34 sin 2t − 1.

 Section 4.3 Area 291
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
d ⎣ v ⎦, we find d ⎣ v ⎦= F ⇒ v F Ft
60. From F = m 0 = dt = + k.
dt 1 − v 2 /c2 dt 1 − v 2 /c2 m0 1 − v 2 /c2 m0 m0

v Ft v2 F 2t 2 c2 v 2 F 2t 2
But v (0) = 0, so k = 0. Therefore, = ⇒ 2 2
= 2
⇒ 2 2
=
1 − v 2 /c2 m0 1 − v /c m0 c −v m 20
cFt
⇒ m 20 c2 v 2 = c2 F 2 t 2 − F 2 t 2 v 2 ⇒ v 2 m 20 c2 + F 2 t 2 = c2 F 2 t 2 ⇒ v = . Now
m 20 c2 + F 2 t 2
cFt du
s = v (t) dt = dt. Let u = m 20 c2 + F 2 t 2 ⇒ du = 2F 2 t dt ⇒ t dt = . Then
m 20 c2 + F 2 t 2 2F 2

cF du c c 1/2
s = /
= 2u 1/2 + D = m 20 c2 + F 2 t 2 + D, where D is the constant of integration.
2F 2 u 1 2 2F F
c c2 m 0 c 1/2 c2 m 0
s (0) = 0 ⇒ m 0 c + D = 0 ⇒ D = − , so s (t) = m 20 c2 + F 2 t 2 − . Finally,
F F F F
cFt cF cF
lim v (t) = lim = lim = = c, so its velocity approaches the speed of light.
t→∞ t→∞ 2 2
m0c + F t 2 2 t→∞
m0c2 2 F
+ F2
t2

61. True. Let u = x 2 . Then du = 2x dx ⇒ x dx = 12 du, so x f x 2 dx = 12 f (u) du.

62. False. Let f (x) = x 2 , a = 2, and b = 1. Then f (ax + b) = f (2x + 1) = (2x + 1)2 , so
f (ax + b) dx = (2x + 1)2 dx = 16 (2x + 1)3 + C1 . But
f (u) du = u 2 du = 13 u 3 + C2 = 13 (2x + 1)3 + C2 = 16 (2x + 1)3 + C1 .

4.3 Concept Questions

1. a. y b. y c. y

6 y=x+1 6 y=x+1 6 y=x+1

5 5 5

4 4 4

3 3 3

2 2 2

1 1 1

0 1 2 3 4 5 x 0 1 2 3 4 5 x 0 1 2 3 4 5 x

a. c1 = 1, c2 = 2, c3 = 3, c4 = 4
4
A≈ k=1 f (ck ) x = f (1) + f (2) + f (3) + f (4) (1) = (2 + 3 + 4 + 5) (1) = 14
b. c1 = 2, c2 = 3, c3 = 4, c4 = 5
4
A≈ k=1 f (ck ) x = f (2) + f (3) + f (4) + f (5) (1) = (3 + 4 + 5 + 6) (1) = 18
c. c1 = 1.5, c2 = 2.5, c3 = 3.5, c4 = 4.5
4
A≈ k=1 f (ck ) x = f (1.5) + f (2.5) + f (3.5) + f (4.5) (1) = (2.5 + 3.5 + 4.5 + 5.5) (1) = 16
292 Chapter 4 Integration

5−1 4 4 4 4k
2. Here a = 1, b = 5, and x = = , so x0 = 1, x1 = 1 + , x2 = 1 + 2 , . . . , xk = 1 + , . . . , xn = 5.
4 n n k −1 n n−1 n n
a. c1 = 1, c2 = 1 + , . . . , ck = 1 + 4 , . . . , cn = 1 + 4
n n n
n n 4 (k − 1) 4 4 n 4 (k − 1)
A = lim f (ck ) x = lim f 1+ = lim k=1 1 + +1
n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n n n→∞ n n
1 n 4 n 1 4 (n − 1) n 1
= 4 lim
n→∞ n k=1 2 + n k=1 (k − 1) = 4 n→∞ lim
n
2n + ·
n 2
= 4 lim 2 + 2 1 −
n→∞ n
= 4 (4) = 16
4 2 (4) 4k 4 (n − 1)
b. c1 = 1 + , c2 = 1 + , . . . , ck = 1 + , . . . , cn = 1 +
n n n n
n n 4k 4 4 n 4k
A = lim f (ck ) x = lim f 1+ = lim k=1 1 + n + 1
n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n n n→∞ n
1 n 4 n 1 4 n (n + 1) 1
= 4 lim k=1 2 + n k=1 k = 4 n→∞ lim 2n + · = 4 lim 2 + 2 1 + = 16
n→∞ n n n 2 n→∞ n
2 4·3 2 (2k − 1) 2 (2n − 1)
c. c1 = 1 + , c2 = 1 + , . . . , ck = 1 + , . . . , cn =
n 2n n n
n n 2 (2k − 1) 4 4 n 4k − 2
A = lim f (ck ) x = lim f 1+ = lim 1+ +1
n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n n n→∞ n k= 1 n
1 n 1 4 n 1 4 n (n + 1)
= 4 lim k=1 2 − n + n k=1 k = 4 n→∞lim (2n − 2) + ·
n→∞ n n n 2
1 1
= 4 lim 2 − + 2 1 + = 16
n→∞ n n
Using elementary geometry, the area of the region S is A = 12 (2 + 6) (4) = 16.

4.3 Area
1−0 1 1 2
1. a. y b. a = 0, b = 1, and n = 5, so x= = . c1 = 0, c2 = , c3 = ,
5 5 5 5
1 y=x 3 4
c4 = , and c5 = .
5 5
5 1 2 3 4 1
k=1 f (ck ) x = f (0) + f 5 + f 5 + f 5 + f 5 5

= 0 + 15 + 25 + 35 + 45 1
5 = 25

0 1 x
4−1 1 5 7 9
2. a. y b. a = 1, b = 4, and n = 6, so x= = . c1 = , c2 = , c3 = ,
4 y=x
6 2 4 4 4
11 13 15
c4 = , c5 = , c6 = .
4 4 4
3
6 5 7 15 1
k=1 f (ck ) x = f 4 + f 4 + ··· + f 4 2
2
= 54 + 74 + 94 + 11 13 15
4 + 4 + 4
1
2 = 15
2

0 1 2 3 4 x
 Section 4.3 Area 293

4−0 4 4 8
3. a. y b. a = 0, b = 4, and n = 5, so x= = . c1 = , c2 = ,
5 5 5 5
12 16
y=2x+3 c3 = , c4 = , and c5 = 4.
10 5 5
5 4 8 4
k=1 f (ck ) x = f 5 + f 5 + · · · + f (4) 5

= 2 · 45 + 3 + 2 · 85 + 3 + 2 · 12
5 +3
16
+ 2 · 5 + 3 + (2 · 4 + 3) 4
5
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
= 156
5
1 1 2 3
4. a. y b. a = 0, b = 1, and n = 5, so x= . c1 = 0, c2 = , c3 = , c4 = ,
4 5 5 5 5
4
3 and c5 = .
5
2 5 1 2 3 4 1
k=1 f (ck ) x = f (0) + f 5 + f 5 + f 5 + f 5 5
1 y=3-2x
= (3 − 2 · 0) + 3 − 2 · 15 + 3 − 2 · 25

x
+ 3 − 2 · 35 + 3 − 2 · 45 1
0 1 2 3 4 1 5
5 5 5 5
= 11
5
3−1 1 5 7 9
5. a. y b. a = 1, b = 3, and n = 4, so x= = . c1 = , c2 = , c3 = ,
4 2 4 4 4
5 11
and c4 = .
4
4 5 7 9 11 1
k=1 f (ck ) x= f 4 + f 4 + f 4 + f 4 2
y=8-2x

= 8 − 2 · 54 + 8 − 2 · 74 + 8 − 2 · 94 + 8 − 2 · 11
4
1
2 =8
0 1 2 3 x

1 1 2 3 4
6. a. y b. a = 0, b = 1, and n = 5, so x= . c1 = , c2 = , c3 = , c4 = ,
5 5 5 5 5
y=x@
1 and c5 = 1.
5 1 2 1
k=1 f (ck ) x = f 5 + f 5 + · · · + f (1) 5

= 1 2+ 2 2+ 3 2+ 4 2 + 12 1 = 11
5 5 5 5 5 25

0 1 2 3 4 1 x
5 5 5 5
3−1 1 5 7 9
7. a. y b. a = 1, b = 3, and n = 4, so x= = . c1 = , c2 = , c3 = ,
4 2 4 4 4
10
y=x@ 11
and c4 = .
4
4 5 7 9 11 1
k=1 f (ck ) x = f 4 + f 4 + f 4 + f 4 4

5 2+ 7 2+ 9 2+ 11 2 1 = 69
= 4 4 4 4 2 8 = 8.625

0 1 2 3 x
294 Chapter 4 Integration

2−0 1 1 1
8. a. y b. a = 0, b = 2, and n = 8, so x= = . c1 = 0, c2 = , c3 = ,
8 4 4 2
5 3 5 3 7
4
c4 = , c5 = 1, c6 = , c7 = , c8 = .
4 4 2 4
y=4-x@
3 8 1 7 1
k=1 f (ck ) x = f (0) + f 4 + ··· + f 4 4
2
2 2 2
1 = 4 − 02 + 4 − 14 + 4 − 12 + 4 − 34

0 x 2 2 2
1 2 + 4 − 12 + 4 − 54 + 4 − 32 + 4 − 74 1
4

= 93
16 = 5.8125

3−1 2
9. a. y b. a = 1, b = 3, and n = 5, so x= = = 0.4. c1 = 1.4, c2 = 1.8,
5 5
16 c3 = 2.2, c4 = 2.6, and c5 = 3.
5
12 k=1 f (ck ) x = f (1.4) + f (1.8) + · · · + f (3) (0.4)

8 = (16 − 1.4)2 + 16 − (1.8)2 + 16 − (2.2)2

y=16-x@
+ 16 − (2.6)2 + 16 − 32 (0.4)
4
= 21.68
0 1 2 3 4 x

4−0 1 1
10. a. y b. a = 0, b = 4, and n = 8, so x= = . c1 = 0, c2 = , c3 = 1,
y=Ïx 8 2 2
2 3 5 7
c4 = , c5 = 2, c6 = , c7 = 3, c8 = .
2 2 2
8 1 7 1
1 k=1 f (ck ) x = f (0) + f 2 + ··· + f 2 2
√ 1 +
√ 3 +
√ 5 +
√ 7 1
= 0+ 2 1+ 2 2+ 2 3+ 2 2

0 1 2 3 4 x ≈ 4.77

2−1 1
11. a. y b. a = 1, b = 2, and n = 10, so x= = = 0.1. c1 = 1, c2 = 1.1,
10 10
c3 = 1.2, c4 = 1.3, c5 = 1.4, c6 = 1.5, c7 = 1.6, c8 = 1.7, c9 = 1.8,
1
c10 = 1.9.
10 f
k=1 (ck ) x = f (1) + f (1.1) + · · · + f (1.9) (0.1)
y=1/x
= 1 + 11.1 + 11.2 + 11.3 + 11.4 + 11.5 + 11.6 + 11.7 + 11.8 + 11.9 (0.1)
≈ 0.72
0 1 2 x
 Section 4.3 Area 295

12. a. y b. a = 0, b = π
2 , and n = 4, so x=π π 3π 5π
8 . c1 = 16 , c2 = 16 , c3 = 16 , and
1 π.
c4 = 716
4 π + f 3π 5π 7π π
k=1 f (ck ) x = f 16 16 + f 16 + f 16 8
π + cos 3π + cos 5π + cos 7π
= cos 16 π
16 16 16 8
y=cos x
≈ 1.006

0 ¹ ¹ 3¹ ¹ x
8 4 8 2

13. 10 1 = 1 + 1 + · · · + 1 = 10
k=1
10 terms
5
14. k=1 2k = 2 (1) + 2 (2) + · · · + 2 (5) = 30
5
15. k=1 (2k − 1) = 1 + (4 − 1) + (6 − 1) + (8 − 1) + (10 − 1) = 25
5
16. k=1 k (k + 1) = 1 (2) + 2 (3) + 3 (4) + 4 (5) + 5 (6) = 70
17. 5 2 2 2 2 2 2
k=1 k = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 55
18. 5 1 1 1 1 1 137
k=1 k = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 60
4 √ √ √ √
19. k=1 k = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 ≈ 6.15
4 kπ π 3π
20. k=1 k sin 2 = sin 2 + 2 sin π + 3 sin 2 + 4 sin 2π = −2
21. 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + · · · + 60 = 2 (1) + 2 (2) + 2 (3) + 2 (4) + · · · + 2 (30) = 30 2k
k=1
22. 2 · 1 + 2 · 2 + 2 · 3 + · · · + 2 · 10 = 10 2k
k=1
23. 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + · · · + 23 = [2 (1) + 1] + [2 (2) + 1] + [2 (3) + 1] + [2 (4) + 1] + · · · + [2 (11) + 1] = 11
k=1 (2k + 1)
8
24. 15 + 25 + 35 + 45 + · · · + 85 = k
k=1 5
5
25. 2 15 + 1 + 2 25 + 1 + 2 35 + 1 + 2 45 + 1 + 2 55 + 1 = k=1
2k + 1
5

26. 1 2−1 1 + 2 2 −1 1 + 3 2−1 1 + 4 2 −1 1 = 14 4 k 2 −1

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 k=1 4

3 3 3 3 n k 3−1
27. 2 n1 −1 1
n + 2 n2 −1 1
n + 2 n3 −1 1
n + · · · + 2 nn −1 1
n = n1 k=1 2 n

0 1 1 1 2 1 n−1 + 1 1 n
28. n +1 n + n +1 n + n +1 n + ··· + n n = n1 k=1
k−1 + 1
n

n
29. n1 sin 1 + n1 + n1 sin 1 + n2 + n1 sin 1 + n3 + · · · + n1 sin 1 + nn = n1 k
k=1 sin 1 + n
n
30. n1 sec2 1 + n1 + n1 sec2 1 + n2 + n1 sec2 1 + n3 + · · · + n1 sec2 1 + nn = n1 2 k
k=1 sec 1 + n
10 10 k + 10 1 = 2 10(11) + 10 = 120
31. k=1 (2k + 1) = 2 k=1 k=1 2

8 2 8 8 2 8 (8 + 1) (2 · 8 + 1)
32. k=1 3 − k =3 k=1 1 − k=1 k = 3 (8) − 6
= −180

10 k 10 k 2 − 2 10 k = 10 (10 + 1) (2 · 10 + 1) − 2 (10) (11) = 275

33. k=1 (k − 2) = k=1 k=1 6 2
40 2 40 3 40 2 40 (40 + 1) 2 40 (40 + 1) (2 · 40 + 1)
34. k=1 k k − k = k=1 k − k=1 k = − = 650,260
2 6
2
10 k 2 10 k 3 + 4 10 k 2 + 10 k = 4 10 (11) 4 (10) (11) (21) 10 (11)
35. k=1 (2k + 1) = 4 k=1 k=1 k=1 2
+
6
+
2
= 13,695
296 Chapter 4 Integration

n 1 1 n n 1 2n (n + 1) n+2
36. k=1 2 (2k + 1) = 2 k=1 2k + k=1 1 = 2 2
+n =
n
n n n
n n n n n 4n (n + 1) (2n + 1) 4n (n + 1)
37. (2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 = 4 k2 + 4 k+ 1= + +n
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1 6 2
4n 3 + 12n 2 + 11n
=
3
n 1 k 2 n 1 2k k2 1 n 2 n 1 n 2
38. 1+ = 1+ + 2 = 1+ k+ 2 k
k=1 n n k=1 n n n n k=1 n k=1 n k=1
1 2 n (n + 1) 1 n (n + 1) (2n + 1) 14n 2 + 9n + 1
= n+ · + 2· =
n n 2 n 6 6n 2

n 2k 1 2n (n + 1) 1
39. lim lim 2 ·
k=1 2 = n→∞ = lim 1 + =1
n→∞ n n 2 n→∞ n

n 1 1 n n n 1 4n (n + 1) (2n + 1) 4n (n + 1)
40. lim (2k + 1)2 = lim 4 k2 + 4 k+ 1 = lim + +n
n→∞ k=1 n 3 n→∞ n 3 k=1 k=1 k=1 n→∞ n 3 6 2
2 1 1 1 1 1 4
= lim 1+ 2+ +2 + 2 + 2 =
n→∞ 3 n n n n n 3

kn 3 3 1 n n 3 1 n (n + 1)
41. lim +2 = lim k+2 1 = lim · + 2n
n→∞ k=1 n n n→∞ n n k=1 k=1 n→∞ n n 2
3 1 15
= lim 1+ +6 =
n→∞ 2 n 2

n k 2 2 2 n 2 n 2 2 2 2 n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
42. lim 1+2 = lim 1+ 2 k = lim n+ · 2 ·
n→∞ k=1 n n n→∞ n k=1 n k=1 n→∞ n n n 6
2 1 1 4 10
= lim 2+ 1+ 2+ =2+ =
n→∞ 3 n n 3 3

n 2k 2 1 1 4 n n
4 n 2
43. lim 1+ = lim k+ 2 k 1+
n→∞ k=1 n n n→∞ k=1 n n k=1 n k=1
1 4 n (n + 1) 4 n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
= lim ·n+ 2 · + 3 ·
n→∞ n n 2 n 6
1 2 1 1 13
= lim 1 + 2 1 + + 1+ 2+ =
n→∞ n 3 n n 3

n 2k − 1 1 1 n 2n + 2k − 1 1 n n
44. lim 1+ = lim = lim (2n − 1) 1+2 k
n→∞ k=1 2n n n→∞ n k=1 2n n→∞ 2n 2 k=1 k=1
2n − 1 1 n (n + 1) 1 1 1 3
= lim 2
·n+ 2 · = lim 1 − + 1+ =
n→∞ 2n n 2 n→∞ 2n 2 n 2

2−0 2 2 (k − 1)
45. a = 0, b = 2, x= = , and ck = , so
n n n
n n n 4 (k − 1) 2 2 n n
A = lim f (ck ) x = lim (2ck + 1) x = lim +1 = lim 2 (n − 4) 1+4 k
n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n n n→∞ n k=1 k=1

2 (n − 4) 8 n (n + 1) 4 1
= lim 2
·n+ 2 · = lim 2 1 − +4 1+ =6
n→∞ n n 2 n→∞ n n
 Section 4.3 Area 297

3−1 2 1 2 2 2k − 1
46. a = 1, b = 3, x= = , and ck = 12 xk−1 + xk = 1 + (k − 1) +1+k =1+ , so
n n 2 n n n
n n n 2k − 1 2
A = lim f (ck ) x = lim (3ck − 1) x = lim 3 1+ −1
n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n n
2 n 3 (2k − 1) 2 3 n 6 n
= lim 2+ = lim 2− 1+ k
n→∞n k=1 n n→∞ n n k=1 n k=1
2 3 12 n (n + 1) 3 1
= lim 2− n+ 2 · = lim 2 2 − +6 1+ = 4 + 6 = 10
n→∞ n n n 2 n→∞ n n
1 k−1
47. a = 0, b = 1, x= , and ck = , so
n n
n n n k−1 2 1 1 n
A = lim f (ck ) x = lim ck2 x = lim = lim (k − 1)2
n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n n n→∞ n 3 k=1

1 n n n 1 n (n + 1) (2n + 1) 2n (n + 1) n
= lim k 2 −2 k + 1 = lim · − + 3
n→∞ n 3 k=1 k=1 k=1 n→∞ n 3 6 2n 3 n
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= lim 1+ 2+ − + 2 + 2 = (2) =
n→∞ 6 n n n n n 6 3
1 k
48. a = 0, b = 1, x= , and ck = , so
n n
n n k 2 n 1 1 n 2
A = lim f (ck ) x = lim ck2 x = lim = lim k
n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n n n→∞ n 3 k=1

1 n (n + 1) (2n + 1) 1 1 1 2 1
= lim 3 · = lim 1+ 2+ = =
n→∞ n 6 n→∞ 6 n n 6 3
1 − (−2) 3 3 (2k − 1)
49. a = −2, b = 1, x= = , and ck = −2 + , so
n n 2n
n n n 3 (2k − 1) 2 3
A = lim f (ck ) x = lim 4 − ck2 x = lim 4 − −2 +
n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 2n n

3 n 6 (2k − 1) 9 (2k − 1)2 3 n 12k 6 9k 2 9k 9

= lim 4−4+ − 2
= lim − − 2 + 2 − 2
n→∞ n k=1 n 4n n→∞ n k=1 n n n n 4n
3 12n (n + 1) 6n 9n (n + 1) (2n + 1) 9n (n + 1) 9n
= lim − − + − 2
n→∞ n 2n n 6n 2 2n 2 4n
18 (n + 1) 18 27n (n + 1) (2n + 1) 27n (n + 1) 27
= lim − − + − 2
n→∞ n n 6n 3 2n 3 4n
1 18 9 1 1 27 1 1 27
= lim 18 1 + − − 1+ 2+ + + 2 − 2 = 18 − 9 = 9
n→∞ n n 2 n n 2 n n 4n
1 − (−2) 3 3k
50. a = −2, b = 1, x= = , and ck = −2 + , so
n n n
n n n 3k 3k 2 3
A = lim f (ck ) x = lim ck − ck2 x = lim −2 + − −2 +
n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n n n
n 3 15k 9k 2 18 n 45 n 27 n 2
= lim −6 + − 2 = lim − 1+ 2 k− 3 k
n→∞ k=1 n n n n→∞ n k=1 n k=1 n k=1
18 45 n (n + 1) 27 n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
= lim − · n + 2 · − 3·
n→∞ n n 2 n 6
45 1 9 1 1 45 9
= lim −18 + 1+ − 1+ 2+ = −18 + −9=−
n→∞ 2 n 2 n n 2 2
298 Chapter 4 Integration

2 2k
51. a = −1, b = 1, x= , and ck = −1 + , so
n n
n n 2 n 2 4k 2 2 n 8 n 2
A = lim f (ck ) x = lim ck2 + 2ck + 2 ·
= lim 1 + 2 = lim 1+ 3 k
n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n n→∞ k=1 n n n→∞ n k=1 n k=1
2 8 n (n + 1) (2n + 1) 4 1 1 8 14
= lim ·n+ 3 · = lim 2 + 1+ 2+ =2+ =
n→∞ n n 6 n→∞ 3 n n 3 3

1−0 k
52. a = 0, b = 1, x= , and ck = , so
n n
n n n k k 3 1 2 n 1 n 3
A = lim f (ck ) x = lim 2ck − ck3 x = lim 2· − = lim 2
k− 4 k
n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n n n n→∞ n k=1 n k=1
2 n (n + 1) 1 n 2 (n + 1)2 1 1 1 2 1 3
= lim · − = lim 1+ − 1+ =1− =
n→∞ n 2 2 n4 4 n→∞ n 4 n 4 4

2−0 2 2k 2k 2k
53. a. Here x= = and xk = 0 + k x = . We take ck = 0 + = (the right endpoint) and f (x) = x 4 .
n n n n n
n n 2k 4 2 n 16k 4 2 32 n 4
Then A = lim f (ck ) x = lim = lim 4
= lim 5 k .
n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n n n→∞ k=1 n n n→∞ n k=1
b. Using a CAS, we find
2 16 (n + 1) (2n + 1) 3n 2 + 3n − 1
32 n 4 32 n (1 + n) (1 + 2n) −1 + 3n + 3n
k = · = .
n 5 k=1 n5 30 15n 4

16 (n + 1) (2n + 1) 3n 2 + 3n − 1 16 1 1 3 1 32
c. A = lim = lim 1 + 2+ 3+ − 2 =
n→∞ 15n 4 15 n→∞ n n n n 5

2−0 2 2k 2k
54. a. Here x= = and xk = 0 + k x = . We take ck = (the right endpoint) and f (x) = x 5 . Then
n n n n
n n 2k 5 2 n 32k 5 2 64 n 5
A = lim f (ck ) x = lim = lim 5
= lim 6 k .
n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n n n→∞ k=1 n n n→∞ n k=1

2 2 2
64 n 5 64 n (n + 1) 2n + 2n − 1
b. Using a CAS, we find 6 k = 6 · .
n k=1 n 12
2 2 2
64 n (n + 1) 2n + 2n − 1 64 1 2 2 1 32
c. A = lim · = lim 1 + 2+ − 2 =
n→∞ n 6 12 12 n→∞ n n n 3

5−2 3 3k 3k
55. a. Here x = = , xk = 2 + k x = 2 + , and ck = 2 + (the right endpoint). Then
n n n n
n n 3k 4 3k 2 3k 3
A = lim f (ck ) x = lim 2+ +2 2+ + 2+ .
n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n n n n

3 n 3k 4 3k 2 3k 3 2357n 4 + 3270n 3 + 1200n 2 − 27

b. Using a CAS, we find 2+ +2 2+ + 2+ = .
n k=1 n n n 10n 4

3 2357n 4 + 3270n 3 + 1200n 2 − 27 3 3270 1200 27 7071

c. A = lim = lim 2357 + + 2 − 4 =
n→∞ 10n 4 10 n→∞ n n n 10
 Section 4.3 Area 299
π −0
π πk πk
56. a. Here x= 2 = , xk = 0 + k x = , and ck = (the right endpoint). Thus,
n 2n 2n 2n
n n πk π
A = lim f (ck ) x = lim sin .
n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 2n 2n
b. The sum cannot be expressed in closed form.
n π πk
c. Using a CAS, we find A = lim sin = 1.
n→∞ k=1 2n 2n
57. a. The area of the shaded triangle is
1 (base) (height) = 1 r cos π r sin π , so the area of each
2 2 n n
isosceles triangle is 2 · 2 r cos n sin n = 12 r 2 sin 2nπ . Therefore,
1 2 π π r
¹/n
An = 12 r 2 n sin 2nπ .

b. A = lim An = lim 12 r 2 n sin 2nπ = 12 r 2 lim n 22π 2π

π sin n
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
sin 2nπ
= 12 r 2 (2π) lim = πr 2
n→∞ 2π
n
58. a. Refer to the figure in Exercise 57. The length of each side of the isosceles triangle is 2r sin π
n , so the perimeter of the
polygon is Cn = 2nr sin π
n.
sin n π
b. C = lim Cn = lim 2nr sin π = 2r lim n π sin π = 2πr lim = 2πr
n→∞ n→∞ n n→∞ π n n→∞ π
n
59. The required area A is approximated by the sum of the areas of the rectangles with a = 0,
b = 100, x = 20 and evaluation point ck chosen as the midpoint of xk−1 , xk . We find
A = f (10) + f (30) + f (50) + f (70) + f (90) (20) = (80 + 100 + 110 + 100 + 80) (20) = 9400 ft2 .
60. Refer to the figure in the text. The height is

H = 045 v (t) dt ≈ f (0) · 3 + f (3) · 3 + f (6) · 4 + f (10) · 6 + f (16) · 8 + f (24) · 8 + f (32) · 6 + f (38) · 5 + f (43) · 2
= 5 (3) + 10 (3) + 16 (4) + 18 (6) + 20 (8) + 18 (8) + 14 (6) + 17 (5) + 14 (2) = 718 ft
n
61. k=1 (ak + bk ) = (a1 + b1 ) + (a2 + b2 ) + · · · + (ak + bk ) + · · · + (an + bn )
n n
= (a1 + a2 + · · · + ak + · · · + an ) + (b1 + b2 + · · · + bk + · · · + bn ) = k=1 ak + k=1 bk
n
62. k=1 (ak − bk ) = (a1 − b1 ) + (a2 − b2 ) + · · · + (ak − bk ) + · · · + (an − bn )
n n
= (a1 + a2 + · · · + ak + · · · + an ) − (b1 + b2 + · · · + bk + · · · + bn ) = k=1 ak − k=1 bk
63. False. Since in every subinterval xk−1 , xk there are infinitely many rational numbers and infinitely many irrational
n n
numbers, we can pick ck to be irrational. Then k=1 f (ck ) x= k=1 0 · x = 0.
n n n n n
64. True. k=1 (cak − dbk ) = k=1 cak − k=1 dbk = c k=1 ak − d k=1 bk .
65. False. Let ak = bk = k and n = 2. Then 2 2 = (a1 + a2 ) (b1 + b2 ) = (1 + 2) (1 + 2) = 9, but
k=1 ak k=1 bk
n
k=1 ak bk = a1 b1 + a2 b2 = 1 · 1 + 2 · 2 = 5.
n 2 2
66. False. Let ak = k 2 , bk = k, and n = 2. Then 2 2 2 2 2
k=1 (ak − bk ) = (a1 − b1 ) + (a2 − b2 ) = 1 − 1 + 2 − 2 = 4,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
but k=1 ak − k=1 bk = a1 + a2 − b1 + b2 = 12 + 42 − 1 + 22 = 12.
300 Chapter 4 Integration

4.4 Concept Questions

1. See pages 387 and 388.
2. See pages 387 and 390-392.
3. a. The displacement of the object at t = c is A1 ; at t = d, it is A1 − A2 ; at t = e, it is A1 − A2 + A3 ; and at t = b, it is
A1 − A 2 + A3 − A 4 .
At t = c, the displacement is ac v (t) dt.
At t = d, the displacement is ad v (t) dt = ac v (t) dt + d
c v (t) dt.
At t = e, the displacement is ae v (t) dt = ac v (t) dt + d e
c v (t) dt + d v (t) dt.
At t = b, the displacement is ab v (t) dt = ac v (t) dt + cd v (t) dt + de v (t) dt + eb v (t) dt.
b. The distance covered by the object over the time interval [a, d] is A1 + A2 = ac v (t) dt − cd v (t) dt, and over [a, b] it
is A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 = ac v (t) dt − cd v (t) dt + de v (t) dt − eb v (t) dt.

4.4 The Definite Integral

b−a 8−0
1. Here a = 0, b = 8, and n = 4, so x= = = 2, x0 = 0, x1 = 2, x2 = 4, x3 = 6, and x4 = 8.
n 4
a. c1 = 0, c2 = 2, c3 = 4, and c4 = 6. Therefore, the Riemann sum is
n
k=1 f (ck ) x = f (c1 ) + f (c2 ) + f (c3 ) + f (c4 ) x = f (0) + f (2) + f (4) + f (6) x

= [4 + 3 + 2 + (−2)] (2) = 14.

4
b. c1 = 2, c2 = 4, c3 = 6, and c4 = 8. The Riemann sum is k=1 f (ck ) x = [3 + 2 + (−2) + (−1)] (2) = 4.
c. Here c1 = 1, c2 = 3, c3 = 5, and c4 = 7, so the Riemann sum is 4k=1 f (ck ) x = [5 + 1 + 0 + (−3)] (2) = 6.
4 − (−2)
2. Here a = −2, b = 4, and n = 6, so x= = 1, x0 = −2, x1 = −1, x2 = 0, x3 = 1, x4 = 2, x5 = 3, and x6 = 4.
6
a. c1 = −2, c2 = −1, c3 = 0, c4 = 1, c5 = 2, and c6 = 3. Therefore,
6
k=1 f (ck ) x = f (c1 ) + f (c2 ) + · · · + f (c6 ) x = f (−2) + f (−1) + · · · + f (3) x

= (−2 + 0.5 + 1.25 + 2 + 0.5 − 1) (1) = 1.25.

b. c1 = −1, c2 = 0, c3 = 1, c4 = 2, c5 = 3, and c6 = 4, so
6
k=1 f (ck ) x = (0.5 + 1.25 + 2 + 0.5 − 1 − 2) (1) = 1.25.
c. c1 = −1.5, c2 = −0.5, c3 = 0.5, c4 = 1.5, c5 = 2.5, and c6 = 3.5, so
6
k=1 f (ck ) x = (−0.5 + 1 + 1.5 + 1.5 − 0.5 − 1.5) (1) = 1.5.

3. a. y b. a = 0, b = 2, and n = 4, so x = 2− 0 1 1
4 = 2 , x 0 = 0, x 1 = 2 , x2 = 1,
y=2x-3

1
x3 = 32 , and x4 = 2. Then c1 = 14 , c2 = 34 , c3 = 54 , c4 = 74 , and the
Riemann sum is
1
_1 0 2 x 4 1 3 5 7 1
k=1 f (ck ) x = f 4 + f 4 + f 4 + f 4 2
_1
= 2 14 − 3 + 2 34 − 3
_2 + 2 54 − 3 + 2 74 − 3 1
2

_3
= −2.
 Section 4.4 The Definite Integral 301

1)
4. a. y b. a = −1, b = 2, and n = 6, so x = 2−(−
6 = 12 , x0 = −1, x1 = − 12 ,
2
x2 = 0, x3 = 12 , x4 = 1, x5 = 32 , and x6 = 2. Then c1 = −1, c2 = − 12 ,

c3 = 0, c4 = 12 , c5 = 1, c6 = 32 , and the Riemann sum is

2 6 x = f (−1) + f − 12 + · · · + f 3 1
k=1 f (ck ) 2 2
_2 0 x
= [−2 (−1) + 1] + −2 − 12 + 1 + [−2 (0) + 1]
_2 + −2 12 + 1 + [−2 (1) + 1] + −2 32 + 1 1
2
y=_2x+1 = 32 .

5. a. y b. a = 0, b = 3, and n = 6, so x = 3− 0 1 1
6 = 2 , x 0 = 0, x 1 = 2 , x2 = 1,

1 x3 = 32 , x4 = 2, x5 = 52 , and x6 = 3. Then c1 = 12 , c2 = 1, c3 = 32 ,

c4 = 2, c5 = 52 , c6 = 3, and the Riemann sum is

6 1 1
k=1 f (ck ) x = f 2 + f (1) + · · · + f (3) 2
0 1 2 3 x
1 −1
√ 3 −1
= + 1−1 +
y=Ïx-1 2 2
√ √
_1 + 2−1 + 5 −1 + 3−1 1
2 2

≈ 0.83.

6. a. y b. a = 0, b = 54π , and n = 5, so x = (5π/54)−0 = π π

4 , x 0 = 0, x1 = 4 ,
2
x2 = π 3π 5π π π
2 , x 3 = 4 , x 4 = π, and x5 = 4 . Then c1 = 4 , c2 = 2 ,
1 y=2 sin x c3 = 34π , c4 = π, c5 = 54π , and the Riemann sum is
5¹
¹ 4 5
x = f π π 3π 5π π
k=1 f (ck ) 4 + f 2 + f 4 + f (π) + f 4 4
0 ¹ ¹ 3¹ x
4 2 4
= 2 sin π π 3π 5π
4 + 2 sin 2 + 2 sin 4 + 2 sin π + 2 sin 4
π
_1 4
≈ 2.68.
_2

2−0 2 2 3 2k
7. a = 0 and b = 2, so x= = , x0 = 0, x1 = , x2 = , . . ., xk = , . . ., xn = 2. Let us pick ck to be the right
n n n n n
2k
endpoint of xk−1 , xk , so that ck = . Then, denoting the integrand by f (x) = x, we have
n
2 n n 2k 2 n 2k 2 4 n
x dx = lim f (ck ) x = lim f = lim · = lim 2 k
0 n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n n n→∞ k=1 n n n→∞ n k=1
4 n (n + 1) 1
= lim · = 2 lim 1 + = 2.
n→∞ n 2 2 n→∞ n
302 Chapter 4 Integration

2 − (−1) 3 3 3 3
8. a = −1 and b = 2, so x= = , x0 = −1, x1 = −1 + , x2 = −1 + 2 , . . ., xk = −1 + k , . . .,
n n n n n
3k
xn = 2. Let us pick ck to be the right endpoint of xk−1 , xk , so that ck = −1 + . Then, denoting the integrand by
n
f (x) = x 2 , we have
2 n n 3k 2 3 3 n 6k 9k 2
x 2 dx = lim f (ck ) x = lim −1 + = lim 1− + 2
−1 n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n n n→∞ n k=1 n n
3 n 18 n 27 n 2 3 18 n (n + 1) 27 n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
= lim 1− 2 k+ 3 k = lim ·n− 2 · + 3·
n→∞ n k=1 n k=1 n k=1 n→∞ n n 2 n 6
1 9 1 1
= lim 3 − 9 1 + + 1+ 2+ = 3 − 9 + 9 = 3.
n→∞ n 2 n n

3 − (−1) 4 4 4 4
9. a = −1 and b = 3, so x= = , x0 = −1, x1 = −1 + , x2 = −1 + 2 , . . ., xk = −1 + k , . . .,
n n n n n
4k
xn = 3. Let us pick ck to be the right endpoint of xk−1 , xk , so that ck = −1 + . Then, denoting the integrand by
n
f (x) = x − 2, we have
n n 4k 4 4 n 4k
3
−1 (x − 2) dx = n→∞
lim f (ck ) x = lim
n→∞
−1 +
n
−2
n
= lim
n→∞ n k=1
−3 +
n
k=1 k=1
12 n 16 n 12 16 n (n + 1) 1
= lim − 1+ 2 k = lim − ·n+ 2 · = lim −12 + 8 1 +
n→∞ n k=1 n k=1 n→∞ n n 2 n→∞ n

= −12 + 8 = −4.

1 − (−1) 2 2 2 2
10. a = −1 and b = 1, so x= = , x0 = −1, x1 = −1 + , x2 = −1 + 2 , . . ., xk = −1 + k , . . .,
n n n n n
2k
xn = 1. Let us pick ck to be the right endpoint of xk−1 , xk , so that ck = −1 + . Then, denoting the integrand by
n
f (x) = 2x + 1,
n n 2k 2 2 n 4k
1
−1 (2x + 1) dx = n→∞
lim f (ck ) x = lim
n→∞
2 −1 +
n
+1
n
= lim
n→∞ n
−1 +
n
k=1 k=1 k=1
2 n 8 n 2 8 n (n + 1)
= lim −1+ 2 k = lim − · n + 2 ·
n→∞ n k=1 n k=1 n→∞ n n 2
1
= lim −2 + 4 1 + = −2 + 4 = 2.
n→∞ n

2−1 1 1 1 1
11. a = 1 and b = 2, so x= = , x0 = 1, x1 = 1 + , x2 = 1 + 2 , . . ., xk = 1 + k , . . ., xn = 2. Let us
n n n n n
k
pick ck to be the right endpoint of xk−1 , xk , so that ck = 1 + . Then, denoting the integrand by f (x) = 3 − 2x 2 , we
n
have

2 2
n n k 2 1 1 n 4k 2k 2
1 3 − 2x dx = n→∞
lim f (ck ) x = lim 3−2 1+ = lim 3−2− − 2
k=1 n→∞ k=1 n n n→∞ n k=1 n n
1 n 4 n 2 n 2 1 4 n (n + 1) 2 n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
= lim 1− 2 k− 3 k = lim ·n− 2 · − 3·
n→∞ n k=1 n k=1 n k=1 n→∞ n n 2 n 6
1 1 1 1 2 5
= lim 1 − 2 1 + − 1+ 2+ =1−2− =−
n→∞ n 3 n n 3 3
 Section 4.4 The Definite Integral 303

1 − (−2) 3 3 3 3
12. a = −2 and b = 1, so x= = , x0 = −2, x1 = −2 + , x2 = −2 + 2 , . . ., xk = −2 + k , . . .,
n n n n n
3k
xn = 1. Let us pick ck to be the right endpoint of xk−1 , xk , so that ck = −2 + . Then, denoting the integrand by
n
f (x) = x 3 + 2x, we have
1 3
n n 3k 3 3k 3
−2 x + 2x dx = n→∞
lim f (ck ) x = lim −2 + + 2 −2 +
k=1 n→∞ k=1 n n n

3 n 36k 54k 2 27k 3 6k

= lim −8 + − 2 + 3 −4+
n→∞ n k=1 n n n n

36 n 126 n 162 n 2 81 n 3
= lim − 1+ 2 k− 3 k + 4 k
n→∞ n k=1 n k=1 n k=1 n k=1
36 126 n (n + 1) 162 n (n + 1) (2n + 1) 81 n 2 (n + 1)2
= lim − ·n+ 2 · − 3 · + 4 ·
n→∞ n n 2 n 6 n 4

1 1 1 81 1 2
= lim −36 + 63 1 + − 27 1 + 2+ + 1+
n→∞ n n n 4 n

= −36 + 63 − 54 + 81 27
4 =− 4

13. lim n
k=1 (4ck − 3) x = −−31 (4x − 3) dx 14. lim n
k=1 2ck (1 − ck )
2 x = 03 2x (1 − x)2 dx
n→∞ n→∞

n 2ck 2 2x n π /2
15. lim x= dx 16. lim k=1 ck cos ck x= 0 x cos x dx
n→∞ k=1 c2 + 1 1 x2 + 1 n→∞
k

−1 1
17. a. −4 f (x) dx = − 2 (1 + 3) 3 = −6 y
4 4
5 19
b. −1 f (x) dx = − 2 + 6 + 1 = − 2
2
9 1 1
c. 4 f (x) dx = 2 (6 − 4) 4 + 2 (4 + 2) (9 − 6) = 4 + 9 = 13
9 −1 4 9 _4 _2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
d. −4 f (x) dx = −4 f (x) dx + −1 f (x) dx + 4 f (x) dx
_2
= −6 − 19 5
2 + 13 = − 2

1 1 1
18. a. −4 f (x) dx = − 2 (2) (2) + 2 (2) (2) + (1) (2) = 2 y
5 1 2 = 8 + 2π
b. 1 f (x) dx = (4) (2) + 2 π 2 4
8 1
c. 5 f (x) dx = (1) (2) + 2 (2) (2) = 4 2
8 1 5 8
d. −4 f (x) dx = −4 f (x) dx + 1 f (x) dx + 5 f (x) dx _4 _2 0 2 4 6 8 x
= 2 + (8 + 2π) + 4 = 14 + 2π = 2 (7 + π) _2
304 Chapter 4 Integration

19. −4 2 3 dx = 3 [4 − (−2)] = 18 20. 3 1

−2 (2x + 1) dx = − 2
3 (3) + 1
2 2
7 7 = 10
2
y y
y=3 y=2x+1
7
3

_2 0 4 x
1

_2 _1 0 1 2 3 x

_3

21. 03 (−3x + 6) dx = 12 (2) (6) − 12 (1) (3) = 92 22. 2 1 1 5

−1 |x| dx = 2 (1) (1) + 2 (2) (2) = 2
y y
8

6 2

y=| x |
4
1
2

_2 _1 0 1 2 3 4 x
_2 _1 0 1 2 x

_4
_1

23. −2 1 |x − 1| dx = 12 (2) (2) + 12 (1) (1) = 52 24. 2

−2 4 − x 2 dx = 12 π 22 = 2π
y y

2
2
y=Ï4-x@
y=| x-1|
1

_2 0 2 x

_1 0 1 2 x

25. 03 − 9 − x 2 dx = − 14 π 32 = − 94π 26. 2

0 −x 2 + 2x dx = 12 π 12 = π
2

y y
3 y=Ï_x@+2x
1
0 x

_3 y=_Ï9-x@
0 1 2 x

27. a. 05 f (x) dx = 02 f (x) dx + 25 f (x) dx = 3 − 1 = 2

b. 52 f (x) dx = − 25 f (x) dx = − (−1) = 1
c. 02 2 f (x) dx = 2 02 f (x) dx = 2 (3) = 6
d. 25 f (x) − 4 dx = 25 f (x) dx − 25 4 dx = −1 − 4 (5 − 2) = −13
 Section 4.4 The Definite Integral 305

28. a. 31 2 f (x) dx = −2 13 f (x) dx = −2 (4) = −8

b. 61 f (x) dx = − 16 f (x) dx = − 3 6
1 f (x) dx + 3 f (x) dx = − (4 + 2) = −6

c. 31 −2 f (x) dx = − 13 −2 f (x) dx = 2 13 f (x) dx = 2 (4) = 8

d. 22 3 f (x) dx = 3 22 f (x) dx = 3 · 0 = 0
29. a. −3 1 f (x) + g (x) dx = −3 1 f (x) dx + −3 1 g (x) dx = 5 + (−2) = 3

b. −3 1 g (x) − f (x) dx = −3 1 g (x) dx − −3 1 f (x) dx = −2 − 5 = −7

c. −3 1 3 f (x) − 2g (x) dx = 3 −3 1 f (x) dx − 2 −3 1 g (x) dx = 3 (5) − 2 (−2) = 19

30. a. 20 f (x) dx = − 02 f (x) dx = −2

b. −0 2 f (x) + 3 dx = −0 2 f (x) dx + −0 2 3 dx = 2 2
−2 f (x) − 0 f (x) dx + 6 = 3 − 2 + 6 = 7

c. 20 3 f (x) dx − 0−2 2 f (x) dx = −3 02 f (x) dx + 2 −0 2 f (x) dx = −3 (2) + 2 (3 − 2) = −4

31. 22 x 2 + x + 1 dx = 0
3

32. 25 f (x) dx = − 52 f (x) dx = − (−10) = 10

33. 0π cos 2x dx = 0
π /4 3π /4
cos 2x dx + π/4 cos 2x dx + 3ππ/4 cos 2x dx y
1
π /4 3π /4
=2 0 cos 2x dx + π/4 cos 2x dx = 0 ¹ 3¹
4 4
0 ¹ ¹ x
2

_1

34. The integral 0x a 2 − t 2 dt gives the area of the region under the
y
graph of the semicircle y = a 2 − x 2 on the interval [0, x]. But this P
Q
is equal to the sum of the areas of sector O P Q and triangle O P R.
¬ x@+y@=a@
Because sin θ = ax ⇒ θ = sin−1 ax , we see that the area of y
¬
sector O P Q is 12 a 2 θ = 12 a 2 sin−1 ax . Also, the area of triangle
O x R a x
O P R is 12 x y = 12 x a 2 − x 2 , so
x
0 a 2 − t 2 dt = 12 x a 2 − x 2 + 12 a 2 sin−1 ax for 0 ≤ x ≤ a.

x3 + x x3 + x
35. f (x) = 2
≥ 0 for x in [0, 1], so by Property 4 of the definite integral, 01 2 dx ≥ 0.
x +1 x +1
√ √
36. Since x 2 ≤ x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, Property 5 of the definite integral implies that 01 x 2 dx ≤ 01 x dx.
37. Since cos x ≤ 1 on 0, π 2 2
4 , we see that sin x cos x dx ≤ sin x dx. Therefore, by Property 5 of the definite integral,
π /4 π /4
0 sin2 x cos x dx ≤ 0 sin2 x dx.
38. Since 0 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 on 0, π 2 π 2 π
2 and x + 1 ≥ 1 on 0, 2 , we see that cos x ≤ x + 1 on 0, 2 . Therefore, by Property 5
π /2 π /2
of the definite integral, 0 cos x dx ≤ 0 x 2 + 1 dx.
√ √
39. The integrand f (x) = 1 + 2x 3 is increasing on [1, 2], and so 3 ≤ f (x) ≤ 17 on [1, 2]. Therefore, by Property 6 of
√ √ √ √
the definite integral, 3 (2 − 1) ≤ 12 1 + 2x 3 dx ≤ 17 (2 − 1) ⇒ 3 ≤ 12 1 + 2x 3 dx ≤ 17.
1 1 1
40. f (x) = is decreasing on [1, 3], so ≤ ≤ 1 on [1, 3] and 13 (3 − 1) ≤ 13 (1/x) dx ≤ 1 (3 − 1) ⇒
x 3 x
2 ≤ 3 (1/x) dx ≤ 2.
3 1
306 Chapter 4 Integration

41. Let f (x) = x 2 − 2x + 2. Then f (x) = 2x − 2 = 2 (x − 1) = 0 ⇒ x = 1, so 1 is a critical number of

f . f (−1) = 5, f (1) = 1, and f (2) = 2, so 1 ≤ f (x) ≤ 5 and by Property 6 of the definite integral,
1 [2 − (−1)] ≤ −2 1 x 2 − 2x + 2 dx ≤ 5 [2 − (−1)] ⇒ 3 ≤ −2 1 x 2 − 2x + 2 dx ≤ 15.

x2 + 5 x 2 + 2 (2x) − x 2 + 5 (2x) 6x
42. Let f (x) = . Then f (x) = =− < 0 if x is in (0, 2). Thus,
x2 + 2 x2 + 2
2
x2 + 2
2

22 + 5 3 5
f is decreasing on [0, 2], and so 2 = ≤ f (x) ≤ . Therefore, by Property 6 of the definite integral,
2 +2 2 2
3 2 x2 + 5 5 2 x2 + 5
(2 − 0) ≤ dx ≤ (2 − 0) ⇒ 3 ≤ dx ≤ 5.
2 0 x2 + 2 2 0 x2 + 2
√
43. f (x) = sin x is increasing on π π π π 1 2
6 , 4 . Therefore, sin 6 ≤ sin x ≤ sin 4 ⇒ 2 ≤ sin x ≤ 2 . By Property 6 of the definite
√ √
π /4 2 π − π ⇒ π ≤ π /4 sin x dx ≤ 2π .
integral, 12 π π
4 − 6 ≤ π /6 sin x dx ≤ 2 4 6 24 π /6 24
√
44. f (x) = x sin x is increasing on π π π π π π 2 π π
4 , 2 , so 4 sin 4 ≤ x sin x ≤ 2 sin 2 ⇒ 2 · 4 ≤ x sin x ≤ 2 . Therefore,
√ √ 2
2π π − π ≤ π/2 x sin x dx ≤ π π − π ⇒ 2π π /2 π2
8 2 4 π /4 2 2 4 32 ≤ π /4 x sin x dx ≤ 8 .

45. a. b. f (−x) = (−x) (−x)4 + 1 = −x x 4 + 1 = − f (x). This shows that

2
the graph of f is symmetric with respect to the origin. Therefore, the area
of the region above the x-axis is the same as its area below the x-axis.
1
0 c. −1 x x 4 + 1 dx = −0 1 x x 4 + 1 dx + 01 x x 4 + 1 dx

= −A + A = 0,
-2 where A denotes the area of the region associated with each of the
-1 0 1
integrals on the right.

46. a. b. Let π ≤ x ≤ 2π. Then x = t + π where 0 ≤ t ≤ π. Now

1 sin3 x = sin3 (t + π) = − sin3 t, showing that the graph of f (x) = sin3 x
on [π, 2π] is obtained from the graph of f on [0, π] by translating it to
0 the right π units and reflecting it about the x-axis.
2π 3 π 3 2π 3
c. 0 sin x dx = 0 sin x dx + π sin x dx
-1 = A − A = 0,
0 2 4 6
where A denotes the area of the region associated with each of the
integrals on the right.

47. Let g (x) = − f (x). Then g is continuous and g (x) ≥ 0 on [a, b]. By Property 4 of the definite integral,
0 ≤ ab g (x) dx = ab − f (x) dx = − ab f (x) dx ⇒ ab f (x) dx ≤ 0.

48. − | f (x)| ≤ f (x) ≤ | f (x)| for all x in [a, b], so by Property 5 of the definite integral,
− ab | f (x)| dx = ab − | f (x)| dx ≤ ab f (x) dx ≤ ab | f (x)| dx ⇒ b b
a f (x) dx ≤ a | f (x)| dx.

b b b
49. The result of Exercise 48 implies that a x sin 2x dx ≤ a |x sin 2x| dx = a |x| |sin 2x| dx. But |sin 2x| ≤ 1 for all x,
b b b 1 2 2 upon using the result of Example 3.
and so a x sin 2x dx ≤ a |x| dx = a x dx [since b > a ≥ 0] = 2 b − a
 Section 4.4 The Definite Integral 307

50. Without loss of generality, we may assume that f (x) > 0 on [a, b]. Since y
f(b) B
f is concave upward on [a, b], the graph of f lies below the chord
connecting A and B. Therefore,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
A y=f(x)
area of area under area of f(a)
⎣ ⎦≤⎣ ⎦≤⎣ ⎦⇒ C
rectangle abC A the graph of f trapezoid abB A

(b − a) f (a) ≤ ab f (x) dx ≤ 12 (b − a) f (a) + f (b) . 0 a b x

51. a. 1.0
b. Since x ≥ 0, we see that f (x) ≥ 0. Next, observe that x ≥ 0 ⇒
x
1 + x 5 ≥ 1, and so f (x) = ≤ x = g (x). Therefore,
1 + x5
0.5 0 ≤ f (x) ≤ g (x), as was to be shown.

c. Using the result of part b and Property 5, we have

1 1 x dx 1
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0= 0 dx ≤ ≤ x dx = 12 12 − 02 = 12 . See
0 0 1 + x5 0
Example 3.

52. a. 2
b. Put h (x) = x − sin x for x ∈ 0, π
2 . Since h (0) = 0 and
h (x) = 1 − cos x ≥ 0 on 0, π
2 , we see that h (x) ≥ 0 ⇒
x − sin x ≥ 0 ⇒ x = g (x) ≥ f (x) = sin x. Since sin x ≥ 0 for
1
x ∈ 0, π
2 , the desired inequalities are valid.

c. Using the result of part b and Property 5, we have

0 π /4 π /4 π /4
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 0 = π/6 0 dx ≤ π/6 sin x dx ≤ π/6 x dx

= 12 π 2 − π 2 = 5 π2
4 6 288
upon using the result of Example 3.
√
53. Since x 4 + x ≥ x 4 for all x ∈ [2, 4], we have x4 + x ≥ x 4 = x 2 for all x ∈ [2, 4]. Using Property 5, we have
4
2 x 4 + x dx ≥ 24 x 2 dx = 13 43 − 23 = 56
3.

54. From the result of Exercise 52b, we see that sin x ≤ x for x ∈ 0, π 2 π
2 , so x sin x ≤ x · x = x for x ∈ 0, 2 . Using
π /4 π /4 2 π 3 − 03 = 1 π 3 .
Property 5, 0 x sin x dx ≤ 0 x dx = 13 4 192

55. a. Here a = 0, b = 1, and f (x) = 1 + x 2 . Since f is increasing, the minimum value of f is m = f (0) = 1
√ √
and the maximum value of f is M = f (1) = 2. Therefore, 1 (1 − 0) ≤ 01 1 + x 2 dx ≤ 2 (1 − 0) ⇒
√
1 ≤ 01 1 + x 2 dx ≤ 2.
d 1/2 −1/2 x
b. f (x) = 1 + x2 = 12 1 + x 2 (2x) = > 0 on (0, 1), and so f is increasing on [0, 1].
dx 1 + x2
d −1/2 −1/2 −3/2 1
f (x) = x 1 + x2 = 1 + x2 + x − 12 1 + x2 (2x) = 3/2
> 0 on (0, 1), and so
dx 1 + x2
√
f is concave upward on (0, 1). Using the result of Exercise 50, (1 − 0) (1) ≤ 01 1 + x 2 dx ≤ 12 (1 − 0) 1 + 2 ⇒
√
1 ≤ 01 1 + x 2 dx ≤ 1+2 2 .
√ √
The estimate in part b is better because 12 1 + 2 ≈ 1.207 is less than 2 ≈ 1.414.
308 Chapter 4 Integration

b−a
56. We divide [a, b] into n subintervals with x= , so x0 = a, x1 = a + x, x2 = a + 2 x, . . ., xk = a + k x, . . .,
n
k (b − a)
xn = b. Let us choose the evaluation point to be the right endpoint of xk−1 , xk . Thus ck = a + k x = a + and
n
b n nb−a (b − a) k 2
x 2 dx = lim f (ck ) x = lim a+
a n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n n
n
b − a 2 2a (b − a) (b − a)2 2
= lim a + k+ k
n→∞ k=1 n n n2
1 n 2 2a (b − a) n (b − a)2 n 2
= (b − a) lim a + k+ k
n→∞ n k=1 n k=1 n2 k=1

a2 n 2a (b − a) n (n + 1) (b − a)2 n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
= (b − a) lim + · + ·
n→∞ n n2 2 n3 6

1 (b − a)2 1 1
= (b − a) lim a 2 + a (b − a) 1 + + 1+ 2+
n→∞ n 6 n n

(b − a)2 b−a
= (b − a) a 2 + a (b − a) + = 3a 2 + 3ab − 3a 2 + b2 − 2ab + a 2
3 3
b−a 2 b3 − a 3
a + ab + b2 =
=
3 3
√ √
57. Observe that the integrand 2 x − x ≥ 0 if and only if 0 ≤ x ≤ 4, so 0b 2 x − x dx is largest if b = 4.

58. a. 4
b. Since f (t) ≥ 0 on (−1, 0) and f (t) ≤ 0 on (0, 2), we see
that F is increasing on (−1, 0) and decreasing on (0, 2).
2

-2

-1 0 1 2

59. Suppose f is integrable. Then for any partition of [0, 1] and any choice of evaluation points, the limit of the corresponding
Riemann sum of f must exist. In particular, we can choose a uniform partition of [0, 1] with n subintervals. In this
1−0 1 1 1 1
case x = = , x0 = 0, x1 = , x2 = 2 , . . ., xk = k , . . ., xn = 1. Since there are infinitely
n n n n n
many rational and infinitely many irrational numbers in the interval xk−1 , xk , we can pick ck to be rational. Then
b n n
a f (x) dx = n→∞
lim k=1 f (ck ) x = n→∞
lim k=1 1 x = n→∞
lim 1 = 1. On the other hand, if we pick ck to be

irrational, then ab f (x) dx = lim n

f (ck ) x = lim n
0 x = lim 0 = 0 = 1. We conclude that f is not
n→∞ k=1 n→∞ k=1 n→∞
integrable.
60. Proof of Property 4: If a = x0 < x1 < x2 < · · · < xk < · · · < xn = b are any partition points of the uniform partition
b−a
with x = and ck is any evaluation point in xk−1 , xk , then ab f (x) dx = lim n f (ck ) x. Since each
n n→∞ k=1
term of the sum is nonnegative, each Riemann sum is nonnegative and the limit must be nonnegative.
Proof of Property 5: Put h (x) = ( f − g) (x) = f (x) − g (x). Then h (x) ≥ 0 on [a, b]. Using Property 4, we have
b b b b b b
a h (x) dx ≥ 0 ⇒ a f (x) − g (x) dx = a f (x) dx − a g (x) dx ≥ 0 ⇒ a f (x) dx ≥ a g (x) dx.
Proof of Property 6: Using Property 5, ab m dx ≤ ab f (x) dx ≤ ab M dx ⇒ m (b − a) ≤ ab f (x) dx ≤ M (b − a).
 Section 4.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 309

61. True. By the Sum Rule, ab f (x) + cg (x) dx = ab f (x) dx + ab cg (x) dx = ab f (x) dx + c ab g (x) dx, where we
have used the Constant Multiple Rule.
62. False. Take f (x) = g (x) = x. Then 01 f (x) g (x) dx = 01 x 2 dx = 13 (see Example 8 in Section 4.3), but
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 f (x) dx 0 g (x) dx = 0 x dx 0 x dx = 2 · 2 = 4 = 3 .

63. False. Take a = 0, b = 1, and f (x) = 1. Then ab f (x) dx = 01 x dx = 12 , but x ab f (x) dx = x 01 1 dx = x = 12 .

64. False. Take a = −1, b = 2, and f (x) = x on [−1, 2]. Then f is not y

positive on [−1, 2]. Indeed, f − 12 = − 12 < 0, but y=x

b 2 0 2 1 3 1
a f (x) dx = −1 x dx = −1 x dx + 0 x dx = − 2 + 2 = 2 > 0.
_1

0 1 2 x

_1

65. True. If f is decreasing on [a, b], then the absolute maximum value of f on [a, b] is M = f (a) and the absolute minimum
value of f on [a, b] is m = f (b). Therefore, m ≤ f (x) ≤ M and Property 6 of the definite integral implies that
(b − a) f (b) ≤ ab f (x) dx ≤ (b − a) f (a).

66. True. We write ab f (x) dx = ac f (x) dx + cd f (x) dx + db f (x) dx. Since f is nonnegative, we have ac f (x) dx ≥ 0
and cd f (x) dx ≥ 0, so db f (x) dx ≤ ab f (x) dx.

4.5 Concept Questions

1. See page 405.
2. See page 406.
3. See pages 408 and 409.

4. See page 415.

a. It measures the total amount of water flowing through the pipe between times t1 and t2 .
b. It measures the net change in the velocity of the car between times t1 and t2 .

5. ab v (t) dt measures the net change in the position of the particle between times t1 and t2 , whereas ab |v (t)| dt measures
the total distance traveled by the particle between times t1 and t2 .

4.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

d x 2
1. a. F (x) = t dt = x 2
dx 2
x
b. 2x t 2 dt = 13 t 3 = 13 x 3 − 83
2
d d 1 3 8
c. f (x) = x − 3 = x 2 . The result is the same as that obtained in part a.
dx dx 3
d x√ √
2. a. G (x) = 3t + 1 dt = 3x + 1
dx 0
√ x
b. 0x 3t + 1 dt = 0x (3t + 1)1/2 dt = 13 · 23 · (3t + 1)3/2 = 29 (3x + 1)3/2 − 29
0
310 Chapter 4 Integration

d d 2 √
c. G (x) = 9 (3x + 1)3/2 − 29 = 29 · 32 · (3x + 1)1/2 · 3 = 3x + 1. The result is the same as that obtained in
dx dx
part a.
d x√ √
3. F (x) = 0 3t + 5 dt = 3x + 5
dx
d x
4. G (x) = −1 t t 2 + 1 dt = x x 2 + 1
dx
d x 1 1
5. g (x) = dt = 2
dx 2 t2 + 1 x +1
d 3 t d x t x
6. h (x) = √ dt = − √ dt = − √
dx x t +1 dx 3 t +1 x +1
d π d x
7. F (x) = x sin 2t dt = − dx π sin 2t dt = − sin 2x
dx
d x2 2 2 d x 2 = 2x 3 sin x 2
8. G (x) = 0 t sin t dt = x sin x
dx dx
√ √ √ √
d x sin t sin x d √ sin x 1 sin x
9. g (x) = dt = √ · x = √ · √ =
dx 2 t x dx x 2 x 2x
d x2 2 d
10. h (x) = 2 2 x 2 = 2x sin x 4
dx 0 sin t dt = sin x ·
dx
d cos x t 2 cos2 x d sin x cos2 x
11. F (x) = dt = · (cos x) = −
dx 1 t +1 cos +1 dx cos x + 1
1/2
d 5 sin t 2 d x sin t 2 sin x d sin x
12. G (x) = √ dt = − dt = − √ · x 1/2 = −
dx x t dx 5 t x dx 2x
13. −2 3 4 dx = 4x|2−3 = 8 − (−12) = 20
0
14. −0 2 (2x − 3) dx = x 2 − 3x = 0 − (4 + 6) = −10
−2
1
15. −1 1 t 2 − 4 dt = 13 t 3 − 4t = 13 − 4 − − 13 + 4 = − 22
3
−1
2
16. 02 2 − 4u + u 2 du = 2u − 2u 2 + 13 u 3 = 4 − 8 + 83 − 0 = − 43
0
1
17. −1 2 (3t + 2)2 dt = −1 2 9t 2 + 12t + 4 dt = 3t 3 + 6t 2 + 4t = (3 + 6 + 4) − (−24 + 24 − 8) = 21
−2
2 3 2 2
3 3 3 9
18. 3
dx = 3 x −3 dx = − 2 =− + =
1 x 1 2x 1 8 2 8
4 1 4 √
− 1/2 4
19. √ dx = x dx = 2 x 1 =4−2=2
1 x 1
2 3x 4 − 2x 2 + 1 2
1 2 1 1
20. dx = 3x 2 − 2 + x −2 dx = x 3 − 2x − = 12 8 − 4 − 12 − (1 − 2 − 1) = 11
4
1 2x 2 2 1 2 x 1
9x −1 9 9 √ 9 √ √
21. √ dx = x 1/2 − x −1/2 dx = 23 x 3/2 − 2x 1/2 = 23 x (x − 3) = 23 9 (9 − 3) − 4 (4 − 3) = 32
3
4 x 4 4 4
0 0
22. t 1/2 − t 5/2 dt = 23 t 3/2 − 27 t 7/2 = 0 − 23 − 27 = − 21
8
1 1
0√ 0 0
23. x (x + 1) (x − 2) dx = x 5/2 − x 3/2 − 2x 1/2 dx = 27 x 7/2 − 25 x 5/2 − 43 x 3/2
2 2 2
√ √ √ √
2 2 4
= 0 − 7 · 8 2 − 5 · 4 2 − 3 · 2 2 = 105 208 2

π /2 π /2
24. 0 (sin x + 1) dx = − cos x + x|0 = − cos π π π
2 + 2 − (− cos 0 + 0) = 2 + 1
 Section 4.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 311
√ √
π /4 2 t dt = tan t|π /4 = tan π − tan π = 1 − 3 = 3− 3
25. π /6 sec π /6 4 6 3 3
π /4 π /4 π π √
26. π/6 csc θ cot θ dθ = − csc θ|π /6 = − csc 4 + csc 6 = 2 − 2
π
27. 0π sin 2x cos x dx = 0π (2 sin x cos x) cos x dx = 2 0π cos2 x sin x dx = − 23 cos3 x = − 23 (−1 − 1) = 43
0
π /2 π /2
28. 0π |cos x| dx = 0 cos x dx − ππ/2 cos x dx = [sin x]0 − [sin x]π
π /2 = (1 − 0) − (0 − 1) = 2
π /3 dx π/3 sin2 x + cos2 x
π /3 π /3
29. = dx = π/4 csc2 x + sec2 x dx = − cot x + tan x|π/4
π /4 sin2 x cos2 x π /4 sin2 x cos2 x
√ √ √
= − 33 + 3 + (−1 + 1) = 2 3 3
√ √
30. 0π sin x − sin3 x dx = 0π sin x 1 − sin2 x dx = 0π sin x cos2 x dx = 0π sin x |cos x| dx

π /2 π /2 π
= 0 (sin x)1/2 cos x dx − ππ/2 (sin x)1/2 cos x dx = 23 (sin x)3/2 − 23 (sin x)3/2
0 π /2
= 23 − 23 (−1) = 43
0 1
31. −1 1 f (x) dx = −0 1 (−x + 1) dx + 01 2x 2 + 1 dx = − 12 x 2 + x + 23 x 3 + x
−1 0
= 0 − − 12 − 1 + 23 + 1 − 0 = 19
6
π /2 π /2 0 π /2 3 3
32. −π f (x) dx = −0 π x 2 + 1 dx + 0 cos x dx = 13 x 3 + x +[sin x]0 = 0 − − π3 − π +1 = π3 +π+1
−π
33. Let u = 3 − 2x, so du = −2 dx ⇒ dx = − 12 du, x = 0 ⇒ u = 3, and x = 1 ⇒ u = 1. Then
1 1 1 4 1 3 4 1
1 35 − 1 = 121 .1 u5 3
4
0 (3 − 2x) dx = − 2 3 u du = 2 1 u du = = 10 2 5 5 1
34. Let u = t + 1, so du = dt, t = 0 ⇒ u = 1, and t = 2 ⇒ u = 3. Then
2 3
0.2 dt = 3 u 0.2 du = 1 u 1.2 = 1 31.2 − 1 .
0 (t + 1) 1 1.2 1 1.2
2
35. Let u = t − 1, so du = 2t dt, t = 1 ⇒ u = 0, and t = 2 ⇒ u = 3. Then
2 7 3
2
1 8t t − 1 dt = 4 03 u 7 du = 12 u 8 = 12 38 = 6561
2 .
0
36. Let u = 2x − 1, so du = 2 dx ⇒ dx = 12 du, x = 1 ⇒ u = 1, and x = 5 ⇒ u = 9. Then
5√ 1 9 1/2 du = 1 2 u 3/2 9 = 1 93/2 − 1 = 26 .
1 2x − 1 dx = 2 1 u 2 3 3 13
37. Let v = 5 − u, so dv = −du, u = 1 ⇒ v = 4, and u = 4 ⇒ v = 1. Then
4√ 4 √
1
3
5 − u du = − 41 v 1/3 dv = 14 v 1/3 dv = 34 v 4/3 = 34 4 3 4 − 1 .
1
38. Let u = 2x 2 − 1, so du = 4x dx x dx = 14 du, x = 1 ⇒ u = 1, and x = 2 ⇒ u = 7. Then
⇒
2 x 1 7 du 1 7 −1/2 √ 7 √
dx = 1 u 1/2 = 4 1 u du = 12 u = 12 7−1 .
1 2
2x − 1 4 1
√ 1 dx
39. Let u = x + 1, so du = 12 x −1/2 dx = √ dx ⇒ √ = 2 du, x = 1 ⇒ u = 2, and x = 4 ⇒ u = 3. Thus,
2 x x
4 1 3 du 3 3
dx = 2 = 2 u −2 du = − 2 = − 2 + 1 = 1 .
√ √ 2 3 3
1 x x +1 2 u2 2 u 2

40. Let u = 2x, so du = 2 dx ⇒ dx = 12 du, x = π π π

4 ⇒ u = 2 , and x = 2 ⇒ u = π. Then
π /2 1 π 1 π 1 1
π/4 sin 2x dx = 2 π /2 sin u du = − 2 cos u π /2 = − 2 (−1 − 0) = 2 .
312 Chapter 4 Integration

41. Let u = 12 x, so du = 12 dx ⇒ dx = 2 du, x = π π π

2 ⇒ u = 4 , and x = π ⇒ u = 2 . Then
π 1 π /2 π /2 π π √
π/2 cos 2 x dx = 2 π /4 cos u du = 2 sin u|π /4 = 2 sin 2 − sin 4 = 2 − 2.
42. Let u = cos θ, so du = − sin θdθ ⇒ sin θ dθ = −du, θ = 0 ⇒ u = 1, and θ = π
2 ⇒ u = 0. Then
π /2 √ 1
0 cos θ sin θ dθ = − 10 u 1/2 du = 01 u 1/2 du = 23 u 3/2 = 23 .
0
43. Let u = πt, so du = π dt ⇒ dt = π 1 du, t = − 1 ⇒ u = − π , and t = 1 ⇒ u = π . Then
4 4 4 4
1/4 1 π /4 1 π / 4 1
√ √
−1/4 sec πt tan πt dt = π −π /4 sec u tan u du = π sec u =π 2 − 2 = 0.
−π /4
44. Let u = csc θ, so du = − csc θ cot θ dθ, θ = π π
6 ⇒ u = 2, and θ = 2 ⇒ u = 1. Then
π /2 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 3
π/6 csc θ cot θ dθ = − 2 u du = 1 u du = 2 u 1 = 2 (4 − 1) = 2 .
1 1 dx 1 2 π
45. Let u = , so du = − 2 dx ⇒ 2 = −du, x = ⇒ u = π, and x = ⇒ u = . Then
x x x π π 2
2/π sin (1/x) π /2
π /2
dx = − sin u du = cos u|π = cos π
2 − cos π = 0 − (−1) = 1.
1/π x2 π
(−x)2 sin (−x) x 2 sin x
46. Denote the integrand by f (x). Then f (−x) = =− = − f (x), showing that f is an odd
1 + (−x)2 1 + x2
π x 2 sin x
function. Thus, by Theorem 7, dx = 0.
1 + x2 √ √−π
√ √
3 x dx 3 x x + 1 − 5x + 1 3x x + 1 − 5x + 1
47. √ √ = √ √ √ √ dx = dx
0 x + 1 + 5x + 1 0 x + 1 + 5x + 1 x + 1 − 5x + 1 0 (x + 1) − (5x + 1)
√ √
= − 14 03 x + 1 dx + 14 03 5x + 1 dx
√
To evaluate x + 1 dx, let u = x + 1, so du = dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 1, and x = 3 ⇒ u = 4. Then
√ 4
− 14 03 x + 1 dx = − 14 14 u 1/2 du = − 14 23 u 3/2 = − 16 (8 − 1) = − 76 . To evaluate the other
1
integral, let u = 5x + 1, so du = 5 dx ⇒ dx = 1 du, x = 0 ⇒ u = 1, and x = 3 ⇒ u = 16.
5
√
Thus, 14 03 5x + 1 dx = 20 1 16 u 1/2 du = 1 2 u 3/2 16 = 1 (64 − 1) = 21 . We conclude that
1 20 3 1 30 10
3 x dx 7 21 14
√ √ =− + = .
0 x + 1 + 5x + 1 6 10 15
tan3 (−x) tan3 x
48. Denoting the integrand by f (x), we find that f (−x) = = − = − f (x), showing that f is odd. So by
1 + (−x)2 1 + x2
π /4 tan3 x
Theorem 7, dx = 0.
−π /4 1 + x 2
x5
49. a. Observe that 1 + x 4 ≥ 1 for x ∈ [0, 1], so 1 + x4 ≥ 1 ⇒ 0 ≤ 3
≤ x 5 . Then
1 + x4
1 1 x 5 dx 1 1
0= 0 dx ≤ 3
≤ x 5 dx = 16 x 6 = 16 .
0 0 1 + x4 0 0
1 dx
b. Using a CAS, we find 3
≈ 0.14342.
0 1 + x4
√ 1 1
50. a. Observe that 4 − 3x + x 2 ≥ 4 − 3x for x ∈ [0, 1], so 4 − 3x + x 2 ≥ 4 − 3x ⇒ 0 < ≤ √ .
4 − 3x + x 2 4 − 3x
1 1 dx 1 dx √ 1
Then 0 = 0 dx ≤ ≤ √ = − 13 2 4 − 3x = − 23 (1 − 2) = 23 .
0 0 4 − 3x + x 2 0 4 − 3x 0
 Section 4.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 313

1 dx
b. Using a CAS, we find ≈ 0.60346.
0 4 − 3x + x 2
2
51. A = −2 1 x 2 − 2x + 2 dx = 13 x 3 − x 2 + 2x = 83 − 4 + 4 − − 13 − 1 − 2 = 6
−1
1
52. A = 01 x 3 + x dx = 14 x 4 + 12 x 2 = 14 + 12 = 34
0
2 dx 2 1 2 1 1
53. A = 2
= x −2 dx = − = − − (−1) =
1 x 1 x 1 2 2
√ √
54. A = 03 2 + x + 1 dx = 03 2 dx + 03 x + 1 dx. Let u = x + 1 in the second integral, so du = dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 1,
4
and x = 3 ⇒ u = 4. Then A = 2x|30 + 14 u 1/2 du = 6 + 23 u 3/2 = 6 + 23 (8 − 1) = 32
3 .
1
π /4 π /4
55. A = 0 sec2 x dx = tan x|0 = tan π
4 − tan 0 = 1

56. A = −ππ/2 |sin x| dx = − −0 π/2 sin x dx + 0π sin x dx = [cos x]0−π/2 − [cos x]π
0 = (1 − 0) − (−1 − 1) = 3

57. a. 2
58. a. 2

0 1

0
-2
-1
-4
-2
-1 0 1 2 -1 0 1 2

b. The x-intercepts are 0 and approximately 1.165. b. The x-intercepts are approximately −0.550 and
1.251.
c. The area of the required region is

A ≈ 01.165 −2x 4 + x 2 + 2x dx c. The area of the required region is

1.165 A ≈ −1.0251 2
.550 −x + x + cos x dx
= − 25 x 5 + 13 x 3 + x 2 ≈ 1.026
0 1.251
= − 13 x 3 + 12 x 2 + sin x ≈ 1.39517
−0.550
1 n 4 1 n k 4 1
59. lim 5 k = lim = 01 x 4 dx = 15 x 5 = 15
n→∞ n k=1 n→∞ n k=1 n 0

1 n k 1/3 1
60. lim = 01 x 1/3 dx = 34 x 4/3 = 34
n→∞ n k=1 n 0

2 n 2k 2 4
61. lim 2+ = 24 x 2 dx = 13 x 3 = 13 43 − 23 = 56
3
n→∞ n k=1 n 2

π n kπ π /2 π /2
62. lim cos = 0 cos x dx = sin x|0 = sin π
2 − sin 0 = 1
n→∞ 2n k=1 2n

1
63. f av = 2−(− 2 2 1 2 3 3 2 2 = 1 16 − 6 − − 2 − 3 = 12
1) −1 2x − 3x dx = 3 3 x − 2 x −1 3 3 3 2

1
64. f av = 4− 4 √ 1 2 3/2 4 = 1 4 + 16 = 7
0 0 1 + x dx = 4 x + 3 x 0 4 3 3

1 2 1 2 1/2
65. f av = 2− 2
0 0 x x + 4 dx = 2 0 x x + 4
2 dx. Let u = x 2 + 4, so du = 2x dx ⇒ x dx = 12 du, x = 0 ⇒ u = 4,
8 √
and x = 2 ⇒ u = 8. Then f av = 12 · 12 48 u 1/2 du = 14 · 23 u 3/2 = 16 83/2 − 8 = 43 2 2 − 1 .
4
314 Chapter 4 Integration

1 3 x dx
66. f av = . Let u = x 2 + 1, so du = 2x dx ⇒ x dx = 12 du, x = 0 ⇒ u = 1, and x = 3 ⇒ u = 10. Then
3−0 0 x2 + 1
1 1 10 du √
1 2u 1/2 10 = 10−1 .
f av = · = 6 3
3 2 1 u 1/2 1
1 π 1 π 1 2.
67. f av = π−0 0 sin x dx = − π cos x = − π (cos π − cos 0) = π
0
√
1 π /2 2
68. f av = (π/2)−(π/3) π/3 csc x dx = − π6 cot x π /2 = − 6 cot π − cot π = 2 3
π /3 π 2 3 π
1 1 1 1 4 2 3 2
2
69. a. 1−0 0 x + 2x dx = 3 x + x 3 2 = 3. 70. a. 2−0 0 x dx = 12
1 1 x4
4 = 2. So we set
0 0
√
3
We want c such that f (c) = x 2 + 2x = 43 f (c) = c3 = 2 ⇔ c = 2.
x=c
b. y
⇒ 3c2 + 6c − 4 = 0. Then
√ √ 8
−6 ± 36 + 48 −3 ± 21
c= = . Since c y=x#
6 3 6
√
21 − 3
must be in [0, 1], we have c = . 4
3
b. y 2
3
y=x@+2x
0 2 x
2

0 1 x

6 π /3 √
6√ π /3
1
71. a. 6− 1 1 x + 3 dx = 15 · 23 (x + 3)3/2 1
72. a. π/3−(− 3 3 3
π /3) −π /3 cos x dx = 2π (sin x) −π /3 = 2π
1
2 (27 − 8) = 38 √ √
= 15 15 and f (c) = cos c = 32π3 ⇒ c = ± cos−1 32π3 .
√
and f (c) = c + 3 = 38
15 ⇒ b. y

225 (c + 3) = 1444 ⇒ c = 769

225 .

b. y

3 y=Ïx+3

2
¹ 0 ¹ x
_3 3
1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x

3
73. a. The displacement is S = 03 v (t) dt = 03 2t 2 + t − 6 dt = 23 t 3 + 12 t 2 − 6t = 4.5 ft.
0
b. The distance covered is
3/2
d = 03 |v (t)| dt = 0 − 2t 2 + t − 6 dt + 33/2 2t 2 + t − 6 dt
3/2 3/2
= − 23 t 3 − 12 t 2 + 6t + 23 t 3 + 12 t 2 − 6t = 45 81
8 + 8 = 15.75 ft.
0 0
1 t2 1 v (t2 ) − v (t1 )
t
74. The average value of a (t) on t1 , t2 is a (t) dt = [v (t)]t21 = = a.
t2 − t1 t1 t2 − t1 t2 − t1
 Section 4.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 315

h √ √ √
1 1 h√ 2g h 1/2 2g 2 3/2 h 2 2g 3/2 √
75. v = h−0 v (x) dx = 2gx dx = x dx = 3x = ·h = 23 2gh
0 h 0 h 0 h 0 3 h

√ √ h √
1
h 1 h 20 hs 2 1 20 hs x 3 20 hs
76. v = h− 0 v (x) dx = v0 − x dx = v0 x − · = v0 − ft/s
0 h 0 h2 h h2 3 3
0

1 R 1 0.2 0.2
77. v = R− 2 2 dr = 5000 0.04r − 1 r 3 = 5000 0.008 − 13 (0.008) = 80
0 0 v (r) dr = 0.2 0 1000 0.2 − r 3 0 3 cm/s

12
78. r = 121−0 012 r (t) dt = 12
1 12 10 t 3 − 10 t 2 + 200 t + 56 dt = 1
0 81 3 9
5 4 10 3 100 2 248
12 162 t − 9 t + 9 t + 56t 0 = 3 ≈ 82.67%

1 7 1 7 3 4
79. A = 7− 0 0 A (t) dt = 7 0 0.03t (t − 7) + 62.7 dt

= 17 07 0.03t 3 t 4 − 28t 3 + 294t 2 − 1372t + 2401 + 62.7 dt

= 17 07 0.03t 7 − 0.84t 6 + 8.82t 5 − 41.16t 4 + 72.03t 3 + 62.7 dt

7
= 17 0.00375t 8 − 0.12t 7 + 1.47t 6 − 8.232t 5 + 18.0075t 4 + 62.7t ≈ 150.937 pollutant standard index
0

24
80. H = 241−0 024 4.8 sin π 1 4.8π π
6 (t − 10) + 7.6 dt = 24 − 6 cos 6 (t − 10) + 7.6t 0
1 −0.8 cos 7π + 7.6 (24) − −0.8 cos 5π
= 24 = 7.6 ft
3 3

1
81. P1 = 6− 6 πt 1 24 πt 6
0 0 8000 + 1000 sin 24 dt = 6 8000t − 1000 π cos 24 0

= 16 8000 · 6 − 1000 · 24 π 24
π cos 4 − −1000 · π ≈ 8373 wolves

P2 = 16 06 40,000 + 12,000 cos π t 1 24 πt 6

24 dt = 6 40,000t + 12,000 π sin 24 0

= 16 40,000 · 6 + 12,000 · 24 π
π sin 4 − 0 ≈ 50,804 caribou

82. The daily average number of hours of daylight over the year is
2π (t − 79) + 12 dt = 1 −2.8 365 cos 2π (t − 79) + 12t 365
L = 3651−0 0365 2.8 sin 365 365 2π 365 0
1 −2.8 365 cos 2π · 286 + 12 (365) + 2.8 365 cos 2π (−79)
= 365 = 12 h
2π 365 2π 365
The daily average number of hours of daylight over the summer months is
1 262 2π 1 365 2π 262
L = 262− 171 171 2.8 sin 365 (t − 79) + 12 dt = 91 −2.8 · 2π · cos 365 (t − 79) + 12t 171
1 −2.8 · 365 · cos 2π · 183 + 12 · 262 + 2.8 · 365 · cos 2π · 92 − 12 · 171 ≈ 13.8 h
= 91 2π 365 2π 365

83. The average amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere between 1958 and 2007 is given by
50
A = 501−1 150 0.010716t 2 + 0.8212t + 313.4 dt = 49
1 0.003572t 3 + 0.4106t 2 + 313.4t ≈ 343.45 or
1
343.45 ppmv per year.
316 Chapter 4 Integration

84. a. The gasoline consumption in 2017 is given by A (10) = 0.014 102 + 1.93 (10) + 140 = 160.7 billion gallons per year
b. The average consumption per year between 2007 and 2017 is given by
1 0.014 t 3 + 1.93 t 2 + 140t 10 ≈ 150.12 or
A = 101−0 010 0.014t 2 + 1.93t + 140 dt = 10 3 2 0
150.1 billion gallons per year per year.

85. The amount of smoke left after 5 minutes is

100 − 05 R (t) dt = 100 − 05 0.00032t 4 − 0.01872t 3 + 0.3948t 2 − 3.83t + 17.63 dt
5
= 100 − 0.000064t 5 − 0.00468t 4 + 0.1316t 3 − 1.915t 2 + 17.63t = 46, or 46 percent.
0
The amount of smoke left after 10 minutes is
10
100 − 010 R (t) dt = 100 − 0.000064t 5 − 0.00468t 4 + 0.1316t 3 − 1.915t 2 + 17.63t = 24, or 24 percent.
0

1 π /ω ω V π /ω V 2V
86. a. Vav = V0 sin ωt dt = − · 0 cos ωt = − 0 (cos π − cos 0) = 0
(π/ω) − 0 0 π ω 0 π π
1 2π /ω ω V0 2π /ω V
b. Vav = V0 sin ωt dt = − · cos ωt = − 0 (cos 2π − cos 0) = 0. Over a complete
(2π/ω) − 0 0 2π ω 0 2π
cycle, the voltage is positive half the time and negative half the time.

a − 2x
87. The area of the garden is A = x y, but 2x + 2y = a ⇒ y = ⇒
2
A = f (x) = 12 x (a − 2x), 0 ≤ x ≤ a/2. Then
y
1 a/2 x 1 a/2
A= (a − 2x) dx = ax − 2x 2 dx
(a/2) − 0 0 2 a 0
a/2
1 ax 2 2x 3 1 a3 a3 a2 2
= − = − = ft . x
a 2 3 a 8 12 24
0

d x√ y d √ dx dx sin y
88. 0 3 + 2 cos t dt + 0 sin t dt = (0) = 0 ⇒ 3 + 2 cos x + sin y = 0 ⇒ = −√
dy dy dy dy 3 + 2 cos x

d x sin t sin x x cos x − sin x

89. F (x) = dt = = 0 ⇒ x = nπ are critical numbers for n = 1, 2, . . .. F (x) = , and
dx 0 t x x2
since F (2nπ) = 1 > 0 and F ((2n − 1) π) = −1 < 0, the Second Derivative Test implies that F has relative maxima at
(2n − 1) π and relative minima at 2nπ, n = 1, 2, . . ..

d x f (t) dt = d 1 f (t) dt ⇒
90. We use Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to write dx 0 dx x
d x
f (x) = − dx 1 f (t) dt ⇒ f (x) = − f (x) ⇒ 2 f (x) = 0 ⇒ f (x) = 0 for all x ∈ (0, 1).
 Section 4.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 317

x
91. a. If 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, then f (x) = 1 − x, so F (x) = 0x f (t) dt = 0x (1 − t) dt = t − 12 t 2 = x − 12 x 2 . If 1 < x ≤ 3, then
0
x
f (x) = x − 1 and F (x) = 0x f (t) dt = 01 (1 − t) dt + 1x (t − 1) dt = 12 + 1 t2 − t
2 = 12 x 2 − x + 1. Thus,
1
⎧
⎨ x − 1 x2 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
F (x) = 2
⎩ 1 x 2 − x + 1 if 1 < x ≤ 3
2

b. y c. y

3 3

2 2

1 1

_1 0 1 2 3 x _1 0 1 2 3 x
_1 _1

Since f is differentiable in (0, 1) and (1, 3), and F is

lim F (x) = lim x − 12 x 2 = 12 differentiable in (0, 3).
x→1− x→1−
= lim 1 x 2 − x + 1 = lim F (x),
x→1+ 2 x→1+
we see that F is continuous on [0, 3].
x
92. Let F (x) = 2 5 + t 2 dt. Then
2+h
F (2 + h) − F (2) 5 + t 2 dt − 02 5 + t 2 dt 2+h
5 + t 2 dt
F (2) = lim = lim 0 = lim 2 . Next, using FTC1,
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
d x 1 2+h
we find F (x) = dx 2 5 + t 2 dt = 5 + x 2 ⇒ F (2) = 5 + 22 = 3, so we have lim 2 5 + t 2 dt = 3.
h→0 h
1/2 x 7 − 2x 5 + 3x 3 + 2x 2 + x − 2 1/2 x 7 − 2x 5 + 3x 3 + x 1/2 2x 2 − 2
93. dx = dx + dx
−1/2 x2 − 1 −1/2 x2 − 1 −1/2 x 2 − 1
1/2 1/2 1/2
= 0 + 2 −1/2 dx = 4 0 dx = 4x|0 = 2

1 2x 5 + x 4 − 3x 3 + 2x 2 + 8x + 1 1 2x 5 − 3x 3 + 8x 1 x 4 + 2x 2 + 1
94. dx = dx + dx
−1 x2 + 1 −1 x2 + 1 −1 x2 + 1
2
1 x2 + 1 1 x3
1
8
=0+ 2
dx = 2 x 2 + 1 dx = 2 +x =
−1 x + 1 0 3 3
0

95. The integrand f (x) = (cos x + 1) tan3 x satisfies f (−x) = [cos (−x) + 1] [tan (−x)]3 = − (cos x + 1) tan3 x = − f (x),
π /4
and so f is odd. Thus, −π/4 (cos x + 1) tan3 x dx = 0.

96. The integrand f (x) = x 2 + 1 sec x satisfies f (−x) = (−x)2 + 1 sec (−x) = x 2 + 1 sec x = f (x), and so f is
even. Therefore, −1 1 x 2 + 1 sec x dx = 2 01 x 2 + 1 sec x dx.

97. a. Let x = π − u, so dx = −du, x = 0 ⇒ u = π, and x = π ⇒ u = 0. Then

π 0 0 0
0 x f (sin x) dx = − π (π − u) f (sin (π − u)) du = π (u − π) f (sin π cos u − cos π sin u) du = π (u − π) f (sin u) du
π π π
= 0 (π − u) f (sin u) du = 0 π f (sin x) dx − 0 x f (sin x) dx

Thus, 2 0π x f (sin x) dx = π 0π f (sin x) dx ⇒ 0π x f (sin x) dx = π π

2 0 f (sin x) dx.
π
b. 0π x sin x dx = π π π
2 0 sin x dx = 2 (− cos x) 0 = π
 318 Chapter 4 Integration

98. a. If f is even, then f (x) cos nx is even and f (x) sin nx is odd, so by Theorem 7,
π π
−π f (x) cos nx dx = 2 0 f (x) cos nx dx and −ππ f (x) sin nx dx = 0.
b. If f is odd, then f (x) sin nx is even and f (x) cos nx is odd, so by Theorem 7,
π π
−π f (x) sin nx dx = 2 0 f (x) sin nx dx and −ππ f (x) cos nx dx = 0.

π sin n + 12 x π sin n + 12 x
99. dx = 2 dx = 2 0π 12 + cos x + cos 2x + · · · + cos nx dx
0 sin 12 x 0 2 sin 12 x
π
= 2 12 x + sin x + 12 sin 2x + · · · + n1 sin nx =2· π
2 =π
0

100. a. Let u = a − x, so du = −dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = a, and x = a ⇒ u = 0. Then y

a 0 a a y=f(x)
0 f (a − x) dx = − a f (u) du = 0 f (u) du = 0 f (x) dx. The
graphs of f (x) and f (u) show a geometric interpretation of the result.
π sin 2kx π sin 2k (π − x) π sin 2kx
b. dx = dx = − , so y=f(a-x)
0 sin x 0 sin (π − x) 0 sin x
0 a a x
sin 2kx π sin 2kx 2
2 0π dx = 0 ⇔ dx = 0.
sin x 0 sin x
c.
2

0 0

-2
-5 0 5 -5 0 5

5
5

0 0

-5
-5

-5 0 5 -5 0 5

sin 2k x + π π
2 = sin (2kx + kπ) = sin 2kx and f x − π = sin 2k x − 2 = sin (2kx − kπ)
d. f x + π =
2 sin x + π
2
cos x cos x 2 sin x − π
2
− cos x
sin 2kx
=−
cos x
Therefore, f x + π π π
2 = − f x − 2 , and f is antisymmetric with respect to x = 2 . The area of the region under the
graph of f from x = 0 to x = π π
2 is the same as the area of the region above the graph of f from x = 2 to x = π.
 Section 4.6 Numerical Integration 319

101. a. The distance covered by the car during the time interval from t = a to t = b is D = ab v (t) dt. But by assumption, the
average velocity is 12 [v (b) + v (a)] and so the distance covered is D = 12 [v (b) + v (a)] (b − a). Therefore,
b 1
a v (t) dt = 2 [v (b) + v (a)] (b − a).
b. Fix a and differentiate Equation 1 with respect to b to obtain
d b d 1 [v (b) + v (a)] (b − a) = 12 v (b) (b − a) + 12 [v (b) + v (a)] (1) ⇒
db a v (t) dt = v (b) = db 2

v (b) = v(b)b −
+ v(a)
a .
If we instead fix b and differentiate (1) with respect to a, we get
d b d 1 [v (b) + v (a)] (b − a) = 12 v (a) (b − a) − 12 [v (b) + v (a)] (1) ⇒
da a v (t) dt = −v (a) = da 2

v (a) = v(b)b −
+ v(a)
a .
Thus, v (a) = v (b). Since a and b are arbitrary, we conclude that v is constant. Therefore, there exists a number c
such that v (t) = c, and so v (t) = c dt = ct + d, where d is a constant.

102. Let u = x + h, so du = dx, x = a ⇒ u = a + h, and x = b ⇒ u = b + h. Thus,

b b+h b+h
a f (x + h) dx = a+h f (u) du = a+h f (x) dx.

103. Let u = cx, so du = c dx ⇒ dx = 1c du, x = a ⇒ u = ca, and x = b ⇒ u = cb. Thus,

c ab f (cx) dx = c ca
bc cb
f (u) du = ca f (x) dx.

a
104. True. f (−x)2 = f x 2 ⇒ f x 2 is an even function. Thus, −a f x 2 dx = 2 0a f x 2 dx.

105. True. Since f is even, we have f (−x)3 = f −x 3 = f x 3 ⇒ f x 3 is an even function. Thus,

a
−a f x 3 dx = 2 0a f x 3 dx.

106. True. Since f is odd, we have f (−x)3 = f −x 3 = − f x 3 ⇒ f x 3 is an odd function. Thus,

a
−a f x 3 dx = 0.

a 2 2
107. True. If f is even and g is odd, then f g2 is even. Thus, −a f (x) g (x) dx = 2 0a f (x) g (x) dx.

4.6 Concept Questions

1. In the trapezoidal rule, we are in effect approximating the function f (x) on the interval x0 , x1 by a linear function
through the two points (x0 , f (x0 )) and (x1 , f (x1 )). If f is a linear function, then there is no error because the
approximation is exact. When we use Simpson’s rule, we are in effect approximating the function f (x) on the interval
x0 , x2 that passes through (x0 , f (x0 )), (x1 , f (x1 )), and (x2 , f (x2 )) by a quadratic function whose graph (a parabola)
contains these three points. If the graph of f (x) is a parabola, then the approximation is exact.

2. In the trapezoidal rule, each region under the graph of f (or over the graph of f ) is approximated by the area of a trapezoid
whose base consists of two consecutive points in the partition. Therefore, n can be odd or even. In Simpson’s rule, the area
of each subregion is approximated by part of a parabola passing through those points. Therefore, there are two subintervals
involved in the approximations. This implies that n must be even.

3. If we use the trapezoidal rule and f is a linear function, then f (x) = 0. Therefore, M = 0, and consequently the
maximum error is 0. If we use Simpson’s rule, then f (4) (x) = 0. In this case, M = 0, and so the maximum error is 0.
320 Chapter 4 Integration

4.6 Numerical Integration

1. a. a = 0, b = 2, and n = 4 ⇒ x = 12 , x0 = 0, x1 = 12 , x2 = 1, x3 = 32 , and x4 = 2. Thus,
2 2 1/2 1 3 2 2
0 x dx ≈ 2 f (0) + 2 f 2 + 2 f (1) + 2 f 2 + f (2) = 14 0 + 2 12 + 2 (1)2 + 2 32 + 22 = 11
4 = 2.75.

2 2
b. 02 x 2 dx ≈ 13/2 f (0) + 4 f 1
2 + 2 f (1) + 4 f 3
2 + f (2) = 16 0 + 4 12 + 2 (1)2 + 4 32 + 22 = 83 ≈ 2.67
2
In this case, Simpson’s rule gives the exact value: 02 x 2 dx = 13 x 3 = 83 .
0
2. a. a = 1, b = 3, and n = 6 ⇒ x = 3−1 1 4 5 7 8
6 = 3 , x 0 = 1, x1 = 3 , x 2 = 3 , x 3 = 2, x 4 = 3 , x 5 = 3 , and x 6 = 3. Thus,
3 2 1/3
12 − 1 + 2 4 2−1 +2 5 2 − 1 + 2 22 − 1
1 x − 1 dx ≈ 2 3 3

+2 7 2 −1 +2 8 2 − 1 + 32 − 1 ≈ 6.704.
3 3

b. 13 x 2 − 1 dx ≈ 13/3 12 − 1 + 4 4 2 −1 +2 5 2 − 1 + 4 22 − 1
3 3

+2 7 2−1 +4 8 2 − 1 + 32 − 1 ≈ 6.667
3 3
3
In this case, Simpson’s rule gives the exact value: 13 x 2 − 1 dx = 13 x 3 − x = 20
3 .
1
3. a. a = 1, b = 2, and n = 6 ⇒ x = 2−1 1 7 4 3 5 11
6 = 6 , x 0 = 1, x1 = 6 , x 2 = 3 , x 3 = 2 , x4 = 3 , x 5 = 6 , and x6 = 2. Thus,
2 3 1/6 3 7 3 + 2 4 3 + 2 3 3 + 2 5 3 + 2 11 3 + 23
1 x dx ≈ 2 1 + 2 6 3 2 3 6 ≈ 3.7708.

3 3 3 3 3
b. 12 x 3 dx ≈ 13/6 13 + 4 76 + 2 43 + 4 32 + 2 53 + 4 11
6 + 23 = 15
4.
2
Once again, Simpson’s rule gives the exact value: 12 x 3 dx = 14 x 4 = 14 24 − 1 = 15
4 .
1
4. a. a = 1, b = 2, and n = 4 ⇒ x = 2− 1 5 3 7
4 , x 0 = 1, x 1 = 4 , x 2 = 2 , x 3 = 4 , and x4 = 2. Thus,
2 1 1/4 1 2 2 2 1
2
dx ≈ 2
+ 2
+ 2
+ 2
+ 2 ≈ 0.5090.
1 x 2 1 (5/4) (3/2) (7/4) 2
2 1 1/4 1 4 2 4 1
b. dx ≈ + + + + 2 ≈ 0.5004
1 x2 3 12 (5/4)2 (3/2)2 (7/4)2 2
Simpson’s rule gets very close: 12 1/x 2 dx = (−1/x)|21 = − 12 + 1 = 12

5. a. a = 0, b = 2, and n = 6 ⇒ x = 2−0 1 1 2 4 5
6 = 3 , x 0 = 0, x1 = 3 , x 2 = 3 , x 3 = 1, x 4 = 3 , x 5 = 3 , and x 6 = 2. Thus,
2 2
2
0 x 2x 2 + 1 dx ≈ 12/3 0 + 2 · 13 2 13 + 1 + 2 · 23 2 23 + 1 + 2 · 1 2 (1)2 + 1

2 2
+ 2 · 43 2 43 + 1 + 2 · 53 2 53 + 1 + 2 2 (2)2 + 1 ≈ 4.3766

2 2
b. 02 x 2x 2 + 1 dx ≈ 13/3 0 + 4 · 13 2 13 + 1 + 2 · 23 2 23 + 1 + 4 · 1 2 (1)2 + 1

2 2
+ 2 · 43 2 43 + 1 + 4 · 53 2 53 + 1 + 2 2 (2)2 + 1 ≈ 4.3328

2 2
0 x 2x 2 + 1 dx = 14 · 23 (2x 2 + 1)3/2 = 16 (27 − 1) = 13
3
0
 Section 4.6 Numerical Integration 321

6. a. a = 0, b = 4, and n = 8 ⇒ x = 12 , x0 = 0, x1 = 12 , x2 = 1, . . ., x7 = 72 , and x8 = 4. Thus,

4√ √ √
0 x dx ≈ 12/2 0 + 2 12 + 2 1 + · · · + 2 72 + 4 ≈ 5.2650.

√ √ √
b. 04 x dx ≈ 13/2 0 + 4 12 + 2 1 + · · · + 4 72 + 4 ≈ 5.3046

4√ 4
0 x dx = 23 x 3/2 = 16
3
0

7. a. a = 0, b = π, and n = 4 ⇒ x = π π π 3π
4 , x 0 = 0, x 1 = 4 , x2 = 2 , x 3 = 4 , and x4 = π. Thus,
π π /4
0 sin x dx ≈ 2 sin 0 + 2 sin π π 3π
4 + 2 sin 2 + 2 sin 4 + sin π ≈ 1.8961.

b. 0π sin x dx ≈ π3/4 sin 0 + 4 sin π π 3π

4 + 2 sin 2 + 4 sin 4 + sin π ≈ 2.0046
π π
0 sin x dx = − cos x|0 = − (−1) − (−1) = 2

8. a. a = 0, b = π
2 , and n = 6 ⇒
π , x = 0, x = π , x = π , x = π , x = π , x = 5π , and x = π . Thus,
x = 12 0 1 12 2 6 3 4 4 3 5 12 6 2
π /2
0 cos 2x dx ≈ π/212 cos 0 + 2 cos 2 · 12
π + 2 cos 2 · π + 2 cos 2 · π
6 4

+ 2 cos 2 · π 5π π
3 + 2 cos 2 · 12 + cos 2 · 2 = 0.
π /2
b. 0 cos 2x dx ≈ π/312 cos 0 + 4 cos 2 · 12
π + 2 cos 2 · π + 4 cos 2 · π
6 4

+ 2 cos 2 · π 5π π
3 + 4 cos 2 · 12 + cos 2 · 2 =0

π /2 π /2
Indeed, 0 cos 2x dx = 12 sin 2x = 0.
0

9. a = 0, b = 1, and n = 7 ⇒ x = 17 , x0 = 0, x1 = 17 , x2 = 27 , x3 = 37 , . . ., x7 = 1. Thus,
1
dx 1/7 1 2 2 2 1
≈ + + + ··· + + ≈ 0.5523.
0 2x + 1 2 2·0+1 2· 1 +1 2· 2 +1 6
2· 7 +1 2 · 1 +1
7 7

10. a = 1, b = 3, and n = 5 ⇒ x = 25 = 0.4, x0 = 1, x1 = 1.4, x2 = 1.8, x3 = 2.2, x4 = 2.6, and x5 = 3. Thus,

3
1 x 2 + 1 dx ≈ 22/5 12 + 1 + 2 (1.4)2 + 1 + 2 (1.8)2 + 1 + 2 (2.2)2 + 1 + 2 (2.6)2 + 1 + 32 + 1

≈ 4.5080.

11. a = 0, b = 2, and n = 6 ⇒ x = 13 , x0 = 0, x1 = 13 , x2 = 23 , . . ., x5 = 53 , x6 = 2. Thus,

⎡ ⎤
2 dx 1/3 ⎢ 1 2 2 1 ⎥
≈ ⎢ + +··· + + ⎥ ≈ 1.4001.
0 x3 + 1 2 ⎣ 03 + 1 1 3+1 5 3+1 23 + 1
⎦
3 3

12. a = 0, b = 1, and n = 6 ⇒ x = 16 , x0 = 0, x1 = 16 , x2 = 13 , . . ., x5 = 56 , x6 = 1. Thus,

1 2 1/6 1 2 + 2 cos 1 2 + · · · + 2 cos 5 2 + cos 12
0 cos x dx ≈ 2 cos 0 + 2 cos 6 3 6 ≈ 0.9006.

13. a = 1, b = 2, and n = 5 ⇒ x = 15 , x0 = 1, x1 = 1.2, x2 = 1.4, x3 = 1.6, x4 = 1.8, and x5 = 2. Thus,

2√ √ √ √ √
1 x sin x dx ≈ 12/5 1 sin 1 + 2 1.2 sin 1.2 + · · · + 2 1.8 sin 1.8 + 2 sin 2 ≈ 1.1643.

14. a = 0, b = 0.6, and n = 6 ⇒ x = 06.6 = 0.1, x0 = 0, x1 = 0.1, x2 = 0.2, . . ., x6 = 0.6. Thus,

0.6 0.1
0 x tan x dx ≈ 2 [0 tan 0 + 2 (0.1) tan 0.1 + 2 (0.2) tan 0.2 + · · · + 2 (0.5) tan 0.5 + 0.6 tan 0.6] ≈ 0.0791.
322 Chapter 4 Integration

15. a = 0, b = 2, and n = 6 ⇒ x = 13 , x0 = 0, x1 = 13 , x2 = 23 , . . ., x6 = 2. Thus,

2
x 3 + 1 dx ≈ 13/3
√
0+1+4 1 3 +1+2 2 3 + 1 + ··· + 4 5 3+1+ 23 + 1 ≈ 3.2411.
0 3 3 3

16. a = 0, b = 1, and n = 4 ⇒ x = 14 , x0 = 0, x1 = 14 , x2 = 12 , x3 = 34 , and x4 = 1. Thus,

⎡ ⎤
1 dx 1/4 ⎢ 1 4 2 4 1 ⎥
≈ ⎣ 2 + + + + 2 ⎦ ≈ 0.7854.
0 x2 + 1 3 0 +1 1 2+1 1 2+1 3 2+1 1 +1
4 2 4

17. a = −1, b = 1, and n = 6 ⇒ x = 13 , x0 = −1, x1 = − 23 , x2 = − 13 , x3 = 0, x4 = 13 , x5 = 23 , and x6 = 1. Thus,

2 2
1
−1 x 2 + 1 dx ≈ 13/3 (−1)2 + 1 + 4 − 23 +1+2 − 13 + 1 + 4 02 + 1

+2 1 2 +1+4 2 2+1+ 12 + 1 ≈ 2.2955.

3 3

18. a = 0, b = 2, and n = 4 ⇒ x = 12 , x0 = 0, x1 = 12 , x2 = 1, x3 = 32 , and x4 = 2. Thus,

⎡ ⎤
4 1 2 4 3 2
2 x2 1/2 ⎢ 2 (1)2 2 2
2 2 ⎥
√ dx ≈ ⎣ +√ + +√ ⎦ ≈ 1.7054.
0 1 + x 3 1
1+ 2 1 + 1 1+ 23 1 + 2

19. a = 0, b = π
2 , and n = 6 ⇒
π , x = 0, x = π , x = π , . . ., x = 5π , x = π . Thus,
x = 12 0 1 12 2 6 5 12 6 2
π /2 π /12 √ π π π +
0
2
1 + sin x dx ≈ 3 1 + 4 1 + sin 12 + 2 1 + sin 6 + · · · + 4 1 + sin2 512
2 2 1 + sin2 π
2

≈ 1.9101.
20. a = 1, b = 2, and n = 6 ⇒ x = 16 , x0 = 1, x1 = 76 , x2 = 43 , . . ., x5 = 11
6 , x 6 = 2. Thus,
2 sin x sin 7 sin 4 sin 11
1/6 sin 1 sin 2
dx ≈ + 4 · 7 6 + 2 · 4 3 + · · · + 4 · 116 + ≈ 0.6593.
1 x 3 1 2
6 3 6
3 2
21. a. f (x) = x ⇒ f (x) = 3x ⇒ f (x) = 6x. Since f is increasing on [−1, 2], we can take M = f (2) = 12. Also,
12 [2 − (−1)]3 3
a = −1, b = 2, and n = 6. Thus, |E 6 | ≤ = .
12 · 62 4
(4)
b. f (x) = 76 ⇒ f (x) = 0, so |E 6 | = 0.
1 2
22. a. f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = − (x + 1)−2 ⇒ f (x) = . Since f is decreasing on [0, 1], we can take
x +1 (x + 1)3
2 (1 − 0)3 1
M = f (0) = 2. Also, a = 0, b = 1, and n = 8. Thus, |E 8 | ≤ = ≈ 0.002604.
12 · 82 384
24
b. f (x) = −6 (x + 1)−4 ⇒ f (4) (x) = . Since f (4) is decreasing on [0, 1], we can take M = 24. Thus,
(x + 1)5
24 (1 − 0)5 1
|E 8 | ≤ = ≈ 0.000033.
180 · 84 30,720
√
23. a. f (x) = x ⇒ f (x) = 12 x −1/2 ⇒ f (x) = − 14 x −3/2 ⇒ f (x) = 38 x −5/2 . Since f (x) > 0 on [1, 4], f is
1 (4 − 1)3
9
decreasing, so take M = f (1) = 14 . Also, a = 1, b = 4, and n = 8. Thus, |E 8 | ≤ 4 2
= ≈ 0.00879.
12 · 8 1024
b. f (4) (x) = − 15 −7/2 . Since f (4) (x) is decreasing on [1, 4], we take M = f (4) (1) = 15 . Thus,
16 x 16
15
(4 − 1)5 81
|E 8 | ≤ 16 4
= ≈ 0.0003090.
180 · 8 262,144
 Section 4.6 Numerical Integration 323

1
24. a. f (x) = √ = (x + 1)−1/2 ⇒ f (x) = − 12 (x + 1)−3/2 ⇒ f (x) = 34 (x + 1)−5/2 . Since f (x) = f (x)
x +1
is decreasing on [0, 2], we may take M = f (0) = 34 . Also, a = 0, b = 2, and n = 6. Thus,
3 (2 − 0)3
1
|E 6 | ≤ 4 = ≈ 0.0138889.
12 · 62 72
(x) = − 15 −7/5 ⇒ f (4) (x) = 105 (x + 1)−9/2 . Since f (4) (x) is decreasing, we take
b. f 8 (x + 1) 16
105 5
M = f (4) (0) = 105 16 (2 − 0) = 7 ≈ 0.0009002.
16 . Thus, |E 6 | ≤ 180 · 64 7776
25. a. f (x) = x sin x ⇒ f (x) = sin x + x cos x ⇒ f (x) = 2 cos x − x sin x ⇒ f (x) = −3 sin x − x cos x. Since
f (x) < 0 on 0, π π
2 , f (x) is decreasing. We take M = f (0) = 2. Also, a = 0, b = 2 , and n = 6. Thus,
3
2 π
2 −0 π3
|E 6 | ≤ = ≈ 0.01794.
12 · 62 1728
b. f (4) (x) = x sin x − 4 cos x ⇒ f (5) (x) = 5 sin x + x cos x. Since f (5) (x) > 0 on 0, π
2 , f
(4) (x) is increasing on

5
4 π
2 −0 π5
0, π
2 , so we take M = f
(4) (0) = 4. Thus, |E | ≤
6 = ≈ 0.0001640.
180 · 64 1,866,240
26. a. f (x) = cos x 2 ⇒ f (x) = −2x sin x 2 ⇒
f (x) = −2 sin x 2 − 4x 2 cos x 2 . f (x) ≤ 2 sin x 2 + 4x 2 cos x 2 ≤ 6 on [0, 1], so we may take M = 6. Also,

6 (1 − 0)3 1
a = 0, b = 1, and n = 6. Thus, |E 6 | ≤ = ≈ 0.01389.
12 · 62 72
b. f (x) = −12x cos x 2 + 8x 3 sin x 2 ⇒ f (4) (x) = 16x 4 cos x 2 + 48x 2 sin x 2 − 12 cos x 2 . Since
76 (1 − 0)5 19
f (4) (x) ≤ 16x 4 + 48x 2 + 12 ≤ 76 on [0, 1], we may take M = 76. Then |E 6 | ≤ = ≈ 0.0003258.
180 · 64 58,320
1 1 2
27. f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = − 2 ⇒ f (x) = 3 . By looking at the graph of f using a CAS, we find that f (x) ≤ 2 on
x x x
2 (2 − 1)3 1
[1, 2]. So take M = 2. Then |E n | ≤ 2
< 0.001 ⇒ n 2 > ⇒ n > 12.91, so we pick n = 13.
12n 6 (0.001)

1 2x 2 3x 2 − 1
28. f (x) = 2 ⇒ f (x) = − 2
⇒ f (x) = 3
. By looking at the graph of f using a CAS, we find
x +1 1 + x2 1 + x2
2 (2 − 0)3
that f (x) ≤ 2 on [0, 2]. So take M = 2. Then |E n | ≤ < 0.001 ⇒ n > 36.5, so we pick n = 37.
12n 2
1
29. f (x) = x 1/2 ⇒ f (x) = 12 x −1/2 ⇒ f (x) = − 3/2 . By looking at the graph of f using a CAS, we find that
4x
1 (4 − 1)3
f (x) ≤ 14 on [1, 4]. So take M = 14 . Then |E n | ≤ 4 < 0.001 ⇒ n > 23.72, so we pick n = 24.
12n 2
−1/2 1
30. f (x) = x 2 + 1 ⇒ f (x) = x x 2 + 1 ⇒ f (x) = 3/2
. By looking at the graph of f using a CAS, we
x2 + 1
1 (2 − 0)3
find that f (x) ≤ 1 on [0, 2]. So take M = 1. Then |E n | ≤ < 0.001 ⇒ n > 25.82, so we pick n = 26.
12n 2
31. f (x) = x cos x ⇒ f (x) = cos x − x sin x ⇒ f (x) = −2 sin x − x cos x. By looking at the graph of f using a CAS, we
3
2.3 π
2 −0
find that f (x) ≤ 2.3 on 0, π
2 . So take M = 2.3. Then |E n | ≤ < 0.001 ⇒ n > 27.26, so we pick
12n 2
n = 28.
324 Chapter 4 Integration

32. f (x) = cos x 2 ⇒ f (x) = −2x sin x 2 ⇒ f (x) = −2 sin x 2 − 4x 2 cos x 2 . By looking at the graph of f using a CAS,
3.845 (1 − 0)3
we find that f (x) ≤ 3.845 on [0, 1]. So take M = 3.845. Then |E n | ≤ < 0.001 ⇒ n > 17.9, so we pick
12n 2
n = 18.

33. f (x) = 2x 3/2 ⇒ f (x) = 3x 1/2 ⇒ f (x) = 32 x −1/2 ⇒ f (x) = − 34 x −3/2 ⇒ f (4) (x) = 98 x −5/2 . By looking at the
9
(4 − 1) 5
graph of f (4) using a CAS, we find that f (4) (x) ≤ 98 on [1, 4]. So take M = 98 . Then |E n | ≤ 8 < 0.001 ⇒
180n 4
n > 6.243, so we pick n = 8. (n must be even for Simpson’s Rule.)

1
34. f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = −x −2 ⇒ f (x) = 2x −3 ⇒ f (x) = −6x −4 ⇒ f (4) (x) = 24x −5 . By looking at the graph
x
24 (3 − 1)5
of f (4) using a CAS, we find that f (4) (x) ≤ 24 on [1, 3]. So take M = 24. Then |E n | ≤ < 0.001 ⇒
180n 4
n > 8.0821, so we pick n = 10. (n must be even for Simpson’s Rule.)

1 2x 2 3x 2 − 4 24 x 2 − 4x
35. f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = − ⇒ f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = − ⇒
x2 + 4 x2 + 4
2
x2 + 4
3
x2 + 4
4

24 5x 4 − 40x 2 + 16
f (4) (x) = 5
. By looking at the graph of f (4) using a CAS, we find that f (4) (x) ≤ 38 on [0, 2]. So
x2 + 4
3
(2 − 0) 5
take M = 38 . Then |E n | ≤ 8 < 0.001 ⇒ n > 2.86, so we pick n = 4. (n must be even for Simpson’s Rule.)
180n 4

36. f (x) = (x + 1)1/2 ⇒ f (x) = 12 (x + 1)−1/2 ⇒ f (x) = − 14 (x + 1)−3/2 ⇒ f (x) = 38 (x + 1)−5/2 ⇒

f (4) (x) = − 15 −7/2 . By looking at the graph of f (4) using a CAS, we find that f (4) (x) ≤ 15 on [0, 3]. So take
16 (x + 1) 16
15 (3 − 0)5
M = 15 16 < 0.001 ⇒ n > 5.965, so we pick n = 6.
16 . Then |E n | ≤ 180n 4

37. f (x) = x sin x ⇒ f (x) = sin x + x cos x ⇒ f (x) = 2 cos x − x sin x ⇒ f (x) = −3 sin x − x cos x ⇒
f (4) (x) = −4 cos x + x sin x. By looking at the graph of f (4) using a CAS, we find that f (4) (x) ≤ 4 on 0, π
2 . So take
5
4 π
2 −0
M = 4. Then |E n | ≤ < 0.001 ⇒ n > 3.8181, so we pick n = 4.
180n 4

38. f (x) = sin x 2 ⇒ f (x) = 2x cos x 2 ⇒ f (x) = 2 cos x 2 − 4x 2 sin x 2 ⇒

f (x) = −12x sin x 2 − 8x 3 cos x 2 ⇒ f (4) (x) = 16x 4 sin x 2 − 48x 2 cos x 2 − 12 sin x 3 . By looking at the graph of f (4)
29 (1 − 0)5
using a CAS, we find that f (4) (x) ≤ 29 on [0, 1]. So take M = 29. Then |E n | ≤ < 0.001 ⇒ n > 3.563, so
180n 4
we pick n = 4.

1 16 1 16 80t 3 16 t3
39. The average velocity is given by v av = v (t) dt = dt = 5 dt. a = 0, b = 16,
16 − 0 0 16 0 t 3 + 100 0 t 3 + 100
and n = 8 ⇒ t = 16
8 = 2, t0 = 0, t1 = 2, t2 = 4, . . ., t8 = 16. Thus
16 t3 5·2 23 43 63 143 163
v av = 5 dt ≈ 0 + 4 · + 2 · + 4 · + · · · + 4 · +
0 t 3 + 100 3 23 + 100 43 + 100 63 + 100 143 + 100 163 + 100
≈ 52.82 ft/s
 Chapter 4 Review 325

40. The average level is given by

1 11 1 11 136 136 11 1 28 11
Aav = A (t) dt = 2
+ 28 dt = 2
dt + 1 dt
11 − 0 0 11 0 1 + 0.25 (t − 4.5) 11 0 1 + 0.25 (t − 4.5) 11 0
136 11 1
= 28 + dt
11 0 1 + 0.25 (t − 4.5)2
To approximate the integral, use a = 0, b = 11, and n = 11 ⇒ t = 1. Thus
136 1 1 2 2 1
Aav ≈ 28 + · 2
+ 2
+ ··· + 2
+
11 2 1 + 0.25 (0 − 4.5) 1 + 0.25 (1 − 4.5) 1 + 0.25 (10 − 4.5) 1 + 0.25 (11 − 4.5)2
≈ 87.87 PSI
1 9 1 9 613.7t 2 + 1449.1
41. The average petroleum reserves from 1981 through 1990 were A = S(t)dt = dt. Using
9−0 0 9 0 t 2 + 6.3
the Trapezoidal rule with a = 0, b = 9, and n = 9 so that t = 9−0
9 = 1, we have t0 = 0, t1 = 1, . . ., t9 = 9. Thus,
A = 19 09 S (t) dt ≈ 19 · 12 [S (0) + 2S (1) + · · · + 2S (8) + S(9)]
1 (130.02 + 2 · 282.58 + 2 · 379.02 + 2 · 455.71 + 2 · 505.30 + 2 · 536.47
= 18
+ 2 · 556.56 + 2 · 569.99 + 2 · 579.32 + 586.01) ≈ 474.77

Thus, the average reserves were approximately 474.77 million barrels.

42. The distance covered is d = 01 v (t) dt. Taking a = 0, b = 1, n = 6, and t = 16 , we have
d ≈ 16 · 13 [14.2 + 4 (24.3) + 2 (40.2) + 4 (45) + 2 (38.5) + 4 (27.6) + 12.8] ≈ 31.78 mi.
43. The required rate of flow is
R = (area of a cross-section of the river) × (rate of flow) = 4 (area of a cross-section) = 4 078 y (x) dx. Approximating
the integral using the Trapezoidal rule,
R ≈ 4 · 62 [0.8 + 2 (2.6) + 2 (5.8) + 2 (6.2) + 2 (8.2) + 2 (10.1) + 2 (10.8) + 2 (9.8)
+ 2 (7.6) + 2 (6.4) + 2 (5.2) + 2 (3.9) + 2 (2.4) + 1.4] = 1922.4.
Thus, the rate is about 1922.4 ft3 /s.
60D 480
44. R = 24 = 24 , where R is measured in L/min. Now
0 C (t) dt 0 C (t) dt
24 24 1
0 C (t) dt ≈ 12 · 3 [0 + 4 (0) + 2 (2.8) + 4 (6.1) + 2 (9.7) + 4 (7.6) + 2 (4.8) + 4 (3.7)
+ 2 (1.9) + 4 (0.8) + 2 (0.3) + 4 (0.1) + 0] ≈ 74.8
480 ≈ 6.42, or about 6.42 L/min.
and R = 74 .8
1)
45. False. Let f (x) = x 3 , a = −1, b = 1, and n = 2. Then x = 1−(−
2 = 1 and
b 1 3 1
a f (x) dx = −1 x dx ≈ 2 f (−1) + 2 f (0) + f (1) = 12 (−1)3 + 2 (0) + 13 = 0 by the Trapezoidal rule. The

exact value of the integral is 0 because f (x) = x 3 is odd on (−1, 1).

46. True. Since f is concave upward, the chord joining any two adjacent points y
y=f(x)
xk−1 , f xk−1 and (xk , f (xk )) lies above the graph of f (see the figure).
Therefore, the area under each chord on xk−1 , xk cannot be less than the area of
the region under the graph of f on xk−1 , xk . Therefore, each term in A is greater
than xxk−1
k
f (x) dx, and the result follows from summing terms. 0 a xk _ 1 xk b x
326 Chapter 4 Integration

Chapter 4 Review

Concept Review
1. a. F = f b. F (x) + C

2. a. c f (x) dx b. f (x) dx ± g (x) dx

3. a. unknown b. function
4. g (x) dx; f (u) du

5. a. ab f (x) dx b. minus
1 b
6. a. f (x) dx b. height; area
b−a a
b
7. a. f (x) b. F (b) − F (a); antiderivative c. a f (x) dx
8. 2 0a f (x) dx; 0
1 b
9. f (c) = f (x) dx
b−a a
x M (b − a)3
10. a. f (x0 ) + 2 f (x1 ) + 2 f (x2 ) + · · · + 2 f xn−1 + f (xn ) ;
2 12n 2
x M (b − a)5
b. f (x0 ) + 4 f (x1 ) + 2 f (x2 ) + · · · + 2 f xn−2 + 4 f xn−1 + f (xn ) ; even;
3 180n 4

Review Exercises
1. 2x 3 − 4x 2 + 3x + 4 dx = 12 x 4 − 43 x 3 + 32 x 2 + 4x + C

x 5 − 3x + 2 x3 3 1
2. dx = x 2 − 3x −2 + 2x −3 dx = + − 2 +C
x3 3 x x
3. x 5/3 − 2x 2/5 dx = 38 x 8/3 − 10
7 x
7/5 + C

4. x 1/3 2x 2 − 3x + 1 dx = 2x 7/3 − 3x 4/3 + x 1/3 dx = 35 x 10/3 − 97 x 7/3 + 34 x 4/3 + C

2
5. x 2/3 − 4 + 3 dx = 35 x 5/3 + 3x + 23 x −3 + C
x
√
x2 − x + x x 2 − x + x 1/2
6. √ dx = dx = x 5/3 − x 2/3 + x 1/6 dx = 38 x 8/3 − 35 x 5/3 + 67 x 7/6 + C
3
x x 1/3
7. (1 + 2t)3 dt = 18 (1 + 2t)4 + C
(1 + x)2 x 2 + 2x + 1 √
8. √ dx = dx = x 3/2 + 2x 1/2 + x −1/2 dx = 25 x 5/2 + 43 x 3/2 + 2 x + C
x x 1/2
9. 1 (3t − 4)9 + C
(3t − 4)8 dt = 27
√
10. 3
2u + 1 du = (2u + 1)1/3 du = 38 (2u + 1)4/3 + C
2
11. x + x −1 dx = x 2 + 2 + x −2 dx = 13 x 3 + 2x − 1/x + C
1/2 3/2
12. 2x 3 x 4 + 1 dx = x4 + 1 2x 3 dx = 13 x 4 + 1 +C
 Chapter 4 Review 327

13. Let u = 3x 2 + 2x. Then du = (6x + 2) dx = 2 (3x + 1) dx, so

3x + 1 1 du 1 u −2 1
3
dx = = +C =− + C.
3x 2 + 2x 2 u3 2 −2 4 3x 2 + 2x
2

√
14. π2 + x + 1 dx = π 2 x + 23 x 3/2 + x + C

15. Let u = cos t. Then du = − sin t dt, so cos4 t sin t dt = − u 4 du = − 15 u 5 + C = − 15 cos5 t + C.

sec2 x du √
16. Let u = tan x. Then du = sec2 x dx, so √ dx = = 2u 1/2 + C = 2 tan x + C.
tan x u 1/2
cos θ du √
17. Let u = 1 − sin θ. Then du = − cos θ dθ, so √ dθ = − 1/ 2
= −2u 1/2 + C = −2 1 − sin θ + C.
1 − sin θ u
cos3 θ + 1
18. dθ = cos θ + sec2 θ dθ = sin θ + tan θ + C
cos2 θ
19. Let u = x 2 . Then du = 2x dx so x csc x 2 cot x 2 dx = 12 csc u cot u du = − 12 csc u + C = − 12 csc x 2 + C.
20. Let u = 3x. Then du = 3 dx, so sec 3x tan 3x dx = 13 sec u tan u du = 13 sec u + C = 13 sec 3x + C.
2
21. 02 (3x + 5) dx = 32 x 2 + 5x = 16
0
1 √ √ √ √
22. −1 8x dx = 0 because f (x) = 3 8x is odd: f (−x) = 3 −8x = − 3 8x = − f (x).
3

2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
23. − 3 dx = − + 2 = − + − −1 + =
1 x2 x x 2x 1 2 8 2 8
24. Let u = t 3 + 1. Then du = 3t 2 dt, t = 0 ⇒ u = 1, and t = 2 ⇒ u = 9. Thus,
2 2 3 √ 9
0 t t + 1 dt = 13 19 u du = 29 u 3/2 = 52
9. 1
4 1 1 9 1 √ 9
25. Let u = 1 + 2x, so du = 2 dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 1, and x = 4 ⇒ u = 9. Then √ dx = √ du = u 1 = 2.
0 1 + 2x 2 1 u
√
26. Let u = x 2 + 2, so du = 2x dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 2, and x = 2 ⇒ u = 4. Then
√
2 x 1 4 du √ 4 √
dx = 1/2
= u 2 = 2 − 2.
0 x2 + 2 2 2 u
1
27. 01 (x + 1) (2x + 3)2 dx = 4x 3 + 16x 2 + 21x + 9 dx = x 4 + 16 3 21 2 155
3 x + 2 x + 9x 0 = 6
√ 1
28. Let u = x + 1, so du = √ dx, x = 1 ⇒ u = 2, and x = 4 ⇒ u = 3. Then
2 x
√ 5 3
4 x +1 3 u6 665
√ dx = 2 u 5 du = = .
1 x 2 3 3
2
√
29. Let u = cos 2x, so du = −2 sin 2x dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 1, and x = π 2
8 ⇒ u = 2 . Then
√ √
π /8 sin 2x 1 2/2 du 1 2/2 √
2
dx = − 2
= = 12 2−1 .
0 cos 2x 2 1 u 2u 1
30. Let u = 2 + 7 cos θ, so du = −7 sin θ dθ, θ = 0 ⇒ u = 9, and θ = π 2 ⇒ u = 2. Then
2 u 3/2 2 = 2 27 − 2 2 .
π /2 √ √
0 sin θ 2 + 7 cos θ dθ = − 17 92 u 1/2 du = − 21 21 9
π /4 1 cos θ √ √
π /4 π /4 π /4
31. π/6 (csc θ + cot θ) (1 − cos θ) dθ = + (1 − cos θ) dθ = π/6 sin θ dθ = − cos θ|π/6 = 3−
2
2
π /6 sin θ sin θ
328 Chapter 4 Integration

π π π
32. Let u = , so du = − 2 dx, x = 1 ⇒ u = π, and x = 2 ⇒ u = . Then
x x 2
2 sin π 1 π/2 1 π /2 1
x
2
dx = − sin u du = cos u =
1 x π π π π π
2
33. f av = 12 02 x 3 dx = 18 x 4 = 2
0

1 3 1
34. f av = 1 √ dx. Let u = x + 1, so du = dx, x = 1 ⇒ u = 2, and x = 3 ⇒ u = 4. Then
3−1 x +1
√ √ 4 √
f av = 12 24 1/ u du = u 2 = 2 − 2.

4 3/2 4
1
35. f av = 4− 0 0 t dt = 14 · 25 t 5/2 = 16
5
0

π /2
36. f av = (π/12)−0 0 sin2 x cos x dx. Let u = sin x, so du = cos x dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 0, and x = π
2 ⇒ u = 1. Then
2 1 u 2 du = 2 u 3 1 = 2 .
f av = π 0 3π 0 3π

37. a = 0, b = 1, and n = 5, so x = 15 , x0 = 0, x1 = 15 , x2 = 25 , x3 = 35 , x4 = 45 , and x5 = 1.

1
0 1 + x 2 dx ≈ 12/5 f (0) + 2 f 1
5 +2f 2
5 +2f 3
5 +2f 4
5 + f (1)

1 2 2 2 2
= 10 1 + 02 + 2 1 + 15 + 2 1 + 25 + 2 1 + 35 + 2 1 + 45 + 1 + 12 ≈ 1.1502

38. a = 1, b = 2, and n = 4, so x = 14 = 0.25, x0 = 1, x1 = 1.25, x2 = 1.5, x3 = 1.75, and x4 = 2.

2 √
x
dx ≈ 13/4 f (1) + 4 f (1.25) + 2 f (1.5) + 4 f (1.75) + f (2)
1 1 + x2
√ √ √ √ √
1 1 4 1.25 2 1.5 4 1.75 2
= 12 2
+ 2
+ 2
+ 2
+ ≈ 0.3820
1+1 1 + (1.25) 1 + (1.5) 1 + (1.75) 1 + 22

1
39. f (x) = √ = (1 + x)−1/2 ⇒ f (x) = − 12 (1 + x)−3/2 ⇒ f (x) = 34 (1 + x)−5/2 ⇒ f (x) = − 15
8 (1 + x)
−7/2
1+x
⇒ f (4) (x) = 105 −9/2
16 (1 + x)
3
(2 − 0)3 1
a. We take M = max f (x) = f (0) = 34 , a = 0, b = 2, and n = 8, so |E 8 | ≤ 4 2
= ≈ 0.0078.
0≤x≤2 12 · 8 128
105
(2 − 0)5 7
b. We take M = max f (4) (x) = f (4) (0) = 105
16 , so |E 8 | ≤ 16 = ≈ 0.000285.
0≤x≤2 180 · 84 24,576

40. f (x) = ln x ⇒ f (x) = 1/x ⇒ f (x) = −1/x 2 ⇒ f (x) = 2/x 3 ⇒ f (4) (x) = −6/x 4
1 (3 − 1)3
a. We take M = max f (x) = f (1) = 1, so |E 10 | ≤ ≈ 0.0067.
1≤x≤3 12 · 102
6 (3 − 1)5
b. We take M = max f (4) (x) = f (4) (1) = 6, so |E 10 | ≤ ≈ 0.00011.
1≤x≤3 180 · 104

41. f (x) = f (x) dx = x 1/2 + sin x dx = 23 x 3/2 − cos x + C. f (0) = 2 ⇒ 23 (0) − 1 + C = 2 ⇒ C = 3, so

f (x) = 23 x 3/2 − cos x + 3.

 Chapter 4 Review 329

d 2s d2s ds
42. a = = −32 ⇒ v = dt = −32t + C1 . v (0) = 64 ⇒ C1 = 64, so v = = −32t + 64 ⇒
dt 2 dt 2 dt
ds
s= dt = (−32t + 64) dt = −16t 2 + 64t + C2 . s (0) = 0 ⇒ C2 = 0 ⇒ s = −16t 2 + 64t. At the highest point,
dt
v = 0, so −32t + 64 = 0 ⇒ t = 2. The maximum height is s (2) = −16t 2 + 64t = 64 ft.
2
d 2s
43. a. Denote the position by s (t), measured from the ground. a = = −32 ⇒ v = a dt = −32t + C1 , and v (0) = 0 ⇒
dt 2
C1 = 0. Then s (t) = v (t) dt = (−32t) dt = −16t 2 + C2 , but s (0) = 128 ⇒ C2 = 128. So s (t) = −16t 2 + 128.
√
b. It strikes the ground when s (t) = 0 ⇒ −16t 2 + 128 = 0 ⇒ t = 2 2 s.
√ √ √
c. v 2 2 = −32 2 2 = −64 2 ft/s
ds
44. a = −g ⇒ v = (−g) dt = −gt + C1 . v (0) = 0 ⇒ C1 = 0 ⇒ v = −gt. s (t) = dt = (−gt) dt = − 12 gt 2 + C2 .
dt
s (0) = h ⇒ C2 = h, so s (t) = − 12 gt 2 + h. The stone strikes the ground when s (t) = 0, so − 12 gt 2 + h = 0 and
√ √ √ √ √
t = 2h/g. Therefore, v 2h/g = −g 2h/g = − 2gh, and so the speed is 2gh ft/s.
45. The acceleration of the car is 22−
8
44 = − 11 ft/s2 . Using the equation v = v + at with v = 0, v = 44, and a = − 11 gives
4 0 0 4
0 = 44 − 4 t ⇒ t = 16. Using x = x0 + v 0 t + 2 at , the distance covered is x (16) = 0 + 44 · 16 − 12 · 11
11 1 2
4 · 162 = 352 ft.

46. The average median price is given by

1 5 1 5 3 1 1 4 7 3 17 2 5
2
f av = 5− 0 0 f (t) dt = 5 0 t − 7t + 17t + 310 dt = 5 4 t − 3 t + 2 t + 310t 0 ≈ 325.42, or about
$325,420.
1 5 1 5
47. The estimated average is Nav = 5− 4 5 2
0 0 0.2t + 4t + 84 dt = 5 0.04t + 2t + 84t 0 = 119, representing
119,000 vehicles.
1 2πt E T 2πt T
48. E av = 0
T
E 0 sin dt = − 0 · cos =0
T −0 T T 2π T 0
5 t 3 − 5 t 2 + 25 t + 60 dt = 1 − 5 t 4 − 5 t 3 + 25 t 2 + 60t 12 = 85%
49. v av = 121−0 012 − 216 6 2 12 864 18 4 0
50. C (x) = C (x) dx = 0.000006x 2 − 0.04x + 120 dx = 0.000002x 3 − 0.02x 2 + 120x + k, but k = C (0) = 70,000,

so C (x) = 0.000002x 3 − 0.02x 2 + 120x + 70,000.

51. P (x) = P (x) dx = −0.000006x 2 − 0.04x + 200 dx = −0.000002x 3 − 0.02x 2 + 200x + C, but

C = P (0) = −80,000, so P (x) = −0.000002x 3 − 0.02x 2 + 200x − 80,000.

1 12 πt 1 12 1 − cos π6t
52. Rav = 60 + 37 sin2 dt = 60 + 37 · dt
12 − 0 0 12 12 0 2
πt 12
1 12 157 37 cos 6 1 157 37 6 πt
= − dt = t− · sin = 78.5 (%)
12 0 2 2 12 2 2 π 6 0
5.4145
53. a. N (t) = N (t) dt = √ dt = 5.4145 (1 + 0.91t)−1/2 dt. Let u = 1 + 0.91t ⇒ du = 0.91 dt. Then
1 + 0.91t
N (t) = 5.04145 −1/2 du = 2(5.4145) u 1/2 + C = 11.9 (1 + 0.91t)1/2 + C. N (0) = 11.9, so 11.9 + C = 11.9 ⇒
.91 u 0.91
√
C = 0. So N (t) = 11.9 1 + 0.91t.
b. At the beginning of 2011, the number of people watching TV on mobile phones will be
√
N (4) = 11.9 1 + 0.91 (4) ≈ 25.633 or approximately 25.6 million people.
330 Chapter 4 Integration

54. Let u = 2t 2 + 1, so du = 4t dt, t = 0 ⇒ u = 1, and t = 2 ⇒ u = 9. Then

2 9
0 t 2t 2 + 1 dt = 14 19 u 1/2 du = 16 u 3/2 = 16 (27 − 1) = 13
3 ≈ 4.3 (million dollars).
1
1 4 6 πt 1 6 2 πt 4
55. Vav = 4− 0 0 5π 1 − cos 2 dt = 4 · 5π t − π sin 2 = 103π · 4 = 56π L/s
0

1 365 2π (t − 23) 1 365 2π (t − 23) 365 2π (t − 23)

56. Tav = 62 − 18 cos dt = 62t − 18 · sin let u =
365 0 365 365 2π 365 0 365
1 9 · 365 2π · 342 9 · 365 2π · 23
= 62 · 365 − sin − sin ≈ 62◦ F
365 π 365 π 365

57. a. Tav = 301−0 030 y dt ≈ 30

1 · 3 (70 + 2 · 72 + 2 · 70 + 2 · 69 + 2 · 66 + 2 · 64 + 2 · 64 + 2 · 62 + 2 · 57 + 2 · 58 + 55)
2

≈ 64.45 ◦ F
1 · 3 (70 + 4 · 72 + 2 · 70 + 4 · 69 + 2 · 66 + 4 · 64 + 2 · 64 + 4 · 62 + 2 · 57 + 4 · 58 + 55) ≈ 64.63◦ F
b. Tav ≈ 30 3
3 x3 x2
d x sin t dt = d
58. F (x) = dx d x 3 sin t dt − d x 2 sin t dt.
x2 dx 0 sin t dt − 0 sin t dt = dx 0 dx 0
Letting u = x 3 in the first integral and v = x 2 in the second, and applying the Chain Rule, we have
d u sin t dt du − d v sin t dt dv = sin u du − sin v dv = 3x 2 sin x 3 − 2x sin x 2 .
F (x) = du 0 dx dv 0 dx dx dx
d c f (t) dt = d − x f (t) dt = − d x
59. dx x dx c dx c f (t) dt = − f (x)

Challenge Problems
|x| b |x|
1. If 0 ≤ a < b, then = 1 and so dx = ab dx = x|ab = b − a.
x a x
|x| b |x|
If a < b ≤ 0, then = −1 and so dx = − ab dx = −x|ba = a − b.
x a x
b |x| |x| |x|
If a < 0 < b, dx = a0 dx + 0b dx = − a0 dx + 0b dx = [−x]a0 + [x]b0 = a + b.
a x x x
b |x|
Thus, dx = |b| − |a|.
a x

2. If x > 0, then there exists a positive integer n such that n ≤ x ≤ n + 1. Then y

x 1 2 n x n+1
0 [[t]] dt = 0 [[t]] dt + 1 [[t]] dt + · · · + n−1 [[t]] dt + n [[t]] dt n
n (n − 1)
= 0 + 1 + 2 + · · · + (n − 1) + (x − n) n = + (x − n) n
2
3
[[x]] ([[x]] − 1)
= + [[x]] (x − [[x]]) 2
2
1

0 1 2 3 n n+1 x
x

√ √ 10π
3. 010π 1 − cos 2x dx = 010π 1 − cos2 x − sin2 x dx = 010π 2 sin2 x dx = 2 0 |sin x| dx
√ √ π √
= 10 2 0π sin x dx = −10 2 cos x = 20 2
0
 Chapter 4 Challenge Problems 331

y
4. The integrand f (x) = 1 − x 2 describes the semicircle of radius 1 centered at the
√
3/2 1
origin. I = √ 1 − x 2 dx is equal to the area B of the unshaded region. But
2/2

A + B + C is the area of the sector subtended by an angle of π

4 . Now
√ √ √ √
A = 12 · 22 · 22 = 14 and C = 12 · π 1 3 1 π 3
6 − 2 · 2 · 2 = 12 − 8 , so
A B
√
1 +I + π − 3 = 1 · π = π ⇒ C
4 12 8 2 4 8
√ √ 0 Ï2 Ï3 1 x
I =π − 1 − π + 3 = π +3 3−6 ≈ 0.0974. 2 2
8 4 12 8 24
1 3x 6 − 2x 5 + 4x 3 − 3x 2 + 5x 1 3x 6 − 3x 2 1 −2x 5 + 4x 3 + 5x
5. I = dx = dx + dx. The integrand of the second
−1 x2 + 1 −1 x 2 + 1 −1 x2 + 1
integral on the right-hand side is an odd function, and so the integral has value 0. Thus,
1 3x 6 − 3x 2 1 3x 2 x 2 + 1 x2 − 1 1
I = 2
dx = 2
dx = 3x 2 x 2 − 1 dx
−1 x + 1 −1 x +1 −1
1
= 2 01 3x 4 − 3x 2 dx = 2 35 x 5 − x 3 = 2 35 − 1 = − 45 .
0
6. a. In the integral ab f (a + b − x) dx, let u = a + b − x, so du = −dx, x = a ⇒ u = b, and x = b ⇒ u = a. Thus,
b a b b
a f (a + b − x) dx = − b f (u) du = a f (u) du = a f (x) dx, completing the proof.
The graph of f on [a, b] is a reflection of that of f (a + b − x) on the same interval y

in the line x = 12 (a + b). If P (x1 , f (x1 )), then the number x1 = a + b − x1 has
y=f(x)
the property that f a + b − x1 = f (a + b − (a + b − x1 )) = f (x1 ). The result
follows by interpreting the integrals as areas.

y=f(a+b-x)

0 b Ú a+b Ú» b x
2

b. Let a = 0 and b = π. Then 0π f (sin x) cos x dx = 0π f (sin (π − x)) cos (π − x) dx = − 0π f (sin x) cos x dx ⇒
2 0π f (sin x) cos x dx = 0 ⇒ 0π f (sin x) cos x dx = 0.
7. Let us make the substitution u = t − x in the integral on the left-hand side. Then du = dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = t, and x = t ⇒
u = 0. Thus, 0t f (x) g (t − x) dx = − t0 f (t − u) g (u) du = 0t g (u) f (t − u) du = 0t g (x) f (t − x) dx. Since u is a
dummy variable, this proves the result.
d h(x) d c h(x) d h(x) f (t) dt − d g(x) f (t) dt
8. a. dx g(x) f (t) dt = dx g(x) f (t) dt + c f (t) dt = dx c dx c (1).
In the first integral on the right-hand side of (1), let u = h (x) and use the Chain Rule to obtain
d h(x) f (t) dt = d u f (t) dt = d u f (t) dt · du = f (u) du = f (h (x)) h (x).
dx c dx c du c dx dx
In the second integral on the right-hand side of (1), let v = g (x) and use the Chain Rule to obtain
d g(x) f (t) dt = f (v) dv = f (g (x)) g (x).
dx c dx
d h(x) f (t) dt = f (h (x)) h (x) − f (g (x)) g (x).
Therefore, dx g(x)
1 √ 1 1
b. Here g (x) = and h (x) = x, so g (x) = − 2 and h (x) = √ . Also, f (t) = sin t 2 , so
x x 2 x
√
d x √ 2 1 1 2 1 sin x sin 1/x 2
F (x) = sin t 2 dt = sin x √ − sin − 2 = √ + .
dx 1/x 2 x x x 2 x x2
332 Chapter 4 Integration

2 2
9. Consider the function F (x) = f (x) − tg (x) ≥ 0 for all x. Then ab F (x) dx = ab f (x) − tg (x) dx ≥ 0
2 2
or ab f (x) dx − 2t ab f (x) g (x) dx + t 2 ab g (x) dx ≥ 0. The expression on
the left is a quadratic in t. Since the quadratic is nonnegative, its discriminant must be
b 2 2 2
nonpositive; that is, 4 a f (x) g (x) dx − 4 ab g (x) dx ab f (x) dx ≤ 0. Therefore,
b b 2 2
a f (x) g (x) dx ≤ a f (x) dx ab g (x) dx

1 √
1
10. a. 0 1 + x 3 dx = 01 1 + x 3 dx ≤ 1 3
0 1 + x dx
1 2
0 1 dx = x + 14 x 4 = 25 ≈ 1.12
0
1 1 3 3
b. By the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals, there exists a number c in [0, 1] such that 1− 0 0 1 + x dx = 1 + c .
√ √
But 1 ≤ 1 + c3 ≤ 2, so 1 ≤ 01 1 + x 3 dx ≤ 2 ≈ 1.41, so the estimate obtained using Schwarz’s inequality is
better.

d x 2 t 2 − 5t + 4 x 4 − 5x 2 + 4 2x x 2 − 4 x 2 − 1 2x (x + 2) (x − 2) (x + 1) (x − 1)
11. F (x) = 0 dt = (2x) = = .
dx t2 + 1 x4 + 1 x4 + 1 x4 + 1
We see that F has critical numbers 0, ±1, and ±2. From the _ _ 0 ++ 0 _ _ 0 ++ 0 _ _ 0 ++ sign of F»
sign diagram, we see that F has relative minima at 0 and ±2, x
and relative maxima at ±1. _2 _1 0 1 2

12. Since f is continuous on [a, b], it is integrable on that interval. Let us partition [a, b] into n subintervals, each of
length x = (b − a) /n. The partition points are x0 = a, x1 = a + x, x2 = a + 2 x, . . ., xk = a + k x, . . .,
xn = b. If we pick the evaluation point ck to be the right endpoint of the subinterval xk−1 , xk , then by definition,
b n n n
k (b − a) b−a
f (x) dx = lim f (ck ) x = lim f (a + k x) x = lim f a+ ⇒
a n→∞
k=1
n→∞
k=1
n→∞
k=1
n n
1 n k (b − a) 1 b
lim f a+ = f (x) dx.
n→∞ n n b−a a
k=1
13. a. If a = b, then the result is immediate. So suppose that a = b, and let x = (b − a) t + a, so dx = (b − a) dt, x = a ⇒
t = 0, and x = b ⇒ t = 1. Then ab f (x) dx = (b − a) 01 f ((b − a) t + a) dt.
b. In the integral −−34 cos (x + 4)2 dx, let x = [−4 − (−3)] t + (−3) = − (t + 3). Then
−4 2 1 2
−3 cos (x + 4) dx = − 0 cos (1 − t) dt.
2/3 2
In the integral 3 1/3 cos 9 x − 23 dx, let x = 2 − 1 t + 1 = 1 (t + 1).
3 3 3 3

2/3 2
Then 3 1/3 cos 9 x − 23 dx = 01 cos (t − 1)2 dt = 01 cos (1 − t)2 dt, so

−4 2 2/3 2 2 dx = − 01 cos (1 − t)2 dt + 01 cos (1 − t)2 dt = 0.

−3 cos (x + 4) dx + 3 1/3 cos 9 x − 3

14. a. In the integral pa+ p f (x) dx, let u = x − p, so du = dx, x = p ⇒ u = 0, and x = a + p ⇒ u = a. Then
a+ p
p f (x) dx = 0a f (u) du = 0a f (x) dx.
b. Adding ap f (x) dx to both sides of the equation in part a gives
p a+ p p
a f (x) dx + p f (x) dx = ap f (x) dx + 0a f (x) dx ⇔ aa+ p f (x) dx = 0 f (x) dx.

15. a. Let g (x) = f x 2 . Then g (−x) = f (−x)2 = f x 2 = g (x), showing that g is even. By Theorem 7 of
a
Section 4.5, −a f x 2 dx = 2 0a f x 2 dx.
 Chapter 4 Challenge Problems 333

b. Since the function g (x) = sin x is odd, the function f x 2 sin x is odd. Therefore, by Theorem 7,
a
−a f x 2 sin x dx = 0.
y y
16. a. b.
1 f
1
S
S

0 1 2 3 x
_10 10 x

_1 _1
It appears that S (x) gives the area under the graph of f (x) from x = 0 to x ≈ 1.4. It gives the difference of areas for
x ' 1.4. Also, f seems to be the derivative of S. (Look at the values of x where S has relative extrema.) So these graphs
give a visual confirmation of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1.
d x f (t) dt = d b f (t) dt = − d x f (t) dt ⇒
17. Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x gives dx a dx x dx b
f (x) = − f (x) ⇒ 2 f (x) = 0 ⇒ f (x) = 0. Since this holds for all x in [a, b], the result follows.
2
d f (x) = 2 d x f (t) dt ⇒ 2 f (x) f (x) = 2 f (x)
18. Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x gives dx dx 0
for all x in (0, b), so f (x) f (x) − 1 = 0 for all x in (0, b). Thus, f (x) = 1 ⇒ f (x) = x + C. But
2
f (0) = 2 00 f (t) dt = 0 ⇒ f (0) = 0. Therefore f (x) = x.
 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

5.1 Concept Questions

1. a. A = ac | f (x) − g (x)| dx, A = ce | f (y) − g (y)| dy

b. A = ab f (x) − g (x) dx + bc g (x) − f (x) dx, A = cd g (y) − f (y) dy + de f (y) − g (y) dy

2. a. After 3 seconds, car A is ahead of car B by 03 f (t) − g (t) dt ft. After 7 seconds, car A is ahead of car B by
7 10
0 f (t) − g (t) dt ft. After 10 seconds, car A is ahead of car B by 0 f (t) − g (t) dt ft.
b. Car A is always ahead of car B after the start of the motion. We can see this by observing that the area of the region
enclosed between the graphs of f and g for 0 ≤ t ≤ 7 is greater than that for 7 ≤ t ≤ 10.
c. The greatest distance between the two cars is 07 f (t) − g (t) dt ft.

5.1 Areas Between Curves

2
1. A = −2 2 (x + 1) − −x 2 − 1 dx = −2 2 x 2 + x + 2 dx = 2 02 x 2 + 2 dx = 2 13 x 3 + 2x = 40
3
0

2
2. A = 02 (x + 2) − x 3 − 4 dx = 02 −x 3 + x + 6 dx = − 14 x 4 + 12 x 2 + 6x = 10
0

√ 4
3. A = 04 −x 2 + 4x − x − 2 x dx = 04 −x 2 + 3x + 2x 1/2 dx = − 13 x 3 + 32 x 2 + 43 x 3/2 = 40
3
0

0 1
4. A = −0 1 x 2 − x 1/3 dx + 01 x 1/3 − x 2 dx = 1 x 3 − 3 x 4/3
3 4 + 3 x 4/3 − 1 x 3
4 3
−1 0
= − − 13 − 34 + 34 − 13 = 32

1
5. A = 01 y 1/3 − 2y 2 − 1 dy = 01 −2y 2 + y 1/3 + 1 dy = − 23 y 3 + 34 y 4/3 + y = 13
12
0

1
6. A = 2 01 y 4 − 2y 2 + 2 − −y 2/3 dy = 2 01 y 4 − 2y 2 + y 2/3 + 2 dy = 2 15 y 5 − 23 y 3 + 35 y 5/3 + 2y = 64
15
0

2050
7. The shortfall is 2010 f (t) − g (t) dt billion barrels.

8. The additional revenue that company B will have over company A, measured in dollars, is
T T1
T1 g (t) − f (t) dt − 0 f (t) − g (t) dt.
335
336 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

9. A = −1 1 x 2 + 3 − (x + 1) dx 10. A = −1 1 x 3 + 1 − (x − 1) dx
1 1
= −1 1 x 2 − x + 2 dx = 13 x 3 − 12 x 2 + 2x = 14
3 = −1 1 x 3 − x + 2 dx = 14 x 4 − 12 x 2 + 2x =4
−1 −1
y x

4 2

2 _2 _1 0 1 y

_2

_2 _1 0 1 2 x _4

11. Solve −x 2 + 4 = 3x + 4 ⇔ x 2 + 3x = 0, giving (−3, −5) and (0, 4) as y

the points of intersection. Thus, 4
2
A = −0 3 −x 2 + 4 − (3x + 4) dx = −0 3 −x 2 − 3x dx
_4 _3 _2 _1 0 x
0
= − 13 x 3 − 32 x 2 = 92 _2
−3 _4
_6

12. Solve x 2 − 4x = −x + 4 ⇔ x 2 − 3x − 4 = (x − 4) (x + 1) = 0, giving y

(−1, 5) and (4, 0) as the points of intersection. Thus, 8

6
A = −4 1 (−x + 4) − x 2 − 4x dx = −4 1 −x 2 + 3x + 4 dx 4
4 2
= − 13 x 3 + 32 x 2 + 4x = 125
6 x
−1
_2 _1 0 1 2 3 4
_2
_4

13. Solve x 2 − 4x + 3 = −x 2 + 2x + 3 ⇔ 2x 2 − 6x = 2x (x − 3) = 0, y
giving (0, 3) and (3, 0) as the points of intersection. Thus, 6

4
A = 03 −x 2 + 2x + 3 − x 2 − 4x + 3 dx
2
3
= 03 −2x 2 + 6x dx = − 23 x 3 + 3x 2 = 9
0 _2 _1 0 1 2 3 4 x
_2
_4

14. Solve (x − 2)2 = 4 − x 2 ⇔ x 2 − 4x + 4 = 4 − x 2 ⇔ y

2x 2 − 4x = 2x (x − 2) = 0, giving (0, 4) and (2, 0) as the points of

4
intersection. Thus,
2
A = 02 4 − x 2 − (x − 2)2 dx = 02 −2x 2 + 4x dx
2
= − 23 x 3 + 2x 2 = 83 _1 0 1 2 x
0
_2
 Section 5.1 Areas Between Curves 337

15. Solve x = x 3 ⇔ x 3 − x = x x 2 − 1 = 0, giving (−1, −1), (0, 0), and y

(1, 1) as the points of intersection. By symmetry, 1

1
A = 2 01 x − x 3 dx = 2 12 x 2 − 14 x 4 = 12 .
0 _1 0 1 x

_1

16. Solve x 2 = x 4 ⇔ x 4 − x 2 = x 2 (x − 1) (x + 1) = 0, giving (−1, 1), y

(0, 0), and (1, 1) as the points of intersection. By symmetry,

1 1
A = 2 01 x 2 − x 4 dx = 2 13 x 3 − 15 x 5 4.
= 15
0

_1 0 1 x

√
17. Solve x = x 2 ⇔ x = x 4 ⇔ x x 3 − 1 = 0, giving (0, 0) and (1, 1) as y

the points of intersection. Thus,

1
√ 1
A = 01 x − x 2 dx = 23 x 3/2 − 13 x 3 = 13 .
0

0 1 x

18. Solve x 3 − 6x 2 + 9x = x 2 − 3x ⇔ x 3 − 7x 2 + 12x = 0 ⇔ y

4
x x 2 − 7x + 12 = x (x − 4) (x − 3) = 0, giving (0, 0), (3, 0), and 3
(4, 4) as the points of intersection. Thus, 2
1
A = 03 x 3 − 6x 2 + 9x − x 2 − 3x dx 0 1 2 3 4 x
+ 34 x 2 − 3x − x 3 − 6x 2 + 9x dx

= 03 x 3 − 7x 2 + 12x dx + 34 −x 3 + 7x 2 − 12x dx

1 x 4 − 7 x 3 + 6x 2 3 4
= 4 3 + − 14 x 4 + 73 x 3 − 6x 2
0 3
= 45 7 71
4 + 12 = 6

√
19. A = 14 x − − 12 x + 1 dx = 14 12 x + x 1/2 − 1 dx y
2
4
= 14 x 2 + 23 x 3/2 − x = 65
1 12 1

_1 0 1 2 3 4 x
_1

_2
338 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

√ √ √
20. Solve 2 x − x = − x ⇔ 3 x = x ⇔ 9x = x 2 ⇔ x (x − 9) = 0, y
giving (0, 0) and (9, −3) as the points of intersection. Thus, 1

√ √
A = 09 2 x − x − − x dx = 09 3x 1/2 − x dx 0 2 4 6 8 x
_1
9
= 2x 3/2 − 12 x 2 = 27
0 2 _2

_3

3
21. A = 13 x 2 − 12 dx = 13 x 3 + x1 = 9 + 13 − 13 + 1 = 8 y
x 1
8
6
4
2

0 1 2 3 x
_2
√
22. Solve 2x = x x + 1 ⇔ x = 0 or 4 = x + 1, giving (0, 0) and (3, 6) as y

the points of intersection. Thus, 6

√ 3 √
A = 03 2x − x x + 1 dx = x 2 − 03 x x + 1 dx. Substitute 4
0
u = x + 1, so dx = du. Then 2
4
A = 9 − 14 (u − 1) u 1/2 du = 9 − 2 u 5/2 − 2 u 3/2 = 19
15 .
5 3 1 _1 0 1 2 3 x

23. Solve x 2 + 5 = −x 2 + 6x + 5 ⇔ 2x 2 − 6x = 0 ⇔ 2x (x − 3) = 0, giving y

14
(0, 5) and (3, 14) as the points of intersection. Thus, 12
10
A = 03 −x 2 + 6x + 5 − x 2 + 5 dx = 03 −2x 2 + 6x dx
8
3 6
= − 23 x 3 + 3x 2 = 9 4
0
2

_1 0 1 2 3 x

1/2 3/2 2
24. A = 2 02 x 4 − x 2 dx = 2 − 12 2
3 4 − x2 = 16
3 y
0 2

_2 _1 0 1 2 x
_1

_2

3 x
25. A = dx. Let u = 16 − x 2 ⇒ du = −2x dx. Then y
0 16 − x 2
7 −1/2 7 √ 1
A = − 12 16 u du = − 12 2u 1/2 = 4 − 7.
16

_1 0 1 2 3 x
 Section 5.1 Areas Between Curves 339

2
26. A = −2 1 y 2 + 1 dy = 13 y 3 + y =6 y
−1
2

_1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
_1

_2

27. A = −2 1 y 2 − (y − 3) dy = −2 1 y 2 − y + 3 dy y

2 2
= 13 y 3 − 12 y 2 + 3y = 21
2
−1
1

_4 _2 0 2 4 x
_1

_2

28. Solve y 2 = 2y + 3 ⇔ y 2 − 2y − 3 = (y − 3) (y + 1) = 0, giving (1, −1) y

and (9, 3) as the points of intersection. Thus, 3

2
A = −3 1 (2y + 3) − y 2 dy = −3 1 −y 2 + 2y + 3 dy
1
3
= − 13 y 3 + y 2 + 3y = 32
−1 3 0 2 4 6 8 x
_1
_2

29. Solve −x 3 + x = x 4 − 1 ⇔ x 4 + x 3 − x − 1 = 0 ⇔ y

x 3 (x + 1) − (x + 1) = 0 ⇔ (x + 1) x 3 − 1 = 0 ⇔ 1

(x + 1) (x − 1) x 2 + x + 1 = 0 ⇔ x = ±1. Thus, (−1, 0) and (1, 0)

_1 0 1 x
are the points of intersection, so
_1
A = −1 1 −x 3 + x − x 4 − 1 dx = −1 1 −x 4 − x 3 + x + 1 dx
1
= − 15 x 5 − 14 x 4 + 12 x 2 + x = 85
−1

√ 2
30. A = 01 (1 − x) − 1 − x dx y

√ √
= 01 1 − x − 1 − 2 x + x dx = 01 2 x − 2x dx 1
1
= 2 23 x 3/2 − 12 x 2 = 13
0

1 x
340 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

31. Solve |x| = x 2 − 2 to find the points of intersection of the two curves. y
Since the graphs of both functions are symmetric with respect to the 2

y-axis, it suffices to find the positive solution of x = x 2 − 2 ⇔ 1

x 2 − x − 2 = (x − 2) (x + 1) = 0, giving 2 as the only root (we reject −1, _2 0 2 x

_1
because x > 0). By symmetry, the points of intersection are (−2, 2) and
_2
(2, 2).
_3
A = 2 02 |x| − x 2 − 2 dx = 2 02 −x 2 + x + 2 dx
2
= 2 − 13 x 3 + 12 x 2 + 2x = 20
3
0

π /2 2
32. A = −π/2 π x + 1 − sin x dx y
2
π /2
=2 0 1 dx = π
1
2 x − sin x is odd.
because f (x) = π
¹
_2 0 ¹ x
2
_1

π /2 π /2
33. A = π/6 (sin 2x − cos x) dx = − 12 cos 2x − sin x y
π /6
= 12 − 1 − − 12 · 12 − 12 = 14 1

¹ ¹ ¹ x
6 3 2

π /6 5π /6
34. A = 0 (cos 2x − sin x) dx + π/6 (sin x − cos 2x) dx y
3π /2 1
+ 5π/6 (cos 2x − sin x) dx
1 sin 2x + cos x π /6 5π /6
= 2 + − cos x − 12 sin 2x
0 π /6
3π /2 0 ¹ ¹ 3¹ 2¹ x
1 sin 2x + cos x 2 2
+ 2 5π /6
√
=3 3−1 _1

π /4 π /4
35. A = 2 0 2 − sec2 x dx = 2 (2x − tan x)|0 =π−2 y

_1 _ ¹ 0 ¹ 1 x
4 4
 Section 5.1 Areas Between Curves 341

π /3 π /3 √
36. A = 2 0 sec2 x − cos x dx = 2 (tan x − sin x)|0 = 3 y

4
3
2
1

0
_¹
3
¹
3
x
_1
π y
37. A = 0π (2 sin x + sin 2x) dx = −2 cos x − 12 cos 2x =4
0

0
¹ 2¹ ¹ x
3 3

38. Let x be a function of y. Then we have x

π /2 π /2 1
A = 0 (sin y + cos 2y) dy = − cos y + 12 sin 2y = 1.
0

0 ¹ ¹ y
4 2

√ 2 √
√ √
39. A = 02 4y − y dy = 02 y dy = 23 y 3/2 = 23 · 23/2 = 4 3 2 y
0

0 1 2 3 x

40. By symmetry, A = 4 01 x 2 1 − x 2 dx. Because x > 0, this is equal to y

1/2
4 01 x 1 − x 2 dx. Let u = 1 − x 2 , so du = −2x dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 1, and
0 1/2 0
x = 1 ⇒ u = 0. Thus, A = 4 − 12 1 u du = −2 23 u 3/2 = 43 . _1 0 1 x
1

_1/2

y
41. The equation of L 1 is y = − 43 x + 22 1
3 , that of L 2 is y = 2 x, and that of L 3
L£

is y = 6x. 6
LÁ
A = 01 6x − 12 x dx + 14 − 43 x + 22 1 4 Lª
3 − 2 x dx
1 4 2
= 11
4 x
2 + 22 x − 11 x 2
3 12 = 11 x
0 1
_2 0 2 4
_2
342 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

42. The equations of the lines are L 1 : y = − 14 x + 72 , L 2 : y = 23 x − 2, and y

L£
L 3 : y = −3x − 2. 4 LÁ Lª
A = −0 2 − 14 x + 72 − (−3x − 2) dx 2

+ 06 − 14 x + 72 − 2x − 2
3 dx _4 _2 0 2 4 6 x
_2
= −0 2 11 x + 11 dx + 6 − 11 x + 11 dx
4 2 0 12 2
0 6 _4
11 x 2 + 11 x + − 11 2 11
= 8 2 −2 24 x + 2 x 0 = 22

43. a. A = 02 (2x + 4) − x 3 dx = 02 2x + 4 − x 3 dx y

2 10
= x 2 + 4x − 14 x 4 = 8 8
0
6
b. A = 04 y 1/3 dy + 48 y 1/3 − 1y −2 dy
2 4

= 04 y 1/3 dy + 48 y 1/3 − 12 y + 2 dy 2

4 8 0 1 2 x
= 34 y 4/3 + 3 y 4/3 − 1 y 2 + 2y =8 _2
0 4 4 4

√ √
44. a. A = 12 x − 1 dx + 24 x − 12 x dx y

2 4
= 2 x 3/2 − x + 2 x 3/2 − 1 x 2 = 23 2
3 1 3 4 2
2
b. A = 12 2y − y 2 dy = y 2 − 13 y 3 = 23 1
1

0 2 4 x

45. A gives the additional revenue that the company would realize if it used a different advertising agency:
A = 0b g (x) − f (x) dx.

T
46. a. TT1 g (t) − f (t) dt − 0 1 f (t) − g (t) dt = A2 − A1
b. The number A2 − A1 gives the distance by which car 2 is ahead of car 1 after T seconds.

47. a. b. The x-coordinates of the points of intersection are −1.25 and 1.25. By
5
symmetry, we must have A = 2 01.25 4 − x 4 − x 2 dx ≈ 7.48.

-2 0 2
 Section 5.1 Areas Between Curves 343

48. a. b. The x-coordinates of the points of intersection are −1, 1.38, and 3.62.
10 A = −1.138 x 3 − 3x 2 + 1 − x 2 − 4 dx
+ 13..38
62
x 2 − 4 − x 3 − 3x 2 + 1 dx

0 = −1.138 x 3 − 4x 2 + 5 dx + 13..38
62
−x 3 + 4x 2 − 5 dx ≈ 14.24

-2 0 2 4

49. a. b. The x-coordinates of the points of intersection are 0 and 2.25.

0 A = 02.25 x 3 − 4x 2 − x 3 − 9x dx

= 02.25 −4x 2 + 9x dx ≈ 7.59

-5

-10

0 2

50. a. b. The x-coordinates of the points of intersection are ±1.41.

4 A = 2 01.41 4 − x 2 − x 4 − 2x 2 + 2 dx

= 2 01.41 −x 4 + x 2 + 2 dx ≈ 5.28
2

-2 0 2

51. a. b. The x-coordinates of the points of intersection are 0 and 0.88.

1.0
A = 00.88 sin x − x 2 dx ≈ 0.14

0.5

0.0

-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0

52. a. b. The x-coordinates of the points of intersection are ±0.74.

A = 2 00.74 (cos x − x) dx ≈ 0.80
1

-1 0 1
344 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

53. The turbocharged model is moving faster than the model with the standard engine by
10 10
0 4 + 1.2t + 0.03t 2 − (4 + 0.8t) dt = 010 0.03t 2 + 0.4t dt = 0.01t 3 + 0.2t 2 = 30 ft/s.
0

54. The distance dragster A is ahead of dragster B is given by d = 08 (v A − v B ) dt. Using Simpson’s Rule with a = 0, b = 8,
n = 8, and t = 1, we find
d ≈ 13 {[v A (0) − v B (0)] + 4 [v A (1) − v B (1)] + 2 [v A (2) − v B (2)] + · · · + 4 [v A (7) − v B (7)] + [v A (8) − v B (8)]}

= 13 [0 + 4 (22 − 20) + 2 (46 − 44) + 4 (70 − 66) + 2 (94 − 88)

+ 4 (118 − 112) + 2 (142 − 138) + 4 (166 − 160) + (190 − 182)]
= 104 2
3 = 34 3 ft
55. Let f (x) denote the width of the reservoir at x, where x is the distance from left to right. Then x0 = 0, x1 = 206,
x2 = 2 (206), . . ., xk = k (206), . . ., x10 = 10 (206) = 2060. Thus,
A = 02060 f (x) dx ≈ 206
3 f (x0 ) + 4 f (x1 ) + 2 f (x2 ) + · · · + 4 f (x9 ) + f (x10 )

= 206
3 [0 + 4 (1030) + 2 (1349) + 4 (1498) + 2 (1817) + 4 (1910)
+ 2 (1985) + 4 (2304) + 2 (2585) + 4 (2323) + 1592] ≈ 3,661,581 ft2
56. We use Simpson’s Rule with a = 0, b = 120, n = 20, and x = 6. The area of the section is
A ≈ 63 [0.8 + 4 (1.2) + 2 (3) + 4 (4.1) + 2 (5.8) + 4 (6.6) + 2 (6.8) + 4 (7) + 2 (7.2) + 4 (7.4)
+ 2 (7.8) + 4 (7.6) + 2 (7.4) + 4 (7) + 2 (6.6) + 4 (6) + 2 (5.1) + 4 (4.3) + 2 (3.2) + 4 (2.2) + 1.1]

≈ 642.6 ft2
Therefore, the rate of flow is 4.2 (642.6) or approximately 2699 ft3 /s.
5000
57. a. 300
b. A = 2000 R (x) − C (x) dx
5000
= 2000 −0.000006x 2 + 0.032x + 80 dx
200
5000
= −0.000002x 3 + 0.016x 2 + 80x = 342,000
2000
100
The sale of the 2000th through 5000th sets in a week will bring in a
0 profit of $342,000 for the company.
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
√
58. A = 2 12 x 3 − x 2 dx = 2 12 x x − 1 dx since x > 0. Let u = x − 1, y

so du = dx, x = u + 1, x = 1 ⇒ u = 0, and x = 2 ⇒ u = 1. Thus, 2

√ 1
A = 2 01 (u + 1) u du = 2 01 u 3/2 + u 1/2 du
1 _1 0 1 2 x
= 2 25 u 5/2 + 23 u 3/2 = 32
15 _1
0
_2
_3
√
59. The slope of f (x) = x at (1, 1) is f (1) = 12 x −1/2= 12 . Thus, an y
x=1
1
equation of the tangent line is y − 1 = 12 (x − 1) or y = 12 x + 12 , and (1, 1)

√ 1
A = 01 12 x + 12 − x dx = 14 x 2 + 12 x − 23 x 3/2 = 121 .
0

0 1 x
 Section 5.1 Areas Between Curves 345

√
60. x = (y − 1)2 ⇔ y = 1 ± x, so y
√ √ a
A = 0a 1 + x − 1 − x dx = 0a 2x 1/2 dx = 43 x 3/2 2
0
= 43 a 3/2 1

We want A = 92 ⇒ 43 a 3/2 = 92 ⇔ a 3/2 = 27 27 2/3 = 9 .

8 ⇔a = 8 4 0 x
1 2 3
_1

61. f (x) = x 4 − 2x 3 ⇒ f (x) = 4x 3 − 6x 2 = 2x 2 (2x − 3). f (x) = 0 ⇒ y

x = 0 or 32 , the critical numbers of f . 1

sign of f» _ _ _ 0 _ _ _ _ 0 +++
0 1 2 x
0 3 x
2
_1
From the sign diagram for f , we see that f has a relative and absolute
minimum at 32 . The required area is _2
2
A = − 32/2 x 4 − 2x 3 dx = − 15 x 5 + 12 x 4 = 0.5875.
3/2

62. Let the x-coordinate of the point of tangency be a. Then the slope of the y

tangent line is y x=a = −2x − 2|x=a = −2a − 2. Therefore, an

equation of the tangent line is y − f (a) = (−2a − 2) (x − a) or A
y=-x@-2x+3
y = −a 2 − 2a + 3 + (−2a − 2) (x − a) = −2ax − 2x + a 2 + 3. The 0 a x

area of the region is

A = 0a −2ax − 2x + a 2 + 3 − −x 2 − 2x + 3 dx
a
= 0a x 2 − 2ax + a 2 dx = 13 x 3 − ax 2 + a 2 x = 13 a 3
0
We require that A = 83 ⇒ 13 a 3 = 83 ⇒ a = 2, so the point of tangency is
(2, −5).

√ √ a 4
63. a. We want 0a x dx = a4 x dx ⇒ 23 x 3/2 = 23 x 3/2 ⇒
0 a
2 a 3/2 = 2 · 8 − 2 · a 3/2 ⇒ 4 a 3/2 = 16 ⇒ a = 42/3 .
3 3 3 3 3 2

0
0 2 4
346 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

b. We want 0b 4 − y 2 dy = b2 4 − y 2 dy ⇒
b 2
4y − 13 y 3 = 4y − 13 y 3 ⇒ 2
0 b

4b − 13 b3 = 8 − 83 − 4b − 13 b3 ⇒ b3 − 12b + 8 = 0.
1
Using a graphing utility, we find that the desired root of this
equation is b ≈ 0.69.
0
0 2 4

2 y 2 y 1 2 2 2 3/2 1 2 2
√
64. We require that dy = 3 y− dy ⇒ √ · y 3/2 = 3· y − √ · y 3/2 ⇒
0 c 0 c c 3 0 3 c 3 0
√ √
4 2 √ 4 2 2 4
√ =4 2− √ ⇒ √ =1⇒c= .
3 c 3 c 3 c 9
m 1 1
65. a. A (m) = 01 g (x) − f (x) dx = 01 x 1/m − x m dx = x (1/m)+1 − x m+1
m+1 m+1 0
m 1 m −1
= − =
m+1 m+1 m +1
b. lim A (m) = 0 and c.
m→1
1.0
1
1−
lim A (m) = lim m = 1. As m → 1,
m→∞ m→∞ 1
1+
m
the functions f and g approach y = x, so that the 0.5
area of the region enclosed by their graphs is 0.
As m → ∞, the region enclosed by the graphs
approaches the interior of the square
[0, 1] × [0, 1]. 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0

66. a. The points of intersection are approximately (±0.682, 0.682).

b. Using symmetry and a calculator or computer, we calculate

1 0.682 1
A=2 − x dx ≈ 0.732.
0 x2 + 1

0
-1 0 1

67. a. 1 To plot the curve, we first calculate y 2 − 4x 3 + 4x 4 = 0 ⇔

√
y = ± 4 x 3 − x 4 = ±2x 3/2 1 − x.

0 b. Using symmetry and a calculator or computer, we calculate

1 √ √
A=2 2x 3/2 1 − x dx = 4 01 x 3/2 1 − x dx ≈ 0.78540.
0
-1
-1 0 1
 Section 5.2 Volumes: Disks, Washers, and Cross-Sections 347

68. a. 0.5 To plot the curve, we first calculate 4y 2 − 4x y 2 − x 2 − x 3 = 0 ⇔

y = ± 12 x (1 + x)1/2 (1 − x)−1/2 .

b. Using symmetry and a calculator or computer, we calculate

0.0
A = 2 −0 1 − 12 x (1 + x)1/2 (1 − x)−1/2 dx

-0.5 = − −0 1 x (1 + x)1/2 (1 − x)−1/2 dx ≈ 0.21460

-1 0 1
1
69. False. Let f (x) = 1, g (x) = x, a = 0, and b = 2. Then A = ab (1 − x) dx = x − 12 x 2 = 12 , so A2 = 14 . But
0
1 2 1 1 1
2 2
0 f (x) − g (x) dx = 0 (1 − x) dx = 0 1 − 2x + x dx = x − x 2 + 13 x 3 = 13 = A2 .
0
√
70. False. Let f (x) = 2 − x, g (x) = x, a = 0, and b = 2. Then
2 √
b 2 1/2 dx =
a f (x) − g (x) dx = 0 2 − x − x 2x − 12 x 2 − 23 x 3/2 = 2 − 4 3 2 ≈ 0.1144 > 0, but f (x) < g (x)
0
for 1 < x ≤ 2.
71. True. The distance covered by car A over the 20 s period is d A = 020 v 1 (t) dt, and the distance covered by car B over
the same time period is d B = 020 v 2 (t) dt. Since car A is 30 ft behind car B at t = 20, we have d B − d A = 30 ⇔
d B = d A + 30 ⇔ 020 v 2 (t) dt = 020 v 1 (t) dt + 30.
72. True. The net change in the velocity of car B over t1 , t2 is tt12 a1 (t) dt, whereas the net change in the velocity of car B
over the same time period is tt12 a2 (t) dt. Therefore, the difference in the velocities of the two cars, measured in ft/s, is
t2 t2 t2
t1 a2 (t) dt − t1 a1 (t) dt = t1 a2 (t) − a1 (t) dt.

5.2 Concept Questions

1. a. See pages 454 and 455. b. See page 456.

2. V = ab A (x) dx

5.2 Volumes: Disks, Washers, and Cross-Sections

2 π 1 3 2 = 2π
1. V = π 02 y 2 dx = π 02 12 x dx = π 2 2
4 0 x dx = 4 3 x 3
0
√ 2 1
2. V = π −1 3 y 2 dx = π −1 3 1 − x dx = π −1 3 (1 − x) dx = π x − 12 x 2 = 8π
−3
2
3. V = π −2 1 y 2 dx = π −2 1 (x − 1)2 + 2 dx = π −2 1 x 4 − 4x 3 + 10x 2 − 12x + 9 dx
2 π
= π 15 x 5 − x 4 + 10 3 2
3 x − 6x + 9x = 153
5 −1
√ 2 4
4. V = π 04 x 2 dy = π 04 4 − y dy = π 04 (4 − y) dy = π 4y − 12 y 2 = 8π
0
π /4 2 π /4 π /4 π /4
5. V = π 0 x dy = π 0 tan2 y dy = π 0 sec2 y − 1 dy = π (tan y − y)|0 = π 1 − π
4
2 2 1
6. V = π 01 x2 − x3 dx = π 01 x 4 − x 6 dx = π 15 x 5 − 17 x 7 π
= 235
0
348 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

2 2 1
7. V = π 01 y 1/3 − y 1/2 dy = π 01 y 2/3 − y dy = π 35 y 5/3 − 12 y 2 π
= 10
0

8. V = π −2 2 1 x 2 + 2 2 − x 2 2 dx = 2π 2 − 3 x 4 + 2x 2 + 4 dx = 2π − 3 x 5 + 2 x 3 + 4x 2
= 256π
2 0 4 20 3 0 15

2
9. V = π 13 (2)2 − y 2 − 4y + 5 dy = π 13 −y 4 + 8y 3 − 26y 2 + 40y − 21 dy
3 64π
= π − 15 y 5 + 2y 4 − 26 3 2
3 y + 20y − 21y 1 = 15

2 2 1 y 4 dy = π 1 y 2 − 1 y 5 4 = 24π
10. V = π 04 y 1/2 − 18 y 2 dy = π 04 y − 64 2 320 5
0

11. V = π 01 3 − x3 2 − 3 − x 2 dx = π 1 x 6 − 3x 3 − x 2 + 3x dx = π 1 x7 − 3 x4 − 1 x3 + 3 x2 1
= 47π
2 2 0 7 4 3 2 0 84

12. V = π 01 3 −y 2− 3 − y 1/3 2 dy = π 1 y 2 − 3y − y 2/3 + 3y 1/3 dy = π 1 y 3 − 3 y 2 − 3 y 5/3 + 9 y 4/3 1

2 2 0 3 2 5 4 0

= 29π
60

2 2
13. V = π 02 y 2 dx = π 02 x 2 dx = π 02 x 4 dx 14. V = π 01 y 2 dx = π 01 x 3 dx = π 01 x 6 dx
2 1
= π 15 x 5 = 325π = π 17 x 7 =π
7
0 0
y y
4 1
3
2
1

0 1 2 x 0 1 x
_1

2 √ 2
15. V = π 02 y 2 dx = π 02 −x 2 + 2x dx 16. V = π 25 y 2 dx = π 25 x − 1 dx
5
= π 02 x 4 − 4x 3 + 4x 2 dx = π 25 (x − 1) dx = π 12 x 2 − x = 152π
2
2
= π 15 x 5 − x 4 + 43 x 3 = 16π y
0 15

y 2

1 1

_1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x

_1
_1 0 1 2 x
 Section 5.2 Volumes: Disks, Washers, and Cross-Sections 349

2
17. V = π 12 x 2 dy = π 12 (1/y)2 dy = π 12 y −2 dy 18. V = π 01 x 2 dy = π 01 y 3/2 dy = π 01 y 3 dy

= π (−1/y)|21 = π = π 4
1 π
2 4y 0= 4
y
y

1
1

_1 0 1 2 x
0 1 x

2 2
19. V = π 02 x 2 dy = π 02 4 − y2 dy 20. V = π 02 x 2 dy = π 02 −y 2 + 2y dy
2
= π 02 4 − y 2 dy = π 4y − 13 y 3 = 163π = π 02 y 4 − 4y 3 + 4y 2 dy
0
2 π
y = π 15 y 5 − y 4 + 43 y 3 = 16
15
0
2 y

1 2

1
_1 0 1 2 3 x
_1
0 1 x
_1

2 3 3 1 2
21. V = π −2 2 y2 + 4 dy = 2π 02 y 2 + 4 dy 22. V = π y 2 dx = π dx
0 0 (x + 1)3/2
2
= 2π 13 y 3 + 4y = 643π 3
= π 03 (x + 1)−3 dx = π − 12 (x + 1)−2 = 15π
0 0 32
y
y

2
1 1

_4 _2 0 2 x
_1
_2 _1 0 1 2 3 x
_3
350 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

2 π /2 2 π /2 √ 2
23. V = π −2 2 x 2 dx = 2π 02 y 4 − y 2 dy 24. V = π 0 y dx = π 0 sin x dx
2 π π /2 π /2
= 2π 43 y 3 − 15 y 5 = 128
15
= π 0 sin x dx = −π cos x|0 = π
0
y
y
x=¹/2
1
2
1

_3 _2 _1 0 1 2 x
_1 0 1 x

_2
_3

π /2 2 π /2 2
25. V = π 0 y dx = π 0 cos2 x dx 26. V = π 01 x 2 − x 2 dx = π 01 x 2 − x 4 dx
π /2
=π (1 + cos 2x) dx 1 π
2 0 = π 13 x 3 − 15 x 5 = 215
π /2 2 0
= π x + 12 sin 2x = π4
2 0 y

y
1
1
x=¹/2

0 1 x
0 1 x

√
27. We solve x 2 = x to obtain (0, 0) and (1, 1) as the points of intersection y
of the two graphs.
1
√ 2 2
V = π 01 x − x2 dx = π 01 x − x 4 dx
1 π
= π 12 x 2 − 15 x 5 = 310
0 0 1 x

28. We solve x 2 = 2 − x 2 ⇔ 2x 2 = 2 ⇔ x = ±1, so the points of y

intersection are (−1, 1) and (1, 1). 2

2 2
V = π −1 1 2 − x2 − x2 dx = 2π 01 −4x 2 + 4 dx 1

1
= 2π − 43 x 3 + 4x = 163π _2 _1 0 1
0 x

_1

29. To find the points of intersection of the two curves, we solve 1 − x 2 = 32 x y

⇔ 2x 2 + 3x − 2 = (2x − 1) (x + 2) = 0, giving x = 12 . (Note that 1

x = −2 is impossible.)
1/2 3 1 2 _1 0 1 x
V =π 0 2 x dx + π 1/2 1 − x dx
1/2 1
= 34π x 2 + π x − 13 x 3 = 19
48
π _1
0 1/2
 Section 5.2 Volumes: Disks, Washers, and Cross-Sections 351

30. From the results of Exercise 29, we see that the curves intersect at the y

points with x-coordinate 12 . The corresponding y-coordinates are 1

√
y = ± 32 · 12 = ± 23 , and so
√ _1 0 1 x
3/2 2
V =π √ 1 − y 2 − 23 y 2 dy
− 3/2
√ _1
3/2
= 2π 0 − 49 y 4 − y 2 + 1 dy
√ √
3/2
= 2π − 45 4 y5 − 1 y3 + y
3 = 7103 π
0

31. a. 32. a.
2
1

0
0

-1 0 1 -1 0 1

b. The points of intersection are (0, 0) and b. The points of intersection are (0, 0) and
approximately (1.18, 1.14), so approximately (0.95, 0.79), so

V = π 00.95 sin2 x 2 − x 10 dx. Using a

2 2
V = π 01.18 2x 2 − x 3 − 12 x 5 dx. Using a
calculator or computer, we find V ≈ 0.26.
calculator or computer, we find V ≈ 1.08.

2 2
33. V = π 02 (2 − 0)2 − 2 + x 2 − 2x dx 34. V = π 01 2 − x2 − (2 − x)2 dx

= π 02 −x 4 + 4x 3 − 8x 2 + 8x dx = π 01 x 4 − 5x 2 + 4x dx
2 π 1 π
= π − 15 x 5 + x 4 − 83 x 3 + 4x 2 = 64
15 = π 15 x 5 − 53 x 3 + 2x 2 = 815
0 0
y y

2
2 y=2 y=2

1 1

0 1 2 x 0 1 x

2
35. V = π −2 2 (5 − 0)2 − 5 + x2 − 4 dx y
6
2
= 2π 02 25 − x 2 + 1 dx y=5
4

= 2π 02 −x 4 − 2x 2 + 24 dx 2
2 π
= 2π − 15 x 5 − 23 x 3 + 24x = 1088
15
0 _2 0 2 x
352 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

36. To find the points of intersection of the two graphs, we solve y

6
x 2 = 12 x 2 + 2, giving (−2, 4) and (2, 4).
y=5
2 2 4
V = π −2 2 5 − x2 − 5 − 12 x 2 − 2 dx

2 2 2
= 2π 02 x2 − 5 − 12 x 2 − 3 dx

= 2π 02 34 x 4 − 7x 2 + 16 dx _2 0 2 x

3 x 5 − 7 x 3 + 16x 2 = 544π
= 2π 20 3 0 15

2
37. V = π 13 (−1 − 2)2 − −1 − y 2 − 4y + 5 dy y
x=2
2
= π 13 9 − y 2 − 4y + 6 dy
2
= π 13 −y 4 + 8y 3 − 28y 2 + 48y − 27 dy x=_1

3 104π
= π − 15 y 5 + 2y 4 − 28 3 2
3 y + 24y − 27y 1 = 15 _2 _1 0 1 2 3 x

38. We solve y = x 2 and y 2 = 8x simultaneously, obtaining x 4 = 8x ⇔ y

4
x x 3 − 8 = 0, so (0, 0) and (2, 4) are the points of intersection. Thus,
2 √ 2 x=2
V = π 04 2 − 18 y 2 − 2 − y dy 2

= π 04 64
1 y 4 − 1 y 2 − y + 4y 1/2 dy
2
_1 0 1 2 x
1 5 1 3 1 2 8 3/2 4 π
=π 320 y − 6 y − 2 y + 3 y = 88
15
0

π /2
39. π 0 sin2 x dx 40. π 01 y 2/3 dy
y y
x=¹/2
1
1

0 2 x
0 1 x

2 2
41. π 01 x 2 − x 2 dx 42. π 01 (−1)2 − x 2 − 1 dx

y y

1
0 1

0 1 x _1 y=_1
 Section 5.2 Volumes: Disks, Washers, and Cross-Sections 353

43. x 1/2 + y 1/2 = a 1/2 ⇔ y 1/2 = a 1/2 − x 1/2 , x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0. y

2 a
y = a 1/2 − x 1/2 and
4
V = π 0a y 2 dx = π 0a a 1/2 − x 1/2 dx

= π 0a a 2 + 6ax + x 2 − 4a 1/2 x 3/2 − 4a 3/2 x 1/2 dx 0 a x

a π a3
= π a 2 x + 3ax 2 + 13 x 3 − 85 a 1/2 x 5/2 − 83 a 3/2 x 3/2 = 15
0

1 225 − 9x 2 .
44. a. 9x 2 + 25y 2 = 225 ⇒ y 2 = 25 b. 9x 2 + 25y 2 = 225 ⇒ x 2 = 19 225 − 25y 2 .

V = π −5 5 y 2 dx = 225
π 5 225 − 9x 2 dx
0 V = π −3 3 x 2 dy = 29π 03 225 − 25y 2 dy

π 225x − 3x 3 5 = 60π
= 225 = 29π 225y − 25 3
3
0 3 y = 100π
0
y y
3
3

_5 0 5 x
_5 0 5 x

_3
_3

45. V = π 02 y 2 dx = π 02 41 2x 3 − x 4 dx a
46. V = π −a y 2 dx = 2π 0a y 2 dx, but x 2/3 + y 2/3 = a 2/3
3
= π 1 4 1 5 2 = 2π ⇔ y 2/3 = a 2/3 − x 2/3 ⇔ y 2 = a 2/3 − x 2/3 . Thus,
4 2x − 5x 0 5

y 3
1
V = 2π 0a a 2/3 − x 2/3 dx

= 2π 0a a 2 − 3a 4/3 x 2/3 + 3a 2/3 x 4/3 − x 2 dx

a
= 2π a 2 x − 95 a 4/3 x 5/3 + 97 a 2/3 x 7/3 − 13 x 3
0 1 2 x 0
= 32π 3
105 a

_1

√ 2 2
47. V = π 01 x dx + π 12 x 2 − 2x + 2 dx y

2
= π 01 x dx + π 12 x 4 − 4x 3 + 8x 2 − 8x + 4 dx
1 2
= π 2 1 5 4 8 3 2 71π
2 x 0 + π 5 x − x + 3 x − 4x + 4x 1 = 30
1

0 1 2 x
354 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

48. An equation of the line passing through (0, r) and (h, 0) is y

r x
y = − x + r = r − + 1 . Thus, r
h h
h h x 2
V =π y 2 dx = πr 2 1− dx
0 0 h
h 2 1
= πr 2 1 − x + 2 x 2 dx 0 h x
0 h h
1 2 1 h
= πr 2 x − x + 2 x3 = 13 πr 2 h
h 3h 0

49. An equation of the line passing through (r, h) and (R, 0) is y

h R −r
y=− (x − R) ⇔ x = R − y. h
R −r h
h h R −r 2
Thus, V = π x 2 dy = π R− y dy.
0 0 h
R −r R −r
Let u = R − y, so du = − dy, y = 0 ⇒ u = R, and y = h 0 R x
h h
⇒ u = r . Thus,
R
h r πh R πh u3 πh
V =π − u 2 du = u 2 du = · = R3 − r 3
R −r R R −r r R −r 3 3 (R − r)
r
πh (R − r) R 2 + r R + r 2 πh
= = R2 + r R + r 2
3 (R − r) 3
r
50. V = π −r x 2 dy = 2π 0r x 2 dy = 2π 0r r 2 − y 2 dy y
r
= 2π r 2 y − 13 y 3 = 43 πr 3
0
r

0 r x

_r

51. The cap of the sphere is obtained by revolving the region R about the y
y-axis (see the figure).
r r r r
V = π r−h x 2 dy = π r−h r 2 − y 2 dy = π r 2 y − 13 y 3 R
r−h
πh 2 r-h
π r 3 − 13 r 3 − r 2 (r − h) − 13 (r − h)3 = (3r − h)
3
0 r x

h/2 h/2 2 h/2

52. V = π −h/2 x 2 dy = 2π 0 R − ky 2 dy = 2π 0 R 2 − 2k Ry 2 + k 2 y 4 dy
h/2
2k R 3 1 2 5 h 2k R h 3 k2 h 5 k Rh 3 k 2h5
= 2π R 2 y − y + 5k y = 2π R 2 − + = π R2 h − +
3 0 2 3 2 5 2 6 80
√ 2 4
53. V = 04 2 x dx = 4 04 x dx = 2x 2 = 32
0
 Section 5.2 Volumes: Disks, Washers, and Cross-Sections 355

54. Here A (x) = 12 πy 2 = 12 π 4 − x 2 , so

2
V = −2 2 A (x) dx = 2 02 A (x) dx = 2 02 21 π 4 − x 2 dx = π 02 4 − x 2 dx = π 4x − 13 x 3 = 163π .
0
√
55. Here A (x) = 12 (base) (height) = 12 · 23 b2 . But b = x + 2 − x 2 , so
√ 2 √
V = −2 1 43 x + 2 − x 2 dx = 43 −2 1 x 4 − 2x 3 − 3x 2 + 4x + 4 dx b Ï3 b
4
√ 2 √
= 43 1 x 5 − 1 x 4 − x 3 + 2x 2 + 4x
5 2 = 8140 3
−1
b/2
4
56. A (x) = 14 π (2y)2 = πy 2 , so V = 04 A (x) dx = π 04 y 2 dx = π 04 (4 − x) dx = π 4x − 12 x 2 = 8π.
0

57. a. 2
b. Since the hyperellipse is almost rectangular in shape, we see that the
resulting solid looks approximately cylindrical, with radius 1 and
1
height 4. Thus, V ≈ π 12 (4) ≈ 12.6.
0
c. By symmetry,
-1
2 2 x 4 1/2
-2 V = 2π y 2 dx = 2π 1− dx ≈ 10.9832.
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 0 0 2

y
58. A (x) = 2 · 2y = 4y = 4 4 − x 2 , so
2
V = −2 2 A (x) dx = 2 02 A (x) dx = 8 02 4 − x 2 dx. We can interpret
2
0 4 − x 2 dx geometrically as giving the area of a quarter-circle of

radius 2, so V = 8 · 14 π 22 = 8π. 0 2 x

Base
x
59. a. b. Solving 2y 2 − x 3 − x 2 = 0 for y gives y = ± √ (1 + x)1/2 . The
2
1 required volume is

0 V = π −0 1 y 2 dx = π −0 1 21 x 2 (1 + x) dx = π 0 2 3
2 −1 x + x dx

= π 1 3 1 4 0 = π
-1 2 3x + 4x −1 24

-1 0 1

y
60. The area of the isosceles right triangle shown is 12 a 2 = 14 b2 . Thus,
2
A (x) = 14 (2y)2 = y 2 and

V = −2 2 A (x) dx = 2 02 y 2 dx = 2 02 4 − x 2 dx a a= Ï2 b
2
2 2 x
= 2 4x − 13 x 3 = 32 0
3 b
0

Base
356 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

61. The base here is 2x (see the figure) and so the area of the y
√ √ 4
cross-section is 12 · 23 (2x)2 = 3x 2 . Therefore,
√ √
A (y) = 3x 2 = 3 (4 − y) and 2
√
V = 04 A (y) dy = 3 04 (4 − y) dy 2x
_4 _2 0 2 x
√ 4 √
= 3 4y − 12 y 2 =8 3
0 _2

62. The area of a cross-section is 12 πy 2 . An equation of the line passing y

3
through (0, 3) and (8, 0) is y = − 38 (x − 8), so the area of the
2
cross-section is A (x) = 12 πy 2 = 12 π − 38 (x − 8) . Thus, 2y
0 8 x

V = 08 A (x) dx = 128
9π 8 (x − 8)2 dx
0 _3

9π · 1 (x − 8)3 8
= 128 3 = 12π
0
63. Represent the circular boundary of the base by the 64. The area of a typical cross-section is x 2 , so
equation x 2 + y 2 = a 2 , x ≥ 0. Then the area of a V = 8 0r x 2 dz = 8 0r r 2 − z 2 dz
cross-section is A (y) = 12 x 2 = 12 a 2 − y 2 . Thus, = 8 r 2 z − 13 z 3
r
= 16 3
0 3r
a
V = −a A (y) dy = 2 0a A (y) dy z
a r
= 0a a 2 − y 2 dy = a 2 y − 13 y 3 = 23 a 3 z
0
r
y
a x

x
x 0 r x
0 a x 0
45¡ r y
x x r
_a

65. a. The volumes of the solids are V1 = 0h R1 (y) dy and V2 = 0h R2 (y) dy, but R1 (y) = R2 (y) for all y ∈ [0, h], so
V1 = V2 .
b. V = πr 2 h
66. The capacity of the fuel tank is
V = 08 A (x) dx ≈ 13 f (0) + 4 f (1) + 2 f (2) + 4 f (3) + 2 f (4) + 4 f (5) + 2 f (6) + 4 f (7) + f (8)

= 13 [0 + 4 (0.3041) + 2 (0.6206) + 4 (0.8937) + 2 (0.8937) + 4 (0.8937) + 2 (0.6206) + 4 (0.3041) + 0] = 4.6174 m3

67. V = 012 A (x) dx ≈ 123/6 [0 + 4 (3.82) + 2 (4.78) + 4 (3.24) + 2 (2.64) + 4 (1.80) + 0] = 33.52 ft3

68. a. The volume of the solid is V = 0h A (x) dx.

Since A is a polynomial of degree less than or
equal to 3, Simpson’s Rule is exact. Therefore,
0 h
r x
with n = 2 and x = 12 h, h/2 x

V = h/32 A (0) + 4A h2 + A (h) h h=2r

= h6 A (0) + 4A h2 + A (h)
 Section 5.3 Volumes Using Cylindrical Shells 357

b. In Exercise 50, the solid is bounded by 0 ≤ x ≤ 2r = h. The cross-section is a circle with equation
(x − r )2 + y 2 = r 2 or y 2 = r 2 − (x − r)2 . Thus, by part a with A (x) = πy 2 = π r 2 − (x − r )2 ,

V = h6 A (0) + 4A h2 + A (h) = 26r [A (0) + 4A (r) + A (2r)] = r3 0 + 4πr 2 + 0 = 43 πr 3 , as above.

5.3 Concept Questions

1. a. y b. y

4 4

_2 2 x _2 2 x

c. Using the disk method, we find

2 2 8
4 2 4 y−4 3
V = π 04 y 1/3 dy + π 48 y 1/3 − y−
2 dy = 35π y 5/3 + π 3 y 5/3 − 2 1
5 3 2 = 208π
15 .
0 4
Applying the shell method gives
2
V = 2π 02 x (2x + 4) − x 3 dx = 2π 02 −x 4 + 2x 2 + 4x dx = 2π − 15 x 5 + 23 x 3 + 2x 2 = 208 π
15 .
0
The shell method is easier.
1/2 2 2
2. a. Applying the disk method gives V = π 0 R (y) − r (y) dy, where R and r are found by solving

y = x 1 − x 3 for x — which is impossible.

1/2 1/2 3/2 1
b. V = 2π 01 x y dx = 2π 01 x · x 1 − x 3 dx = 2π 01 x 2 1 − x 3 dx = 2π − 13 2
3 1 − x3 = 49π
0

5.3 Volumes Using Cylindrical Shells

2
1. V = 2π 02 x y dx = 2π 02 21 x 2 dx = π 3 8π
3x 0= 3

1/2 3/2 2
2. V = 2π 02 x y dx = 2π 02 x 4 − x 2 dx = 2π − 12 2
3 4 − x2 = 163π
0

1
3. V = 2π 01 x x − x 2 dx = 2π 01 x 2 − x 3 dx = 2π 13 x 3 − 14 x 4 =π
6
0

2
4. V = 2π 02 y 4 − y 2 dy = 2π 02 4y − y 3 dy = 2π 2y 2 − 14 y 4 = 8π
0

1 y 4 4 = 48π
5. V = 2π 04 y y 1/2 − 18 y 2 dy = 2π 04 y 3/2 − 18 y 3 dy = 2π 25 y 5/2 − 32
0 5

2
6. V = 2π 02 (3 − x) 1 x 2 + 2 − x 2 dx = 2π 2
2 0
1 x 3 − 3 x 2 − 2x + 6 dx = 2π
2 2
1 x 4 − 1 x 3 − x 2 + 6x
8 2 = 12π
0
358 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

7. V = 2π 02 x y dx = 2π 02 x x 2 dx 8. V = 2π 01 x y dx = 2π 01 x x 3 dx
2 1
= 2π 02 x 3 dx = 2π 14 x 4 = 8π = 2π 01 x 4 dx = 2π 15 x 5 = 25π
0 0
y y

4 1

3
2
1

0 0 1 x
1 2 x
_1

√
9. V = 2π 02 x y dx = 2π 02 x −x 2 + 2x dx 10. V = 2π 15 x y dx = 2π 15 x x − 1 dx. Let u = x − 1,
2 so du = dx, x = 1 ⇒ u = 0, and x = 5 ⇒ u = 4. Then
= 2π 02 −x 3 + 2x 2 dx = 2π − 14 x 4 + 23 x 3
0
V = 2π 04 (u + 1) u 1/2 du = 2π 04 u 3/2 + u 1/2 du
= 83π
4 π
= 2π 25 u 5/2 + 23 u 3/2 = 544
y 0 15

y
1
2

1
_1 0 1 2 x
_1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x

_1

11. V = 2π 12 x y dx = 2π 12 1 dx = 2π 12. V = 2π 04 yx dy = 2π 04 y −y 2 + 4y dy
y 4
= 2π 04 −y 3 + 4y 2 dy = 2π − 14 y 4 + 43 y 3
0
2
= 128 π
3
1 y

_1 0 1 2 x
2

0 2 4 x
 Section 5.3 Volumes Using Cylindrical Shells 359

13. V = 2π 03 yx dy = 2π 03 y 9 − y 2 dy 14. V = 2π 06 y (y/3) dy = 2π 06 31 y 2 dy

3/2 3 6
= 2π − 12 2 9 − y2 = 18π = 2π 19 y 3 = 48π
3 0
0
y
y

6 y=6
3

0 1 2 x
0 3 x

15. V = 2π 02 x 5 − x 2 + 1 dx 16. To find the points of intersection of the two graphs, we

2 solve 12 x 2 = x ⇔ x (x − 2) = 0, giving the points (0, 0)
= 2π 02 −x 3 + 4x dx = 2π − 14 x 4 + 2x 2 = 8π
0 and (2, 2).
y
V = 2π 02 x x − 12 x 2 dx = 2π 02 x 2 − 12 x 3 dx
2
y=5 = 2π 13 x 3 − 18 x 4 = 43π
4 0
y
2
2

_2 _1 0 1 2 x
1

0 1 2 x

17. We solve 1 − x 2 = −x + 1 ⇒ 1 − x 2 = x 2 − 2x + 1 ⇔ y

2x 2 − 2x = 2x (x − 1) = 0 ⇔ (0, 1) and (1, 0) are the points of

intersection. 1

V = 2π 01 x 1 − x 2 − (−x + 1) dx = 2π 01 x 1 − x 2 + x 2 − x dx
3/2 1
= 2π − 12 2 1 − x2 + 13 x 3 − 12 x 2 =π _1 0 1 x
3 3
0

√ √
π π
18. V = 2π 0 x sin x 2 dx = 2π 12 − cos x 2 = 2π y
0

0 1 x
360 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

19. To find the points of intersection of the two curves, we solve 1 − x 2 = 32 x y

⇔ 2x 2 + 3x − 2 = (2x − 1) (x + 2) = 0, giving x = 12 or −2. we reject 1

the latter root since x must be nonnegative. Thus, the curves intersect at
0
√ √
1,− 3 _1 1 x
2 2 and 12 , 23 , and
√
V = 2π 0
3/2
y 1 − y 2 − 23 y 2 dy _1

√ 1/2
3/2
= 2π 0 y 1 − y2 − 23 y 3 dy
√
3/2 3/2
= 2π − 12 2 1 − y2 − 16 y 4 = 19π
3 48
0

20. To find the points of intersection of the two curves, we solve y

√
x − 1 = x − 1 ⇒ x − 1 = x 2 − 2x + 1 ⇔ 1
x 2 − 3x + 2 = (x − 2) (x − 1) = 0. The points of intersection are (1, 0)
and (2, 1), and
√
V = 2π 12 x x − 1 − (x − 1) dx 0 1 2 x

= 2π 12 x (x − 1)1/2 dx + 2π 12 −x 2 + x dx.
To evaluate the first integral, let u = x − 1, so du = dx, x = 1 ⇒ u = 0, and x = 2 ⇒ u = 1. Thus,
2 1 2
V = 2π 01 (u + 1) u 1/2 du + 2π − 13 x 3 + 12 x 2 = 2π 25 u 5/2 + 23 u 3/2 + 2π − 13 x 3 + 12 x 2 π.
= 715
1 0 1

21. a. 22. a.
2 1

0
0

0 1 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0

b. The points of intersection are (0, 0) and about b. The points of intersection are (0, 0) and about
(1.22, 1.22). (0.88, 0.77).

c. V ≈ 2π 01.22 x x − x 5 − x 2 dx c. V ≈ 2π 00.88 x sin x − x 2 dx. Using a

= 2π 01.22 x 2 − x 6 + x 3 dx calculator or computer, we find V ≈ 0.378.

Using a calculator or computer, we find

V ≈ 3.67.
 Section 5.3 Volumes Using Cylindrical Shells 361

√
23. Solving x = x − 2 ⇒ x = x 2 − 4x + 4 ⇔ y

x 2 − 5x + 4 = (x − 4) (x − 1) = 0 gives x = 1 or 4. We reject x = 1
√ 2
because it does not satisfy x = x − 2. Thus, the point of intersection is
(4, 2). Using the method of cylindrical shells, we have 1

V = 2π 02 y (y + 2) − y 2 dy = 2π 02 −y 3 + y 2 + 2y dy 0 2 4 x
2
= 2π − 14 y 4 + 13 y 3 + y 2 = 163π _1
0

24. Solving (x − 1)2 = x + 1 ⇔ x 2 − 2x + 1 = x + 1 ⇔ y

x 2 − 3x = x (x − 3) = 0 gives x = 0 or 3, so the points of intersection are 4

(0, 1) and (3, 4). We use the method of disks (washers) to obtain
3 2
V = π 03 (x + 1)2 − (x − 1)4 dx = π 13 (x + 1)3 − 15 (x − 1)5
0
= 725π 0 2 4 x

25. We solve x 2 = 2x − 1 ⇔ x 2 − 2x + 1 = (x − 1)2 = 0, giving (1, 1) as y

the point of intersection of the curves. Using the method of disks

4
(washers), we obtain
4 y+1 2 4
1 (y + 1)2 − y dy 2
V =π − y dy = π 4
1 2 1

1 (y + 1)3 − 1 y 2 4 = 9π 0
= π 12 2 4 1 2 x
1

26. We solve 1 − x 2 = −x + 1 ⇒ 1 − x 2 = x 2 − 2x + 1 ⇔ y

2x 2 − 2x = 2x (x − 1) = 0, giving x = 0 or 1, so the points of intersection

of the curves are (0, 1) and (1, 0). Using the method of disks, we find 1
2
V = π 01 1 − x2 − (−x + 1)2 dx = π 01 −2x 2 + 2x dx
1 0 1 x
= π − 23 x 3 + x 2 =π
3
0

27. We solve 2x 2 = x + 1 ⇔ 2x 2 − x − 1 = 0 ⇒ (2x + 1) (x − 1) = 0, y

giving x = − 12 or 1, so the points of intersection are − 12 , 12 and (1, 2). 1

Using the method of shells, we have

1/2
V = 2π 0 y − 12 y − (y − 1) dy
√ _1 0 x
1/2
= 2π 0 − 22 y 3/2 − y 2 + y dy
√ 1/2
= 2π − 52 y 5/2 − 13 y 3 + 12 y 2 π
= 15
0
362 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

28. We solve 9 − x 2 = 23 9 − x 2 ⇒ 9 − x 2 = 49 9 − x 2 ⇔ 5x 2 = 45 y

⇔ x = ±3, so the points of intersection are (±3, 0). We use the method of 3
cylindrical shells to find
1/2 2
V = 2π 03 x 9 − x 2 − 23 9 − x 2 dx = 23π 03 x 9 − x 2 dx
3/2 3 _3 0 3 x
= 23π − 12 2
3 9 − x2 = 6π
0

29. V = 2π 02 (4 − x) x dx 30. V = 2π 02 (3 − x) x 2 + 1 dx

= 2π 02 4x − x 2 dx = 2π 02 −x 3 + 3x 2 − x + 3 dx
2 2
= 2π 2x 2 − 13 x 3 = 323π = 2π − 14 x 4 + x 3 − 12 x 2 + 3x = 16π
0 0
y y
3
6

2
4

1 2

0 1 2 3 4 x 0 1 2 3 x

31. V = 2π −2 2 [x − (−2)] 4 − x 2 dx 32. V = 2π 02 (2 − y) 4 − y 2 dy

= 2π −2 2 −x 3 − 2x 2 + 4x + 8 dx = 2π 02 y 3 − 2y 2 − 4y + 8 dy
2
= 4π 02 −2x 2 + 8 dx = 2π 14 y 4 − 23 y 3 − 2y 2 + 8y
0
2 π
= 4π − 23 x 3 + 8x = 128
3 = 403π
0
y y

4
2

2 1

_4 _2 0 2 x 0 x
2 4
_2 _1
 Section 5.3 Volumes Using Cylindrical Shells 363

√
33. To find the points of intersection of the graphs of y = x − 1 and y
√
y = x − 1, we solve x − 1 = x − 1 ⇒ x − 1 = x 2 − 2x + 1 ⇔
1
x 2 − 3x + 2 = (x − 2) (x − 1) = 0, giving (1, 0) and (2, 1). Thus,
√
V = 2π 12 (3 − x) x − 1 − (x − 1) dx
√ √
= 2π 12 3 x − 1 − x x − 1 dx + 2π 12 x 2 − 4x + 3 dx 0 1 2 3 x

To evaluate the first integral, let u = x − 1, so du = dx, x = 1 ⇒ u = 0,

and x = 2 ⇒ u = 1. Then

V = 2π 01 3u 1/2 − (u + 1) u 1/2 du + 2π 12 x 2 − 4x + 3 dx
1 2
= 2π 01 2u 1/2 − u 3/2 du + 2π 12 x 2 − 4x + 3 dx = 2π 43 u 3/2 − 25 u 5/2 + 2π 13 x 3 − 2x 2 + 3x π
= 815
0 1

√
34. V = 2π 01 (2 − y) y − y dy = 2π 01 y 2 − y 3/2 − 2y + 2y 1/2 dy y

1
= 2π 13 y 3 − 25 y 5/2 − y 2 + 43 y 3/2 π
= 815 2
0
1

0 1 x

2
35. 2π 0π x sin x dx 36. 2π 01 y 4/3 dy = 2π 01 y · y 1/3 dy or 2π 01 y 4/3 dy = 2 π 01 y 2/3 dy
y
y
y
1
1
1

0 1 x
0 ¹ x
0 1 x _1

37. 2π 01 y y 1/3 − y dy 38. 2π 01 (x + 1) x 2 dx

y y

1 1

0 x _1 0 1 x
1
364 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

r
39. An equation of the line passing through (0, r) and (h, 0) is y = r − x⇒ y
h
h
x =h− y, so r
r
r h r
V = 2π x y dy = 2π y y dy h−
0 0 r
r h h 2 h r 0 h x
= 2π hy − y 2 dy = 2π y − y3 = 13 πhr 2
0 r 2 3r 0

40. By symmetry, V = 2 · 2π 0r x y dy, but y = r 2 − x 2 , so y

1/2 r
V = 4π 0r x r 2 − x 2 dx
3/2 r
= 4π − 12 2
3 r2 − x2 = 43 πr 3
0 0 r x

_r

x2 b y
41. By symmetry, V = 2 · 2π 0a x y dx, but y = b 1 − 2 = a2 − x 2 ,
a a
so b
ab 1/2
V = 4π x a2 − x 2 dx
0 a
0 a x
4πb 1 2 3/2 a
= − a2 − x 2 = 43 πa 2 b.
a 2 3 0

42. The volume of the solid is obtained by revolving the region shown about y
the y-axis. Making use of symmetry, we find
r
V = 2 · 2π ar x y dx = 4π ar x r 2 − x 2 dx
3/2 r 3/2
= 4π − 12 2
3 r2 − x2 = 43 π r 2 − a 2
a 0 a r x

_r

y
43. Using symmetry, we obtain x=b
a
a a 1/2
V = 2 · 2π −a (b − x) y dx = 4π −a (b − x) a 2 − x 2 dx
1/2 1/2
a
= 4πb −a a2 − x 2 a
dx − 4π −a x a2 − x 2 dx 0 a x

Interpreting the integral geometrically, we find the first integral to be equal

to 4πb 12 πa 2 . The second integral is 0 because the integrand is odd.

Thus, V = 2π 2 a 2 b.
 Section 5.3 Volumes Using Cylindrical Shells 365

44. Using a calculator or computer, we find the x-coordinate of the point of

intersection to be x ≈ 0.89. Thus,
1
π /2
V ≈ 2π 00.89 x cos x 2 − sin x 2 dx + 2π 0.89 x sin x 2 − cos x 2 dx
0.89 π /2
= π sin x 2 + cos x 2 + π − cos x 2 − sin x 2 ≈ 6.24 0
0 0.89

-1
0 1 2

45. The region occupied by the liquid is found by revolving the region shown y

about the y-axis. We find 3

2 2 ω2 x 2 2
V = 2π x y dx = 2π x 2+ dx
0 0 2g
1
2 4π 2g + ω 2
1 ω2 4
= 2π x 2 + x = ft3 0
8 g g _1 1 2 x
0
_1

ω 2 (4) ω2 1 4π 2g + g2
Observe that when x = 2, y = 3, and this implies that 3 = 2 + ⇒ = . Thus, V = = 10π ft3 .
√ √
2g 2g 4 g
4 h/k 4 h/k
46. a. V = 2π 0 x y dx = 2π 0 x h − kx 4 dx y
√
4 h/k
√ y=kx$
= 2π 12 hx 2 − 16 kx 6 = 23 πh h/k h
0
dV dV dh d 2πh 3/2 dh
b. = =
dt dh dt dh 3k 1/2 dt
2π 1 3 dh h dh 0 4
Ïh/k x
= · · h 1/2 =π
3 k 1/2 2 dt k dt
√
√ h dh dh Ak 3/2
so k A h = π √ ⇒ = , a constant.
k dt dt π
c. Because the rate of flow is constant, we can tell time by looking at the level of water in the container.
47. V = −2π 02000 x y dx = 2π 02000 (−x y) dx. Using Simpson’s Rule with n = 10 and x = 2000
10 = 200, we have
V ≈ 2π · 200
3 (0 + 4 · 200 · 46 + 2 · 400 · 45 + 4 · 600 · 41 + 2 · 800 · 40 + 4 · 1000 · 36
+ 2 · 1200 · 29 + 4 · 1400 · 25 + 2 · 1600 · 19 + 4 · 1800 · 8 + 0) ≈ 296,231,243 ft3
48. V = 2π 0240 x y dx. Using Simpson’s Rule with n = 6 and x = 240 6 = 40, we find
V ≈ 2π · 40 3
3 (0 + 4 · 40 · 146 + 2 · 80 · 104 + 4 · 120 · 88 + 2 · 160 · 44 + 4 · 200 · 20 + 0) ≈ 9,409,698 ft .
366 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

5.4 Concept Questions

2 2
1. a. (1) L = ab 1 + f (x) dx (2) L = cd 1 + g (y) dy
√ 1/2
4 9x 2/3 + 4 5 5 9x 2/3 + 4
2/3 2 −1 /3 2
b. y = x − 1 ⇒ y = 3x ⇒ 1 + y = 1 + 2/3 = ⇒L= dx. Let
9x 9x 2/3 0 3x 1/3
√
u = 9x 2/3 + 4, so du = 6x −1/3 dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 4, and x = 5 5 = 53/2 ⇒ u = 9 · 5 + 4 = 49. Then
L = 181 49 u 1/2 du = 335 . y = x 2/3 − 1 ⇒ x = (y + 1)3/2 ⇒ x = 3 (y + 1)1/2 ⇒ 1 + x 2 = 9y + 13 ⇒
4 27 2 4
4 √9y + 13 4
L= dy = 12 · 19 · 23 (9y + 13)3/2 = 335
27 .
−1 2 −1
The second integral is easier to evaluate.
2 2
2. a. S = 2π ab f (x) 1 + f (x) dx = 2π ab y 1 + y dx
2 2
b. S = 2π cd g (y) 1 + g (y) dy = 2π cd x 1 + x dy

5.4 Arc Length and Areas of Surfaces of Revolution

2
1. y = x 3/2 + 1 ⇒ y = 32 x 1/2 ⇒ 1 + y = 1 + 94 x ⇒
3/2 4 √ √
L = 14 1 + 94 x dx = 49 · 23 1 + 94 x 1 80 10 − 13 13
= 27
1
dx dx 2 4/3 3/2 4/3
2. y = x 2/3 ⇒ x = y 3/2 ⇒ = 32 y 1/2 ⇒ 1+ = 1+ 94 y ⇒ L = 0 1 + 94 y dy = 49 · 23 1 + 94 y = 56
27
dy dy 0
dx dx 2
3. y = x 2/3 + 1 ⇒ x 2/3 = y − 1 ⇒ x = (y − 1)3/2 ⇒ = 32 (y − 1)1/2 ⇒ 1 + = 1 + 94 (y − 1) ⇒
dy dy
3/2 5 √
L = 15 1 + 94 (y − 1) dy = 49 · 23 1 + 94 (y − 1) 8 10 10 − 1
= 27
1
y31 dx 1 y2 4
y −1
4. x = + ⇒ = − 2 = ⇒
6 2y dy 2 2y 2y 2
2 2
dx 2 y4 − 1 4y 4 + y 8 − 2y 4 + 1 y 8 + 2y 4 + 1 y4 + 1
1+ = 1+ = = = ⇒
dy 4y 4 4y 4 4y 4 4y 4
2 dx 2 2 y4 + 1 1 2 2 1 1 3 1 2 17
L= 1+ dy = 2
dy = y + y −2 dy = y − =
1 dy 1 2y 2 1 2 3 y 1 12
√ √
2 3 2
5. An equation of the line is y = 83 x. y = 83 ⇒ 1 + y = 1 + 64 73
9 = 9 , so L = 0 1+ y dx = 03 373 dx = 73.
√
Using the distance formula, we get L = (3 − 0)2 + (8 − 0)2 = 73.
2 2 √ √
6. An equation of the line is y = 2x. y = 2 ⇒ 1 + y = 1 + 4 = 5, so L = −3 1 1+ y dx = −3 1 5 dx = 4 5.
√
Using the distance formula, we get L = (3 + 1)2 + (6 + 2)2 = 4 5.
2 √ √ 2 √
7. y = −2x + 3 ⇒ y = −2 ⇒ 1 + y = 1 + 4 = 5 ⇒ L = −2 1 5 dx = 5x =3 5
−1
2 9 √ 9 √ √
8. y = 3 x 3/2 − 1 ⇒ y = x 1/2 ⇒ 1 + y = 1 + x ⇒ L = 4 1 + x dx = 3 (1 + x)3/2 = 10
2 2
3 2 10 − 5
4
 Section 5.4 Arc Length and Areas of Surfaces of Revolution 367

2
9. y = 2 (x − 1)3/2 ⇒ y = 3 (x − 1)1/2 ⇒ 1 + y = 1 + 9 (x − 1) = 9x − 8 ⇒
√ 5 √
L = 15 9x − 8 dx = 19 · 23 (9x − 8)3/2 = 27
2 37 37 − 1
1
y4 1 1 4y 6 − 1
10. x = + 2 ⇒ x = y3 − 3 = ⇒
4 8y 4y 4y 3
2
2 4y 6 + 1
2 4y 6 − 1 16y 6 + 16y 12 − 8y 6 + 1
1+ x = 1+ = = ⇒
4y 3 16y 6 16y 6
2 2 4y 6 + 1 1 2 1 2 123
2
L= 1+ x dy = 3
dy = 4y 3 + y −3 dy = 14 y4 − =
1 1 4y 4 1 2y 2 1 32
3/2 1/2 2 2
11. y = 23 x 2 + 1 ⇒ y = 2x x 2 + 1 ⇒1+ y = 1 + 4x 2 x 2 + 1 = 2x 2 + 1 ⇒
2 4
L = 14 1+ y dx = 14 2x 2 + 1 dx = 2 x3 + x
3 = 45
1
1/2
3/2 1/2 2 − x 2/3 2 − x 2/3 2
2
12. y = 2 − x 2/3 3
⇒ y = 2 2−x 2/3 2
−3x − 1 / 3 =− 1/ 3
⇒1+ y =1+ 2/3
= 2/3 ⇒
x x x
√ 2 −1/3 √ 2 √
2 2 3 2 2/ 3 3 2 2/ 3
L = 1 1 + y dx = 2 1 x dx = 2 x = 2 2 −1
1
2
13. (y + 3)2 = 4 (x + 2)3 ⇒ y = 2 (x + 2)3/2 − 3 ⇒ y = 3 (x + 2)1/2 ⇒ 1 + y = 1 + 9 (x + 2) = 9x + 19 ⇒
2 √ 2 √
L = −2 2 1+ y dx = −2 2 9x + 19 dx = 19 · 23 (9x + 19)3/2 2 37 37 − 1
= 27
−2
2
x3 1 1 4x 4 − 1 16x 8 − 8x 4 + 1 4x 4 + 1
2
14. y = + ⇒ y = x2 − 2 = 2
⇒1+ y = 1+ = ⇒
3 4x 4x 4x 16x 4 16x 4
3
2 1 3 4x 4 + 1 1 3 1 4x 3 1 53
L = 13 1+ y dx = dx = 4x 2 + x −2 dx = − =
4 1 x2 4 1 4 3 x 6
1
2 2
15. y = x 2 ⇒ y = 2x ⇒ 1 + y = 1 + 4x 2 ⇒ L = −2 1 1+ y dx = −2 1 1 + 4x 2 dx
2 2
16. y = x 3 − 1 ⇒ y = 3x 2 ⇒ 1 + y = 1 + 9x 4 ⇒ L = 01 1+ y dx = 01 1 + 9x 4 dx

1 2x 2 4x 2 2 4x 2
17. y = 2 ⇒y =− 2
⇒1+ y =1+ 4
⇒L= 1+ 4
dx
x +1 x2 + 1 x2 + 1 −1 x2 + 1

= 1 + sin2 x ⇒ L = 0π
2
18. y = cos x ⇒ y = − sin x ⇒ 1 + y 1 + sin2 x dx
2 π /4
19. y = tan x ⇒ y = sec2 x ⇒ 1 + y = 1 + sec4 x ⇒ L = 0 1 + sec4 x dx
2
20. x = sec y ⇒ x = sec y tan y ⇒ 1 + x = 1 + sec2 y tan2 y ⇒ L = −0 π/4 1 + sec2 y tan2 y dy

21. a. d 2x 3 − x 4 = 6x 2 − 4x 3 = 2x 2 (3 − 2x) ⇒
b. y = f (x) = dx
2
2
1+ y = 1 + 4x 4 (3 − 2x)2 , so L = 02 1 + 4x 4 (3 − 2x)2 dx.
1
c. Using a calculator or computer, we find L ≈ 4.2008.

0
0 1 2
368 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

d 1/2 −1/2 x 1 − 2x 2
22. a. b. y = x2 − x4 = 12 x 2 − x 4 2x − 4x 3 = 1/2
⇒
dx x2 − x4
1
2
x 2 1 − 2x 2 x 2 − x 4 + x 2 1 − 4x 2 + 4x 4
2
1+ y =1+ =
x2 − x4 x2 − x4
0
2x 2 − 5x 4 + 4x 6
=
x2 − x4
0 1
1 2x 2 − 5x 4 + 4x 6
so L = dx.
0 x2 − x4
c. Using a calculator or computer, we find L ≈ 1.5243.

d 1 x 1/2 − 1
23. a. b. y = f (x) = x − 2x 1/2 = 1 − x −1/2 = 1 − 1/2 = ⇒
0.0
dx x x 1/2
√ 2
2 x −1 4 1 2
-0.5 1+ y =1+ , so L = 1+ 1− √ dx.
x 0 x

-1.0 c. Using a calculator or computer, we find L ≈ 4.8086.

0 2 4

d x2 1 + x 4 (2x) − x 2 4x 3 2x 1 − x 4
24. a. b. y = f (x) = = =
0.6
dx 1 + x4 1 + x4
2
1 + x4
2

2 4 2
0.4 4x 2 1 − x 4 1 + x4 + 4x 2 1 − x 4
2
⇒1+ y =1+ = , so
0.2 4 4
1 + x4 1 + x4
0.0
4 2
1 1 + x4 + 4x 2 1 − x 4
0 1 L= 2
dx.
0 1 + x4
c. Using a calculator or computer, we find L ≈ 1.1440.

√ 3/2
a
25. To find the coordinates of P, we solve x 2/3 + y 2/3 = a 2/3 , giving x = y = 3/2 = 42 a. Next, y = a 2/3 − x 2/3 ⇒
2
1/2
1/2 a 2/3 − x 2/3 a 2/3 − x 2/3 a 2/3
2
y = 32 a 2/3 − x 2/3 − 23 x −1/3 =− , so 1 + y = 1+ = . Finally,
x 1/3 x 2/3 x
a a 1/3 a a
L =8 √ dx = 8a 1/3 √ x −1/3 dx = 8a 1/3 32 x 2/3 √ = 6a. Note that we cannot write
2a/4 x 2a/ 4 2a/4
2 a 2/3
L = 4 0a 1 + y dx because the integrand is not defined at 0.
x
 Section 5.4 Arc Length and Areas of Surfaces of Revolution 369

26. An equation of the top half of a circle of radius 1 centered at the origin is
x y
y = 1 − x2 ⇒ y = − ⇒
1 − x2 y=Ï1-x@
√
x2 1 2/2 dx
2
1+ y = 1+ = . Thus, can be
1 − x2 1 − x2 0 1 − x2
interpreted as the arc length of this semicircle from the point (0, 0) to the _1 1
0 x
√ √
2 2
point 2 , 2 , which is a quarter of its total length. Because the entire
circle has circumference 2π, we have
√
2/2 dx
= 14 12 · 2π = π
4.
0 1 − x2
2
27. y = x 3 + 1 ⇒ y = 3x 2 ⇒ 1+ y = 1 + 9x 2 . Here x = 1 and x = 1.2 − 1 = 0.2, so
√ √
2
s ≈ ds = 1+ y x= 1 + 9 (0.2) = 510 ≈ 0.6325.
√ 1 2 1
28. y = x +1⇒ y = √ ⇒1+ y = 1+ . Here x = 4 and x = 4.3 − 4 = 0.3, so
2 x 4x
√
2
s ≈ ds = 1+ y x= 1 + 41·4 · 0.3 = 3 4017 ≈ 0.3092.
√
2
29. y = 12 x + 2 ⇒ y = 12 ⇒ 1 + y = 54 ⇒ ds = 25 dx, so
√ √ √ 2 √
S = 2π 02 y ds = 2π 02 12 x + 2 25 dx = 5π 02 12 x + 2 dx = 5π 14 x 2 + 2x = 5 5π.
0
√
√ 1 2 1 1 1 + 4x
30. y = x ⇒ y = √ ⇒ 1 + y = 1+ ⇒ ds = 1 + dx = √ dx, so
2 x 4x 4x 2 x
√
√ 1 + 4x √ 9 √ √
S = 2π 49 y ds = 2π 49 x √ dx = π 49 1 + 4x dx = π · 14 · 23 (1 + 4x)3/2 = π 6 37 37 − 17 17 .
2 x 4

2 2
31. y = x 3 ⇒ y = 3x 2 ⇒ 1 + y = 1 + 9x 4 ⇒ ds = 1+ y dx = 1 + 9x 4 dx, so
1/2
S = 2π 01 y ds = 2π 01 x 3 1 + 9x 4 dx. Let u = 1 + 9x 4 , so du = 36x 3 dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 1, and x = 1 ⇒ u = 10.

π 10 u 1/2 du = π 2 u 3/2 10 = π 10√10 − 1 .

Then S = 236 1 18 3 1 27
2
32. y = x 1/3 ⇒ x = y 3 ⇒ x = 3y 2 ⇒ 1 + x = 1 + 9y 4 ⇒ ds = 1 + 9y 4 dy. Also, x = 1 ⇒ y = 1 and x = 8 ⇒
2
π · 2 1 + 9y 4 3/2 = π 145√145 − 10√10 .
y = 2, so S = 2π 12 x ds = 2π 12 y 3 1 + 9y 4 dy = 236 3 27
1
√ 1 1
33. y = 4 − x 2 ⇒ x = 4 − y ⇒ x = − √ ⇒ ds = 1 + dy. x = 0 ⇒ y = 4 and x = 2 ⇒ y = 0, so
2 4−y 4 (4 − y)
√ √ 4 √
S = 2π 04 x ds = 2π 04 4 − y 1 + 4(41−y) dy = π 04 17 − 4y dy = π − 14 23 (17 − 4y)3/2 = π 6 17 17 − 1
0
2 2
y3 1 y2 1 y4 − 1 y4 − 1 y4 + 1
2
34. x = + ⇒x = − 2 = ⇒1+ x = 1+ = ⇒
6 2y 2 2y 2y 2 4y 4 4y 4
y4 + 1 1 1
ds = dx = y 2 + 2 , so
2y 2 2 y
2
2 y3 1 1 2 y5 2y 1 y6 y2 1 47π
S = 2π 12 x ds = π + y2 + 2 dy = π + + 3 dy = π + − 2 = .
1 6 2y y 1 6 3 2y 36 3 4y 16
1
370 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

6 − 3y √
2
35. 2x + 3y = 6 ⇒ x = ⇒ x = − 32 ⇒ 1 + x = 1 + 94 = 134 ⇒ ds = 213 dy, so
2
√ √ 1 √
S = 2π −2 x ds = 2π 213 −1 2 3 − 32 y dy = 13π 3y − 34 y 2
1
= 45 4 13 π.
−2

x4 1 1 4x 6 − 1
36. y = + 2 ⇒ y = x3 − 3 = ⇒
4 8x 4x 4x 3
2 2
4x 6 − 1
16x 6 + 16x 12 − 8x 6 + 1 4x 6 + 1 4x 6 + 1
2
1+ y = 1+ 6
= 6
= 6
⇒ ds = dx, so
16x 16x 16x 4x 3
2 2 x4 1 1
L = 2π y ds = 2π + 2 x 3 + 3 dx = 2π 12 14 x 7 + 163 x + 1 x −5 dx
32
1 1 4 8x 4x
1 x 8 + 3 x 2 − 1 x −4 2 = 16,911π
= 2π 32 32 128 1 1024

2 2
1 x − 2x 3 1 − 2x 2 1 − 2x 2 3 − 2x 2
2
37. y = √ x 2 − x 4 ⇒ y = √ = √ ⇒1+ y = 1+ = ⇒
2 2 2 2 x2 − x4 2 2 1 − x2 8 1 − x2 8 1 − x2
3 − 2x 2
ds = √ dx, so
2 2 1 − x2
1 1x 1 − x2 3 − 2x 2 1 1 4 1= π
S = 2π y ds = 2π √ · √ dx = π 3 π 3 2
4 0 3x − 2x dx = 4 2 x − 2 x 4
0 0 2 2 2 2 1−x 2 0

√ 1 y 1/2 1−y
38. x = 13 y (3 − y)2 = 13 y (3 − y) = y 1/2 − 13 y 3/2 (since 0 ≤ y ≤ 3). x = − = ⇒
2y 1/2 2 2y 1/2
2 (1 − y)2 (y + 1)2 y+1
1+ x =1+ = ⇒ ds = √ dy ⇒ ds = 12 y 1/2 + y −1/2 dy, so
4y 4y 2 y
3
S = 2π 03 x ds = 22π 03 y 1/2 − 13 y 3/2 y 1/2 + y −1/2 dy = π 03 − 13 y 2 + 23 y + 1 dy = π − 19 y 3 + 13 y 2 + y
0
= 3π

1 1 2 1 x4 + 1 x4 + 1
39. y = ⇒ y = − 2 ⇒1+ y = 1+ 4 = ⇒ ds = dx, so
x x x x4 x2
2 21 x4 + 1 2 x4 + 1
S = 2π y ds = 2π dx = 2π dx.
1 1 x x2 1 x3

2
40. y = sin x ⇒ y = cos x ⇒ 1 + y = 1 + cos2 x ⇒ ds = 1 + cos2 x dx, so
π /2 π /2
S = 2π 0 y ds = 2π 0 sin x 1 + cos2 x dx.

41. Using the result of Exercise 21, we see that the required surface area is
S = 2π 02 y ds = 2π 02 2x 3 − x 4 1 + 4x 4 (3 − 2x)2 dx ≈ 21.4018.

42. Using the result of Exercise 22, we see that the required surface area is
1 1 x 2 − x 4 2x 2 − 5x 4 + 4x 6
S = 2π y ds = 2π dx = 2π 01 2x 2 − 5x 4 + 4x 6 dx ≈ 2.7905.
0 0 x2 − x4
 Section 5.4 Arc Length and Areas of Surfaces of Revolution 371

h r r 2 r2 h2 + r 2
43. y = x ⇒x = y ⇒x = ⇒1+ x =1+ 2 = ⇒ y
r h h h h2
h y=h x
h2 + r 2 r
ds = dy, so
h
h hr h2 + r 2 2πr h 2 + r 2 h
S = 2π x ds = 2π y· dy = y dy
0 0 h h h2 0
h
2πr h 2 + r 2 0 r x
= 1 y2 = πr h 2 + r 2
h2 2
0

x
44. y = r2 − x2 ⇒ y = − ⇒ y
r2 − x2
y=Ïr@-x@
2 x2 r2 r
1+ y =1+ 2 2
= 2 ⇒ ds = dx, so
r −x r − x2 r2 − x2
r r r
S = 2π −r y ds = 2π −r r2 − x2 · dx
r − x2
2
_r 0 r x
r
= 2πr −r dx = 4πr 2

x 2 x2 4
45. y = 4 − x2 ⇒ y = − ⇒1+ y =1+ = y
4 − x2 4 − x2 4 − x2
2
⇒ ds = dx, so
4 − x2
2
S = 2π 01 y ds = 2π 01 4 − x2 · dx = 4πx|10 = 4π.
4 − x2 _2 _1 0 1 2 x

x
46. y = r2 − x2 ⇒ y = − ⇒ y
r2 − x2
2 x2 r2 r y=Ïr@-x@
1+ y =1+ 2 2
= 2 ⇒ ds = dx, so
r −x r − x2 r − x2
2
r
S = 2π ab y dx = 2π ab r 2 − x 2 · dx = 2πr x|ab
r2 − x2 0 a b x
= 2πr (b − a)

3/2 1/2 1/2 −1/2 x

47. y = 23 1 − 12 x − 2 1 − 12 x + 43 ⇒ y = − 12 1 − 12 x + 12 1 − 12 x = 1/2
4 1 − 12 x

2 x2 (4 − x)2 4−x 4−x

⇒1+ y = 1+ = ⇒ ds = √ dx = √ √ dx ⇒
16 1 − 12 x 16 − 8x 16 − 8x 2 2 2−x

1 2 4−x
L = √ √ dx. Let u = 2 − x, so du = −dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 2, and x = 2 ⇒ u = 0. Then
2 2 0 2−x
2
1 04−2+u 1 2 1 2u 3/2 8
L =− √ 1/ 2
du = √ 2u −1/2 + u 1/2 du = √ 4u 1/2 + = ≈ 2.67 mi.
2 2 2 u 2 2 0 2 2 3 3
0
372 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral
√
√ x2 √ x 2 3x x2 √ x2
48. y = 3x − ⇒ y = 3− ⇒1+ y =1+3− + . Observe that y = 0 ⇔ 3x − =0
400 200 100 40,000 400
√ √
√ 3x x2
⇔ x = 0 or 400 3, so L = 0400 3 4 − + dx. Using the integration feature of a calculator or computer,
100 40,000
we find L ≈ 956.21 ft.
d
49. y = f (x) = 4.3403 × 10−10 x 3 − 1.5625 × 10−5 x 2 + 3000 = 1.30209 × 10−9 x 2 − 3.125 × 10−5 x, so
dx
2
L = 024,000 1 + 1.30209 × 10−9 x 2 − 3.125 × 10−5 x dx ≈ 24,223.5 ft.
50. The required area is given by 100L, where L is the arc length of the cross-section. To find L, note that y = −0.0004x 3
2 2
⇒1+ y = 1 + 0.0004x 3 = 1 + 0.00000016x 6 . Now observe that y = 0 when x ≈ 17.7828. Therefore,

L ≈ 2 017.7828 1 + 0.00000016x 6 dx ≈ 44.639, so the area is approximately 4464 ft2 .

51. y = 10 π cos π x ⇒ 1 + y 2 = 1 + π 2 cos2 π x , so W = 30 1 + π 2 cos2 π x dx ≈ 30.73 in.

10 100 10 0 100 10
52. First, suppose f (x) ≥ L for all x in [a, b] and put g (x) = f (x) − L. Then g (x) is a smooth nonnegative function on
2
[a, b]. We have g (x) = f (x). Using (10), we find S = 2π ab f (x) − L 1 + f (x) dx. If f (x) ≤ L for all x in
[a, b], and we put h (x) = L − f (x), then h is a smooth nonnegative function on [a, b]. We find h (x) = − f (x).
2 2
Using (10) again, we find S = 2π ab L − f (x) 1 + f (x) dx = −2π ab f (x) − L 1 + f (x) dx.
2
Combining the two results, we have S = 2π ab | f (x) − L| 1 + f (x) dx.

53. An equation of the line passing through (0, r1 ) and (h, r2 ) is y

(h, rª)
r − r1 r − r1 2 r − r1 2 j
y= 2 x + r1 , so y = 2 ⇒1+ y =1+ 2 . rÁ
h h h
2 − h2 2
2
Now 2 = h 2 + (r2 − r1 )2 , so 1 + y = 1 + = . Thus, 0 x
h2 h2 h

r2 − r 1 2π 1 r2 − r 1 h
S = 2π 0h x + r1 dx = x 2 + r1 x
h h h 2 h 0
2π 1 r 2 − r1 2 2π (r1 + r2 ) h
= h + r1 h = · = 2πr
h 2 h h 2
2 2
54. D = L − = 0 1+ y dx − 0 dx = 0 1+ y − 1 dx. Now

2 2 2 2 2 2
2 1+ y −1 1+ y +1 y y y y
1+ y −1= · = , so ≤ ≤ ,
1 2 2 2 2 2
1+ y +1 1+ 1+ y 2 1+ y 1+ 1+ y
2 2
1 y dx y dx 1 2
whence ≤ ≤ y dx. The desired result follows.
2 0 2 0 1+ 2 2 0
1+ y 1+ y

5.5 Concept Questions

1. a. W = Fd = 3 (10 − 0) = 30 ft-lb
b. W = Fd = −3 (10 − 0) = −30 ft-lb
c. W = Fd = 5 (0 − 0) = 0 ft-lb. The distance moved by the object in the direction of the force is 0.
 Section 5.5 Work 373

2. a. Yes. See Example 1b.

b. No. Consider the force F (x) = sin x lb applied to an object moving along the number line from x = 0 to x = 2π. The
work done is W = 02π F (x) dx = 02π sin x dx = − cos x|20π = 0, yet the force F is not 0.

5.5 Work
1. W = Fd = 50 · 4 = 200 ft-lb
2. The magnitude of the force required is F = mg = 4 (9.8) = 39.2 N, so the work done is W = Fd = (39.2) (1.5) = 58.8 J.
3. We may assume that the particle is moving in the positive direction along the x-axis. Since the force acts in opposition to
the direction of motion, we have F = −5 lb, so the work done by the force is W = Fd = (−5) (100) = −500 ft-lb.
4. W = Fd = 400 (2) = 800 ft-lb
4
5. W = −4 2 (2x − 1) dx = x 2 − x = 6 ft-lb
−2
6 4 6 6
6. W = dx = 4 x −2 dx = − 4 = 10 ft-lb
1 x2 1 x 1 3
3
7. W = 03 x 2 + 2x dx = 13 x 3 + x 2 = 18 J
0
3
8. W = 13 −3x 2 + x dx = −x 3 + 12 x 2 = − 33 + 12 32 − −13 + 12 12 = −22 J
1
2
9. W = 12 sin πx dx = − π
1 cos πx = − 2 J
π
1
2 ⇒ k = 48 lb/ft. Thus, the work done is W = 1/4 48x dx = 24x 2 1/4 = 1.5 ft-lb.
10. By Hooke’s Law, 8 = k · 12 0 0
11. By Hooke’s Law, 20 = k · 0.03 ⇒ k = 2000
3 N/m. The spring is to be stretched from 0.03 m to 0.035 m. The work done is

W = 00..06
11 2000 2000 1 x 2 0.11 = 17 J.
3 x dx = 3 2 0.06 6
0.05
kx 2 k (0.05)2
12. 3 = 00.05 kx dx ⇒ 3 = ⇒3 = ⇔ k = 2400 N/m. The required work is
2 2
0
0.04 0.04
W = 0.02 2400x dx = 1200x 2 = 1.44 J.
0.02
8 − 6 = 1 ft. By Hooke’s law, 14 = k · 1 ⇔ k = 84 lb/ft. Thus, the
13. It takes a force of 14 lb to compress the spring by 12 12 6 6
1/12 1/12 7 ≈ 0.2917 ft-lb.
work done is W = 0 (84x) dx = 42x 2 = 24
0

14. The weight per unit length of the chain is 30

5 (9.8) = 58.8 N/m, so an element of length y weighs 58.8 y N. The work
required to lift this element to a height of y ft is W = 58.8y y J, so the work done in pulling one end of the chain up 2 m
is W = 02 58.8y dy = 117.6 J.
15. The weight of a representative piece is 5 y lb and it is moved approximately (12 − y) ft. Thus,
12
W = 012 5 (12 − y) dy = 5 12y − 12 y 2 = 360 ft-lb.
0
16. The weight of a representative piece is 5 y lb and it is moved approximately (16 − y) ft. Thus,
7
W = 37 5 (16 − y) dy = 5 16y − 12 y 2 = 220 ft-lb.
3
17. The work done on the girder is W1 = 200 · 60 = 12,000 ft-lb. The work done on the chain is
60
W2 = 060 2 (60 − y) dy = 2 60y − 12 y 2 = 3600 ft-lb. Therefore, the work done is W = W1 + W2 = 15,600 ft-lb.
0
374 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

3
18. W = 03 (62.4) (4) (2) (3 − y) dy = 499.2 03 (3 − y) dy = 499.2 3y − 12 y 2 = 2246.4 ft-lb
0

6
19. W = 06 (62.4) (π) 42 (6 − y) dy = 998.4π 06 (6 − y) dy = 998.4π 6y − 12 y 2 = 17,971.2π ≈ 56,458 ft-lb
0

20. Let y denote the distance of the bucket from the bottom of the well. The time it takes for the bucket to reach this height is
t = 12 y s. The weight of the bucket and its contents at height y is 4 + (40 − 0.2t) = 44 − 0.2 12 y = 44 − 0.1y. The work
30
done is W = 030 (44 − 0.1y) dy = 44y − 0.05y 2 = 1275 ft-lb.
0

21. Let y denote the distance of the bucket from the bottom of the well. The work done in pulling the bucket (with 40 lb
of water) up 20 ft is W1 = Fd = (44) (20) = 880 ft-lb. The work done in pulling the bucket the rest of the way (see
40 40 40
Exercise 16) is W2 = 20 44 − 0.1 (y − 20) dy = 20 (46 − 0.1y) dy = 46y − 0.05y 2 = 860 ft-lb. Therefore, the
20
total work required is W = W1 + W2 = 1740 ft-lb.

22. The weight of each layer of water of thickness y ft is approximately y

8 pipe
62.4 52 y lb. Each layer is moved up a distance of approximately
6
(8 − y) ft. Thus,
6 ëy
W = 06 62.4π (25) (8 − y) dy = 62.4 (25) π 8y − 12 y 2
0
≈ 147,027 ft-lb. _5 0 5 x

23. An equation of the line passing through (0, 0) and (2, 5) is y = 52 x ⇔ y

(2, 5)
x = 25 y. The weight of a layer of water with thickness y is 5

2
approximately 1000 (9.8) π 25 y y = 1568πy 2 y N. Each layer is
ëy
moved up a distance of approximately (5 − y) m. Thus,
3 _2 _1 0 1 2 x
W = 1568π 03 y 2 (5 − y) dy = 1568π 53 y 3 − 14 y 4
0
≈ 121,919 J

24. Refer to Exercise 23. Here, the layer of water moves a distance of approximately y m, so the work done is
2
W = 1568π 02 y 2 · y dy = 1568π 14 y 4 ≈ 19,704 J.
0

25. Refer to the figure. An equation of the circle is x 2 + y 2 = 9, so y

9
x= 9 − y 2 . The weight of a layer of gasoline with thickness y ft is
7
approximately 2x · 12 · 42 y = 1008 9 − y 2 y lb. Each layer is moved
3
up approximately (9 − y) ft, so the work done is ëy
x
1/2
W = −3 3 1008 9 − y 2 (9 − y) dy _3 0 3 x

3 1/2 1/2
= 1008 −3 9 9 − y
2 dy − −3 3 y 9 − y 2 dy

The second integral is equal to 0 because the integrand is an odd function, so W = 1008 (9) −3 3 9 − y 2 dy. Observe that
the integral gives half of the area of a circle of radius 3, so W = 1008 (9) 12 π 32 ≈ 128,252 ft-lb.
 Section 5.5 Work 375

√
26. The height of the triangle is 3 ft. An equation of the line passing through y
1+Ï3
√ √ √
(0, 0) and 1, 3 is y = 3x ⇔ x = 33 y. The weight of a layer of
(1, Ï3)
water with thickness y is approximately
√ √ ëy
62.4 (2x) (8) y = 62.4 (8) 2 · 33 y y = 998.34 3 y y lb. Each layer 2 2

√
is moved up approximately 3 + 1 − y ft, so 0 x

√ √
√ √ √ √ 3 √
W = 998.34 3 0 3 y 3 + 1 − y dy = 998.34 3 3+1 y 2 − 1 y 3
2 3 = 499.2 3 + 1 ≈ 1364 ft-lb.
0

27. The semicircle is part of the circle with equation x 2 + y 2 = 4, so y

x= 4 − y 2 . The weight of a layer of water with thickness y is 1

approximately 62.4 (2x) (8) y = 998.4 4 − y 2 y lb. Each layer is _2 0 2 x

moved up approximately (1 − y) ft, so x
(x, y)
W = 998.4 −0 2 4 − y 2 (1 − y) dy. Using a calculator or computer, we
find that W ≈ 5799 ft-lb.

28. x 2 + y 2 = 25 ⇒ x = 25 − y 2 . The weight of a layer of water with y

thickness y is approximately 62.4πx 2 y = 62.4π 25 − y 2 y lb. _5 0 5 x

Each layer of water is moved up approximately (0 − y) = −y ft. We find ëy

that _5
0
W = 62.4π −0 5 25 − y 2 (−y) dy = 62.4π − 25 2 1 4
2 y + 4y −5
≈ 30,631 ft-lb

400 400
29. P V 1.4 = 100,000 ⇒ P = 100,000V −1.4 . Therefore, W = 100 100,000V −1.4 dV = 100,000 −0.4
−0.4 V ≈ 16,865 in-lb,
100
or about 1405 ft-lb.
4V0
4V kV −0.2 1 1 1.21
30. P V 1.2 = k ⇒ P = kV −1.2 , so W = V 0 kV −1.2 dV = − = 5k − ≈ k.
0 0.2
V0
V00.2 (4V0 )0.2 V00.2

31. The work done is

7 Gm 1 m 2 1 1.637×107
W = 61..37
637×10
×106
dr = 6.67 × 10−11 5.97 × 1024 5 × 105 − ≈ 1.91 × 1013 J.
r2 r 6.37×106

R+h mg R 2 R+h mg R 2 R+h 1 1 mg Rh

32. W = dr = mg R 2 r −2 dr = − = −mg R 2 − =
R r2 R r R R+h R+h
R
20,000
33. The mass of the landing module is slugs. The acceleration due to gravity on the moon is
g
20,000
gm = 16 g. Using the result of Exercise 32 with m = , gm = 16 g, R = 1100, and h = 20, we find
g
20,000 1
mgm Rh g · 6 g · 1100 · 20
W= = ≈ 65,476 mile-lb ≈ 3.46 × 108 ft-lb.
R+h 1100 + 20
q q q q 1 b q1 q2 1 1
34. W = ab F dx = 1 2 ab x −2 dx = 1 2 − = −
4πε0 4πε0 x a 4πε0 a b
376 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

qQ b −3/2 qQ 1 −1/2 b
35. W = ab F dx = x x 2 + R2 dx = (−2) x 2 + R 2
4πε0 a 4πε0 2 a
qQ 1 1
= −
4πε0 a2 + R2 b2 + R 2

36. Using Simpson’s Rule with n = 10, so that x = 10

10 = 1, we find
10 1
W ≈ 0 F (x) dx ≈ 3 [0 + 4 (0.69) + 2 (1.61) + 4 (2.28) + 2 (2.88) + 4 (3.20)
+ 2 (3.58) + 4 (3.95) + 2 (4.20) + 4 (4.38) + 4.64] ≈ 29.06 ft-lb.

x2 x2 dv v2 v2
37. W = F dx = mv dx = mv dv = 12 mv 2 = 12 mv 22 − 12 mv 12
x1 x1 dx v1 v1

0.05
38. The work done by the spring is W = 00.05 kx dx = 00.05 400x dx = 200x 2 = 0.5 J. Next, we use the result of
0
Exercise 37 with W = 0.5 and v 1 = 0 to obtain 0.5 = 12 (4) v 22 − 12 (4) 02 ⇒ v 22 = 14 ⇔ v 2 = 12 m/s.

5.6 Concept Questions

1. Pascal’s law states that the pressure exerted by a fluid at any point in a liquid is the same in all directions.

2. a. Refer to the figure. The force is F = δ cd h (y) L (y) dy, where h (y) is y
water level
the depth of the fluid at y.
d h(y)
b. The force is the pressure multiplied by the area of the plate, that is, L(y)
c
F = δh cd L (y) dy.
0 x

5.6 Fluid Pressure and Force

1. a. The force is F = 62.4 (3) (1) = 187.2 lb. y

1
b. On the longer side of the aquarium, L (y) = 3 and h (y) = 1 − y, so the
1-y
force exerted by the water is ëy

F = δ cd h (y) L (y) dy = 62.4 01 (1 − y) (3) dy 0 3 x

1
= 62.4 (3) y − 12 y 2 = 93.6 lb Figure for longer wall
0
c. The force on the shorter side is
F = δ cd h (y) L (y) dy = 62.4 01 (1 − y) (1) dy = 31.2 lb.

2. a. F = δh A = 62.4 (8) (40) (15) = 299,520 lb. y

9
b. L (y) = 15 and h (y) = 8 − y, so 8
8-y
F = δ cd h (y) L (y) dy = 62.4 08 (8 − y) (15) dy
8
= 62.4 (15) 8y − 12 y 2 = 29,952 lb 0 15 x
0
 Section 5.6 Fluid Pressure and Force 377

3. L (y) = 2x = 2 25 y = 45 y and h (y) = 5 − y, so y

5
F = δ cd h (y) L (y) dy = 62.4 05 (5 − y) 45 y dy 5-y
ëy
5
= 62.4 45 5 y2 − 1 y3
2 3 = 1040 lb
0 5
y= 2 x

_2 0 2 x

4. An equation of the line passing through (1, 0) and (2, 3) is y = 3x − 3 or y

x = 13 (y + 3), so L (y) = 2x = 23 (y + 3) and h (y) = 3 − y. Thus, 3 (2, 3)

3-y
F = δ cd h (y) L (y) dy = 62.4 03 (3 − y) 23 (y + 3) dy ëy
3
= 41.6 03 9 − y 2 dy = 41.6 9y − 13 y 3 = 748.8 lb
0 0
_2 1 2 x

5. An equation of the line passing through (5, 0) and (3, 5) is y

y = − 52 (x − 5) or x = 15 (25 − 2y), so L (y) = 2x = 25 (25 − 2y) and 5 (3, 5)

h (y) = 5 − y. Thus, 5-y

ëy
F = δ cd h (y) L (y) dy = 62.4 05 52 (5 − y) (25 − 2y) dy
5
= 24.96 05 2y 2 − 35y + 125 dy = 24.96 23 y 3 − 35 2 _5 0 5 x
2 y + 125y 0

= 6760 lb

6. x 2 + y 2 = 9 ⇒ x = 9 − y 2 , so L (y) = 2x = 2 9 − y 2 and y
h (y) = 5 − y. Thus, _3 3
0 _y x
F = δ cd h (y) L (y) dy = 62.4 −0 3 (−y) 2 9 − y 2 dy ëy

3/2 0 _3 y=-Ï9-x@
= 62.4 (2) 12 2
3 9 − y2 = 1123.2 lb
−3

√ √
7. y = x 2 − 4 ⇒ x = y + 4, so L (y) = 2x = 2 y + 4 and h (y) = −y. y
√
Thus, F = δ cd h (y) L (y) dy = 62.4 −0 4 (−y) 2 y + 4 dy. Let _2 2
u = y + 4, so du = dy. Then 0 _y x
ëy
4
F = −124.8 04 (u − 4) u 1/2 du = −124.8 25 u 5/2 − 83 u 3/2
0
= 1064.96 lb _4

8. y = − 23 9 − x 2 ⇒ x = 32 4 − y 2 , so L (y) = 2x = 3 4 − y 2 and y
_3 3
h (y) = −y. Thus,
0 _y x
ëy
F = δ cd h (y) L (y) dy = 62.4 −0 2 (−y) 3 4 − y 2 dy
_2
1/2 3/2 0 2
= −187.2 −0 2 y 4 − y 2 dy = −187.2 − 12 2 4 − y2 y=-3 Ï9-x@
3
−2
= 499.2 lb
378 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

9. If a horizontal strip lies on or above y = −3, then L (y) = 6 and y

h (y) = −y. Next, observe that an equation of the line passing through the _3 3
0 _yÁ x
points (0, −5) and (3, −3) is y = 23 x − 5 ⇒ x = 32 (y + 5). So if y lies ëyÁ

between −5 and −3, then L (y) = 2x = 3 (y + 5) and h (y) = −y. Thus, _yª

(3, _3)
F = 62.4 −−53 (−y) (3) (y + 5) dy + 62.4 −0 3 6 (−y) dy _3
ëyª
= −187.2 −−53 y 2 + 5y dy − 374.4 −0 3 y dy _5
−3 0
= −187.2 13 y 3 + 52 y 2 − 374.4 12 y 2 = 3057.6 lb
−5 −3

10. An equation of the line passing through (1, −1) and (2, 0) is y = −2 + x y
or x = y + 2. If a horizontal strip lies between y = −2 and y = −1, then _2 2
0 _yÁ x
L (y) = 2 and h (y) = −y. If a strip lies between y = −1 and y = 0, then
ëyÁ
_yª
L (y) = 2x = 2 (y + 2) and h (y) = −y. Therefore, _1 (1, _1)
ëyª
F = −124.8 −−21 y dy − 124.8 −0 1 y (y + 2) dy
−1 0 _2
= −62.4y 2 − 124.8 13 y 3 + y 2 = 270.4 lb
−2 −1

11. L (y) = 1 and h (y) = −y, so y

F = δ −−42 (−y) dy = −62.4 −−42 y dy 0 1 2 3 x

_1
−2 _y
= −62.4 12 y 2 = 374.4 lb _2
−4
_3 ëy

_4

12. Refer to the figure. Equations of the lines are as follows: y

1 : y = x − 3 ⇒ x = y + 3. 2 : y = −x − 1 ⇒ x = −y − 1. 0 1 2 3 x
3 : y = x − 5 ⇒ x = y + 5. 4 : y = −x + 1 ⇒ x = −y + 1. _1 jÁ j¢
If −2 ≤ y ≤ −1, then L (y) = (−y + 1) − (y + 3) = −2 (y + 1) and _2
h (y) = −y. _3 jª j£

If −3 ≤ y ≤ −2, then L (y) = (y + 5) − (−y − 1) = 2 (y + 3) and (2, _3)

h (y) = −y. Thus,

−1 −2
F = 124.8 −−21 y 2 + y dy − 124.8 −−32 y 2 + 3y dy = 124.8 13 y 3 + 12 y 2 − 124.8 13 y 3 + 32 y 2 = 249.6 lb.
−2 −3

13. An equation of is y = − 32 x + 12 or x = 13 (1 − 2y), so y

L (y) = x − 1 = 13 − 23 y − 1 = − 23 (y + 1). Thus, 0 1 2 3 x

_1
F = δ cd L (y) h (y) dy = −62.4 −−41 23 (y + 1) (−y) dy _2
−1 j
= 124 .8 −1 y 2 + y dy = 124.8 1 y3 + 1 y2 = 561.6 lb _3
3 −4 3 3 2 −4
_4
(3, _4)
 Section 5.6 Fluid Pressure and Force 379

14. An equation of 1 is y = −x or x = −y. An equation of 2 is y = 2x − 9 y

or x = 12 (9 + y). Thus, L (y) = 12 (9 + y) − (−y) = 32 (3 + y) and 0 1 2 3 4 x

_1
h (y) = −y, so (1, _1) (4, _1)
_2 jª
F = 62.4 −−31 32 (3 + y) (−y) dy = −62.4 32 −1 2 jÁ
−3 3y + y dy
_3
(3, _3)
= − 187 .2 3 y 2 + 1 y 3 −1 = 312 lb
2 2 3 −3

√ √ √
15. An equation of is y = 3x or x = 33 y, so L (y) = 2x = 2 3 3 y and y

h (y) = 1 − y. Thus, Ï3
√ √ 1
F = 62.4 01 2 3 3 y − y 2 dy = 124.38 3 1 y2 − 1 y3
2 3 ≈ 12.0 lb. 1
0
j

_1 0 1 x

16. An equation of is y = 3x − 3 or x = 13 (y + 3), so y

L (y) = 2x = 23 (y + 3) and h (y) = 2 − y. Thus, 3 (2, 3)

2
F = 124 .8 2 −y 2 − y + 6 dy = 124.8 − 1 y 3 − 1 y 2 + 6y 2
3 0 3 3 2 j
0
1
≈ 305.1 lb
_2 _1 0 1 2 x

17. x 2 + y 2 = 4 ⇒ x = 4 − y 2 . Thus, L (y) = 2x = 2 4 − y 2 and y

10
h (y) = 10 − y. So

F = 124.8 −2 2 (10 − y) 4 − y 2 dy 10-y

2
1/2 12
= 1248 −2 2 4 − y 2 dy − 124.8 −2 2 y 4 − y 2 dy
_2 0 2 x
Interpreting the first integral geometrically and observing that the
integrand of the second is odd, we find _2

F = 1248 12 π 22 + 0 = 2496π ≈ 7841 lb.

18. x 2 + y 2 = 4 ⇒ x = 4 − y 2 . Here L (y) = 2x = 2 4 − y 2 and y

h (y) = −y, so
_2 0 2 x
F = δ cd L (y) h (y) dy = 50 −0 2 2 4 − y 2 (−y) dy
1/2 3/2 0 y=_Ï4-x@
= −100 −0 2 y 4 − y 2 dy = −100 − 12 2
3 4 − y2
−2
= 800
3 lb
380 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

√
19. y = − 49 x 2 + 4 ⇒ x = 32 4 − y
√
a. Here L (y) = 2x = 3 4 − y and h (y) = 10 − y, so y
√ √ 4
F = 62.4 04 3 4 − y (10 − y) dy = 187.2 04 (10 − y) 4 − y dy
√
= 187.2 10 04 (4 − y)1/2 dy − 04 y 4 − y dy ≈ 8387 lb

b. Here h (y) = 20 − y, so
√ 0 x
F = 187.2 04 (20 − y) 4 − y dy = 18,370.56 lb. The gate is _3 3

designed to withstand a force of about 2 (18,370.56) ≈ 36,741 lb.

20. y = 9 − x2 ⇒ x = 9 − y2
a. F = 62.4 03 (10 − y) 2 9 − y 2 dy y
3
= 124.8 03 10 9 − y 2 dy − 124.8 03 y 9 − y 2 dy
3/2 3
= 124.8 (10) 14 π 32 − 124.8 − 12 2
3 9 − y2
0 _3 0 3 x
≈ 7699 lb
b. F = 62.4 03 (20 − y) 2 9 − y 2 dy = 124.8 03 20 9 − y 2 dy − 124.8 03 y 9 − y 2 dy ≈ 16,520 lb. Thus, the force
exerted on the gate under flood conditions is about 2 (16,520) = 33,040 lb.

21. The force exerted by the oil on the upper half of the end of the tank is y

F1 = 50 33/2 (3 − y) (2) dy = 100 33/2 (3 − y) dy 3

3
= 100 3y − 12 y 2 = 112.5 lb
3/2 3
2
The force on the lower half of the end of the tank (0 ≤ y ≤ 32 ) is due to the
pressure of the column of oil and that of the water column with height
_1 0 1 x
3 − y. Thus, the force is
2
3/2 3/2
F2 = 0 150 + 124.8 · 32 − 124.8y dy = 0 (337.2 − 124.8y) dy = 365.4 lb. The total force exerted by the mixture
on each end of the tank is F1 + F2 = 477.9 lb.

22. See the diagram in the solution to Exercise 23. The force on the side of the pool at the deep end is
9
F = 62.4 (25) 09 (9 − y) dy = 1560 9y − 12 y 2 = 63,180 lb. The force on the side of the pool at the shallow end is
0
4
F = 62.4 (25) 04 (4 − y) dy = 1560 4y − 12 y 2 = 12,480 lb. The force on each of the other two sides is
0
F = 62.4 (60) 59 (9 − y) dy + 62.4 05 x (9 − y) dy = 29,952 + 62.4 05 (12y) (9 − y) dy

= 29,952 + 53,040 = 82,992 lb

 Section 5.7 Moments and Centers of Mass 381

23. Let denote an element of arc length along the bottom of the pool. Then y

the area of a thin strip along the pool with width and length 25 is 9

A = 25 = 25 ( x)2 + ( y)2 = 25 ( x/ y)2 + 1 · y. (60, 5) 9-y

5
The force exerted by the water on this strip is
1
y= 12 x or x=12y
F = δh A = 62.4 (9 − y) (25) 1 + ( x/ y)2 y. Therefore, the 0 60 x
force exerted by the water on the bottom of the pool is
√
F = 62.4 05 (9 − y) (25) 1 + (dx/dy)2 dy. But x = 12y, so dx = 12 dy and 1 + (dx/dy)2 = 145. Finally,
√ √ 5
F = 62.4 (25) 145 05 (9 − y) dy = 62.4 (25) 145 9y − 12 y 2 ≈ 610,509 lb.
0
24. We use a coordinate system in which the water level coincides with the x-axis and the y-axis points up. Then
h (y) = −y and F = 62.4 −−52 h (y) L (y) dy = 62.4 −−52 (−y) L (y) dy. Using Simpson’s Rule with n = 6, we obtain
−2 − (−5)
F ≈ 62.4 · [0 + 4 (2.5) (2.9) + 2 (3) (3.4) + 4 (3.5) (3) + 2 (4) (2.2) + 4 (4.5) (1.7) + 5 (0)] = 1451.84 lb.
3·6

5.7 Concept Questions

1. a. See page 503.
b. See page 504.
2. See page 506.
3. See page 507.
4. See page 509.

5.7 Moments and Centers of Mass

(2) (−3) + (4) (−1) + (6) (4) 7
1. x = = m
2+4+6 6
(3) (−4) + (1) (−1) + (5) (1) + (6) (3) 2
2. x= = m
3+1+5+6 3
(4) (−5) + (3) (−3) + (2) (−2) + (4) (2) + (8) (4) 1
3. x= = m
4+3+2+4+8 3
(6) (−4) + (4) (−2) + (5) (0) + (8) (3) + (4) (6) 16
4. x= = m
6+4+5+8+4 27
5. m = 4 + 3 + 5 = 12, Mx = (4) (−2) + (3) (2) + (5) (4) = 18, M y = (4) (−3) + (3) (−1) + (5) (2) = −5,
My 5 Mx 3 5 ,3 .
x= = − cm, and y = = cm, so the center of mass is − 12 2
m 12 m 2
My 7
6. m = 2 + 4 + 1 = 7, Mx = (2) (2) + (4) (1) + (1) (−1) = 7, M y = (2) (−2) + (4) (2) + (1) (3) = 7, x = = = 1 cm,
m 7
Mx 7
and y = = = 1 cm, so the center of mass is (1, 1).
m 7
7. m = 3 + 4 + 6 + 5 = 18, Mx = (3) (−2) + (4) (3) + (6) (3) + (5) (−2) = 14,
My 5 Mx 7
M y = (3) (−3) + (4) (−2) + (6) (2) + (5) (4) = 15, x = = cm, and y = = cm, so the center of mass is
m 6 m 9
5, 7 .
6 9
382 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

8. m = 4+1+2+5 = 12, Mx = (4) (3)+(1) (4)+(2) (4)+(5) (−3) = 9, M y = (4) (−2)+(1) (−1)+(2) (1)+(5) (4) = 13,
My 13 Mx 3
x= = cm, and y = = cm, so the center of mass is 13 3
12 , 4 .
m 12 m 4

9. A = 12 (3) (2) = 3, y

1 3 x f (x) dx = 1 3 x − 2 x + 2 dx = 1 − 2 x 3 + x 2 3 = 1,
x= A 2
0 3 0 3 3 9 0
and y=_ 23 x+2
1
1 3 1 f (x) 2 dx = 1 3 1 − 2 x + 2 2 dx
y= A 0 2 3 0 2 3
3 3 0 1 2 3 x
= 16 − 32 1
3 − 23 x + 2 = 23
0

so the centroid is 1, 23 .

2
10. A = 12 x 2 dx = 13 x 3 = 73 , y
1
4
1 2 x f (x) dx = 3 2 x x 2 dx = 3 1 x 4 2 = 45 , and
x= A 1 7 1 7 4 1 28 3
2 2
1 2 1 f (x) 2 dx = 3 2 x 2
y= A dx
1 2 14 1 1
3 2 x 4 dx = 3 1 x5 2
= 14 1 14 5 = 93
70 _1 0 1 2 x
1
_1
so the centroid is 45 93
28 , 70 .

2
11. A = −2 2 4 − x 2 dx = 2 02 4 − x 2 dx = 2 4x − 13 x 3 = 32
3, y
0
4
1 2 x f (x) dx = 2 2 x 4 − x 2 dx = 3 2 4x − x 3 dx = 0
x= A −2 0 32 −2
2
because the integrand is an odd function, and
1 2 1 f (x) 2 dx = 3 2 4 − x 2 2 dx
y= A −2 2 64 −2 _3 _2 _1 0 1 2 x

3 2 3 8 3 1 5 2
= 2 64 2 4
0 16 − 8x + x dx = 32 16x − 3 x + 5 x = 85 _2
0

so the centroid is 0, 85 .
Note that we could have concluded that x = 0 by symmetry.

4
12. A = 14 x 1/2 dx = 23 x 3/2 = 14
3 ,
y
1
1 4 x f (x) dx = 3 4 x 3/2 dx = 3 2 x 5/2 4 = 93 , and
x= A 2
1 14 1 14 5 1 35
1
1 4 1 f (x) 2 dx = 3 4 1 x dx = 3 1 x 2 4 = 45 , so the
y= A 1 2 14 1 2 14 4 1 56
_1 0 1 2 3 4 x
centroid is 93 45
35 , 56 .
_1
 Section 5.7 Moments and Centers of Mass 383

13. By symmetry, we have y

1/2 3/2 1 1/2

A = 2 01 x 1 − x 2 dx = 2 − 12 2
3 1 − x2 = 23 and
0
x = 0.
1 1 1 f (x) 2 dx = 3 1 x 2 1 − x 2 dx
y= A 0 x
−1 2 4 −1 _1 1

1 1
= 2 34 2 4 3
0 x − x dx = 2
1 x3 − 1 x5
3 5 = 15
0

so the centroid is 0, 15 . Note that the centroid lies outside the region.

3
14. A = 03 x 3 dx = 14 x 4 = 81
4,
y
0
27
1 3 x f (x) dx = 4 3 x 4 dx = 4 1 x 5 3 = 12 , and
x= A 0 81 0 81 5 0 5

1 3 1 f (x) 2 dx = 2 3 x 6 dx = 2 1 x 7 3 = 54 , so the
y= A 0 2 81 0 81 7 0 7

centroid is 12 54
5 , 7 . 0 3 x

2
15. A = 02 2x − x 2 dx = x 2 − 13 x 3 = 43 , y
0
1
1 2 x f (x) dx = 3 2 x 2x − x 2 dx = 3 2 x 3 − 1 x 4 2 = 1,
x= A 0 4 0 4 3 4 0
and
1 2 1 f (x) 2 dx = 3 2 2x − x 2 2 dx
y= A 0 1 2 x
0 2 8 0
2
= 38 02 x 4 − 4x 3 + 4x 2 dx = 38 15 x 5 − x 4 + 43 x 3 = 25
0

so the centroid is 1, 25 .

16. A = π
2 (the area of a semicircle of radius 1), x = 0 by symmetry, and
y

1
1 1 1 f (x) 2 dx = 2 1 1 1 − x 2 dx
y= A −1 2 π −1 2
2 1 1 − x 2 dx = 2 x − 1 x 3 1 = 4
=π 0 π 3 0 3π

so the centroid is 0, 34π . _1 0 1 x

8
17. A = 08 x 2/3 dx = 35 x 5/3 = 96
5 ,
y
0
4
1 8 x f (x) dx = 5 8 x 5/3 dx = 5 3 x 8/3 8 = 5, and
x= A 0 96 0 96 8 3
0
1 8 1 2 5 8 4/3 2
y= A 0 2 f (x) dx = 192 0 x dx
1
5 3 x 7/3 8
= 192 7 = 10
7 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x

so the centroid is 5, 10
7 .
384 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

8
18. A = 08 4 − x 2/3 dx = 4x − 35 x 5/3 = 64
5 ,
y
0
4
1 8 x f (x) − g (x) dx = 5 8 x 4 − x 2/3 dx
x = A 0 64 0 3
8
5 8 4x − x 5/3 dx = 5 2x 2 − 3 x 8/3 2
= 64 0 64 8 = 52
0
1
and
2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
1 8 1 2 2 5 8 2 2/3
y= A 0 2 f (x) − g (x) dx = 128 0 4 − x dx

8 8
5 4/3 dx = 5 16x − 3 x 7/3 = 20
= 128 0 16 − x 128 7 0 7

so the centroid is 52 , 20
7 .

19. A = 01 f (x) − g (x) dx = 01 x 1/2 − x 2 dx y

2 x 3/2 − 1 x 3 1
= = 13 1
3 3 0
1 1 x f (x) − g (x) dx = 3 1 x x 1/2 − x 2 dx
x = A 0 0
1
= 3 01 x 3/2 − x 3 dx = 3 25 x 5/2 − 14 x 4 9
= 20 0 1 x
0
and
1 1 1 2 2 2 2
y= A 0 2 f (x) − g (x) dx = 32 01 x 1/2 − x2 dx
1
= 32 01 x − x 4 dx = 32 12 x 2 − 15 x 5 9
= 20
0
9 , 9 .
so the centroid is 20 20

1
20. A = 01 f (x) − g (x) dx = 01 x − x 3 dx = 1 x2 − 1 x4
2 4 = 14 , y
0
1 1 x f (x) − g (x) dx = 4 1 x x − x 3 dx
x = A 1
0 0
1
= 4 01 x 2 − x 4 dx = 4 13 x 3 − 15 x 5 8
= 15
0
and 0 1 x
1 1 1 2 2 2
y= A 0 2 f (x) − g (x) dx = 2 01 x 2 − x 3 dx
1
= 2 01 x 2 − x 6 dx = 2 13 x 3 − 17 x 7 8
= 21
0
8 , 8 .
so the centroid is 15 21
 Section 5.7 Moments and Centers of Mass 385

1
21. A = 01 f (x) − g (x) dx = 01 x 1/3 − x 3 dx = 3 x 4/3 − 1 x 4
4 4 = 12 , y
0
1 1 x f (x) − g (x) dx = 2 1 x x 1/3 − x 3 dx
x = A 1
0 0
1
= 2 01 x 4/3 − x 4 dx = 2 37 x 7/3 − 15 x 5 = 16
35
0
and 0 1 x
1 1 1 2 2 2 2
y= A 0 2 f (x) − g (x) dx = 01 x 1/3 − x3 dx
1
= 01 x 2/3 − x 6 dx = 3 x 5/3 − 1 x 7
5 7 = 16
35
0

so the centroid is 16 16
35 , 35 .

1 2 3
22. A = 12 x −3 dx = − 2 = , y
2x 1 8
1 2 x f (x) dx = 8 2 x 1/x 3 dx
x = A 1 3 1
1
2
= 83 12 x −2 dx = 83 (−1/x) = 43
1
and
0 1 2 x
1 2 1 2 2
y= A 1 2 f (x) dx = 43 12 x −3 dx

4 2 −6 4 1 2 31
= x dx = − 5 =
3 1 3 5x 1 120

so the centroid is 4 , 31 .
3 120

23. A = −3 1 f (x) − g (x) dx = −3 1 6 − x 2 − (3 − 2x) dx y

3 6
= −3 1 −x 2 + 2x + 3 dx = − 13 x 3 + x 2 + 3x = 32
3
−1 4
1 3 x f (x) − g (x) dx = 3 3 x −x 2 + 2x + 3 dx
x = A 2
−1 32 −1
3 3 −x 3 + 2x 2 + 3x dx _2 0 2 x
= 32 −1 _2

3 − 1 x 4 + 2 x 3 + 3 x 2 3 = 1 and
= 32 _4
4 3 2 −1
1 3 1 2 2 3 3 2 3 3 x 4 − 16x 2 + 12x + 27 dx
y= A −1 2 f (x) − g (x) dx = 64 −1 6 − x2 − (3 − 2x)2 dx = 64 −1

3 1 x 5 − 16 x 3 + 6x 2 + 27x 3 = 13 , so the centroid is 1, 13 .

= 64 5 3 −1 5 5
386 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

24. To find the points of intersection of the two graphs, we solve y

x 2 − 2x − 1 = −x 2 + 3 ⇔ 2x 2 − 2x − 4 = 2 (x − 2) (x + 1) = 0 ⇔
x = −1 or 2, so the points are (−1, 2) and (2, −1). 2

A = −2 1 −x 2 + 3 − x 2 − 2x − 1 dx 0
_2 2 x
= −2 1 −2x 2 + 2x + 4 dx = 9
_2
1 2 x f (x) − g (x) dx = 1 2 x −2x 2 + 2x + 4 dx
x = A −1 9 −1

= 19 −2 1 −2x 3 + 2x 2 + 4x dx = 12
and
1 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 2
y= A −1 2 f (x) − g (x) dx = 18 −1 −x 2 + 3 − x 2 − 2x − 1 dx = 19 −2 1 2x 3 − 4x 2 − 2x + 4 dx

= 12

so the centroid is 12 , 12 .

25. A = 12 (base) (height) = 12 · 4 · 2 = 4, x = 0 by symmetry, and y

y=2
1 2 1 2 2
y= A −2 2 f (x) − g (x) dx = 18 −2 2 22 − (|x|)2 2
2 y=_x y=x
= 18 −2 2 4 − x 2 dx = 2 18 2 2 1 1 3
0 4 − x dx = 4 4x − 3 x = 43
0 _2 _1 0 1 2 x

so the centroid is 0, 43 .

26. A = 12 · 2 · 2 + 14 π · 22 = π + 2, y

2 y=Ï4-x@
1 2 x f (x) dx
x = A −2
y=x+2
0 2 1/2 1
= π1+2 −2 x (x + 2) dx + 0 x 4 − x
2 dx = 3(π4+2)

and _2 _1 0 1 2 x
1 2 1 2 2
y= A −2 2 f (x) − g (x) dx
0 2
= 2(π1+2) 2 2 4
−2 (x + 2) dx + 0 4 − x dx = π+2

so the centroid is 3(π4+2) , π4+2 .

y
27. A = 2 · 2 + 12 π · 12 = 4 + π 8+π
2 = 2 , x = 0 by symmetry, and y=Ï1-x@
2 2 1
1 1 1
y= A f (x) − g (x) dx = 8+1π −1 1 1 − x 2 − 4 dx
−1 2
_1 0 1 x
= 8+1π −1 1 −x 2 − 3 dx = − 3(820
+π )
_1
so the centroid is 0, − 3(820
+π ) .
_2
y=_2
 Section 5.7 Moments and Centers of Mass 387

28. A = 12 · 2 · 2 + 12 π = 2 + π 4+π
2 = 2 , x = 0 by symmetry, and y
y=Ï1-x@
1 1 1 2 2 1
y= A −1 2 f (x) − g (x) dx

0 2 _1 0 1 x
= 4+1π −1 1 − x2 − (−2x − 2)2 dx
2 _1
y=_2x-2 y=2x-2
+ 01 1 − x2 − (2x − 2)2 dx

0 1 _2
= 4+1π 2 2
−1 −5x − 8x − 3 dx + 0 −5x + 8x − 3 dx
4
= − 3(4+ π)
4
so the centroid is 0, − 3(4+ π) .

29. We may take ρ = 1. y

4
Region 1 2 3
3
Mass 4 3 2 (1)
2
1,2 5, 1 9,1 (3)
Centroid 2 2 2 2 1
(2)

(4) 12 + (3) 52 + (2) 92 0 1 2 3 4 5 x

37
x= = and
4+3+2 18
(4) (2) + (3) 12 + (2) (1) 23 37 23
y= = , so the centroid is , .
4+3+2 18 18 18

30. We may take ρ = 1. y

4
Region 1 2 3 4 (4)
3 (1)
Mass 6 2 3 2
2 (3)
(2)
Centroid 1, 52 3, 32 9, 5
2 2 3, 72 1

(6) (1) + (2) (3) + (3) 92 + (2) (3) 0 1 2 3 4 5 x

63
x= = and
6+2+3+2 26
(6) 52 + (2) 32 + (3) 52 + (2) 72 5
y= = , so the centroid is
6+2+3+2 2
63 5
, .
26 2

31. We may take ρ = 1. y

1
Region 1 2 (1) (2)

Mass 4 π _1 0 1 2 x
_1
Centroid (−1, 0) (1, 0)
(4) (−1) + (π) (1) π−4 π−4
x= = and y = 0 by symmetry, so the centroid is ,0 .
4+π π+4 π+4
388 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

32. We may take ρ = 1. y

1
Region 1 2 3 (1) (2) (3)

Mass π 4 π _1 0 1 3 x
_1
Centroid (−1, 0) (1, 0) (3, 0)
(π) (−1) + (4) (1) + (π) (3)
x= = 1 and y = 0 by symmetry, so the
π+4+π
centroid is (1, 0). Note that x = 1 follows immediately by symmetry.

33. Refer to Exercise 31. We take the mass of the square region to be 4 and the mass of the circular region to be 2π. Then
(4) (−1) + (2π) (1) π−2 π−2
x= = and y = 0, so the centroid is ,0 .
4 + 2π π+2 π+2

34. Refer to Exercise 32. We take the mass of the circular region to be 3π and the mass of the square region to be 4. Then
(3π) (−1) + (4) (1) + (3π) (3)
x= = 1 and y = 0, so the centroid is (1, 0).
3π + 4 + 3π

x y b
35. + = 1 ⇒ y = − x + b. Also, A = 12 (base) (height) = 12 ab, so y
a b a
1 a 2 a b b
x = x f (x) dx = x − x + b dx y=_ ba x+b
A 0 ab 0 a
2 b b a a
= − x3 + x2 =
ab 3a 2 0 3 0 a x

1 a1 1 a b 2
2
y= f (x) dx = − x +b dx
A 0 2 ab 0 a
1 a 1 b 3 a b
= − − x +b =
ab b 3 a 3
0
a b
so the centroid is , .
3 3

2
36. x 1/2 + y 1/2 = a 1/2 ⇒ y = a 1/2 − x 1/2 = a + x − 2a 1/2 x 1/2 , so y
a a
A = 0a a + x − 2a 1/2 x 1/2 dx = ax + 12 x 2 − 2a 1/2 23 x 3/2
0
= 16 a 2 y=(a!?@-x!?@)@

Thus,
1 a x f (x) dx = 6 a x a + x − 2a 1/2 x 1/2 dx 0 a x
x = A 0 a2 0
a
= 62 12 ax 2 + 13 x 3 − 2a 1/2 25 x 5/2 = a5
a 0
and by symmetry, y = a5 , so the centroid is a5 , a5 .
 Section 5.7 Moments and Centers of Mass 389

h
37. An equation of the line passing through (0, 0) and (b, h) is y = x and an y
b (b, h)
h
equation of the line passing through (a, 0) and (b, h) is
(2b , h2) ( a+h
2 , 2)
h j£ h
y= (x − a). The area of the region is jª
b−a
jÁ
A = 12 (base) (height) = 12 ah.
0
b b hx
( a2 , 0) (a, 0) x
1 h
x = x x dx + (x − a) dx
A 0 b a a−b
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 ⎣ h 3 b h x3 ax 2
b
2 b 2h h a 2 + ab − 2b2
= x + − ⎦= ⎣ + ⎦= a+b
ah 3b 0 a−b 3 2 ah 3 6 3
a
⎡ ⎤
1 b 1 h2 b1 h 2 2 1 h 2 x3 b h 2 (x a)3 a
y= x 2 dx + (x − a)2 dx = · ⎣ · + ·
− ⎦= h
A 0 2 b2 a 2 (b − a)2 ah 2 b2 3 (b − a)2 3 3
0 b

h hx −h (2x − a)
The equations of the medians are 1 : y = − (x − a), 2 : y = , and 3 : y = .
2b − a a+b a − 2b
a+b h
Substituting x = and y = into each of the equations, you can verify that each is satisfied. This proves the result.
3 3

38. A = 01 1 − x 2 − (1 − x) dx = 01 1 − x 2 dx + 01 (−1 + x) dx. y

Using a geometric interpretation, the first integral on the right is π

4 , so
1
A= π 1 2 1 = π − 1 = π −2 .
4 + −x + 2 x 0 4 2 4

1 1x 1/2
x = A 0 1 − x2 − (1 − x) dx 0 1 x

1/2
= π4−2 01 x 1 − x 2 − x + x 2 dx

3/2 1
= π4−2 − 12 2
3 1 − x2 − 12 x 2 + 13 x 3 = 3(π2−2)
0
1 1 1 2
y= A 0 2 1 − x2 − 12 (1 − x)2 dx = π2−2 01 1 − x 2 − (1 − x)2 dx = π2−2 01 −2x 2 + 2x dx
1
= π4−2 − 13 x 3 + 12 x 2 = 3(π2−2) . This also follows by symmetry.
0
Thus, the centroid is 3(π2−2) , 3(π2−2) .

39. The area of the region is A = π 32 = 9π and its centroid is located at y

(x-4)@+y@=9
(4, 0). So r = 4 and the Theorem of Pappus gives
2
V = 2πr A = 2π (4) (9π) = 72π 2 .

0 2 4 6 x

_2
390 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

40. The cone is obtained by revolving the region shown about the y-axis. The y

area of the region is A = 12 rh. Using the result of Exercise 37, or by direct h

computation, we see that the centroid of the region is 1 r, 1 h , so using

3 3

the Theorem of Pappus, V = 2π 13 r 1rh

2 = 13 πr 2 h.
r x

41. The area of the region is y

2
A = 02 4 − 4 − x 2 dx = 02 x 2 dx = 13 x 3 = 83 and
0 4
1 2 x 4 − 4 − x2
x= A dx = 38 02 x 3 dx = 32 . Taking r = 32 and
0
2
A = 83 , the Theorem of Pappus gives V = 2π 32 8
3 = 8π.
_1 0 1 2 x

6
42. The area of the region is A = 26 (x − 2)1/2 dx = 23 (x − 2)3/2 = 16
3
y
2
1 6 x (x − 2)1/2 dx = 3 6 x (x − 2)1/2 dx = 22 (let
and x = A 2 16 2 5
2
u = x − 2). Using the Theorem of Pappus with r = 22 16
5 and A = 3 , we

have V = 2π 22 16 = 704π
5 3 15 .
0 2 4 6 x

43. By symmetry, x = 0. To find y, we proceed as follows. The area of the y

region is 12 π R 2 . The solid obtained by revolving the region about the R

x-axis is a sphere with volume 43 π R 3 . Using the Theorem of Pappus with

4R
r = y, we have 2πy 12 π R 2 = 43 π R 3 ⇒ y = . Thus, the centroid is
3π
_R 0 R x
4R
0, .
3π

44. The area of the region shown is A = 12 ah. Suppose this region is revolved y
(b, h)
about the x-axis. Then the resulting solid is made up of two cones with h

volumes V1 = 13 πh 2 b and V2 = 13 πh 2 (a − b). Thus, the volume of the

RÁ Rª
solid is V = V1 + V2 = 13 πh 2 b + 13 πh 2 (a − b) = 13 πh 2 a. Using the
0 b a x
Theorem of Pappus with r = y, we have 2πy 12 ah = 13 πh 2 a ⇒

y = 13 h.
 Section 5.7 Moments and Centers of Mass 391

x
45. y = a2 − x 2 ⇒ y = − ⇒ y
a2 − x 2 a
y=Ïa@-x@
2 x2 a2
1+ y =1+ 2 = . Thus,
a − x2 a2 − x 2
a 2
Mx = −a y 1+ y dx
_a 0 a x
a 1/2 a
= −a a2 − x 2 · 1/2
dx = 2a 2
a2 − x 2
a 2 a −1/2
and M y = −a x 1 + y dx = −a x · a a2 − x 2 dx = 0 because the integrand is odd. This also follows by

2a 2 2a 2a
symmetry. Finally, L = πa, and so y = = , and the centroid is 0, .
πa π π
3/2
46. x 2/3 + y 2/3 = a 2/3 ⇒ y = a 2/3 − x 2/3 ⇒ y

1/2 a
1/2 a 2/3 − x 2/3
y = 32 a 2/3 − x 2/3 − 23 x −1/3 = − ⇒ x@?#+y@?#=a@?#
x 1/3
2 a 2/3 − x 2/3 a 2/3
1+ y =1+ = . Therefore,
x 2/3 x
0 a x

a a a a 1/3 3/2
2
L = 0a a 1/3 x −1/3 dx = a 1/3 32 x 2/3 = 32 a, Mx = y 1+ y dx = a 2/3 − x 2/3 dx = 35 a 2 (let
0 0 0 x 1/3
3 a2
u = a 2/3 − x 2/3 .) By symmetry, M y = 35 a 2 , so x = y = 53 = 25 a and the centroid is 2 a, 2 a .
5 5
2a

47. A = 01 sin πx dx = − π 1 cos πx 1 = 2 , y

0 π
1 1 x sin πx dx = π 1 x sin πx dx = 1 . (This also follows from 1
x= A 0 2 0 2

symmetry.) y = A 1 1 1 f (x) 2 dx = π 1 sin2 πx dx ≈ 0.3927, so the

0 2 4 0
centroid is (0.5, 0.3927).
The exact value of x is 12 , by symmetry. To find the exact value of y, use 0 1 x

the trigonometric identity sin2 πx = 12 (1 − cos 2πx) to write

1 1 1
y=π π 1 π
4 0 2 (1 − cos 2πx) dx = 8 x − 2π sin 2πx 0 = 8 , so the

centroid is 12 , π
8 .
1 1 1 1 x
48. A = dx ≈ 1.5708, x = dx = 0 (by y
−1 1 + x 2 1.5708 −1 1 + x 2 1
1 1 1 1
symmetry) and y = dx ≈ 0.409, so the centroid
1.5708 −1 2 1 + x 2 2
is (0, 0.409).
_1 0 1 x
392 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

Chapter 5 Review

Concept Review
b b 2 2
1. a. a f (x) − g (x) dx b. a | f (x) − g (x)| dx 2. a. π ab f (x) dx b. π cd g (y) dy

2 2
3. π ab f (x) − g (x) dx 4. b
a A (x) dx

2 2
5. a. 2π ab x f (x) dx b. 2π cd y f (y) dy 6. a. b
a 1+ y dx b. c
d
1+ x dy

2 2
7. ax 1 + f (t) dt; [a, b]; 1+ y dx; (dx)2 + (dy)2

2 2
8. a. 2π ab f (x) 1 + f (x) dx b. 2π cd g (y) 1 + g (y) dy

9. ab F (x) dx 10. δ cd h (y) L (y) dy

2
11. a. ab ρ f (x) dx b. 12 ab ρ f (x) dx; ab ρx f (x) dx c. M y /m; Mx /m

2 2
12. A1 ab x f (x) − g (x) dx; 21A ab f (x) − g (x) dx; ab f (x) − g (x) dx

Review Exercises
2 1 2 1 2 3 2 1 2 2 √
1. A = 3
dx = x −3 dx = − 2 = 2. A = √ dx = x −1/2 dx = 2x 1/2 = 2 2−1
1 x 1 2x 1 8 1 x 1 1

y y

1 1

0 1 2 x 0 1 2 x

3. A = 01 x 2 + 2 − (x + 1) dx = 01 x 2 − x + 1 dx 4. A = 12 2x 3 − 1 − (x − 1) dx = 12 2x 3 − x dx

1 x3 − 1 x2 + x 1 2
= 3 2 = 56 = 1 x4 − 1 x2
2 2 =6
0 1
y y

2 10

_1 0
0 1 x 1 2 x
 Chapter 5 Review 393

5. To find the points of intersection, we solve 6. We solve y = x 3 and x = y 3 simultaneously to find the
2x 2 + 2x − 3 = 3x 2 + 2x − 4 ⇒ x 2 = 1 ⇒ x = ±1, so points of intersection: y = y 3
3
= y9 ⇒
the points are (−1, −3) and (1, 1).
y y 8 − 1 = 0 ⇒ y = ±1 or 0 giving the points
A = −1 1 2x 2 + 2x − 3 − 3x 2 + 2x − 4 dx
1 (−1, −1), (0, 0), and (1, 1). By symmetry,
= −1 1 −x 2 + 1 dx = − 13 x 3 + x = 43 1
−1
A = 2 01 x 1/3 − x 3 dx = 2 34 x 4/3 − 14 x 4 = 1.
y 0

1 y
(1, 1)
1
_1 0 1 x
_1
_2
_3 _2 _1 0 1 x
(_1, _3)
_4
_5 _1

√
7. y = x − 1 ⇒ x = y 2 + 1, so 8. We solve (x + 1)3 = x + 1 ⇔ x x 2 + 3x + 2 = 0 ⇔
2
A = 02 y 2 + 1 dy = 1 y3 + y
3 = 14
3
x (x + 2) (x + 1) = 0, giving x = −2, −1, or 0. So the
0
points of intersection are (−2, −1), (−1, 0), and (0, 1).
y
A = −−21 (x + 1)3 − (x + 1) dx
2
+ −0 1 (x + 1) − (x + 1)3 dx
1
−1
= 14 (x + 1)4 − 12 (x + 1)2
−2
0 2 4 6 x 0
+ 12 (x + 1)2 − 14 (x + 1)4 = 12
_1 −1
y

_2 _1 0 x

_1

2 √
9. A = 02 1 − (y − 1)2 dy = y − 13 (y − 1)3 = 43 10. A = 01 y dy + 12 y − y − 1 dy
0
1 2
y = 12 y 2 + 12 y 2 − 23 (y − 1)3/2 = 43
0 1
2 y

1 2

1
_1 0 1 x

_1 0 1 2 x

_1
394 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

11. A = −1 2 (1 − y) − y 2 − 1 dy 12. A = −0 π/2 2 x − cos x dx

1− π
π /2 2x
= −1 2 −y 2 − y + 2 dy + 0 cos x − 1 − π dx
1 0
= − 13 y 3 − 12 y 2 + 2y = 92 1 x 2 − sin x
= x−π
−2 −π /2

y 1 x 2 π /2 = π
+ sin x − x + π
0 2
1
y

0 x 2
_2 _1 1 2 3
_1
1
_2
x
_2 _1 0 1

π /2 π /4
13. A = 0 [cos x − (− sin x)] dx 14. A = −π/4 sec2 x − sin x dx
π /2 π /4
= 0 (cos x + sin x) dx = (tan x + cos x)|−π/4 = 2
π /2
= (sin x − cos x)|0 =2 y
2
y
x=¹/4
1 x=¹/2
1
x=_¹/4

0 1 2 x _1 0 1 x

_1
_1

√ √ √ 2 √
15. x+ y =1⇒ y = 1− x =1−2 x +x ⇒ 16. (y − x)2 = x 3 ⇒ y = x ± x 3/2 ⇒
√
A = 01 (1 − x) − 1 − 2 x + x dx A = 01 x + x 3/2 − x − x 3/2 dx
√ 1 1
= 01 −2x + 2 x dx = −x 2 + 43 x 3/2 = 13 = 2 01 x 3/2 dx = 45 x 5/2 = 45
0 0
y y
2
1

x
0 1 x
0 1
 Chapter 5 Review 395

√ 2 2
17. V = π −3 1 y 2 dx = π −3 1 x + 1 dx 18. V = π 01 y 2 dx = π 01 x − x 2 dx
3
= π −3 1 (x + 1) dx = π 12 x 2 + x = 8π = π 01 x 4 − 2x 3 + x 2 dx
−1
1 π
y = π 15 x 5 − 12 x 4 + 13 x 3 = 30
0
2 y
0.5
1

_1 0 1 2 3 x

_1 0 1 x

2 2
19. By symmetry, 20. V = π 01 2 − x3 − 2 − x2 dx
2
V = 2π 01 y 2 − y 3 dy = 2π 01 y 2 − y 6 dx = π 01 x 6 − x 4 − 4x 3 + 4x 2 dx
1 1 π
= 2π 13 y 3 − 17 y 7 π
= 821 = π 17 x 7 − 15 x 5 − x 4 + 43 x 3 = 29
105
0 0
y y

2
1

_1 0 1 x

_1 0 1 2 x
_1

1
21. V = 2π 01 (2 − x) x 2 − x 3 dx 22. V = 2π 01 x y dx = 2π 01 x · dx
1 + x2
= 2π 01 x 4 − 3x 3 + 2x 2 dx −1/2
= 2π 01 x 1 + x 2 dx
1 π
= 2π 15 x 5 − 34 x 4 + 23 x 3 = 730 1/2 1 √
0 = 2π 12 (2) 1 + x 2 = 2π 2−1
y 0

2 y

1
1

_1 0 1 2 x
0 1 x
396 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral
√
π /2
23. V = 2π 0 x y dx 24. V = 2π 01 [x − (−2)] 1 − x 2 − (−x + 1) dx
√
π /2
= 2π 0 x cos x 2 dx = 2π 01 (x + 2) −x 2 + x dx
√
π /2
= π sin x 2 =π = 2π 01 −x 3 − x 2 + 2x dx
0
1
y = 2π − 14 x 4 − 13 x 3 + x 2 = 56π
0
y
1

1
_Ϲ/2 Ϲ/2
0 x

_2 _1 0 1 x

25. The vertex of the parabola y = x 2 − 6x + 11 is (3, 2). An equation of the y

line passing through (1, 0) and (3, 2) is y = x − 1, so

A = 34 (x − 1) − x 2 − 6x + 11 dx = 34 −x 2 + 7x − 12 dx 2

4
= − 13 x 3 + 72 x 2 − 12x = 16
3
0 1 2 3 4 x

26. 2a 2 = 4y 2 ⇔ a 2 = 2y 2 , so the area of a cross-section is y

1 a 2 = 1 2y 2 = y 2 . Thus, A (x) = 4 − x 2 , so 2
2 2
a
V = −2 2 A (x) dx = −2 2 4 − x 2 dx = 2 02 4 − x 2 dx
2y
2 0 2 x
= 2 4x − 13 x 3 = 32
3 a
0

√
27. The height of an equilateral triangle with side a is h = 23 a, so its area is
√
A = 43 a 2 . Thus,
a
√ √ √ 50
h
2
V = 050 43 1x
5 dx = 1003 050 x 2 dx = 1003 1 x3
3 ≈ 722 m3
0
60¡
a
2

d x 2 + x 3 = 2x + 3x 2 ⇒ 1 + f (x) 2 2
28. f (x) = dx = 1 + 2x + 3x 2 = 9x 4 + 12x 3 + 4x 2 + 1, so
2
L = ab 1 + f (x) dx = 01 9x 4 + 12x 3 + 4x 2 + 1 dx.
1/2
3/2 1/2 9 − x 2/3
29. y = 9 − x 2/3 ⇒ y = 32 9 − x 2/3 − 23 x −1/3 =− ⇒
x 1/3
2 9 − x 2/3 2 27
1+ y =1+ = 9x −2/3 , so L = 127 1+ y dx = 3 127 x −1/3 dx = 92 x 2/3 = 36.
x 2/3 1
d x 2
30. f (x) = dx 1 t 3/2 − 1 dt = x 3/2 − 1 ⇒ 1 + y = 1 + x 3/2 − 1 = x 3/2 , so
2 √ 16
L = ab 1+ y dx = 116 x 3/2 dx = 116 x 3/4 dx = 47 x 7/4 = 47 (128 − 1) = 508
7 .
1
 Chapter 5 Review 397

√ 1 2 1 2y + 1
31. y = 12 x 2 ⇒ x = 2y ⇒ x = √ ⇒ 1 + x =1+ = , y
2y 2y 2y
so
√
3/2 3/2 √ 2y + 1 1
S = 2π 0 x ds = 2π 0 2y · √ dy
2y

= 2π 0
3/2
(2y + 1)1/2 dy = 2π 12 2 (2y + 1)3/2 3/2 = 14π
3 3 0
0 _2 2 x

d 2x 1/2 − x 1 1 − x 1/2
32. y = dx = −1 = ⇒
x 1/2 x 1/2
2
1 − x 1/2 x + 1 − 2x 1/2 + x 1 + 2x − 2x 1/2
2
1+ y = 1+ = = , so using a calculator or computer, we calculate
x x x
1/2
1 + 2x − 2x 1/2
S = 2π ab y ds = 2π 02 2x 1/2 − x dx ≈ 12.7102.
x 1/2
2
d 1 1 2x 3 − 1 2 2x 3 − 1 x 4 + 4x 6 − 4x 3 + 1
33. f (x) = x2 + = 2x − 2 = ⇒ 1 + f (x) = 1 + = ⇒
dx x x x2 x2 x4
b 2 1 4x 6 + x 4 − 4x 3 + 1
2
S = 2π f (x) 1 + f (x) dx = 2π x2 + dx
a 1 x x2
x3 + 1 4x 6 + x 4 − 4x 3 + 1
= 2π 12 dx
x3
2
34. W = 12 F (x) dx = 12 (x + cos πx) dx = 1 x 2 + 1 sin πx
2 π = 32 erg
1
1/6 1/6
35. By Hooke’s Law, 6 = k 18 ⇒ k = 48 lb/ft. Thus, W = 0 48x dx = 24x 2 = 23 ft-lb.
0
36. The work done on the elevator is W1 = 1200 · 20 = 24,000 ft-lb, and the work done on the chain is
20
W2 = 020 10 (20 − y) dy = 10 20y − 12 y 2 = 2000 ft-lb. Therefore, the work done in raising the elevator is
0
W1 + W2 = 26,000 ft-lb.

37. An equation of the line passing through (0, 0) and (10, 15) is y = 32 x ⇒ y
15
x = 23 y. The weight of a layer of water with thickness y is (10, 15)
2 ëy
approximately 62.4 (π) x 2 y = 62.4π 23 y y. The layer is moved
up a distance of (15 − y) ft, so
_10 0 10 x
W = 62.4π 015 (15 − y) 49 y 2 dy = 2499.6π 015 15y 2 − y 3 dy
15
= 2499.6π 5y 3 − 14 y 4 ≈ 367,566 ft-lb
0

38. x 2 + y 2 = r 2 ⇒ x = r 2 − y 2 . The force exerted by the liquid on a y

horizontal strip of width 2x is
_r 0 r x
_y
δ (−y) A = −50y (2x) y = −50y (2) r 2 − y 2 y, so
ëy
1/2 3/2 0
0
A = −100 −r y r 2 − y2 dy = −100 − 12 2 r 2 − y2 _r
3
−r
= 100 3
3 r ft-lb.
398 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

39. The force on the side at the deep end is y

7 7
F = 62.4 · 20 07 (7 − y) dy = 1248 7y − 12 y 2 = 30,576 lb. The
0
(50, 4) 7-y
force on the side at the shallow end is 4
3
F = 62.4 · 20 03 (3 − y) dy = 1248 3y − 12 y 2 = 5616 lb. The force 2
y=25 x or x= 2 y
25
0
on each of the other two sides is 0 50 x

F = 62.4 · 50 47 (7 − y) dy + 62.4 04 x (7 − y) dy

= 14,040 + 62.4 04 25
2 y (7 − y) dy = 14,040 + 27,040 = 41,080 lb.

4
40. A = 04 x 1/2 − 12 x dx = 23 x 3/2 − 14 x 2 = 43 , y
0
2
x = 34 04 x x 1/2 − 12 x dx = 34 04 x 3/2 − 12 x 2 dx
4 1
= 34 25 x 5/2 − 16 x 3 = 85 , and
0
√ 2 2 0 2 4 x
y = 34 04 21 x − 12 x dx = 38 04 x − 14 x 2 dx
_1
1 x3 4 = 1
= 38 12 x 2 − 12
0

so the centroid is 85 , 1 .

2
41. A = − 02 x 2 − 2x dx = − 13 x 3 + x 2 = 43 , x = 1 by symmetry, y
0
and
2
y = 34 · 12 02 02 − x 2 − 2x dx _1 0 1 2 x
2
= 38 02 −x 4 + 4x 3 − 4x 2 dx = 38 − 15 x 5 + x 4 − 43 x 3 = − 25
0 _1

so the centroid is 1, − 25 .

42. A = 12 π 32 = 92π , x = 0 by symmetry, and y

3
2
y = 92π · 12 −3 3 9 − x2 dx = 92π 03 9 − x 2 dx
3
= 92π 9x − 13 x 3 4
=π
0 _3 0 3 x
4 .
so the centroid is 0, π
 Chapter 5 Challenge Problems 399

43. To find the points of intersection, we solve 2x 2 − 4x = 2x − x 2 ⇔ y

3x 2 − 6x = 0 ⇔ 3x (x − 2) = 0 ⇔ x = 0 or 2, so the points are (0, 0) 1

and (2, 0).
_1 1 2 x
A = 02 2x − x 2 − 2x 2 − 4x dx = 02 −3x 2 + 6x dx _1
2 _2
= −x 3 + 3x 2 =4
0
x = 1 by symmetry, and
2 2
y = 14 · 12 02 2x − x 2 − 2x 2 − 4x dx
2
= 18 02 −3x 4 + 12x 3 − 12x 2 dx = 18 − 35 x 5 + 3x 4 − 4x 3 = − 25
0

so the centroid is 1, − 25 .

Challenge Problems
1. y = x 2 − 2x + 2 ⇒ y = 2x − 2, so the slope of the tangent line to the parabola at (a, b) is m = 2a − 2 = 2 (a − 1). An
equation of the tangent line at (a, b) is y − b = 2 (a − 1) (x − a) or y = 2 (a − 1) x − 2a (a − 1) + b. The area of the
region is
a
A = 0 x 2 − 2x + 2 − [2 (a − 1) x − 2a (a − 1) + b] dx

a 2
= 0 x − 2ax + 2 + 2a (a − 1) − b dx

1 x 3 − ax 2 + [2 + 2a (a − 1) − bx] a
= 3 = 43 a 3 − 2a 2 + 2a − ab
0

We require that A = 9. The point (a, b) lies on the parabola, so it must satisfy b = a 2 − 2a + 2. Thus, we have the
simultaneous equations
⎧
⎨ 4 a 3 − 2a 2 + 2a − ab = 9
3
⎩ b = a 2 − 2a + 2

Substituting the second equation into the first leads to 43 a 3 − 2a 2 + 2a − a a 2 − 2a + 2 = 9 ⇔ 13 a 3 = 9 ⇔ a = 3 and

b = 5.
2. To find the points of intersection of the two curves, we solve y 2 = 34 y 2 + 1 ⇔ 14 y 2 = 1 ⇔ y = ±2, so the points are
1 y3 + y 2 = 8 .
(4, −2) and (4, 2). The required area is A = −2 2 34 y 2 + 1 − y 2 dy = 2 02 − 14 y 2 + 1 dy = 2 − 12
0 3

1/2 3/2 1
3. The area of R is A = 01 x 1 − x 2 dx = − 12 2
3 1 − x2 = 13 . The area of the region bounded by
0
f (x) = x 1 − x 2 and g (x) = cx 2 is A1 = 0a x 1 − x 2 − cx 2 dx, where a is the x-coordinate of the point of
3/2 a 3/2
intersection of the graphs of f and g. Now A1 = − 12 2
3 1 − x2 − 13 cx 3 = − 13 1 − a 2 + 13 − 13 ca 3 .
0
We require that A1 = 12 A = 12 · 13 = 16 , so
3/2 3/2
− 13 1 − a 2 + 13 − 13 ca 3 = 16 ⇔ 2 1 − a2 + 2ca 3 = 1 (1)
400 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

But we also have ca 2 = a 1 − a 2 by our definition of a. This is equivalent to ca = 1 − a 2 because a = 0. Substituting

1
this into (1) gives 2c3 a 3 + 2ca 3 = 1 ⇔ a 3 = (2). But because ca = 1 − a 2 , we have c2 a 2 = 1 − a 2 ⇒
2c c2 + 1
1 1 1 √
a= , so Equation 2 implies that 3 /2
= 2
⇔ 1 + c2 = 2c ⇒ 1 + c2 = 4c2 ⇔ c = ± 33 .
1 + c2 1 + c2 2c c + 1
√ √
We reject the negative root, so c = 33 and y = 33 x 2 .

4. Place the parabola on a coordinate system as shown. If its equation is

y
y = f (x) = Ax 2 + Bx + C, then the conditions f (0) = −h,
a a
f − = 0 and f = 0 lead to the equations _a/2 0 a/2 x
2 2
a2 a a2 a
C = −h, A · − B + C = 0, A · + B + C = 0 . The
4 2 4 2
4h _h
solution is C = −h, B = 0, A = 2 , so an equation of the parabola is
a
4h 2 a a
y = 2 x − h. The average value of y over the interval − , is
a 2 2
a/2
1 a/2 4h 2 2 a/2 4h 2 2 4h x 3 2h
yav = 2
x − h dx = x − h dx = · − hx =− . Therefore, the average
a −a/2 a a 0 a2 a a2 3 3
0
2h
depth of the trough is .
3

2
5. The arc length of the graph from x = 0 to x = b is L = 0b 1 + f (x) dx. But we are given that this is equal to
2
b + 23 b3 for all b > 0; that is, 0b 1 + f (x) dx = b + 23 b3 . Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to b
2 2 2
gives 1 + f (b) = 1 + 2b2 ⇒ 1 + f (b) = 1 + 4b2 + 4b4 ⇒ f (b) = 4b2 1 + b2 ⇒ f (b) = 2b 1 + b2 ,
1/2 3/2 3/2
since b > 0. Thus, f (b) = f (b) db = 2 b 1 + b2 db = 2 · 12 · 23 1 + b2 + C = 23 1 + b2 + C.
3/2
Using the condition f (0) = 23 gives f (0) = 23 + C = 23 ⇔ C = 0, so f (x) = 23 1 + x 2 .

6. To find the area of the parabolic cross-section, suppose a parabola has

base a and height h as shown. Then it has equation v = ku 2 + h. Since it y

a a 2 4h
passes through , 0 , we have 0 = k + h ⇔ k = − 2 , so
2 2 a
4h h
v = h − 2 u 2 . The area of the cross-section is thus 0
a
a/2
a/2 a/2 4h 4u 3 x
A=2 v du = 2 h − 2 u 2 du = 2h u − 2 = 23 ah
0 0 a 3a
0
 Chapter 5 Challenge Problems 401

Using this result, we see that the area of the cross-section with base 2y is v
h
A (x) = 23 (2y) h = 43 h R 2 − x 2 (since x 2 + y 2 = R 2 ).
Therefore, the volume of the solid is
R 8h R 8h π R 2
V = −R A (x) dx = 2 0R A (x) dx = R 2 − x 2 dx = ·
3 0 3 4
_a/2 0 a/2 u
= 23 π R 2 h

since 0R R 2 − x 2 dx is equal to one-quarter the area of a circle with

radius R.

7. f (x) = x 3 − 6x 2 ⇒ f (x) = 3x 2 − 12x ⇒ f (x) = 6x − 12. Setting f (x) = 0 gives x = 0 or 4. Since

f (4) = 12 > 0, we see that f has a relative minimum at (4, −32). Also, f has an inflection point at (2, −16) obtained by
setting f (x) = 0 and examining the sign diagram for f . So the area of the specified region is A = − 24 x 3 − 6x 2 dx
4
(since f (x) < 0 on [2, 4]). Continuing, A = 24 6x 2 − x 3 dx = 2x 3 − 14 x 4 = 52.
2

8. Assume the straight edge of the semicircle is parallel to the x-axis. There y
are two cases, as shown.
4a
In the first case, the y-coordinate of the centroid of the region is b +
3π b
(see Exercise 43 in Section 5.7). Since the area of the region is 12 πa 2 , the
_a 0 a x
Theorem of Pappus gives
4a 1 πa 2 4a
V = 2πr A = 2π b + = π2 a 2 b + . y
3π 2 3π
4a
In the second case, r = b − , so
3π
b
4a 1 πa 2 4a
V = 2πr A = 2π b − 2 = π2 a 2 b − .
3π 3π _a 0 a x

x2 y2 x2 y2 a y
9. − = 1 ⇔ = 1 + ⇔x =± b2 + y 2 . To find the
a2 b2 a2 b2 b
x-coordinates of the points of intersection of the hyperbola and the line
bx − 2ay = 0, we solve the system
⎧ 0 x
⎪ 2 2
⎨ x − y =1
a2 b2
⎪
⎩ bx − 2ay = 0
402 Chapter 5 Applications of the Definite Integral

2ay (2ay/b)2 y2 4y 2 y2
We find x = . Substituting this value of x into the first equation gives − = 1 ⇔ − =1⇒
b a2 b2 b2 b2
√
y = ± 33 b. So using the method of cylindrical shells, we have
√ √
3b/3
a 2 1/2 2ay a 1 2 3/2 2 a 3 3b/3
V = 2 · 2π y b + y2 − dy = 4π b2 + y 2 − y
0 b b b 2 3 3 b 0
⎡ √ 3 ⎤ √ 3 √
2 3/2 2 2 2
a b 2 a 3b ab ⎦ a 8 3b 2 3ab ab
= 4π ⎣ b2 + − − = 4π · − −
3b 3 3 b 9 3 3b 9 27 3
√
4πab2 2 3 − 3
=
9

10. Assume the ball is obtained by revolving the region inside the circle y
x@+y@=R@
x 2 + y 2 = R 2 about the x-axis. The amount of work required to stop the ëy
rotating ball is equal to the kinetic energy of the ball. To calculate the
kinetic energy, divide the ball into concentric cylinders of thickness y. 0 x
The volume of a typical cylinder is
V = 2π (2x) y y = 4πy R 2 − y 2 y. The density of the ball is
M 3M 3M 3M
δ= 4 = . Therefore, the mass of a cylinder is m= 4πy R 2 − y 2 y = y R2 − y2 y.
π R3 4π R 3 4π R 3 R3
3
The velocity of points on the cylinder is ωy, so the energy of a cylinder is
1 3M
K = 12 ( m) (ωy)2 = y R 2 − y 2 ( y) ω 2 y 2 . Thus, the kinetic energy of the ball is
2 R3
3 Mω 2 R 3
K = y R 2 − y 2 dy. Let u = R 2 − y 2 , so du = −2y dy, y = 0 ⇒ u = R 2 , and y = R ⇒ u = 0. Then
2 R3 0
0
3Mω 2 1 0 3Mω 2 M R 2 ω2
K = − R 2 − u u 1/2 du = − 2 R 2 u 3/2 − 2 u 5/2
3 5 = .
2R 3 2 R2 4R 3 5
R2
11. The surface area of the pond when the water has depth x is A (x), so its volume is given by V (x) = 0x A (u) du. By the
dV dV dx d x dx dx
Chain Rule and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part I, = = A (u) du = A (x) .
dt dx dt dx 0 dt dt
dV dx
But we are given that = −k A (x), where k is a positive constant of proportionality. Thus, A (x) = −k A (x) ⇔
dt dt
dx
= −k. Thus, the rate at which the depth of the water decreases is a constant.
dt
w 2π
π /2 π /2
12. The area of S is 2π = πw. The area of R is given by cos θ dθ = ·4 0 cos θdθ = 2 sin θ|0 = 2 ,
2 0 2 2
area of R 2
so P = = .
area of S πw
 6 The Transcendental Functions

6.1 Concept Questions

1. See page 518. Its domain is (0, ∞) and its range is (−∞, ∞).
2. See page 519.
3. No. The function f has domain (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞), whereas the domain of g is (0, ∞).
y y
y=ln x@ y=2 ln x

_1 0 1 x 0 1 x

1 + x2 − x 1 + x2 + x
4. f (−x) = ln −x + 1 + (−x)2 = ln 1 + x 2 − x = ln ·
1 1 + x2 + x
1 −1
= ln = ln 1 + x2 + x = − ln x + 1 + x 2 = − f (x),
1 + x2 + x
so f is an odd function.

6.1 The Natural Logarithmic Function

1. a. ln 6 = ln (2 · 3) = ln 2 + ln 3 ≈ 0.6931 + 1.0986 = 1.7917
b. ln 32 = ln 3 − ln 2 ≈ 1.0986 − 0.6931 = 0.4055
20 = ln 22 · 5 · 3−1/2 = 2 ln 2 + ln 5 − 1 ln 3 ≈ 2 (0.6931) + 1.6094 − 1 (1.0986) = 2.4463
2. a. ln √
3 2 2

15 1/3
b. ln 2 = 13 [ln (3 · 5) − ln 2] = 13 (ln 3 + ln 5 − ln 2) ≈ 13 (1.0986 + 1.6094 − 0.6931) ≈ 0.6716
3. a. ln 30 = ln (2 · 3 · 5) = ln 2 + ln 3 + ln 5 ≈ 0.6931 + 1.0986 + 1.6094 = 3.4011
b. ln 7.5 = ln 15
2 = ln 3 + ln 5 − ln 2 ≈ 1.0986 + 1.6094 − 0.6931 = 2.0149
1 = ln 5−3 = −3 ln 5 ≈ −3 (1.6094) = −4.8282
4. a. ln 125

b. ln 59 = ln 5 · 3−2 = ln 5 − 2 ln 3 ≈ 1.6094 − 2 (1.0986) = −0.5878

√
5. ln 2 5 3 = ln 2 · 31/2 · 5−1 = ln 2 + 12 ln 3 − ln 5
xy
6. ln = ln x yz −1 = ln x + ln y − ln z
z
x 1/3 y 2/3
7. ln = ln x 1/3 y 2/3 z −1/2 = 13 ln x + 23 ln y − 12 ln z
z 1/2
1/2
8. ln x 2 x 2 + 1 = ln x 2 x 2 + 1 = 2 ln x + 12 ln x 2 + 1
403
404 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

x + 1 1/3 1 x +1
9. ln = ln = 13 ln (x + 1) − 13 ln (x − 1)
x −1 3 x −1
√
10. ln x |cos x| (x + 1)−1/3 = 12 ln x + ln |cos x| − 13 ln (x + 1)

11. ln 4 + ln 6 − ln 12 = ln 412
· 6 = ln 2

x2 − 1 x −1
12. ln x 2 − 1 − 2 ln (x + 1) = ln x 2 − 1 − ln (x + 1)2 = ln = ln
(x + 1)2 x +1
8
13. 3 ln 2 − 12 ln (x + 1) = ln 23 + ln (x + 1)−1/2 = ln √
x +1

1 x (x + 1)2 x (x + 1)2
14. 12 [2 ln (x + 1) + ln x − ln (x − 1)] = ln = ln
2 (x − 1) x −1

15. y 16. y 17. y

2 3 2 y=1+ln x
y=2 ln x
1 2 1
y=ln x
1
_1 0 1 2 x _1 0 1 2 x
_1 _1 0 1 2 3 _1
_1 y=ln x
_2 y=_ln x _2
y=ln x _2
_3 _3 _3
_4 _4 _4

18. y 19. y 20. y=ln |x| y

y=ln (x+1)
1 y=ln 2x 1 1

0 0 0
_1 1 2 x _2 2 4 x _4 _2 2 4 x
_1 _1 _1
y=ln x y=ln x
y=ln x
_2 _2
_3 _3 _3
_4 _4 _4

21. f (x) = ln (2x + 1). We require that 2x + 1 > 0 ⇔ x > − 12 , so D = − 12 , ∞ .

22. g (x) = ln (−x). We require that −x > 0 ⇔ x < 0, so D = (−∞, 0).

23. g (x) = ln cos x. We require that cos x > 0 ⇒ 2kπ − π π
2 < x < 2kπ + 2 for k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..
x +1 x +1
24. h (x) = ln . We require that > 0. From the sign diagram, we undefined
x −1 x −1
++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ ++ sign of (x+1)/(x-1)
see that (x + 1) / (x − 1) is positive for x < −1 and x > 1, so
x
D = (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞). _1 0 1

25. a. The graph of f is the right branch and the graph of g consists of
4 both branches.
2
b. The domain of f is (1, ∞). Since x (x − 1) is positive for x < 0
0
and for x > 1, we see that the domain of g is (−∞, 0) ∪ (1, ∞).
-2 For x > 1, f (x) = ln x + ln (x − 1) = ln x (x − 1) = g (x).
-4
-10 -5 0 5 10
 Section 6.1 The Natural Logarithmic Function 405

x
26. a. > 0 whenever x ∈ (−∞, 0) ∪ (1, ∞) (see the sign diagram). b.
x −1 2
undefined
1
+++ 0 _ _ +++ sign of x/(x-1)
0
x
0 1
-1
x
Thus, the domain of f (x) = ln is (−∞, 0) ∪ (1, ∞). The -2
x −1
-4 -2 0 2 4
domain of g (x) = 12 [ln x − ln (x − 1)] is (1, ∞) since the domain of
ln x is (0, ∞) and that of ln (x − 1) is (1, ∞).
x 1/2 1 x
For x > 1, f (x) = ln = ln = 12 [ln x − ln (x − 1)], and so f (x) = g (x) for x ∈ (1, ∞).
x −1 2 x −1
d 2
27. f (x) = ln (2x + 3) =
dx 2x + 3
2 d 2 (2x) 4x
28. g (x) = ln x 2 + 4 = 2 ln x 2 + 4 ⇒ g (x) = 2 ln x 2 + 4 = 2 = 2
dx x +4 x +4
√ 1 d 1
29. h (x) = ln x = 12 ln x ⇒ h (x) = ln x =
2 dx 2x
√ d 1
30. y = ln x = (ln x)1/2 ⇒ y = 12 (ln x)−1/2 · ln x = √
dx 2x ln x
u 1 1 1
31. g (u) = ln = ln u − ln (u + 1) ⇒ g (u) = − =
u+1 u u+1 u (u + 1)
d d 1
32. g (t) = t ln 2t ⇒ g (t) = t · ln 2t + (ln 2t) · (t) = t · + ln 2t = 1 + ln 2t
dt dt t
d d 1
33. y = x (ln x)2 ⇒ y = x (ln x)2 + (ln x)2 · (x) = x · 2 ln x · + (ln x)2 = (ln x)2 + 2 ln x
dx dx x
34. f (x) = ln x + x2 − 1 ⇒

−1/2 −1/2 x x2 − 1 + x
1 + 12 x2 − 1 (2x) 1 + x x2 − 1 1+
x2 − 1 x2 − 1 1
f (x) = 1/2
= 1/2
= = =
x + x2 − 1 x + x2 − 1 x+ x2 − 1 x+ x2 − 1 x2 − 1
1
d ln x (x + 1) − ln x x + 1 − x ln x x (1 − ln x) + 1
35. g (x) = = x = =
dx x + 1 (x + 1)2 x (x + 1)2 x (x + 1)2
x − 1 2/3 2 1 1 4
36. y = ln = 23 [ln (x − 1) − ln (x + 1)] ⇒ y = − =
x +1 3 x −1 x +1 3 x2 − 1
d
d (ln x) 1
37. f (x) = [ln (ln x)] = dx =
dx ln x x ln x
1 1
(ln 2t) − (ln t)
d ln t t t ln 2 + ln t − ln t ln 2
38. h (t) = = = =
dt ln 2t (ln 2t)2 t (ln 2t)2t (ln 2t)2
1 1 ln x + 1
39. f (x) = ln (x ln x) = ln x + ln (ln x), so using the result of Exercise 37, f (x) = + = .
x x ln x x ln x
1
40. f (x) = ln (x ln (x + 2)) = ln x + ln (ln (x + 2)), so f (x) = +
1 x + 2 = (x + 2) ln (x + 2) + x .
x ln (x + 2) x (x + 2) ln (x + 2)
406 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

d d cos (ln x)
41. g (x) = [sin (ln x)] = cos (ln x) · ln x =
dx dx x
d d 1
42. h (t) = [t sin (ln 2t)] = sin (ln 2t) + t [sin (ln 2t)] = sin (ln 2t) + t cos (ln 2t) · = sin (ln 2t) + cos (ln 2t)
dt dt t
d 2 2 d 2 − sin x
43. f (x) = x ln cos x = 2x ln cos x + x ln cos x = 2x ln cos x + x · = 2x ln cos x − x 2 tan x
dx dx cos x
d 3 sec2 3θ 3 cos 3θ 3
44. g (θ) = ln |tan 3θ| = = 2
=
dθ tan 3θ cos 3θ · sin 3θ cos 3θ sin 3θ
d sec u tan u
45. h (u) = ln |sec u| = = tan u
du sec u
d 2 2 sec (ln (2x + 3)) tan (ln (2x + 3))
46. f (x) = sec (ln (2x + 3)) = sec (ln (2x + 3)) tan (ln (2x + 3)) =
dx 2x + 3 2x + 3
sin t + 1 cos t (− sin t) 2 cos t + sin t + 1
47. g (t) = ln = ln |sin t + 1| − ln |cos t + 2| ⇒ g (t) = − =
cos t + 2 sin t + 1 cos t + 2 (sin t + 1) (cos t + 2)
x cos x
48. g (x) = ln = 12 [ln (x cos x) − 3 ln (2x + 1)] ⇒
(2x + 1)3
1 cos x − x sin x 6 (1 − 4x) cos x − x (2x + 1) sin x
g (x) = − =
2 x cos x 2x + 1 2x (2x + 1) cos x
1 1
49. ln y − x ln x = −1 ⇒ · y − ln x + x · = 0 ⇒ y = y (ln x + 1)
y x
1 y 1 1
50. ln x y − y 2 = 5 ⇒ ln x + ln y − y 2 = 5. Differentiating, we obtain + − 2yy = 0 ⇒ y − 2y =− ⇒
x y y x
y
y = .
x 2y 2 − 1
x 1 y 1 1
51. ln + x − y 2 = 0 ⇒ ln x − ln y + x − y 2 = 0. Differentiating, we obtain − + 1 − 2yy = 0 ⇒ y + 2y = 1 +
y x y y x
(x + 1) y
⇒y = .
x 2y 2 + 1
1+ y 1 1
52. ln (x + y) − cos y − x 2 = 0 ⇒ + (sin y) y − 2x = 0 ⇒ − 2x + + sin y y = 0 ⇒
x+y x+y x+y
1 − 2x (x + y) 1 + (x + y) sin y 2x (x + y) − 1
+ y =0⇒y =
x+y x+y 1 + (x + y) sin y
1 1
53. y = 2x 2 + 3x 2 ln x ⇒ y = 4x + 6x ln x + 3x 2 · = 7x + 6x ln x ⇒ y = 7 + 6 ln x + 6x · = 13 + 6 ln x. Substituting
x x
into the differential equation gives
x 2 y − 3x y + 4y = x 2 (13 + 6 ln x) − 3x (7x + 6x ln x) + 4 2x 2 + 3x 2 ln x = 0, so the equation is satisfied, and

y = 2x 2 + 3x 2 ln x is indeed a solution.
54. y = x cos (2 ln x) + 3x sin (2 ln x) ⇒
2 2
y = cos (2 ln x) + x − sin (2 ln x) · + 3 sin (2 ln x) + 3x cos (2 ln x) · = 7 cos (2 ln x) + sin (2 ln x) ⇒
x x
2 2 2 cos (2 ln x) − 14 sin (2 ln x)
y = −7 sin (2 ln x) · + cos (2 ln x) · = .
x x x
Substituting into the differential equation, we obtain
2 cos (2 ln x) − 14 sin (2 ln x)
x 2 y − x y + 5y = x 2 − x [7 cos (2 ln x) + sin (2 ln x)]
x
+ 5 [x cos (2 ln x) + 3x sin (2 ln x)] = 0
and so y = x cos (2 ln x) + 3x sin (2 ln x) is a solution.
 Section 6.1 The Natural Logarithmic Function 407

1
55. y = x ln x ⇒ y = ln x + x · = ln x + 1 ⇒ y x=1 = 1, the slope of the required tangent line. An equation of the line is
x
y − 0 = 1 (x − 1) ⇒ y = x − 1.

2x + 2yy 2+0
56. y − ln x 2 + y 2 = 0 ⇒ y − = 0. Substituting x = 1 and y = 0 into the equation gives y − = 0 or
x 2 + y2 1+0
y = 2, the slope of the required tangent line. An equation is y − 0 = 2 (x − 1) or y = 2x − 2.

57. f is continuous on the closed interval 12 , 2 . f (x) = x ln x − x ⇒

x 1 1 2
2
f (x) = ln x + x (1/x) − 1 = ln x = 0 ⇒ x = 1 is a critical number
f (x) ≈ −0.85 −1 −0.61
of f in 12 , 2 .
From the table, the absolute minimum value of f is −1 at x = 1 and its absolute maximum value is about −0.61 at x = 2.

ln x + 1
58. f is continuous on the closed interval 12 , 3 . f (x) = ⇒
x x 1 1 3
2
x (1/x) − ln x − 1 ln x
f (x) = = − 2 = 0 ⇒ x = 1. f (x) ≈ 0.61 1 0.70
x2 x
From the table, we see that the absolute minimum value of f is about 0.61 at x = 12 , and its absolute maximum value is 1 at
x = 1.

59. f (x) = x + ln x (10) y

4
(1) The domain of f is (0, ∞). (2) There is no y-intercept. The
x-intercept lies between 0 and 1. (3) There is no symmetry. 2

(4) lim f (x) = lim (x + ln x) = ∞ 0

x→∞ x→∞ _1 1 2 3 x
(5) lim f (x) = lim (x + ln x) = −∞, so x = 0 is a vertical _2
x→0+ x→0+
_4
asymptote. (6) f (x) = 1 + 1/x > 0 on (0, ∞), so f is increasing on
(0, ∞) and has no critical number. (7) f has no relative extremum.
(8) f (x) = −1/x 2 < 0 on (0, ∞), so f is concave downward on (0, ∞).
(9) f has no inflection point.

60. f (x) = x ln x − x _ _ _ _ _ 0 +++ sign of f»

(1) The domain of f is (0, ∞). (2) f (x) = x (ln x − 1) = 0 ⇒ ( x
0 1
ln x = 1, so the x-intercept is e. (3) There is no symmetry.
(10) y
(4) lim f (x) = lim (x ln x − x) = lim [x (ln x − 1)] = ∞
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞
6
(5) There is no asymptote. (6) f (x) = ln x + x (1/x) − 1 = ln x = 0
4
⇒ x = 1, so 1 is a critical number. From the sign diagram, we see that f
2
is decreasing on (0, 1) and increasing on (1, ∞). (7) f (1) = −1 is a
relative minimum value. (8) f (x) = 1/x > 0 on (0, ∞), so f is 0 2 4 6 x
concave upward on (0, ∞). (9) f has no inflection point. _2
408 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

61. f (x) = ln x 2 + 1
(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). (2) The x- and y-intercepts are 0.
(3) f (−x) = ln (−x)2 + 1 = ln x 2 + 1 = f (x), so f is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.

(4) lim f (x) = lim ln x 2 + 1 = ∞ and lim f (x) = ∞ by symmetry. (5) There is no asymptote.
x→−∞ x→−∞ x→∞
2x
(6) f (x) = 2 = 0 ⇒ x = 0, so 0 is a critical number. From the _ _ 0 +++++ 0 _ _ sign of f»»
x +1
_ _ _ _ _ 0 +++++ sign of f»
sign diagram, we see that f is decreasing on (−∞, 0) and increasing on
x
(0, ∞). (7) f (0) = 0 is a relative minimum value. _1 0 1
(10) y
x 2 + 1 (2) − 2x (2x) 2 1 − x2
3
(8) f (x) = 2
= 2
= 0 ⇒ x = ±1.
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 2
From the sign diagram, we see that f is concave downward on
1
(−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞) and concave upward on (−1, 1). (9) f has
inflection points at (−1, ln 2) and (1, ln 2). _4 _2 0 2 4 x
_1

62. f (x) = ln (cos x), − π π

2 <x < 2 +++0 _ _ _ sign of f»
( ) x
(1) The domain of f is − π π
2, 2 . (2) The x- and y-intercepts are 0. 0
_¹
2
¹
2
(3) f (−x) = ln (cos (−x)) = ln (cos x) = f (x), so f is symmetric with
(10) y
respect to the y-axis. (4) Not applicable 1
(5) lim ln (cos x) = lim ln (cos x) = −∞, so f has vertical _2 _1 1
x→−π /2 x→π /2 0 x
_1
− sin x
asymptotes at x = ± π 2. (6) f (x) = = − tan x = 0 ⇒ x = 0, _2
cos x
so 0 is a critical number. From the sign diagram, we see that f is _3
_4
increasing on − π π
2 , 0 and decreasing on 0, 2 . (7) f (0) = 0 is a
_5
relative maximum value. (8) f (x) = − sec2 x < 0 on − π π
2 , 2 , so f
is concave downward on − π π
2, 2 . (9) f has no inflection point.

63. Let f (x) = x ln x − 1. Then f (x) = ln x + x (1/x) = ln x + 1. The Newton iteration formula is
f (xn ) xn ln xn − 1 xn + 1
xn+1 = xn − = xn − = . Taking x0 = 2, we have x1 ≈ 1.771848, x2 ≈ 1.763236,
f (xn ) ln xn + 1 ln xn + 1
x3 ≈ 1.763223 ≈ x4 , so the root is approximately 1.76322.

1 x +1
64. Let f (x) = ln x + x − 3. Then f (x) = +1 = . The Newton iteration formula is
x x
f (xn ) ln xn + xn − 3 xn (4 − ln xn )
xn+1 = xn − = xn − = . Taking x0 = 2, we find x1 ≈ 2.204569, x2 ≈ 2.207939,
f (xn ) xn + 1 xn + 1
xn
and x3 ≈ 2.207940 ≈ x4 , so the root is approximately 2.20794.

3 y 2·2 3 · 6x 2 24x 2 + 9x − 8
65. y = (2x + 1)2 3x 2 − 4 ⇒ ln y = 2 ln (2x + 1) + 3 ln 3x 2 − 4 ⇒ = + 2 =
y 2x + 1 3x − 4 (2x + 1) 3x 2 − 4
2
⇒ y = 2 (2x + 1) 3x 2 − 4 24x 2 + 9x − 8
 Section 6.1 The Natural Logarithmic Function 409
√
x 2 2x − 4 y 2 1 2 x 2 + 5x − 8
66. y = ⇒ ln y = 2 ln x + 12 ln (2x − 4) − 2 ln (x + 1) ⇒ = + − = ⇒
(x + 1)2 y x 2x − 4 x +1 2x (x − 2) (x + 1)
x x 2 + 5x − 8
y =√
2x − 4 (x + 1)3
x −1 1 x −1
67. y = 2
3
⇒ ln y = ln 2 = 13 ln (x − 1) − ln x 2 + 1 ⇒
x +1 3 x +1
y 1 1 2x x 2 − 2x − 1 x 2 − 2x − 1
= − 2 =− ⇒ y = − 4/3
y 3 x −1 x +1 3 (x − 1) x 2 + 1 3 (x − 1)2/3 x 2 + 1

sin2 x y cos x 2 1 sec2 x

68. y = √ ⇒ ln y = 2 ln sin x − 2 ln x − 12 ln (1 + tan x) ⇒ =2 − − · ⇒
x 2 1 + tan x y sin x x 2 1 + tan x
2 sec2 x sin2 x
y = 2 cot x − − √
x 2 (1 + tan x) x 2 1 + tan x

69. Taking logarithms of both sides gives ln y = ln x x = x ln x, so yy = x 1x + ln x = 1 + ln x ⇒ y = (ln x + 1) x x .

d x x + x x d (ln x + 1) = (ln x + 1) (ln x + 1) x x + x x 1 = x (ln x + 1)2 + 1 x x−1 .
Therefore, y = (ln x + 1) dx dx x
x x
70. y = x x ⇒ ln y = ln x x = x x ln x. Using the result of Exercise 69, we have
d x x ln x = x x d (ln x) + ln x d x x = x x 1 + ln x (ln x + 1) x x = [x (ln x) (ln x + 1) + 1] x x−1 .
y = dx dx dx x

2
71. dx = 23 ln |x| + C
3x
1 1 du
72. Let u = 2x + 3. Then du = 2 dx, so dx = = 12 ln |u| + C = 12 ln |2x + 3| + C.
2x + 3 2 u

73. Let u = 3x 3 + 1. Then du = 9x 2 dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 1, and x = 1 ⇒ u = 4. Thus,

1 x2 1 4 du 4
dx = = 19 ln |u| = 19 ln 4 = 29 ln 2.
0 3x 3 + 1 9 1 u 1

3 x2 − x + 3 3 3 3
74. dx = x −1+ dx = 1 x 2 − x + 3 ln |x| = 2 + 3 ln 3
x x 2 1
1 1
1 du
75. Let u = x 1/3 + 1. Then du = 13 x −2/3 dx, so dx = 3 = 3 ln |u| + C = 3 ln x 1/3 + 1 + C.
x 2/3 x 1/3 + 1 u

dx
76. Let u = ln x. Then du = , x = 1 ⇒ u = 0, and x = 3 ⇒ u = ln 3. Thus,
x
3 ln x ln 3 ln 3
dx = u du = 12 u 2 = 12 (ln 3)2 .
1 x 0 0

1 dxdu
77. Let u = ln x. Then du = dx = , so
= ln |u| + C = ln |ln x| + C.
x ln x x u
√
dx 1 + ln x √
78. Let u = 1 + ln x. Then du = , so dx = u du = 23 u 3/2 + C = 23 (1 + ln x)3/2 + C.
x x
cos x du
79. Let u = 1 + sin x. Then du = cos x dx, so dx = = ln |u| + C = ln |1 + sin x| + C.
1 + sin x u

sec2 3x 1 du
80. Let u = 4 −tan 3x. Then du = −3 sec2 3x dx, so dx = − = − 13 ln |u| +C = − 13 ln |4 − tan 3x| +C.
4 − tan 3x 3 u
410 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

sec θ + cos θ sec θ + tan θ sec2 θ + sec θ tan θ

81. (sec θ + cos θ) dθ = · dθ = dθ + cos θ dθ.
1 sec θ + tan θ sec θ + tan θ
To evaluate the first integral, we let u = sec θ + tan θ. Then du = sec θ tan θ + sec2 θ dθ, so
du
(sec θ + tan θ) dθ = + cos θ dθ = ln |u| + sin θ + C = ln |sec θ + tan θ| + sin θ + C.
u
82. Let u = 1 + sin2 x. Then du = 2 sin x cos x dx = sin 2x dx, so
sin 2x du
2
dx = = ln |u| + C = ln 1 + sin2 x + C.
1 + sin x u
1 + ln x du
83. Let u = 2 + x ln x. Then du = (ln x + 1) dx, so dx = = ln |u| + C = ln |2 + x ln x| + C.
2 + x ln x u
√
dx ln x 1 + ln x
84. Let u = ln x. Then du = , so I = dx = u (1 + u)1/2 du. Now let v = 1 + u. Then dv = du and
x x
I = (v − 1) v 1/2 dv = v 3/2 − v 1/2 dv = 25 v 5/2 − 23 v 3/2 + C = 15
2 v 3/2 (3v − 5) + C

2 (1 + u)3/2 (3u − 2) + C = 2 (ln x + 1)3/2 (3 ln x − 2) + C

= 15 15
0 x2 x 1 x x2
85. A = − − 2 dx + + dx y
−1 2 x +1 0 x2 + 1 2 1
x=1
0 1
= − 16 x 3 − 12 ln x 2 + 1 + 12 ln x 2 + 1 + 16 x 3
−1 0
= − 16 + 12 ln 2 + 12 ln 2 + 16 = ln 2 0
_1 1 x

_1
2 2 x
86. V = 2π x y dx = 2π dx y
0 0 x2 + 1
2
= 2π 12 ln x 2 + 1 = π ln 5 1
0 y=
x@+1

0 1 x
2

87. y = 12 x x 2 − 1 − ln x + x2 − 1 ⇒
⎡ x ⎤
1+ 2
⎢ x x2 − 1 ⎥ 2
y = 12 ⎢ 2 ⎥= x −1 = x 2 − 1, so 1 + y
2
x2 − 1 = x 2 and
⎣ x −1+x · − ⎦ =1+
x2 − 1 x+ x2 − 1 x2 − 1

2 3
L = 13 1+ y dx = 13 x dx = 12 x 2 = 4.
1
sin x 2 2 √
88. y = ln cos x ⇒ y = − = − tan x ⇒ 1 + y = 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x ⇒ 1 + y = sec2 x = sec x
cos x
π /4 π /4 sec x + tan x π /4 sec2 x + sec x tan x
(since 0 ≤ x ≤ π4 ). Thus, L = sec x dx = sec x · dx = dx.
0 0 sec x + tan x 0 sec x + tan x
√
Let u = sec x + tan x. Then du = sec x tan x + sec2 x dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 1, and x = π 4 ⇒ u = 1 + 2. Thus,
√
1+ 2 du √ √
L= = ln u|11+ 2 = ln 1 + 2 ≈ 0.8814.
1 u
 Section 6.1 The Natural Logarithmic Function 411

21 1 2 1 1
89. A = dx = ln x|21 = ln 2, x = x · dx = ≈ 1.44, and y
x=1 x=2
1 x A 1 x ln 2
1 21 1 2 1 1 1 2
2
y= f (x) dx = dx = − 1
A 1 2 2 ln 2 1 x 2 2 ln 2 x 1
1 y=1/x
= ≈ 0.36
4 ln 2
Thus, the centroid is approximately (1.44, 0.36). 0 1 2 x

1 + (−x) 1−x 1 + x −1 1+x

90. f (−x) = (−x)2 ln = x 2 ln = x 2 ln = −x 2 ln = − f (x), so the integrand is odd. The
1 − (−x) 1+x 1−x 1−x
result follows.
dy
91. dx d x 2 ln t dt = d c x2 d x x2 2 d x2
= dx x dx x ln t dt + c ln t dt = dx − c ln t dt + c ln t dt = − ln x + ln x dx

= − ln x + 2x ln x 2 = (4x − 1) ln x
x 2 dt 2 2 dy d 3
92. a. y = = ln |t||2x/x = ln x 2 − ln = 2 ln x − ln 2 + ln x = 3 ln x − ln 2, so = (3 ln x − ln 2) = .
2/x t x dx dx x
2 x 2 dt 2/x dt 2
dy d x dt d c dt d x dt 1 d 2 1 d
b. = = + = − + =− + 2 x2
dx dx 2/x t dx 2/x t c t dx c t c t 2/x dx x x dx
x 2 1 1 2 3
= − − 2 + 2 (2x) = + =
2 x x x x x
20 20 1056t
93. The distance traveled is S = v (t) dt = dt. Let u = t 2 + 36. Then du = 2t dt, t = 0 ⇒ u = 36, and
0 0 t 2 + 36
1056 436 du
t = 20 ⇒ u = 436. Thus, S = = 528 ln u|436
36 = 528 (ln 436 − ln 36) ≈ 1317 ft.
2 36 u
dx d b M + m − at
94. a. v = = bt + (M + m − at) ln − 12 gt 2
dt dt a M +m
M + m − at b −a M + m − at
= b − b ln + (M + m − at) − gt = −b ln − gt
M +m a M + m − at M +m
dv −a ab
The acceleration is A = = −b −g = − g.
dt M + m − at M + m − at
M +m−m m M gm
b. v|t=m/a = −b ln −g = −b ln −
M +m a M +m a
ab ab
A|t=m/a = −g = −g
M + m − a (m/a) M
dx d 1 1 v0 k v0
95. a. v = = ln (v 0 kt + 1) = = ⇒ 96. a. 40
dt dt k k v 0 kt + 1 v 0 kt + 1
dv d v0 d
a= = = v0 (v 0 kt + 1)−1
dt dt v 0 kt + 1 dt
20
kv 02
= v 0 (−1) (v 0 kt + 1)−2 (v 0 k) = −
(v 0 kt + 1)2
b. From part a, we see that a = −kv 2 , and the result follows. 0
0 5 10
v0 1
c. From part a, v = . But x = ln (v 0 kt + 1) ⇒
v 0 kt + 1 k b. Using a calculator or computer, we find
kx v0 −kx the radius to be 36.8.
v 0 kt + 1 = e , so v = kx = v 0 e .
e
 412 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

97. a. 100
b. Using a calculator to find the point of intersection of the graph of f and
the line y = 25, we find the amount to be $35,038.78 per year.

c. lim f (x) = ∞. If Christine

50 x→25,000+
withdraws $25,000 annually, she will be
withdrawing only the interest and so the
0
30000 40000 50000 account will never be depleted.

98. f (x) = 7.2956 ln 0.0645012x 0.95 + 1 ⇒

d
dx 0.0645012x 0.95 + 1 7.2956 (0.0645012) 0.95x −0.05 0.4470462
f (x) = 7.2956 · = ≈ 0.05 , so
0.0645012x 0.95 + 1 0.0645012x 0.95 + 1 x 0.0645012x 0.95 + 1
f (100) ≈ 0.05799, representing approximately 0.0580%/kg, and f (500) ≈ 0.01329, representing 0.0133%/kg.
y Ax C A
99. Differentiating the given equation implicitly gives −C + Dy = − Bx ⇒ D− y = −B x ⇒
y x y x
Dy − C A − Bx (A − Bx) yx
y = x ⇒y = .
y x (Dy − C) x
k V1 V1 1 V1
V
100. pV = k ⇒ p = , so W = p dV = k dV = k ln V |V1 = k (ln V1 − ln V0 ) = k ln .
V V0 V0 V 0 V0

an 2 n RT an 2
101. P+ (V − nb) = n RT ⇒ P = − 2 , so
V2 V − nb V
V1
V1 V1 n RT an 2
W = P dV = − an 2 V −2 d V = n RT ln (V − nb) +
V0 V0 V − nb V
V0
an 2 an 2
= n RT ln (V1 − nb) + − n RT ln (V0 − nb) +
V1 V0
V − nb V − V1
= n RT ln 1 + an 2 0
V0 − nb V0 V1
If a = b = 0, then W = n RT ln (V1 /V0 ) = k ln (V1 /V0 ), where k = n RT . This is the result obtained in Exercise 100.
dV −q Q d
102. F = −q = ln a 2 + x 2 + a − ln a2 + x 2 − a
dx 8πε0 a dx
⎛ x x ⎞
⎡ ⎤
qQ ⎜ ⎜ a 2 + x2 a 2 + x2 ⎟
⎟=− q Q x ⎣ a2 + x 2 − a − a2 + x 2 − a ⎦
=− −
8πε0 a ⎝ a 2 + x 2 + a a2 + x 2 − a
⎠ 8πε0 a a 2 + x 2 a2 + x 2 + a a2 + x 2 − a

qQ x −2a qQ
=− =
8πε0 a a2 + x 2 x2 4πε0 x a 2 + x 2
1 r2 r r (T − T1 ) 1 1 1 r r (T − T1 ) r r2
103. Tav = T1 + 1 2 2 − dr = T1 r + 1 2 2 ln r −
r2 − r1 r1 r1 − r2 r r1 r 2 − r1 r1 − r2 r1 r1
1 r1r2 (T2 − T1 ) r2 r1 r2 (T2 − T1 )
= T1r2 + ln r2 − − T1 r1 + (ln r1 − 1)
r2 − r1 r1 − r2 r1 r 1 − r2
1 r r (T − T1 ) r2 r r (T − T ) r r (T − T1 )
= (r2 − r1 ) T1 + 1 2 2 ln + r2 (T2 − T1 ) = T1 + 1 2 1 2 2 ln 2 + 2 2
r2 − r1 r1 − r2 r1 (r2 − r1 ) r1 r 2 − r1
8 1250 8
104. With m = 1250, k = 20, v 1 = 16, and v 2 = 8, we find T = − 16 dv = − 125
2 ln v = 125
2 ln 2 ≈ 43.3 s.
20v 16
 Section 6.1 The Natural Logarithmic Function 413

p
105. We differentiate V t = p − k ln 1 − with respect to t, obtaining
x0
1 dp
−
dp x0 dt dp k dp x0 − p + k dp V (x0 − p)
V = −k p = dt 1 + x − p = , so = .
dt 1− 0 dt x0 − p dt x0 − p + k
x0
W
= 1.84 ⇔ W = 1.84W .
106. ln W = ln 2.4 + 1.84h. Differentiating this equation implicitly with respect to h yields
W
Therefore, W ≈ dW = W dh = 1.84W dh. When h = 1, ln W = ln 2.4 + 1.84 (1) ≈ 2.71547 ⇒ W = 15.11. So, with
dh = h = 0.1, we have W = (1.84) (15.11) (0.1) ≈ 2.78, and so the weight of the child increases by approximately
2.78 kg.
107. 12 ln x 2 dx = 2 12 ln x dx. Using Simpson’s Rule witn n = 8, so that x = 2−1 1
8 = 8 = 0.125, we have
2 2 2 · 0.125 [ln 1 + 4 ln 1.125 + 2 ln 1.25 + 4 ln 1.375 + 2 ln 1.5 + 4 ln 1.625 + 2 ln 1.75 + 4 ln 1.875 + ln 2]
1 ln x dx ≈ 3

≈ 0.7726
f (x) = ln x 2 ⇒ f (x) = 2/x ⇒ f (x) = −2/x 2 ⇒ f (x) = 4/x 3 ⇒ f (4) (x) = −12/x 4 . Since f (4) is negative and
12 (2 − 1)5
increasing on [1, 2], M = | f (1)| = 12, so E ≤ ≈ 1.63 × 10−5 .
180 · 84
π sin (π ln x)
108. 1
y = cos (π ln x) ⇒ y = − ⇒
x

2 π 2 sin2 (π ln x)
1+ y = 1+ . Using a calculator or computer, we
x2
0
2 x 2 + π2 sin2 (π ln x)
find that L = dx ≈ 1.889.
1 x
1.0 1.5 2.0

109. False. Take a = 2 and b = 1. Then ln a − ln b = ln 2 − ln 1 = ln 2, but ln (a − b) = ln (2 − 1) = ln 1 = 0, so

ln a − ln b = ln (a − b).
110. False. Take x = e. Then (ln x)3 = (ln e)3 = 13 = 1, but 3 ln x = 3 ln e = 3 · 1 = 3.
⎧
⎨ ln x if x > 0
111. True. If x = 0, then f (x) = ln |x| =
⎩ ln (−x) if x < 0

112. True. f (x) = ln x is increasing and so 0 < a < b ⇒ f (a) < f (b).
1 1
113. True. g (x) = ln x is continuous on (1, ∞) and g (x) = 0 on (1, ∞), so f (x) = = is continuous on (1, ∞).
g (x) ln x
d (ln 5) = 0.
114. False. f (x) = ln 5 is a constant function, so f (x) = dx
115. False. The integrand is not defined at x = 2, so neither integral is defined.
116. False. The integrand f (x) = 1/x is not defined at x = 0, which is in the interval of integration [−2, 2].
414 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

6.2 Concept Questions

1. a. See page 535. The function f (x) = x 3 is one-to-one on (−∞, ∞).
b. See page 535.

2. a. f f −1 (x) = x for every x in [c, d] and b. y

d y=f Ð!(x)
f −1 ( f (x)) = x for every x in [a, b].
y=f(x)

a b x
3. a. See page 533.
b. See pages 533 and 534.
4. See page 537.

6.2 Inverse Functions

√ √ 3
1. f (g (x)) = f 3
3x = 13 3 3x = 13 (3x) = x and g ( f (x)) = g 13 x 3 = 3
3 13 x 3 = x.

1 1 1 1
2. f (g (x)) = f = = x and g ( f (x)) = g = = x.
x 1/x x 1/x
x −3 x −3 (2x + 3) − 3
3. f (g (x)) = f =2 + 3 = x and g ( f (x)) = g (2x + 3) = = x.
2 2 2
√ √ 2
4. f (g (x)) = f − x − 1 = − x − 1 + 1 = (x − 1) + 1 = x and
√
g ( f (x)) = g x 2 + 1 = − x 2 + 1 − 1 = − x 2 = − (−x) = x (since x ≤ 0).
2/3 2/3
5. f (g (x)) = f 1
8 x 3/2 − 8 = 4 18 x 3/2 − 8 + 1 = 4 18 x 3/2 = x and
3/2
g ( f (x)) = g 4 (x + 1)2/3 = 18 4 (x + 1)2/3 − 8 = 18 [8 (x + 1) − 8] = x.

x −1 2x 1+x 2x
x −1 1+ 1 + x −1
6. f (g (x)) = f = x + 1 = x + 1 = x and g ( f (x)) = g = 1−x = 1 − x = x.
x +1 x −1 2 1−x 1+x 2
1− +1
x +1 x +1 1−x 1−x
7. f is one-to-one since there is no horizontal line that cuts the graph of f at more than one point.
8. f is not one-to-one. The horizontal line shown cuts the 9. f is not one-to-one. The horizontal line shown cuts the
graph of f at three points. graph of f at infinitely many points.
y y

0 x 0 x

10. f is one-to-one. There is no horizontal line that cuts the graph of f at more than one point.
11. f is not one-to-one because there is at least one horizontal line that cuts the graph of f at infinitely many points.
 Section 6.2 Inverse Functions 415

12. f is not one-to-one. The horizontal line shown cuts the 13. f is one-to-one. Any horizontal line cuts the graph of f at
graph of f at more than one point. exactly one point.
y

0 x

√
14. f (x) = −x 2 + 2x − 3 is not one-to-one. The horizontal 15. f (x) = 1 − x is one-to-one. There is no horizontal line
line y = −3 cuts the graph of f at two points. that cuts the graph of f at more than one point.
y y
1
2
_2 _1 0 1 2 x
_1
1
_2

y=_3 0 x
_4 _5 _4 _3 _2 _1 1

_5 _1

16. f (x) = x 3 + x + 2 is one-to-one. Any horizontal line cuts 17. f (x) = −x 4 + 16 is not one-to-one. The horizontal line
the graph of f at exactly one point. y = 5 cuts the graph of f at two points.
y y

4 15
3 10
y=5
2 5
1
_3 _2 _1 0 1 2 x
_5
_2 _1 0 1 x
_1 _10

18. f (x) = |x + 1| − |x| is not one-to-one. The 19. By the definition of inverse functions, f −1 (5) = 2.
horizontal line y = 1 cuts the graph of f at infinitely
many points. 20. By definition, f f −1 (7) = 7.

y
21. By inspection f (0) = −1, so f −1 (−1) = 0.
1
y=1
22. By inspection f (0) = 2, so f −1 (2) = 0.

_2 _1 0 1 x
23. By inspection f π
6 = 1, so f
−1 (1) = π .
6
_1
24. By inspection f (0) = 2, so f −1 (2) = 0.

25. By inspection f π π
4 = cot 2 = 0, so f
−1 (0) = π .
4

26. By inspection f (1) = 1, so f −1 (1) = 1.

416 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

27. y=f Ð!(x) 28. y

y y=f Ð!(x)
y=f(x)
1

1
y=f(x)
_1 1 x

_1
0 1 x

√
29. Put y = 3x − 2. Then x = 13 (y + 2), so 30. Put y = x 2 . Then x = − y (since x ≤ 0), so
√
x +2 f −1 (x) = − x.
f −1 (x) = .
3 y
y
1
2
y=x@
x+2
y=
3
_1 0 1 x
_2 0 2 x
y=_Ïx
y=3x-2 _1
_2

√ √
31. Put y = x 3 + 1. Then x = 3
y − 1, so 32. Put y = 2 x + 3. Then x = 14 y 2 − 3, so
√
f −1 (x) = 3 x − 1. f −1 (x) = 14 x 2 − 3, x ≥ 0.
y
y
y=41 x@-3
2
10
y=x#+1

y=Îx-1 y=2Ïx+3
_2 _1 0 1 2 x
_1
0 10 x
_2

33. Put y = 9 − x 2 , x ≥ 0. Then x = 9 − y 2 , so 34. Put y = x 3/5 + 1 ⇒ x = (y − 1)5/3 , so

f −1 (x) = 9 − x 2 , x ≥ 0. f −1 (x) = (x − 1)5/3 .
y y
4

3 2
y=Ï9-x@
_4 _2 0 2 4 x

y=x#?%+1 _2
0 3 x
_4
y=(x-1)%?#
 Section 6.2 Inverse Functions 417

√ 1 1 1
35. Put y = 3
x − 1. Then x − 1 = y 3 ⇔ x = y 3 + 1, so 36. Put y = 1 − . Then = 1 − y ⇔ x = , so
x x 1− y
f −1 (x) = x 3 + 1. 1
f −1 (x) = .
1−x

2 4

2
0
0

-2 -2

-4
-2 0 2 -4 -2 0 2 4

x x x2
37. Put y = 2 . Then x 2 + 1 y = x ⇔ 38. Put y = . Then y 2 = 2 ⇔
x +1 x2 + 1 x +1
1± 1 − 4y 2 y2 x 2 + 1 = x 2 ⇔ y2 x 2 + y2 = x 2 ⇔
yx 2 − x + y = 0 ⇔ x = . Since
2y
y
− 12 ≤ x ≤ 12 , we take the root with the negative sign, so x 2 1 − y2 = y2 ⇒ x = , so
1 − y2
√ √
1− 1 − 4x 2 x
f −1 (x) = . Since f ± 12 = ± 25 , f −1 (x) = , − 22 ≤ x ≤ 22 .
2x 1−x 2

f −1 (x) has domain − 25 , 25 .

1

0.5
0

0.0

-1
-0.5 -1 0 1

-0.5 0.0 0.5

39. If y = 2x − 1, −∞ < x < 1, then x = 1 (y + 1) ⇒ f −1 (x) = 1 (x + 1), −∞ < x < 1.

2 2
√
If y = x, 1 ≤ x < 4, then x = y 2 ⇒ f −1 (x) = x 2 , 1 ≤ x < 2.
√ √
If y = 12 x 2 − 6, 4 ≤ x < ∞, then x 2 = 2y + 12 ⇒ x = 2y + 12, so f −1 (x) = 2x + 12, 2 ≤ x < ∞.
⎧
⎪ x +1
⎪ if x < 1
⎪
⎨ 2
Therefore, f −1 (x) = x 2 if 1 ≤ x < 2 The domain of f −1 is (−∞, ∞).
⎪
⎪
⎪ √
⎩ 2x + 12 if x ≥ 2
418 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

2
40. a. f (g (x)) = f 1 + 5 −x = − 12 + 5 −x + 1 + 5 −x +1
2 4 4 2 4

= − 14 − 5 −x− 5 +x+ 1 +
4 4 2
5 −x +1= x
4

g ( f (x)) = g −x 2 + x + 1 = 12 + 5 + x2 − x − 1 = 1 +
4 2 x 2 − x + 14
2
= 12 + x − 12 = 12 + x − 12 = x

b. −x 2 + x + 1 = 12 + 54 − x ⇒ f (x) = g (x). The equation is found by solving y = f (x) and y = g (x)

simultaneously, but f and g are inverse functions, so their graphs intersect at y = x. Setting f (x) = x gives
−x 2 + x + 1 = x ⇒ −x 2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ x = ±1. We reject the negative root since y must be positive, so x = 1.
41. a. F = 95 C + 32 ⇒ 95 C = F − 32 ⇒ C = 59 (F − 32), and so C = f −1 (F) = 59 (F − 32). This formula gives the
temperature C in degrees Celsius as a function of the temperature F in degrees Fahrenheit.
b. We require that 59 (F − 32) ≥ −273.15 ⇔ F ≥ 32 − 95 (273.15) = −459.67, so the domain of f −1 is [−459.67, ∞).
√
−1 ± 1 + 8y
42. Put y = 12 t 2 + 12 t ⇒ t 2 + t − 2y = 0 ⇒ t = . Since t must be nonnegative, we take
2
√
−1 + 1 + 8h
t = f −1 (h) = . This gives the time when the balloon’s altitude is h.
2
√ √
−1 + 1 + 8 (120) −1 + 1 + 8 (210)
t1 = f −1 (120) = = 15 s and t2 = f −1 (210) = = 20 s, so the balloon’s altitude is
2 2
between 120 ft and 210 ft when t lies between 15 s and 20 s.
y 10/3 10 y 10/3
43. a. Put y = 10.72 (0.9t + 10)3/10 . Then 0.9t + 10 = ⇒t = − 10 , so
10.72 9 10.72
10 p 10/3
f −1 ( p) = − 10 .
9 10.72
10 25 10/3
b. f −1 (25) = − 10 ≈ 7.58, so the proportion of of Americans aged 55 and over will be 25% around
9 10.72
the middle of 2007.
m0 v2 m0 2 v2 m0 2 m0 2
44. a. m = ⇒1− 2 = ⇒ 2 = 1− ⇒ v = f −1 (m) = c 1 − . Thus, f −1 gives the
2 c m c m m
v
1− 2
c
speed of a particle as a function of its relativistic mass m.

m0 2 √
b. When m = 4m 0 , we find v = c 1 − = 415 c ≈ 0.9682c or 2.9027 × 108 m/s.
4m 0
√ 1 1 1
45. a. f (x) = x 2 on [0, ∞) ⇒ g (x) = f −1 (x) = x. Using Formula 3, g (x) = = = √ .
f (g (x)) 2y y=√x 2 x
√ 1
b. From the result of part a, g (x) = x, so g (x) = √ .
2 x
1 1 2/3
46. a. f (x) = x 1/3 ⇒ g (x) = f −1 (x) = x 3 . Using Formula 3, g (x) = = 1 = 3 x3 = 3x 2 .
f (g (x)) y − 2/ 3
3
3 y=x
b. Since g (x) = x 3 , we find g (x) = 3x 2 .
47. a. f (x) = 2x + 1 ⇒ f (2) = 2 · 2 + 1 = 5, so (2, 5) lies on the graph of f .
1 1 1
b. g (5) = = =
f (g (5)) f (2) 2
 Section 6.2 Inverse Functions 419

48. a. f (x) = x 3 + x + 2 ⇒ f (1) = 1 + 1 + 2 = 4, so (1, 4) lies on the graph of f .

1 1 1 1
b. g (4) = = = 2
=
f (g (4)) f (1) 3x + 1 x=1 4

49. a. f (x) = x 5 + 2x 3 + x − 1 ⇒ f (0) = −1, so (0, −1) lies on the graph of f .

1 1 1
b. g (−1) = = = =1
f (g (−1)) f (0) 5x 4 + 6x 2 + 1 x=0
x +1 2
50. a. f (x) = ⇒ f (1) = = 2, so (1, 2) lies on the graph of f .
2x − 1 1
(2x − 1) − (x + 1) (2) 3 1 1 (2x − 1)2 1
b. f (x) = =− ⇒ g (2) = = =− =−
(2x − 1)2 (2x − 1)2 f (g (2)) f (1) 3
x=1
3

3
51. a. f (x) = x 3 + 1 ⇒ f (1) = (1 + 1)3 = 8, so (1, 8) lies on the graph of f .

2 2 1 1 1 1
b. f (x) = 3 x 3 + 1 3x 2 = 9x 2 x 3 + 1 ⇒ g (8) = = = 2
=
f (g (8)) f (1) 9x 2 x 3 + 1 x=1 36
√
3
√
3
52. a. f (x) = 2 − x + 1 ⇒ f (7) = 2 − 8 = 0, so (7, 0) lies on the graph of f .
1 1 1
b. g (0) = = = 1 = −12
f (g (0)) f (7) − 3 (x + 1)−2/3 x=7

1
53. a. f (x) = ⇒ f (2) = 15 , so 2, 15 lies on the graph of f .
1 + x2
2
2x 1 1 1 + x2 25
b. f (x) = − ⇒g 1 = = =− =−
2 5 1 f (2) 2x 4
1 + x2 f g 5
x=2
1 √ √
54. a. f (x) = ⇒ f (1) = 22 , so 1, 22 lies on the graph of f .
x2 + 1
d −1/2 x
b. f (x) = x2 + 1 =− 3/2
⇒
dx 2
x +1
3/2
√ 1 1 x2 + 1 √
g 2 = √ = =− = −2 2
2 2 f (1) x
f g 2 x=1
1 1 1
55. g (4) = = =
f (g (4)) f (2) 3
d
56. H (x) = g (g (x)) = g (g (x)) g (x), so
dx
1 1 1 1 1 1
H (3) = g (g (3)) g (3) = g (4) g (3) = · = · = · 1 = 1.
f (g (4)) f (g (3)) f (5) f (4) 2
2
2 dt
57. Observe that f (2) = = 0, showing that (2, 0) lies on the graph of f . Next,
2 1 + t3
d x dt 1
observe that f (x) = = (by the FTC , Part 1). Therefore,
dx 2 1 + t3 1 + x3
1 1
f −1 (0) = = = 1 + 23 = 3.
f f −1 (0) f (2)
420 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

−1
58. Since f has an inverse, both f and f −1 are one-to-one functions. Let f −1 (x) = y. Then f −1 (y) = x, and so
−1
y = f (x). Therefore f −1 = f.

59. Suppose f has an inverse. If f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), then f −1 ( f (x1 )) = f −1 ( f (x2 )), so x1 = x2 . This shows that f is
one-to-one. Next, suppose that f is one-to-one. Then for each number b in the range of f , there is exactly one number a in
its domain such that f (a) = b. Define the function g, whose domain is the range of f , by the rule g (b) = a for any b in its
domain. Then g = f −1 .

1 −1
60. a. g (x) = = f (g (x)) , so by the Chain Rule,
f (g (x))
−2 d −2 f (g (x))
g (x) = − f (g (x)) f (g (x)) = − f (g (x)) f (g (x)) g (x) = − 3
.
dx f (g (x))
b. f is increasing on (a, b) ⇒ f > 0 on (a, b). Also, the graph of f is concave upward on (a, b) ⇒ f > 0 on (a, b).
Using the result of part a, we see that g < 0 on (a, b), and so the graph of g is concave downward on (a, b).

61. True. This follows from the definition of the inverse of a function.

62. False. Take f (x) = x 1/3 and a = 8. Then f −1 (x) = x 3 and f −1 (x) = 3x 2 , so f −1 (8) = 3 82 = 192, but
1 1
f (8) = 13 (8)−2/3 = , so = 12 = f −1 (8).
12 f (8)

63. True. f (x) = 1/x 2 is one-to-one on (−∞, 0) as well as on (0, ∞), so if (a, b) is an interval not containing 0, then f is
one-to-one and has an inverse.
64. True. F (x) = dx d x 1 + t 2 dt = 1 + x 2 is strictly increasing on (0, ∞) and hence one-to-one (it passes the
3 3
0
horizontal line test), so F has an inverse on (0, ∞).
65. True. See Theorem 2.
⎧ ⎧
⎨ 1/x if x < 0 ⎨ 1/x if x < 0
66. False. Consider f (x) = √ Then f is not monotonic, but f −1 (x) =
⎩ x if x ≥ 0 ⎩ x 2 if x ≥ 0

67. True. f (x) = (2n + 1) a2n+1 x 2n + (2n − 1) a2n−1 x 2n−2 + (2n − 3) a2 x 2n−4 + · · · + a1 > 0 ⇒ f is monotonically
increasing ⇒ f exists.
68. False. Suppose f has domain {1} and f (1) = 1.

6.3 Concept Questions

1. See page 541.
2. See page 542.
3. See page 543.
4. See page 541.
5. No. The domain of f is (−∞, ∞), but the domain of g is (0, ∞).
1
e−x + 1 e x +1 1 + ex ex + 1
6. f (−x) = −x −x = −x = −x x =x x = f (x), so f is an even function.
e −1 1 1−e e −1
− 1
ex
 Section 6.3 Exponential Functions 421

6.3 Exponential Functions

√
1. a. ln e3 = 3 ln e = 3 2. a. ln e = ln e1/2 = 12 ln e = 12
2 √ √ √
b. ln e x = x 2 ln e = x 2 b. ln e e = e ln e = e

2 2
3. a. e2 ln 3 = eln 3 = 32 = 9 4. a. ln e x +1 = x 2 + 1
√ √ 2
b. eln x = x b. e2 ln x+cos x = eln x ecos x = x 2 ecos x

e3 − 1
5. a. eln x = 2 ⇔ x = 2 6. a. ln (2x + 1) = 3 ⇔ 2x + 1 = e3 ⇔ x =
2
b. ln e−2x = 3 ⇔ −2x = 3 ⇔ x = − 32
b. ln x 2 = 5 ⇔ x 2 = e5 ⇔ x = ±e5/2

7. a. 2e x+2 = 5 ⇔ e x+2 = 52 ⇔ x + 2 = ln 52 ⇔ x = ln 52 − 2
√ √
b. ln x + 1 = 1 ⇔ x + 1 = e ⇔ x = e2 − 1

8. a. ln x + ln (x − 1) = ln 2 ⇒ ln x (x − 1) = ln 2 ⇔ x (x − 1) = 2 ⇔ x 2 − x − 2 = 0 ⇔ (x − 2) (x + 1) = 0 ⇒ x = 2
(since x > 0)
b. 2e−0.2x − 2 = 8 ⇔ e−0.2x = 5 ⇔ −0.2x = ln 5 ⇔ x = − ln 5
0.2 = −5 ln 5

50
9. a. = 20 ⇔ 1 + 4e0.2x = 50
20 ⇔ 4e
0.2x = 3 ⇔ e0.2x = 3 ⇔ 0.2x = ln 3 ⇔ x = 5 ln 3
2 8 8 8
1 + 4e0.2x
b. e2x − 5e x + 6 = 0. Let u = e x . Then we have u 2 − 5u + 6 = (u − 3) (u − 2) = 0 ⇒ u = 2 or u = 3 ⇔ e x = 2 or
e x = 3 ⇔ x = ln 2 or x = ln 3.

2
10. a. ln x + x2 + 1 = 2 ⇔ x + x 2 + 1 = e2 ⇔ x 2 + 1 = e2 − x ⇔ x 2 + 1 = e2 − x = e4 − 2e2 x + x 2 ⇔

e4 − 1
1 = e4 − 2e2 x ⇔ x =
2e2
b. x 1/ ln x − x 2 + 1 = 0 ⇔ x 1/ ln x = x 2 − 1 ⇔ ln x 1/ ln x = ln x 2 − 1 ⇔ ln1x · ln x = ln x 2 − 1 ⇔ ln x 2 − 1 = 1
√
⇔ x2 − 1 = e ⇔ x = e + 1

√ 1/2
11. f (g (x)) = f ln x = e2 ln x = eln x = x and 12. f (g (x)) = f (− ln x) = e−(− ln x) = eln x = x and
√ g ( f (x)) = g e−x = − ln e−x = − (−x) = x.
g ( f (x)) = g e2x = ln e2x = ln e x = x.
y
y
f(x)=e2x
3
3
2
f(x)=e_x
1
1 g(x)=ln Ïx

_2 _1 0 1 2 3 x _2 _1 0 1 2 3 x
_1 _1
g(x)=_ln x
_2 _2
422 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

13. f (g (x)) = f (2 ln x) = e(2 ln x)/2 = eln x = x and 14. f (g (x)) = f (1 + ln x) = e(1+ln x)−1 = eln x = x and

g ( f (x)) = g e x/2 = 2 ln e x/2 = 2 · x2 = x. g ( f (x)) = g e x−1 = 1 + ln e x−1 = 1 + (x − 1) = x.

y y

4 y=ex-1
6 y=ex/2
3
4
2
y=1+ln x
2 y=2 ln x 1

_2 _1 0 1 2 3 4 x
_2 0 2 4 6 x _1
_2 _2

2e x + 1 2 + e−x 2 e−t − 2e2t 1 − 2e3t

15. lim x = lim = 16. lim 2 2
= lim −t =0
x→∞ 3e + 2 x→∞ 3 + 2e−x 3 t→−∞ e − t + 3e t t→−∞ e + 3e3t

3t 2 + 1 −0.1t 1
17. lim e = 32 · 0 = 0 18. lim = 0 since e1/x → ∞ as x → 0+ .
t→∞ 2t 2 − 1 x→0+ 1 + e1/x

2etan x 2etan x
19. lim = −∞ since is negative for 0 < x < π
2 and e
tan x → ∞, while 2x − π → 0 as x → π − .
2
x→(π /2)− 2x − π 2x − π
e1/ ln x 1 d
20. lim = =1 21. f (x) = e−4x = −4e−4x
x→0+ 2 + cos πe−x 2−1 dx
√
dy 2 d 2 d √ √ d √ e t
22. = e x −x x 2 − x = (2x − 1) e x −x 23. f (t) = e t = e t t 1/2 = e t · 12 t −1/2 = √
dx dx dt dt 2 t
d d d
24. f (x) = x 2 e−2x = x 2 e−2x + e−2x x 2 = −2x 2 e−2x + 2xe−2x = 2xe−2x (1 − x)
dx dx dx

d e2 x 1 + e−x 2e2x − e2x −e−x 2e2x + 2e x + e x e x 2e x + 3

25. g (x) = = 2
= 2
= 2
dx 1 + e−x 1 + e−x 1 + e−x 1 + e−x

d et − e−t d e2t − 1 e2t + 1 2e2t − e2t − 1 2e2t 4e2t

26. h (t) = = = =
dt et + e−t dt e2t + 1 e2t + 1
2
e2t + 1
2

d 1/2 −1/2 d −1/2 x e x − e−x

27. f (x) = e x + e−x = 12 e x + e−x e x + e−x = 12 e x + e−x e − e−x = √
dx dx 2 e x + e−x
d
28. g (x) = e−2x cos 3x = e−2x (−3 sin 3x) + (cos 3x) −2e−2x = −e−2x (3 sin 3x + 2 cos 3x)
dx
d
29. y = ecos x = ecos x (− sin x) = −ecos x sin x
dx
d 1 e−1/x
30. y = e−1/x = e−1/x − − 2 =
dx x x2
d t ln t 1
31. h (t) = e = et ln t ln t + t = (1 + ln t) et ln t
dt t
d 5 4
32. h (x) = e2x − e−3x = 5 e2x − e−3x 2e2x + 3e−3x
dx
d
33. f (x) = cos e2x = − sin e2x 2e2x = −2e2x sin e2x
dx
d e x − e−x
34. g (x) = ln e x + e−x = x
dx e + e−x
 Section 6.3 Exponential Functions 423

d 3 2 2 3 2
35. y = e x + ln x 2 = 3 e x + ln x 2 ex + = xe x + 2 e x + ln x 2
dx x x
d 1 1
36. h (x) = tan e2x + ln x = sec2 e2x + ln x 2e2x + = 2xe2x + 1 sec2 e2x + ln x
dx x x

d 2e2x 2x e2x + 1 ln e2x + 1 + xe2x

37. f (x) = x 2 ln e2x + 1 = 2x ln e2x + 1 + x 2 · 2x =
dx e +1 e2 x + 1
d e x sec2 e x − tan e x
38. y = e−x tan e x = −e−x tan e x + e−x sec2 e x e x =
dx ex
d 3/2 1/ 2 1 3 1/2
39. f (x) = e2x − ln 3x = 32 e2x − ln 3x 2e2x − = 2xe2x − 1 e2x − ln 3x
dx x 2x
d 2 2 2
40. y = ecos x tan e2x + x = ecos x − sin x 2 (2x) tan e2x + x + ecos x sec2 e2x + x 2e2x + 1
dx
2
= ecos x 2e2x + 1 sec2 e2x + x − 2x sin x 2 tan e2x + x

3x 2 − e2 y
41. xe2 y − x 3 + 2y = 5 ⇒ e2 y + xe2 y 2y − 3x 2 + 2y = 0 ⇔ y =
2 xe2 y + 1
2x − ye x y
42. e x y − x 2 + y 2 = 5 ⇒ e x y y + x y − 2x + 2yy = 0 ⇔ y xe x y + 2y + ye x y − 2x = 0 ⇔ y = x y
xe + 2y
y 2 − e x sec y
43. e x sec y − x y 2 = 0 ⇒ e x sec y + e x sec y tan y y − y 2 − 2x yy = 0 ⇔ y = x
e sec y tan y − 2x y
x x
44. x ln y + e−x − ye y = 0 ⇒ ln y + y − e−x − e y + ye y y = 0 ⇔ y − e y − ye y − e−x + ln y = 0 ⇔
y y
y e−x − ln y
y =
x − ye y − y 2 e y
45. y = 2e−x/2 + 5e3x/2 ⇒ y = −e−x/2 + 15
2e
3x/2 ⇒ y = 1 e−x/2 + 45 e3x/2 . Substituting into the differential equation,
2 4
we have 4y − 4y − 3y = 4 12 e−x/2 + 45
4e
3x/2 − 4 −e−x/2 + 15 e3x/2 − 3 2e−x/2 + 5e3x/2 = 0. The
2
differential equation is satisfied, and so y = 2e−x/2 + 5e3x/2 is a solution.
46. y = e−2x + 3xe−2x ⇒ y = −2e−2x + 3e−2x − 6xe−2x = (1 − 6x) e−2x ⇒
y = −6e−2x + (1 − 6x) −2e−2x = e−2x (12x − 8). Substituting into the differential equation gives

y + 4y + 4y = e−2x (12x − 8) + 4e−2x (1 − 6x) + 4 e−2x + 3xe−2x = 0, and so the equation is satisfied.
47. y = e x (cos 4x + 2 sin 4x) ⇒ y = e x (cos 4x + 2 sin 4x) + e x (−4 sin 4x + 8 cos 4x) = e x (9 cos 4x − 2 sin 4x)
⇒ y = e x (9 cos 4x − 2 sin 4x) + e x (−36 sin 4x − 8 cos 4x) = e x (cos 4x − 38 sin 4x). Substituting, we get
y − 2y + 17y = e x (cos 4x − 38 sin 4x) − 2e x (9 cos 4x − 2 sin 4x) + 17e x (cos 4x + 2 sin 4x) = 0, showing that the
given function is a solution of the differential equation.
48. y = e2x (2 cos 3x − sin 3x) ⇒ y = 2e2x (2 cos 3x − sin 3x) + e2x (−6 sin 3x − 3 cos 3x) = e2x (cos 3x − 8 sin 3x)
⇒ y = 2e2x (cos 3x − 8 sin 3x) + e2x (−3 sin 3x − 24 cos 3x) = e2x (−22 cos 3x − 19 sin 3x). Substituting, we get
y − 4y + 13y = e2x (−22 cos 3x − 19 sin 3x) − 4e2x (cos 3x − 8 sin 3x) + 13e2x (2 cos 3x − sin 3x) = 0, showing that
the given function is a solution of the differential equation.
49. y = xe−x ⇒ y = e−x − xe−x = (1 − x) e−x ⇒ y 1 = 0. Thus, the slope of the required tangent line is m = 0, and an
equation of the line is y − e−1 = 0 (x − 1) or y = 1/e.
50. xe y + 2x + y = 3 ⇒ e y + xe y y + 2 + y = 0. Substituting x = 1 and y = 0 into this equation gives 1 + y + 2 + y = 0
or y (1,0) = − 32 , so the slope of the required tangent line is m = − 32 , and an equation is y − 0 = − 32 (x − 1) or
y = − 32 x + 32 .
424 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

51. f (x) = xe−x ⇒ f (x) = e−x − xe−x = (1 − x) e−x = 0 ⇔ x = 1. From the

table, we see that f has absolute maximum value f (1) = 1/e and absolute x −1 1 2
minimum value f (−1) = −e. f (x) −e 1/e 2/e2

52. f (x) = e2x − e x ⇒ f (x) = 2e2x − e x = e x 2e x − 1 = 0 ⇔ 2e x = 1 ⇔

x −2 − ln 2 0
x = − ln 2. From the table, we see that f has absolute maximum value f (0) = 0
f (x) ≈ −0.12 − 14 0
and absolute minimum value f (− ln 2) = − 14 .

53. f (x) = xe−x _ _ _ _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of f»»

(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). (2) The x- and y-intercepts are 0. +++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ sign of f»
x x
(3) There is no symmetry. (4) lim f (x) = lim = −∞ and 0 1 2
x→−∞ x→−∞ e x
(10) y
lim f (x) = 0. (5) y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.
x→∞
(6) f (x) = e−x − xe−x = (1 − x) e−x = 0 ⇒ x = 1, so 1 is a critical 0
_2 _1 1 2 3 x
number of f . From the sign diagram, f is increasing on (−∞, 1) and
decreasing on (1, ∞). (7) f (1) = e−1 is a relative maximum value. _1

(8) f (x) = −e−x − (1 − x) e−x = (x − 2) e−x = 0 ⇒ x = 2. From the

sign diagram, we see that f is concave downward on (−∞, 2) and _2

concave upward on (2, ∞). (9) f has an inflection point at 2, 2e−2 .

54. f (x) = xe x _ _ 0 ++++++++ sign of f»»

(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). (2) The x- and y-intercepts are 0. _ _ _ _ _ 0 +++++ sign of f»
(3) There is no symmetry. (4) lim f (x) = 0 and lim f (x) = ∞. x
x→−∞ x→∞ _2 _1 0
(5) y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote. (10) y

(6) f (x) = e x + xe x = (1 + x) e x = 0 ⇒ x = −1, so −1 is a critical

number of f . From the sign diagram, f is decreasing on (−∞, −1) and 1

increasing on (−1, ∞). (7) f (−1) = −e−1 is a relative minimum

value. (8) f (x) = e x + (1 + x) e x = (x + 2) e x = 0 ⇒ x = −2. _4 _3 _2 _1 0 1 x
From the sign diagram, we see that f is concave downward on (−∞, −2)
_1
and concave upward on (−2, ∞). (9) f has an inflection point at

−2, −2e−2 .
 Section 6.3 Exponential Functions 425

e x − e−x
55. f (x) = _ _ _ _ _ 0 +++++ sign of f»»
2
(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). (2) The x- and y-intercepts are 0. x
0
e−x − e x e x − e−x (10) y
(3) f (−x) = =− = − f (x), so f is symmetric
2 2 3
with respect to the origin. (4) lim f (x) = −∞ and 2
x→−∞ 1
lim f (x) = ∞. (5) There is no asymptote. 0
x→∞ _3 _2 _1 1 2 x
_1
(6) f (x) = 12 e x + e−x > 0 for all x in (−∞, ∞), so f is increasing _2
_3
on (−∞, ∞). (7) f has no relative extremum. _4
(8) f (x) = 12 e x − e−x = 0 ⇔ e x − e−x = 0 ⇔ e2x − 1 = 0 ⇒
x = 0. From the sign diagram, we see that f is concave downward on
(−∞, 0) and concave upward on (0, ∞). (9) f has an inflection point at
(0, 0).

56. f (x) = e x − x _ _ _ _ _ 0 +++++ sign of f»

(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). (2) x = 0 ⇒ y = 1, so the x
0
y-intercept is 1. There is no x-intercept. (3) There is no symmetry.
(10) y
(4) lim e x − x = lim ex − x = ∞ (5) There is no asymptote. 6
x→−∞ x→∞

(6) f (x) = e x − 1 = 0 ⇒ x = 0, so 0 is a critical number of f . From the 4

sign diagram, we see that f is decreasing on (−∞, 0) and increasing on
2
(0, ∞). (7) f has a relative miminum at (0, 1). (8) f (x) = e x > 0
for all x in (−∞, ∞), so f is concave upward on (−∞, ∞). (9) f has
_3 _2 _1 0 1 2 x
no inflection point.

57. f (x) = x 2 e−2x 58. f (x) = 2e−0.1x (cos 2x + sin 2x), x ≥ 0

0.4 2

0.2 0

0.0 -2

0 2 4 0 10 20

59. a. The population at the beginning of 2000 was P (0) = 0.07, representing 70,000. The population at the beginning of
2030 will be P (3) ≈ 0.3537, representing approximately 353,700.
b. P (t) = 0.0378e0.54t . The population was changing at the rate of P (0) = 0.0378, representing 37,800 per decade, at
the beginning of 2000. At the beginning of 2030, it will be changing at the rate of approximately P (3) ≈ 0.191,
representing 191,000 per decade.
60. a. The projected average population growth rate in 2020 will be approximately G (3) ≈ 0.834, representing 0.83% per
decade.
b. G (t) = −0.33654e−0.213t . The projected annual average population growth rate will be changing at the rate of
G (3) ≈ −0.18% per decade per decade.
426 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

5000 5000
61. a. N (0) = 0
= = 50 students
1 + 99e 100
396,000e−0.8t 396,000e−1.6
b. N (t) = 2
⇒ N (2) = 2
≈ 182 students/day
1 + 99e−0.8t 1 + 99e−1.6
2
1 + 99e−0.8t e−0.8t (−0.8) − e−0.8t (2) 1 + 99e−0.8t 99e−0.8t (−0.8)
c. N (t) = 396,000 · 4
1 + 99e−0.8t
1 + 99e−0.8t e−0.8t (−0.8) 1 − 99e−0.8t 396,000 0.8e−0.8t 99e−0.8t − 1
= 396,000 · 4
= 3
=0 ⇔
1 + 99e−0.8t 1 + 99e−0.8t
99e−0.8t − 1 = 0 ⇔ e−0.8t = 99
1 ⇒ t = − 1 ln 1 ≈ 5.74, so the flu is spreading most rapidly after about 5.7 days.
0.8 99
5000
d. lim N (t) = lim = 5000 students
t→∞ t→∞ 1 + 99e−0.8t

62. a. A 12 = 0.23 12 e−0.4(1/2) ≈ 0.094 percent and A (8) = 0.23 (8) e−0.4(8) ≈ 0.075 percent.
d
b. A (t) = 0.23 te−0.4t = 0.23 e−0.4t + te−0.4t (−0.4) = 0.23 (1 − 0.4t) e−0.4t ,
dt
so A 1
2 = 0.23 1 − 0.4 12 e−0.4(1/2) ≈ 0.151 percent/hr and

A (8) = 0.23 [1 − 0.4 (8)] e−0.4(8) ≈ −0.021 percent/hr.

d 2 2
63. a. N (t) = 5.3e0.095t −0.85t = 5.3 (0.19t − 0.85) e0.095t −0.85t < 0 ⇔ 0.19t − 0.85 < 0 ⇔ t < 4.47, so N is
dt
decreasing on (0, 4).
b. N (0) = 5.3 (−0.85) e0 = −4.505, so the number is being reduced by 4505 cases per year at the beginning of 1959.
N (3) = 5.3 (0.19 · 3 − 0.85) e0.095 · 9−0.85 · 3 ≈ −0.272, so the number is being reduced by 272 cases per year at the
beginning of 1962.

3
64. a. W (0) = 2600 1 − 0.51e−0.075 · 0 ≈ 306 kg

b. We solve the equation 2600 1 − 0.51e−0.075t

3
= 1600 ⇔ 1 − 0.51e−0.075t = 1600 1/3 ⇔
2600
1/3 1 ln 0.14942 ≈ 16.4, so her age is about 16.4 years.
0.51e−0.075t = 1 − 13
8 ≈ 0.14942 ⇔ t ≈ − 0.075 0.51
2 2
c. W (t) = 2600 · 3 1 − 0.51e−0.075t −0.51e−0.075t (−0.075) = 298.35 1 − 0.51e−0.075t e−0.075t , so

W (0) = 298.35 (1 − 0.51)2 ≈ 71.6. A newborn female elephant gains 71.6 kg/yr.
A 1600 kg female elephant is approximately 16.4 years old, so she gains weight at the rate of
2
W (16.4) ≈ 298.35 1 − 0.51e−0.075 · 16.4 e−0.075 · 16.4 ≈ 63.1 kg/yr.

d. W (t) = 298.35 2 1 − 0.51e−0.075t (−0.51) e−0.075t (−0.075) e−0.075t

2
+ 1 − 0.51e−0.075t e−0.075t (−0.075)

= 298.35 (−0.075) 1 − 0.51e−0.075t e−0.075t 1 − 1.53e−0.075t

ln 1.153
Setting W (t) = 0 gives 1 − 1.53e−0.075t = 0 ⇔ t = − ≈ 5.7, so a female elephant gains weight most rapidly
0.075
when she is approximately 5.7 years old.
 Section 6.3 Exponential Functions 427

3 3
e. lim W (t) = lim 2600 1 − 0.51e−0.075t = 2600 1 − 0.51 lim e−0.075t = 2600, so the female elephant has a
t→∞ t→∞ t→∞
maximum mass of 2600 kg.

d 10,890e0.1x
65. F (x) = 3/2
dx 1 + 100e0.2x
⎡ 3/2 1/2 ⎤
1 + 100e0.2x 0.1e0.1x − e0.1x 32 1 + 100e0.2x 100e0.2x (0.2)
⎢ ⎥
= 10,890 ⎣ 3 ⎦
1 + 100e 0. 2 x

1089e0.1x 1 − 200e0.2x
= 5/2
= 0 ⇒ 1 − 200e0.2x = 0 ⇒ x ≈ −26.5.
1 + 100e0.2x
x −200 −26.5 50
F (x) 2.2 × 10−5 419.2 4.9 × 10−4
From the table, we see that the maximum force is about 419.2 lb.

66. a. b. lim f (t) = lim 200 1 − 0.956e−0.18t = 200.

200 t→∞ t→∞

c. We solve the equation 200 1 − 0.956e−0.18t = 140 ⇒

100
1 − 0.956e−0.18t = 140
200 ⇒ 0.956e
−0.18t = 60 ⇒
200

e−0.18t = 200
60 1
0.956 = 0.3138 ⇒ −0.18t = ln 0.3138 ⇒
0
0 10 20
t = − ln 00..3138
18 ≈ 6.439, so the age is approximately 6.4 years.
The graph of f suggests that the d. The average length of a typical Pacific halibut between the ages of five and
maximum length of a typical Pacific ten years is
halibut is 200 cm. 10
A = 101−5 510 200 1 − 0.956e−0.18t dt = 40 t + 00..956
18 e
−0.18t
5
= 40 10 + 00..056
18 e
−1.8 − 5 + 0.956 e−0.9
0.18 ≈ 148.74 cm

67. a. The number of deaths at the beginning of 1950 was N (0) = 130.7 + 50 ≈ 180.7 per 100,000 people.
2 2
b. N (t) = 130.7 (−0.1155) (2t) e−0.1155t ≈ −30.19te−0.1155t . The rates of change of the number of deaths per
100,000 people are as follows:
Year 1950 1960 1970 1980
Rate 0 −27 −38 −32
2 2 2
c. N (t) = −30.1917 e−0.1155t + t (−0.1155) (2t) e−0.1155t = −30.1917 1 − 0.231t 2 e−0.1155t . Setting
N (t) = 0 gives t ≈ ±2.08, so t ≈ 2 gives an inflection point, and we conclude that the decline was greatest around
1970.
d. The number is given by N (6) ≈ 52 per 100,000 people.
428 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

68. a. x (t) = c 1 − e−at/V ⇒ b. x

d ac −at/V x=c
x (t) = c − ce−at/V = e . Since
dt V
x=c(1-e_at/V)
a > 0, c > 0, and V > 0, we see that x (t) is always
positive and we conclude that x (t) is always
increasing. 0 t
m m m
69. We are given that c 1 − e−at/V < m ⇔ 1 − e−at/V < ⇔ −e−at/V < − 1 ⇔ e−at/V > 1 − . Taking
c c c
at c−m at c−m V c−m
logarithms of both sides of the inequality, we have − ln e > ln ⇔ − > ln ⇔ −t > ln
V c V c a c
V c−m V c
⇔t < − ln = ln . Therefore, the liquid must not be allowed to enter the organ for longer than
a c a c−m
V c
t = ln minutes.
a c−m
ab 1 − e(b−a)kt 1−0
70. a. lim x = lim = ab · = b, so if the quantity of A is greater than that of B, then the amount
t→∞ t→∞ a − be(b−a)kt a−0
that has reacted in the long run is b mol/L.
1
ab 1 − e(b−a)kt ab
e(b−a)kt
−1
0−1
b. lim x = lim = lim a = ab · = a, so if the quantity of B is greater than
t→∞ t→∞ a − be(b−a)kt t→∞ −b 0−b
e(b−a)kt
that of A, then the amount that has reacted in the long run is a mol/L.
⎡ ⎤
4t 2e4t − 1 4e4t − e4t − 1 8e4t
d ⎣4 e − 1 ⎦ d e4t − 1 16e4t
71. a. p (t) = = 4 = 4 = . Since
dt 2e4t − 1 dt 2e4t − 1 2e4t − 1
2
2e4t − 1
2

p (t) > 0 for all t > 0, we see that p is increasing on (0, ∞).
1
4 e4t − 1 1 − 4t 4
b. lim p (t) = lim = 4 lim e = = 2, so in the long run the concentration p (t) of the product is
t→∞ t→∞ 2e4t − 1 t→∞ 1 2
2 − 4t
e
2 mol/L.
d
72. a. θ (t) = 4 πe−t − 1 πe−4t
9 9 = − 49 πe−t + 49 πe−4t , so θ 1
2 = − 49 πe−1/2 + 49 πe−2 ≈ −0.66 rad/s.
dt
b. lim θ (t) = lim 4 πe−t − 1 πe−4t = 0, so c.
t→∞ t→∞ 9 9
1.5
the door will approach θ = 0 (closed) in the long
run. 1.0

0.5

0.0
0 2 4

d π −2t √ √ √
73. a. θ (t) = 3 e cos 2t + 2 sin 2t
dt
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
=π 3 −2e
−2t cos 2t + 2 sin 2t + e−2t − 2 sin 2t + 2 cos 2t = −π 2e−2t sin 2t
√ √
so θ 12 = −π 2e−1 sin 22 ≈ −1.06 rad/s.
 Section 6.3 Exponential Functions 429

√ √ √
b. lim θ (t) = lim π e−2t cos 2t + 2 sin 2t = 0, c.
t→∞ t→∞ 3 1.5
so the door will approach θ = 0 (closed) in the
long run. 1.0

0.5

0.0
0 1 2

−3
p T0 − αy Mg/(R α) 300 − (0.006) (8882) 28.8×10 (9.8) /[(8.314)(0.006)]
74. a. = = ≈ 0.3307, so p ≈ 0.3307 p0 .
p0 T0 300
Mountaineers experience difficulty in breathing at very high altitudes because the air is more rarefied due to decreased
atmospheric pressure.
Mg
b. We differentiate the equation ln p − ln p0 = ln (T0 − αy) − ln T0 with
Rα
dp
dy Mg −α dp Mg p
respect to y, obtaining = ⇒ = − , so
p Rα T0 − αy dy R T0 − αy

dp 28.8 × 10−3 (9.8) (0.3307 p0 )

=− ≈ −0.0000455 p0 atm/m.
dy y=8882 8.314 [300 − 0.006 (8882)]
√ √
75. a. Let t denote the time it takes for the chain to slide off the table. Then s (t) = 12 e g/6t + e− g/6t = 6
√ √ √ √
⇔ e g/6t + e− g/6t = 12 ⇔ e2 g/6t − 12e g/6t + 1 = 0. Using the quadratic formula, we find
√ √ √ √ √
e g/6t = 12 ± 2144 − 4 = 6 + 35 or 6 − 35. Since ln 6 − 35 is negative, the second root is rejected, and we
√
√ √ ln 6 + 35
have g/6t = ln 6 + 35 ⇔ t = √ ≈ 1.94 s.
g/6
√ √ √ √
b. v (t) = s (t) = 12 g/6e g/6t − g/6e− g/6t , so
√ √ √ √
v (1.94) ≈ 12 9.8/6e 9.8/6(1.94) − 9.8/6e− 9.8/6(1.94) ≈ 7.57 m/s.

76. a. f (11) = −0.438 112 + 9.002 (11) + 107 = 153.024, telling us that the actual number of arrests in the year 2000 was

153,024. g (11) = 99.456e0.07824 · 11 ≈ 235.181, and this says that if trends in drug use and gun availability continued,
the number of arrests in the year 2000 would be 235,181.
b. f (11) = −0.876t + 9.002|t=11 = −634, telling us that the number of arrests was dropping at the rate of 634/year in
the year 2000. g (11) = 99.456 · 0.07824e0.07824 · 11 ≈ 18.401, and this says that if trends in drug use and gun
availability continued, the number of arrests in the year 2000 would be increasing at the rate of approximately
18,401 annually.

74
77. a. The number was P (10) = ≈ 69.63%.
1 + 2.6e−1.66 + 4.536 − 6.6
b. The growth rate would be
2 3
−74 (2.6) −0.166 + 0.09072t − 0.0198t 2 e−0.166t + 0.04536t − 0.0066t
P (10) = 2
≈ 5.09%/decade.
2 3
1 + 2.6e−0.166t + 0.04536t − 0.0066t
t=10
430 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

78. a. 79. a. The initial population of crocodiles is

P (0) = 300
6 = 50.
1
300e−0.024t 0
b. lim P (t) = lim = =0
t→∞ t→∞ 5e−0.024t + 1 0+1
c.
0 60
0 50 100 150
40
b. 57,972/$1000; −23,418/$1000
20

0
0 100 200

80. a. Let f (x) = xe x − 2. Then f is continuous everywhere. Since f (0) = −2 and f (1) = e − 2 > 0, we see that by the
Intermediate Value Theorem, f has a zero in (0, 1).
xn e xn − 2 x 2 e xn + 2
b. f (x) = e x + xe x = (1 + x) e x . We use the iteration xn+1 = xn − x = n . Taking x0 = 1, we
(1 + xn ) e n (1 + xn ) e xn
find x1 ≈ 0.86788, x2 ≈ 0.85278, and x3 ≈ 0.85261 ≈ x4 , so the root is about 0.85261.
tn + 10e−0.1tn − 41.25
81. Let f (t) = t + 10e−0.1t − 41.25. Use the iteration tn+1 = tn − . Taking t0 = 40, we find
1 − e−0.1tn
t1 ≈ 41.08675 and t2 ≈ 41.08569 ≈ t3 , so t ≈ 41.08569.
82. e−3x dx = − 13 e−3x + C
0
83. −0 1 e−x dx = −e−x −1 = −1 + e = e − 1
t e+1
84. et + t e dt = et + +C
e+1
2 2
85. Let u = −x 2 , so xe−x dx = − 12 e−x + C.
3
86. I = x 2 − 13 e x −x dx. Let u = x 3 − x, so du = 3x 2 − 1 dx = 3 x 2 − 13 dx. Thus,
3
I = 13 eu du = 13 eu + C = 13 e x −x + C.
√
2 2 1 e− e
87. 01 xe−x /2 dx = −e−x /2 = −e−1/2 + 1 =
0 e
2
88. e x + e−x dx = e2x + 2 + e−2x dx = 12 e2x + 2x − 12 e−2x + C = 12 e2x + 4x − e−2x + C
√ 3/2
89. I = 1 + 2e x e x dx. Let u = 1 + 2e x , so du = 2e x dx. Then I = 12 u 1/2 du = 13 u 3/2 + C = 13 1 + 2e x + C.
e−x
90. I = dx. Let u = 1 + e−x , so du = −e−x dx. Then
1 + e−x
e−x du
dx = − = − ln |u| + C = − ln 1 + e−x + C.
1 + e−x u
e x + e−x du
91. I = dx. Let u = e x − e−x , so du = e x + e−x dx. Then I = = ln |u| + C = ln e x − e−x + C.
e x − e−x u
e−1/x 1 dx
92. I = dx. Let u = − , so du = 2 . Then I = eu du = eu + C = e−1/x + C.
x2 x x
2
ex − 1 2 3
93. Let u = e x − 1: dx = ex ex − 1 dx = 13 e x − 1 + C.
e−x
0 1 0 e2 x 0
94. −2 x
dx = 2 x
dx = 12 ln e2x + 1 = 12 ln 2 − ln e−2 + 1
−1 1 + e −1 e + 1 −1
 Section 6.3 Exponential Functions 431
√
e x √ 1 √
95. I = √ dx. Let u = x, so du = √ dx. Then I = 2 eu du = 2eu + C = 2e x + C.
x 2 x

96. I = e x sin e x dx. Let u = e x , so du = e x dx. Then I = sin u du = − cos u + C = − cos e x + C.

e x ln e x + 1 ln u 2
97. I = dx. Let u = e x + 1, so du = e x dx. Then I = du = 12 (ln u)2 + C = 12 ln e x + 1 + C.
ex + 1 u

98. I = esin x cos x dx. Let u = sin x, so du = cos x dx. Then I = eu du = eu + C = esin x + C.

π /4 etan x π /4
π /4
99. Let u = tan x: dx = etan x sec2 x dx = etan x 0 = etan(π/4) − 1 = e − 1.
0 cos2 x 0

2 2 2
100. Let u = e x ⇒ du = 2xe x dx ⇒ xe x dx = 12 du, x = 0 ⇒ u = 1, and x = 1 ⇒ u = e. Then
1 x 2 ex
2 e
0 xe e dx = 1e 12 eu du = 12 eu = 12 ee − 12 e = 12 e ee−1 − 1 .
1

101. Let u = (ln x)2 ⇒ du = 2 ln x ln x 1

x dx ⇒ x dx = 2 du, x = 1 ⇒ u = 0, and x = e ⇒ u = 1. Then
e ln x (ln x)2 1
1 x e dx = 12 01 eu du = 12 eu = 12 (e − 1).
0

2 y
102. A = −2 1 e−x/2 dx = −2e−x/2
−1
√
= −2 e−1 − e1/2 = 2 e − 1/e
1

_1 0 1 2 x

ex − 1 ex + 1 − 2 2
103. a. b. x = x =1− x , so
e +1 e +1 e +1
1 ln 3 e x − 1 ln 3 2 ln 3 2e−x
A= dx = 1− x dx = 1− dx.
0 ex + 1 0 e +1 0 1 + e−x
0 Let u = 1 + e−x . Then du = −e−x dx ⇒ e−x dx = −du and
e−x dx du
I= =− = − ln |u| + C = − ln 1 + e−x + C. Thus,
1 + e−x u
-1
-5 0 5 ln 3
A = x + 2 ln 1 + e−x 0 = ln 3 + 2 ln 1 + e− ln 3 − 2 ln 2

= ln 3 + 2 ln 43 − ln 22 = ln 39··16 4
4 = ln 3 .

104. A = −1 1 x 2 − 2x − 1 − −e x − 1 dx y
2
1
= −1 1 x 2 − 2x + e x dx = 1 x 3 − x 2 + ex
3 −1
_2 _1 0 1 x
3e2 + 2e − 3
= _2
3e y=x@-2x-1

_4 y=_ex-1
 432 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

2 2
105. V = π 01 y 2 dx = π 01 e x dx = π 01 e2x dx 106. V = 2π 01 x y dx = 2π 01 xe−x dx
1 2 1
= π
2e
2 x = π e2 − 1
2 = −πe−x = π 1 − e−1
0 0
y y

3
1
2

0 1 x
0 1 x
_1

107. y = 12 e x + e−x ⇒ y = 12 e x − e−x ⇒

2 2
2 e x − e−x e2x + 2 + e−2x e x + e−x
1+ y =1+ = = ⇒
4 4 4
2 ln 2
L = 0ln 21 + y dx = 12 0ln 2 e x + e−x dx = 12 e x − e−x = 12 eln 2 − e− ln 2 − 0 = 12 2 − 12 = 34
0
√ √
a+ x √ √ √ √ √ √
108. y = 2a ln √ √ − 4 ax = 2a ln a + x − ln a − x − 4 ax 1/2 , where 0 ≤ x < a. Thus,
a− x
1 x −1/2 − 12 x −1/2 a 1/2 − x 1/2 + a 1/2 + x 1/2
y = 2a 2 − − 4a 1/2 12 x −1/2 = ax −1/2 − 2a 1/2 x −1/2
a 1/2 + x 1/2 a 1/2 − x 1/2 a 1/2 + x 1/2 a 1/2 − x 1/2
2a 1/2 2a 3/2 x −1/2 2a 3/2 x −1/2 − 2a 3/2 x −1/2 + 2a 1/2 x 1/2
= ax −1/2 − 2a 1/2 x −1/2 = − 2a 1/2 x −1/2 =
a−x a−x a−x
2a 1/2 x 1/2
=
a−x
2 4ax a 2 − 2ax + x 2 + 4ax (a + x)2
and 1 + y = 1+ = = . Therefore,
(a − x)2 (a − x)2 (a − x)2
2 a+x 2a 1
L= 1+ y dx = dx = − 1 dx = −2a ln (a − x) − x + C = 2a ln − x + C. For
a−x a−x a−x
1
example, if 0 ≤ b < a, then the length on [0, b] is L = 2a ln − b.
a−b

109. y = 12 e x + e−x ⇒ y = 12 e x − e−x ⇒ y

1
2 2 y= 2 (ex+e_x)
1+ y = 1 + 14 e2x − 2 + e−2x = 14 e x + e−x ⇒
1
2 2
S = 2π 0ln 2 y 1+ y dx = 2π 0ln 2 14 e x + e−x dx

=π ln 2 2x
e + 2 + e−2x dx = π 1 2x 1 −2x ln 2
2 0 2 2 e + 2x − 2 e 0 _1 0 ln 2 1 x
π (16 ln 2 + 15)
= 16

−18 e−0.6t 3 = 30 e−0.6t 3 = 30 e−1.8 − 1 ≈ −25◦ .

110. The temperature change is 03 −18e−0.6t dt = − 0.6 0 0
f (t) = 30e−0.6t + C and f (0) = 30 + C = 68 ⇒ C = 38. Thus, the temperature of the wine at 7 P. M . is
f (3) = 30e−1.8 + 38 ≈ 43◦ F.
111. The tractor depreciates by
5 5 5
−0.22314t dt = 13388.61 e−0.22314t = −60000.941e−0.22314t ≈ $40, 339.48.
0 13388.61e −0.22314 0 0
 Section 6.3 Exponential Functions 433

15
4.76 15 4.76e0.22t 4.76e0.22t
112. The total production is P (t) = dt = dt. Put I = dt and let
0 1 + 4.11e−0.22t 0 e0.22t + 4.11 e0.22t + 4.11
4.76 du 4.76 4.76
u = e0.22t + 4.11, so du = 0.22e0.22t dt. Then I = = ln |u| + C = ln e0.22t + 4.11 + C, and
0.22 u 0.22 0.22
4.76 15 4.76
thus P (t) = ln e0.22t + 4.11 = ln e3.3 + 4.11 − ln (1 + 4.11) ≈ 39.16 million barrels.
0.22 0 0.22
21 1 1 x − 20 2
113. Using a calculator or computer, we find P = 100 √ exp − dx ≈ 30.
19 2.6 2π 2 2.6

1 30 C (t) dt = 1
114. A = 30 20 30
0.3t − 18 + 18e−t/60 dt + 20 18e−t/60 − 12e−(t−20)/60 dt
0 30 0
20 30
1
= 30 0.15t 2 − 18t − 1080e−t/60 + −1080e−t/60 + 720e−(t−20)/60
0 20
1
= 30 60 − 360 − 1080e−1/3 + 1080 + −1080e−1/2 + 720e−1/6 + 1080e−1/3 − 720

≈ 0.4805 g/cm3

2 180 1 x − 160 2
115. Using a calculator or computer, we find P = π 160 exp − dx ≈ 15.54.
2 50
d y t d x
116. Differentiating the equation with respect to x, we have dx 0 e dt + dx 0 cos t dt = 0. Using Part 1 of the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus and the Chain Rule, we have e y · dx d (y) + cos x = 0 ⇔ e y dy = − cos x ⇔ dy = −e−y cos x.
dx dx
2 2
117. F (x) = 1x e−t t 2 − 1 dt ⇒ F (x) = e−x x 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ x = ±1.
From the sign diagram, we see that F has a relative maximum at x = −1. ++ 0 --- _ _ 0 ++ sign of F»

We use a calculator to approximate its value: x

_1 0 1
2
F (−1) = 1−1 e−t t 2 − 1 dt ≈ 1.1147. F has a relative minimum at
2
x = 1 with value F (1) = 11 e−t t 2 − 1 dt = 0.

118. a. b. In 2006, worldwide PC shipments were increasing at the rate of

300
f (1) ≈ 24.52, or approximately 24.5 million units per year. In 2008,
shipments were increasing at the rate of f (3) ≈ 25.12, or
250 approximately 25.1 million units per year.

200
0 2 4

119. a. 30
b. At midnight, the snowfall was accumulating at the rate of
f (12) ≈ 1.5 in./h. At noon on February 7, it was accumulating at
20 the rate of f (24) ≈ 0.5 in./h.

10 c. Using a calculator or computer, we find that the inflection point is

given by (14.4, 13.4), so the snowfall was accumulating at the
0 greatest rate at about 2:24 A . M . on February 7. The rate of
0 10 20 30
accumulation was f (14.4) ≈ 1.6 in./h.

120. True. Let y = e x/2 ⇒ ln y = ln e x/2 = x2 ⇒ x = 2 ln y, so f −1 (x) = 2 ln x.

 434 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

cos 0 1
121. False. F (0) = 0
= =1
e 1
3
122. True. e3 ln x = eln x = x 3 on (0, ∞).
d x
123. False. e = ex
dx
2 e−x
124. False. e−x > 0 on (−∞, ∞) and so dx > 0.
1 x

125. True. eln x dx = x dx = 12 x 2 + C = 12 x · x + C = 12 xeln x + C.

6.4 Concept Questions

1. a. See page 555.
b. See page 557. If a = 1, then f (x) = 1 and its graph is a line.

2. a. See page 559. 3. y=ax (a>1)

y

b. y

y=logax (a>1)
y=logax (a>1)

0 1 x
0 1 x
y=logax (a<1)

4. No. The domain of f is (−∞, ∞) and the domain of g is (0, ∞).

1 + a −k(−x) 1 + a kx 1 + a kx a −kx a −kx + 1 1 + a −kx

5. f (−x) = = = · = = − = − f (x), so f is an odd function.
1 − a −k(−x) 1 − a kx 1 − a kx a −kx a −kx − 1 1 − a −kx

6.4 General Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

√ √ √ √ √ √
3 x
1. 2 3 = eln 2 = e 3 ln 2 2. 3 x = eln 3 = e x ln 3
tan x cos x
3. 2tan x = eln 2 = etan x ln 2 4. x cos x = eln x = ecos x ln x

5. log10 100 = log10 102 = 2 log10 10 = 2 1 = log 3−4 = −4 log 3 = −4

6. log3 81 3 3

7. log125 25 = log125 1252/3 = 23 log125 125 = 23 8. log3 3π = π log3 3 = π

9. a. 34 = 81 ⇔ log3 81 = 4 10. a. 82/3 = 4 ⇔ log8 4 = 23

1 ⇔ log 1 = −3
b. 5−3 = 125 5 125 b. 16−3/4 = 18 ⇔ log16 81 = − 34

1 = −3 ⇔ 10−3 = 1
11. a. log 1000 1000 12. a. log49 7 = 12 ⇔ 491/2 = 7

b. log1/3 9 = −2 ⇔ 13
−2
=9 b. log 0.01 = −2 ⇔ 10−2 = 0.01
 Section 6.4 General Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 435

13. 14.

(e) (d)
4 4
(a)

2 2
(a)

0 0
-4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 0 2 4

As b increases, the graph of y = b x is flatter for x < 0 and As b decreases, the graph of y = b x is steeper for x < 0
steeper for x > 0. and flatter for x > 0.
y y=2¨ y
15. 16.
y=3¨
4 4

2 y=log ª x 2 y=log£ x

_2 0 2 4 x _2 0 2 4 x

_2 _2

y y
17. 18.

4 4 y=10¨

2 2
y=log x
y=(1/2)¨

_2 0 2 4 x _2 0 2 4 x

_2 _2
y=log1/2 x

ln 6 ln 8 ln π
19. a. log3 6 = ≈ 1.631 b. log2 8 = =3 c. log√2 π = √ ≈ 3.303
ln 3 ln 2 ln 2
1
20. a. f (x) = . The domain of log (1 − x) is found by requiring that 1 − x > 0 or x < 1. But to avoid division by
log (1 − x)
zero, we must also have log (1 − x) = 0 ⇔ x = 0. Thus, the domain of f is (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, 1).

x 2 − 3x + 4 5 x2 − 4
b. Consider g (x) = 2 . We find g (x) = =0⇔ ++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ 0 ++ sign of g»
x + 2x + 4 2
x 2 + 2x + 4
x
x = ±2, so the critical numbers of g are ±2. From the sign diagram, we _2 0 2

see that g has an absolute minimum value of g (2) = 16 , so g (x) > 0 for
all x, and thus f = log g has domain (−∞, ∞).
21. f (x) = 3x ⇒ f (x) = (ln 3) 3x
22. h (t) = 4t−1 ⇒ h (t) = (ln 4) 4t−1

23. y = x 53x ⇒ y = 1 · 53x + x · ln 5 (3) 53x = [1 + (3 ln 5) x] 53x

2 2 2
24. f (u) = 2u ⇒ f (u) = ln 2 2u · 2u = (2 ln 2) u · 2u
436 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

1 ln 7 (cos v) 71/v
25. f (v) = (cos v) 71/v ⇒ f (v) = (− sin v) 71/v + cos v (ln 7) 71/v − 2 = −71/v sin v −
v v2
6
26. h (x) = 2x + 3−x ⇒
5 5 x
h (x) = 6 2x + 3−x (ln 2) 2x + (ln 3) 3−x (−1) = 6 2x + 3−x 2 ln 2 − 3−x ln 3

27. f (x) = x e + e x ⇒ f (x) = ex e−1 + e x

e
28. g (x) = x e e x ⇒ g (x) = ex e−1 e x + x e e x = + 1 x e ex
x
23x x (ln 2) 23x (3) − 23x [(3 ln 2) x − 1] 23x
29. f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = =
x x2 x2
30. h (x) = 2tan x ⇒ h (x) = (ln 2) 2tan x sec2 x

31. y = 2cot x ⇒ y = (ln 2) 2cot x − csc2 x = − ln 2 csc2 x 2cot x

2x
32. g (x) = √ ⇒
3x + 1
1/2 −1/2
3x + 1 (ln 2) 2x − 2x 12 3x + 1 (ln 3) 3x
g (x) =
3x + 1
1 3x + 1 −1/2 2 3x + 1 (ln 2) 2x − ln 3 2x 3x 2x 2 ln 2 + ln 43 3x
= 2 =
3x + 1 2 (3x + 1)3/2

ln x 2 + x + 1 1 2x + 1 2x + 1
33. f (x) = log2 x 2 + x + 1 = ⇒ f (x) = · = 2
ln 2 ln 2 x 2 + 2x + 1 x + x + 1 ln 2
ln |2x − 1| 1 2 2
34. h (x) = log3 |2x − 1| = ⇒ h (x) = · =
ln 3 ln 3 2x − 1 (2x − 1) ln 3
1 ln t 2 + 1
2 2 2t t
35. f (t) = log t +1= ⇒ f (t) = = 2
ln 10 (2 ln 10) t 2 + 1 t + 1 ln 10

x 2 ln x2 − 1 1
36. y = x 2 log2 x2 − 1 = = x 2 ln x 2 − 1 ⇒
ln 2 2 ln 2
1 2x x x2 x x 2 − 1 ln x 2 − 1 + x 2
y = 2x ln x 2 − 1 + x 2 · 2 = ln x 2 − 1 + 2 =
2 ln 2 x −1 ln 2 x −1 x 2 − 1 ln 2

y
37. y = 3x ⇒ ln y = ln 3x = x ln 3 ⇒ = ln 3 ⇒ y = 3x ln 3
y
2 2 y 1 2
38. y = x x ⇒ ln y = ln x x = x 2 ln x ⇒ = 2x ln x + x 2 = 2x ln x + x ⇒ y = x (2 ln x + 1) x x
y x
1 y 1 1 1
39. y = (x + 2)1/x ⇒ ln y = ln (x + 2)1/x = ln (x + 2) ⇒ = − 2 ln (x + 2) + · ⇒
x y x x x +2
1 ln (x + 2)
y = − (x + 2)1/x
x (x + 2) x2
√
x x 1/2 y 2x + 1
40. y = x 2 + x ⇒ ln y = ln x 2 + x = x 1/2 ln x 2 + x ⇒ = 12 x −1/2 · ln x 2 + x + x 1/2 · 2 ⇒
y x +x
⎡ ⎤
ln x 2 + x √
x (2x + 1)
√
x
y =⎣ √ + ⎦ x2 + x
2 x x2 + x
 Section 6.4 General Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 437

1 (cos x)−1/2 (− sin x)

√ x √ x √ y √
41. y = cos x ⇒ ln y = ln cos x = x ln cos x ⇒ = ln cos x + x · 2 √ ⇒
y cos x
cos x ln (cos x) − x sin x √ x
y = cos x
2 cos x
y cos x ln (sin x)
42. y = sin x tan x ⇒ ln y = ln sin x tan x = tan x ln (sin x) ⇒ = sec2 x ln (sin x) + tan x · = +1⇒
y sin x cos2 x
ln (sin x) + cos2 x
y = sin x tan x
cos2 x
3x 1 2
43. 01 3x dx = =
ln 3 0 ln 3
1
44. 2−x dx = − x +C
2 ln 2
2
2 3u 3 x +2 x
45. Let u = x 2 + 2x, so du = 2 (x + 1) dx. Then (x + 1) 3x +2x dx = 12 3u du = +C = + C.
2 ln 3 2 ln 3
1
1 t 3 3t t4 2 1
46. 0 3 + t dt = + = +
ln 3 4 ln 3 4
0
1 cos u cos 2x
47. Let u = 2x , so du = 2x ln 2 dx. Then 2x sin 2x dx = sin u du = − +C =− + C.
ln 2 ln 2 ln 2
√
√ 1 43 x 2 3u 2 12
48. Let u = x, so du = √ dx, x = 1 ⇒ u = 1, and x = 4 ⇒ u = 2. Thus, √ dx = 2 3u du = 2 · = .
2 x 1 x 1 ln 3 1 ln 3

3x 1 du ln u ln 3x + 1
49. Let u = 1 + 3x , so du = 3x ln 3 dx. Then dx = = +C = + C.
1 + 3x ln 3 u ln 3 ln 3
√
1 dx log x 2 ln 10 3/2 2 ln 10
50. Let u = log x, so du = . Then dx = ln 10 u 1/2 du = u +C = (log x)3/2 + C or
ln 10 x x 3 3
2 (ln x)3/2
√ + C.
3 ln 10
I I
51. a. 5 = log ⇔ 105 = ⇔ I = 105 I0
I0 I0
I
b. 8 = log ⇔ I = 108 I0 . Denote the intensities of the earthquakes with magnitudes 5 and 8 by I5 and I8 , respectively.
I0
I 108 I
Then 8 = 5 0 = 103 ⇔ I8 = 1000I5 . Thus, the earthquake with magnitude 8 is 1000 times as intense as that with
I5 10 I0
magnitude 5.
c. Denote the intensity of the Tangshan earthquake by I T and that of the San Francisco earthquake by I S . Then
IT 108.2 I
IT = 108.2 I0 and I S = 106.9 I0 , so = 6.9 0 = 101.3 ⇔ IT = 101.3 I S ≈ 20I S . Thus, the Tangshan earthquake
IS 10 I0
was approximately 20 times as intense as the San Francisco earthquake.

52. a. Q (280) = Q 0 · 2−280/140 = 20 ⇒ Q 0 = 4 · 20 = 80 mg

d 1 · 2−t/140 = − 4 ln 2 · 2−t/140 mg/day
b. Q (t) = Q 0 · 2−t/140 = 80 ln 2 − 140 7
dt

ln 2920
.92
53. a. We solve 29.92e−0.2x = 20 ⇔ e−0.2x = 2920
.92 ⇔ x = ≈ 2.014 mi.
−0.2
438 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

dp
dp dx dx e0.2x
b. Differentiating p (x) = 29.92e−0.2x with respect to t gives = 29.92 (−0.2) e−0.2x ⇒ =− dt , so if
dt dt dt 5.984
dp dx e0.2 · 2.014 (−1)
x = 2.014 and = −1, then =− ≈ 0.25 and the balloon is rising at the rate of approximately
dt dt 5.984
0.25 mi/h.
3t
15 1 − 23
d
54. a. b. x (t) = 3t
dt
1 − 14 23
10 3t 3t 3t
1 − 14 23 −3 23 ln 23 − 1 − 23 −3 14 2 3t ln 2
3 3
= 15
3t 2
1 − 14 23
0
0 5 10 and we find that x (1) ≈ 4.73 lb/h.
3t
15 1 − 23
c. The amount formed eventually is given by lim 3t
= 15 lb.
t→∞
1 − 14 23

55. a. With T0 = 70 and T1 = 98.6, we have T = 70 + (98.6 − 70) (0.97)t = 70 + 28.6 (0.97)t

100
b. T (2) = 28.6 (0.97)t ln 0.97 t=2 = 28.6 (0.97)2 ln 0.97 ≈ −0.82, so his
body temperature was dropping at a rate of approximately 0.82◦ F/h.
10 ⇔
c. We solve the equation 70 + 28.6 (0.97)t = 80 ⇔ (0.97)t = 28.6
10 ⇔ t =
ln (0.97)t = ln 28 1 10
80 .6 ln 0.97 ln 28.6 ≈ 34.5. We see that John Doe
was killed about 34.5 hours earlier, around 1:30 P. M .
0 20 40

56. a. b. B (0) = 160,000. Using a calculator or computer, we find that

1.5e+5
B (0) ≈ −87, B (180) ≈ 126,928.78, and B (180) ≈ −334.18. The
1e+5 outstanding principal is initially $160,000, and decreases at the rate of
$87/month. At the beginning of the 15th year, the outstanding principal is
50000 approximately $126,928,78 and decreasing at the rate of $334.18/month.

0
0 100 200 300

57. y = 2x + 1 ⇒ y = 2x ln 2 ⇒ m = 2x ln 2 x=0 = ln 2, so an equation of the tangent line is y − 2 = ln 2 (x − 0) or

y = (ln 2) x + 2.
58. y = x log x ⇒ y = log x + x · ln110 · x1 = log x + ln110 ⇒ m = log x + ln110 = ln110 , so an equation of the tangent
x=1
line is y − 0 = ln110 (x − 1) or y = ln110 x − ln110 .

log x x · ln110 · 1x − log x 1 − ln x

59. f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = = = 0 ⇔ x = e. From ++ 0 _ _ sign of f»
x x2 (ln 10) x 2
( x
the sign diagram, we see that f is increasing on (0, e) and decreasing on (e, ∞). 0 e
1 1
60. f (x) = log3 |x| ⇒ f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = − 2 < 0 if x = 0, so f is concave downward on (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).
x ln 3 x ln 3
 Section 6.4 General Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 439

10 log x 1
61. A = dx. Let u = log x, so du = dx, x = 1 ⇒ u = 0, and x = 10 ⇒ u = 1. Thus,
1 x x ln 10
1
A = ln 10 01 u du = ln210 u 2 = ln210 .
0
2
62. By symmetry, 63. V = 2π 01 x y dx = 2π 01 x · 3x dx. Let u = x 2 , so
2·2 −x 2 1 du = 2x dx. Then
A = 2 02 2−x dx = − =− 2−1 − 2
ln 2 ln 2 3u 1 2π
0 V = 2π 01 21 · 3u du = π · = .
3 ln 3 0 ln 3
=
2 ln 2 y
y
3

1 2

0 1 x
_3 _2 _1 0 1 2 x
_1

64.
n 1 10 102 103 104 105 106
1 n
1+ 2 2.59374 2.70481 2.71692 2.71815 2.71827 2.71828
n
1·5 1 · 10
65. a. A = 5000 1 + 01.1 ≈ $8052.55 66. a. A = 10,000 1 + 0.112 ≈ $31,058.48
2·5 2 · 10
b. A = 5000 1 + 02.1 ≈ $8144.47 b. A = 10,000 1 + 0.212 ≈ $32,071.35
4·5 4 · 10
c. A = 5000 1 + 04.1 ≈ $8193.08 c. A = 10,000 1 + 0.412 ≈ $32,620.38

.1 12 · 5 ≈ $8226.54
d. A = 5000 1 + 012 .12 12 · 10 ≈ $33,003.87
d. A = 10,000 1 + 012

0.1 365 · 5 ≈ $8243.04

e. A = 5000 1 + 365 .12 365 · 10 ≈ $33,194.62
e. A = 10,000 1 + 0365

f. A = 5000e0.1 · 5 ≈ $8243.61 f. A = 10,000e1.2 ≈ $33,201.17

4.4 ln 4.4
67. We solve the equation 4.4 = 2.1e6r ⇒ e6r = ⇒ r = 2.1 ≈ 0.123 or 12.3% per year.
2.1 6
68. We solve the equation 96,000 = Pe0.085 · 8 ⇒ P = 96, 000e−0.085 · 8 ≈ $48,635.23, so the parents need to invest
$48,635.23.
69. He needs A = 75,000e0.05 · 10 ≈ $123,654.10.
y y xy
70. 1. a x = e x ln a = e x y ln a = eln a = ax y
x x
2. (ab)x = e x ln ab = e x(ln a+ln b) = e x ln a e x ln b = eln a eln b = a x b x
ax e x ln a x−y
3. y = y ln a = e x ln a−y ln a = e(x−y) ln a = eln a = a x−y
a e
x
a x eln a ax
4. = e x ln(a/b) = e x(ln a−ln b) = e x ln a e−x ln b = x =
b eln b bx
71. a. Let f (x) = e x − x − 1. Then f (0) = 0. Furthermore, f (x) = e x − 1 > 0 if x > 0. So f is increasing on (0, ∞) and
therefore, for x ≥ 0, f (x) = e x − x − 1 ≥ 0 ⇒ e x ≥ x + 1.
440 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

b. Let f (x) = e x − 1 − x − 12 x 2 . Then f (x) = e x − 1 − x = e x − (1 + x). Using the result of part a, we see that
f (x) ≥ 0 for x ≥ 0. Since f (0) = 0, we see that f (x) = e x − 1 − x − 12 x 2 ≥ f (0) = 0 if x ≥ 0, that is,
e x ≥ 1 + x + 12 x 2 for x ≥ 0.
x x
72. a. If a = 1, then the result of Exercise 71b gives 0 < x < for b.
e 1 + x + 12 x 2
4e+5
x 1
x > 0, so 0 ≤ lim x ≤ lim = 0 and, by the Squeeze 3e+5
x→∞ e x→∞ 1 x
+1+
x 2 2e+5
x
Theorem, lim x = 0. 1e+5
x→∞ e
In the general case, let x = ay where a > 0. Then y → ∞ as x → ∞, so 0
0 10 20 30 40
xa a
(ay)a y a y
lim = lim = lim a a = a a lim y = 0.
x→∞ e x y→∞ eay y→∞ ey y→∞ e

c. Using a graphing utility, we find the x-coordinate of the point of intersection of the graphs of y = e x and y = x 10 to be
x ≈ 1.12.
73. The integrand f (x) = 2cos x satisfies f (−x) = 2cos(−x) = 2cos x = f (x), and so f is an even function. Therefore,
1/2 cos x 1/2
−1/2 2 dx = 2 0 2cos x dx.
ln b
74. y = logx b ⇔ b = x y ⇔ ln b = ln x y = y ln x ⇔ y = ⇒
ln x
dy d d ln b
= ln b (ln x)−1 = ln b − (ln x)−2 (ln x) = −
dx dx dx x (ln x)2
ln x
logb x ln b ln a
75. True: = ln x
= .
loga x ln b
ln a

log b1/(log2 10)

76. True. a = 2log b = 2(log2 b)/(log2 10) = 2 2 = b1/(log2 10) ⇒ b = a log2 10 = a (log 10)/(log 2) = a 1/ log 2
77. True. If we let f (x) = a x , then
ax − 1 f (x) − f (0) d ax − 1
f (0) = lim = lim = f (0) = ax = (ln a) a x x=0 = ln a, so lim = ln a.
x→0 x x→0 x −0 dx x=0 x→0 x
√
d √ d ln x 1
78. False: loga x = = .
dx dx ln a 2x ln a
f (3 + x) − f (3) d 1 1
79. True. If we let f (x) = log x, then f (3) = lim = (log x) = = .
x→0 x dx x=3 x ln 10 x=3 3 ln 10
2 2 2
80. True. 1 < 2x < 2 if 0 < x < 1, so 01 1 dx < 01 2x dx < 01 2 dx ⇒ 1 < 01 2x dx < 2.

6.5 Concept Questions

1. See page 569.
2. See page 569.
3. See page 571.

4. a. sin−1 u + C b. tan−1 u + C c. sec−1 |u| + C

 Section 6.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 441

6.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1. sin−1 0 = 0 2. cos−1 0 = π
2 3. sin−1 21 = π
6 4. cos−1 21 = π
3
√
5. tan−1 1 = π
4 6. tan−1 (−1) = − π
4 7. tan−1 3 = π 3 8. cot−1 (−1) = 34π
√ √
9. sin−1 23 = π
3 10. cos−1 − √1 = 34π 11. tan−1 √1 =π
6 12. cot−1 − 3 = 56π
2 3
√
13. sec−1 2 = π
3 14. csc−1 2 = π
4 15. sin−1 − 12 = − π
6 16. tan−1 − √1 = −π
6
3
√ √
17. sin sin−1 √1 = sin π
4 = 2
2 18. cos sin−1 21 = cos π
6 = 2
3
2
√
19. cos sin−1 23 = cos π 1
3 = 2 20. cos 2 sin−1 21 = cos π 1
3 = 2
√ √
21. tan sin−1 22 = tan π
4 =1 22. tan cos−1 21 = tan π
3 = 3

23. Let θ = sin−1 53 . Then sin θ = 35 , so 24. Let θ = tan−1 2. Then tan θ = 2, so
√
sec sin−1 53 = sec θ = 54 . sec tan−1 2 = sec θ = 5.

5
3 Ï5 2
¬
4 ¬
1

25. Let θ = sin−1 x. Then sin θ = x, so 26. Let θ = cos−1 x. Then cos θ = x, so
cos sin−1 x = cos θ = 1 − x 2. sin cos−1 x = sin θ = 1 − x 2.

1 1
x Ï1-x@
¬ ¬
Ï1-x@ x

27. tan tan−1 x = x because tan and tan−1 are inverse 28. Let θ = sin−1 x. Then sin θ = x, so
x
functions. tan sin−1 x = tan θ = .
1 − x2

1
x
¬
Ï1-x@

29. Let θ = sin−1 x. Then sin θ = x, so 30. Let θ = sec−1 x. Then sec θ = x, so
1 1
sec sin−1 x = sec θ = . cot sec−1 x = cot θ = .
1 − x2 2
x −1

1 x
x Ïx@-1
¬ ¬
Ï1-x@ 1
442 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

31. Let θ = tan−1 x. Then tan θ = x, so 32. Let θ = cot−1 x. Then cot θ = x, so
sin 2 tan−1 x = sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ csc cot−1 x = csc θ = 1 + x 2.
x 1 2x
=2· · = Ï1+x@
1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2 1
¬
Ï1+x@ x
x
¬
1

d 1 d 3
33. f (x) = sin−1 3x = · (3x) =
dx dx 1 − 9x 2
1 − (3x)2
d 1 d 1
34. g (x) = cos−1 (2x − 1) = − · (2x − 1) = −
dx dx x − x2
1 − (2x − 1)2
d 1 d 2x
35. f (x) = tan−1 x 2 = ·
2 dx
x2 =
dx 1 + x2 1 + x4
√
d √ 1 d / 2
36. f (t) = sin−1 2t + 1 = √ · (2t + 1)1 2 = √ √
dt 2 dt 2 −t 2t + 1
1 − 2t + 1
d (3t)
d 3t
37. g (t) = t tan−1 3t = tan−1 3t + t · dt = tan−1 3t +
dt 1 + (3t)2 1 + 9t 2
d 1 1
d 1 − 2 1
dx x x
38. y = sin−1 = = =−
dx x 1 2 x2 − 1
x2 − 1 |x|
1−
x x2
d
39. f (u) =
d
sec−1 2u = du (2u) =
1
du |u| 4u 2 − 1
|2u| (2u)2 − 1
d d
d sec−1 θ θ sec−1 θ − sec−1 θ · (θ) 1 sec−1 θ
40. g (θ) = = dθ dθ = −
dθ θ θ2 θ |θ| θ2 − 1 θ2
d 1 −2 1
41. h (x) = sin−1 x + 2 cos−1 x = + =−
dx 1 − x2 1 − x2 1 − x2
d 2 3
42. f (x) = sin−1 2x + cos−1 3x = −
dx 1 − 4x 2 1 − 9x 2
d 1 −1 1−x
43. g (x) = tan−1 x + x cot−1 x = + cot−1 x + x · = + cot−1 x
dx 1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2
d 1 1
44. y = sec−1 x + csc−1 x = − =0
dx |x| x2 − 1 |x| x2 − 1
d 1
45. y = x 2 + 1 tan−1 x = 2x tan−1 x + x 2 + 1 · 2 = 2x tan−1 x + 1
dx x +1
d (3x + 1)1/2 1 (3x + 1)−1/2 (3)
d √ 3
46. f (x) = tan−1 3x + 1 = dx √ 2
= 2 = √
dx 1 + 3x + 1 1 + 3x + 1 2 (2 + 3x) 3x + 1
 Section 6.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 443

d t −1 (t + 1) − (t − 1)
d t −1 dt t +1 (t + 1)2 2 1
47. g (t) = tan−1 = = = = 2
dt t +1 t −1 2 (t − 1)2 (t + 1)2 + (t − 1)2 t +1
1+ 1+
t +1 (t + 1)2
⎧
d ⎨ −2 if nπ − π < x < nπ + π
48. f (x) =
d
cos−1 (sin 2x) = − dx (sin 2x) =
−2 cos 2x
= 4 4 where n is any
dx ⎩ 2 if nπ + π < x < nπ + 3π
1 − (sin 2x)2 1 − sin2 2x 4 4
integer.
d (sin 2x)
d 2 cos 2x
49. y = tan−1 (sin 2x) = dx 2
=
dx 1 + (sin 2x) 1 + sin2 2x

d 1 cos θ
d cos θ dθ 2 2 sin θ
50. h (θ) = tan−1 = 2
=−
dθ 2 4 + cos2 θ
1 + 12 cos θ

d 1 d 2x 2e2x
51. f (x) = sin−1 e2x = e =
dx 2 dx 1 − e4x
1 − e2 x

−1 −1
d tan−1 2t −1 d etan 2t d 2etan 2t
52. y = e = etan 2t tan−1 2t = 2
(2t) =
dt dt 1 + (2t) dt 1 + 4t 2

53. Let θ = cos−1 x 2 . Then cos θ = x 2 , so

1
Ï1-x$
x2
h (x) = cot cos−1 x 2 = cot θ = ⇒ ¬
1 − x4 x@
1/2 1 −1/2
1 − x4 (2x) − x 2 2 1 − x4 −4x 3 2x
h (x) = = 3/2
.
1 − x4 1 − x4

d sin x (1 + cos x) (cos x) − sin x (− sin x)

d sin x dx 1 + cos x (1 + cos x)2 1
54. y = sin−1 = = =
dx 1 + cos x sin x 2 2 cos x + 2 cos2 x 2 cos x + 2 cos2 x
1−
1 + cos x 1 + cos x

d −1 −2 d 1
55. f (θ) = sec−1 θ = − sec−1 θ sec−1 θ = − 2
dθ dθ −1
|θ| sec θ θ2 − 1

d 1 1 x +1 1 d 1 d
56. f (x) = tan−1 x + ln = tan−1 x + [ln (x + 1) − ln (x − 1)]
dx 2 4 x −1 2 dx 4 dx
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= · + − = · + · =
2 1 + x2 4 x +1 x −1 2 1 + x2 2 1 − x2 1 − x4

d 1 1 8t 2
57. f (t) = ln 1 + 4t 2 − t tan−1 2t = · − tan−1 2t − t · = − tan−1 2t
dt 4 4 1 + 4t 2 1 + 4t 2

d d
58. f (x) = x tan x sec−1 x = tan x sec−1 x + x tan x sec−1 x
dx dx
1 x tan x
= tan x sec−1 x + x sec2 x sec−1 x + tan x · = tan x + x sec2 x sec−1 x +
|x| x 2 − 1 |x| x 2 − 1
444 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

x
59. f (x) = x sin−1 x ⇒ f (x) = sin−1 x + , so the slope of the
1 − x2 2
tangent line is
1 √ √
π 3 π+2 3 1
m= f 1 = sin−1 21 + 2
= + = , so an
2 6 3 6
1 − 14
√ 0
π π+2 3 1
equation of the required tangent line is y − = x− or
12 6 2 -1 0 1
√ √
π+2 3 3
y= x− .
6 6

1
60. f (x) = sec−1 2x ⇒ f (x) = , so the slope of the tangent
|x| 4x 2 − 1 2
√ √ √ √
line is m = f 2
2 = 2 and an equation is y − π
4 = 2 x− 2
2 or

√ 1
y = 2x + π 4 − 1.

0
0 2 4

1 3
61. f (x) = sin−1 x − 2x ⇒ f (x) = −2=0⇔ 62. f (x) = 3 tan−1 x − 2x ⇒ f (x) = −2=0⇔
1 − x2 1 + x2
√ 3 √
1 = 2 ⇔ x = ± 22 , so f has critical numbers at
= 2 ⇒ 1 − x 2 = 14 ⇔ x = ± 23 , the critical 1+x 2
1 − x2 √
numbers of f . ± 22 .
+0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 0 + sign of f» _ _ 0 +++++ 0 _ _ sign of f»
( ) x x
_1 0 1 Ï2 0 Ï2
_2 2
_ Ï3
2
Ï3
2
From the sign diagram, we see that f has a relative
From the sign diagram, we see that f has a relative √
√ √ minimum of f − 22 ≈ −0.43 and a relative maximum
minimum of f 23 = π 3 − 3 and a relative maximum √
√ √ of f 2 ≈ 0.43.
of f − 23 = 3− π
3.
2

1 d −1/2 x
63. f (x) = sin−1 x ⇒ f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = 1 − x2 = 3/2
= 0 ⇒ x = 0. Because f (x) < 0
1 − x2 dx 1 − x2
on (−1, 0) and f (x) > 0 on (0, 1), we see that f has an inflection point at (0, 0).

2 1
64. f (x) = tan−1 x ⇒ f (x) = 2 tan−1 x · ⇒ _ _ 0 +++++ 0 _ _ sign of f»»
1 + x2
x
1 _0.77 0 0.77
1 + x2 · − tan−1 x · 2x 2 1 − 2x tan−1 x
f (x) = 2 · 1 + x2 = =0
4 4
1 + x2 1 + x2
⇒ 1 − 2x tan−1 x = 0. To solve this equation, we use a calculator or computer to find that solutions of this equation are
x ≈ ±0.77. From the sign diagram, we see that the points of inflection of f are approximately (±0.77, 0.43).
 Section 6.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 445

dx dx 1 dx
65. = = . Let u = 14 x, so du = 14 dx. Then
16 − x 2 4
16 1 − (x/4)2 1 − (x/4)2

dx du
= = sin−1 u + C = sin−1 14 x + C.
16 − x 2 1 − u2
1/4 dx 1/4 dx
66. = . Let u = 2x, so du = 2 dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 0, and x = 14 ⇒ u = 12 . Then
0 1 − 4x 2 0 1 − (2x)2
1/4 1/2
dx 1 1/2 du sin−1 u 1 π π
= = = = .
0 1 − 4x 2 2 0 1 − u2 2 2 6 12
0
1/2 dx 1/2 dx
67. 2
= . Let u = 2x, so du = 2 dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 0, and x = 12 ⇒ u = 1. Then
0 1 + 4x 0 1 + (2x)2
1/2 1
dx 1 1 du tan−1 u 1 π π
= = = = .
0 1 + 4x 2 2 0 1 + u2 2 2 4 8
0
√ √ √
4 3 dx 4 3 dx 1 4 3 dx
68. 2
= = . Let u = 14 x, so du = 14 dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 0, and
0 x + 16 0 16 1 + (x/4)2 16 0 1 + (x/4)2
√ √ √
3
√ √ 4 3 dx 1 3 du tan−1 u 1 π π
x = 4 3 ⇒ u = 3. Then 2
= · 4 2
= = = .
0 x + 16 16 0 1+u 4 4 3 12
0
69. Let u = 19 x 2 , so du = 29 x dx. Then
dx 1 x dx 1 9 du 1 1 x2
= = · = sec−1 u + C = sec−1 + C.
x x 4 − 81 9 2 9 2 9u u 2 − 1 18 18 9
x2 x 2 /9 −1
dx dx
70. = . Let u = 3x, so du = 3 dx. Then
x 9x 2 − 1 x (3x)2 − 1
dx 1 du du
= = = sec−1 |u| + C = sec−1 |3x| + C.
x 9x 2 − 1 3 1u u2 − 1 u u2 − 1
3

dt dt 1 dt t3 3t 2 dt
71. = = . Let u = , so du = . Then
t t 6 − 16 t 16 t 6 /16 − 1 4 2 4 4
t t 3 /4 −1

dt 1 t 2 dt 1 4 1 du 1 1 t3
= = · · = sec−1 |u| + C = sec−1 + C.
t t 6 − 16 4 2 4 3 4 u u2 − 1 12 12 4
t3 t 3 /4 −1
1 dt1 1 dt
72. 2
= . Let u = 12 (t − 1), so du = 12 dt, t = −1 ⇒ u = −1, and t = 1 ⇒ u = 0. Then
−1 4 + (t − 1) 4 −1 1 + t − 1 2
2
1 dt 1 0
du 0
= ·2 = 12 tan−1 u =π
8.
−1 4 + (t − 1)2 4 −1 1 + u 2 −1

e2x
1 1 e2 x
73. dx = dx. Let u = e2x , so du = 2e2x dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 1, and x = 1 ⇒ u = e2 . Then
0 1 + e4x 0 1 + e2 x 2
2
e2x
1 1 e du 2
1 tan−1 u e = 1 tan−1 e2 − π .
dx = = 2 2 4
0 1 + e4x 2 1 1 + u2 1
2
x −1 2
x +1−2 2 2
x −1 2
74. 2 = 2
=1− 2 , so 2
dx = 1− 2 dx = x − 2 tan−1 x + C
x +1 x +1 x +1 x +1 x +1
446 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

sin x 1 sin x
75. dx = dx. Let u = 12 cos x, so du = − 12 sin x dx. Then
4 − cos2 x 2 2
1 − cos2 x
sin x 1 du cos x
dx = (−2) = − sin−1 u + C = − sin−1 + C.
4 − cos2 x 2 1 − u2 2
cos 3x 1 du
76. Let u = sin 3x, so du = 3 cos 3x dx. Then dx = = 13 tan−1 u + C = 13 tan−1 (sin 3x) + C.
1 + sin2 3x 3 1 + u2
x3
1 1 x3
77. 8
dx = dx. Let u = x 4 , so du = 4x 3 dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 0, and x = 1 ⇒ u = 1. Then
0 1+x 0 1 + x4 2

x3
1 1 1 du 1
8
dx = 2
= 14 tan−1 u = 14 π π
4 = 16 .
0 1 + x 4 0 1 + u 0
dx dx du 1 1
78. Let u = sec−1 x, so du = . Then 3
= =− 2 +C =− + C.
|x| x 2 − 1 |x| sec−1 x x2 − 1 u3 2u 2 sec−1 x
2

dx √
79. Let u = sin−1 x, so du = , x = 0 ⇒ u = 0, and x = 23 ⇒ u = π
3 . Then
1−x 2
√ π /3
3/2 sin−1 x π /3 u2 π2
dx = u du = = .
0 1 − x2 0 2 18
0
√ √ √
2/2 cos−1 x 2/2 cos−1 x dx √
80. dx = dx. Let u = cos−1 x, so du = − ,x =0 ⇒ u= π
2 , and x = 2
2
0 1 − x2 0 1 − x2 1−x 2
√
2/2 cos−1 x π /4 π /2 π /2
⇒u = π u 1/2 du = u 1/2 du = 23 u 3/2 = 23 π 3/2 − π 3/2 .
4 . Then 1−x 2
dx = −
π /4 2 4
0 π /2 π /4
dx tan−1 x 2
81. Let u = tan−1 x, so du = . Then dx = u du = 12 u 2 + C = 12 tan−1 x + C.
1 + x2 1 + x2
dx dx
82. = . Let u = 13 (x + 1), so du = 13 dx. Then
(x + 1) (x + 1)2 − 9 3 (x + 1) x+1 2 − 1
3
dx 1 du x +1
= = 13 sec−1 |u| + C = 13 sec−1 + C.
3 u u2 − 1 3
(x + 1) (x + 1)2 − 9
√ 1 dx. Then dx 1 dx 1 du 1 du
83. Let u = x, so du = √ √ = √ = ·2 = . Next,
2 x x (4 + x) 4 x 1 + 14 x 4 1 + 14 u 2 2
1 + 12 u
2

dx 1 dv √
x
let v = 12 u, so dv = 12 du. Then √ = ·2 2
= tan−1 v + C = tan−1 12 u + C = tan−1 2 + C.
x (4 + x) 2 1+v
ex ex du
84. Let u = e x , so du = e x dx. Then dx = dx = = sin−1 u + C = sin−1 e x + C.
1 − e2x x
1 − (e )2 1 − u 2

dx 1 dx
85. = . Let u = 12 (x − 2), so du = 12 dx. Then
4 + (x − 2)2 4
1+ x −2 2
2
dx du 1
= = 12 tan−1 u + C = 12 tan−1 x −
·2 2
2 + C.
4 + (x − 2)2 1 + u2
4
dx du 1 du
86. Let u = ln x, so du = dx/x. Then I = = 2
= 2
. Now let v = 13 u, so
x 9 + (ln x)2 9 + u 9
1 + 13 u
1 dv
dv = 13 du. Then I = · 3 = 13 tan−1 v + C = 13 tan−1 13 u + C = 13 tan−1 13 ln x + C.
9 1 + v2
 Section 6.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 447

1dx 1 1 dx
87. A = 2
= . Let u = 12 x, so du = 12 dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 0, and x = 1 ⇒ u = 12 . Then
0 4 + x 4 0 1 + 1x 2
2
1 1/2 du 1/2
A= ·2 2
= 12 tan−1 u = 12 tan−1 12 .
4 0 1 + u 0

4 4 2
1
88. V = π y 2 dx = π √ 1/4
dx y
3 3 x x2 − 4
4 dx π 4 dx 1
=π =
3 x x2 − 4 2 3 1x 2 − 1
x 2

Let u = 12 x, so du = 12 dx, x = 3 ⇒ u = 32 , and x = 4 ⇒ u = 2. 0 2 3 4 x

π 2 du 2
Then V = ·2 = π
2 sec−1 u =π
2 sec
−1 2 − sec−1 3 = π π − sec−1 3 .
2 2 3 2
2 3/2 (2u) u 2 − 1 3/2

2 2 dx
89. V = 2π x y dx = 2π x· y
1 1 x x2 + 4
2dx π 2 dx 0.4
= 2π 2
=
1 x + 4 2 1 1x 2 + 1
2 0.2
Let u = 12 x, so du = 12 dx, x = 1 ⇒ u = 12 , and x = 2 ⇒ u = 1. Then
π du 1
0 1 2 x
V = · 2 11/2 2 = π tan−1 u =π π 4 − tan
−1 1 .
2
2 u +1 1/2

x 2 x2 4
90. y = 4 − x2 ⇒ y = − ⇒1+ y = 1+ = , so
4 − x2 4 − x2 4 − x2
2 dx 2 2 dx
2
L = 02 1+ y dx = 2 = . Let u = 12 x, so du = 12 dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 0, and x = 2
0 4 − x2 2 0 2
1 − 12 x
1 du 1
⇒ u = 1. Then L = 2 = 2 sin−1 u =2· π
2 = π.
0 1 − u2 0

2
91. a. b. L ≈ 1+ π
4 ≈ 1.27155
1.0
d tan−1 x = 1
c. f (x) = dx ⇒
1 + x2
1 2 x 4 + 2x 2 + 2
0.5 2
1 + f (x) =1+ 2
= 2
, so
1+x 1 + x2
1 1 x 4 + 2x 2 + 2
0.0 2
L= 1 + f (x) dx = dx ≈ 1.27798 (using a
0.0 0.5 1.0 0 0 1 + x2
calculator or computer).
448 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

x
92. Referring to the figure, we see that = sin θ. Differentiating the y
20
1 dx dθ dθ dx/dt
equation with respect to t, we have = cos θ ⇒ = . ¬
20 dt dt dt 20 cos θ 20
dx 202 − 122
4
When x = 12 and = 5, cos θ = = , so
dt 20 5
dθ 5 5 0 x x
= = rad/s or approximately 17.9◦ /s.
dt 20 · 45 16

x 1000 − x y
93. Let P (x, 0). We have cot α = and cot β = , so
150 40 150
x 1000 − x
θ = π − α − β = π − cot−1 − cot−1 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1000.
150 40
(1000, 40)
Thus,
¬
1 1 Œ º 1000
− 40
θ = 150 + 0 P x
x 2 1000 − x 2
1 + 150 1+ x 1000-x
40
150 40
= − x 0 655 1000
22,500 + x 2 1600 + 1,000,000 − 2000x + x 2
110x 2 − 300,000x + 149,340,000 θ 1.531 2.801 1.422
=
22,500 + x 2 x 2 − 2000x + 1,001,600
Setting θ = 0 gives 110x 2 − 300,000x + 149,340,000. Using the quadratic formula, we find x ≈ 655, the only critical
number in (0, 1000). From the table, we see that θ is maximized at x ≈ 655, so the restaurant should be located
approximately 655 feet from the longer jetty.
48 12
94. Referring to the figure, we see that θ = β − α = tan−1 − tan−1 ,
x x
x > 0.
36
dθ 48 1 12 1
= − 2 −
dx
1+ 48 2 x
1+ 12 2 x2
x x º 12
¬ Œ
48x 2 12x 2 x
=− 2 + =0⇔
x + 2304 x 2 + 144
4 1 ++++ 0 _ _ _ sign of ¬»
= 2 ⇔ 3x 2 = 1728 ⇔ x = 24, because x > 0. From
x 2 + 2304 x + 144 ( x
0 24
the sign diagram, we see that θ is maximized if x = 24 in.

10t 2 t2 10t@
95. Referring to the figure, we see that θ = tan−1 = tan−1 ,
200 20
1
dθ 10 t 40t 200
0 ≤ t ≤ 15. = = ⇒
dt 1 t2 2 400 + t 4 ¬
1 + 20

d 2θ 400 + t 4 (40) − (40t) 4t 3 −120t 4 + 16,000 ++++ 0 _ _ _ sign of ¬»»

= = =0⇔
dt 2 400 + t 4
2
400 + t 4
2 ( t
0 3.4
120t 4 = 16,000 ⇔ t ≈ 3.398. From the sign diagram, we see that θ is
maximized when t ≈ 3.398, at which time the position of the car is

approximately d = 10t 2 ≈ 10 3.3982 ≈ 115.5 ft from the starting point.

 Section 6.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 449

96. a. The area of R1 is A (R1 ) = 12 sin−1 x because it is the area of a sector y

of a circle of radius 1 subtended by the angle θ = sin−1 x. The area 1 P

RÁ
x@+y@=1
of the triangular region R2 is A (R2 ) = 12 x y = 12 x 1 − x 2 . The area
y
¬ Rª
under the graph of y = 1 − x 2 over the interval [0, x] is
x 0 x 1
0 1 − t 2 dt = A (R1 ) + A (R2 ) = 12 sin−1 x + 12 x 1 − x 2 , so x

sin−1 x = 2 0x 1 − t 2 dt − x 1 − x 2 .
b. Differentiating both sides of the equation in part a with respect to x gives
d d x d −2x
sin−1 x = 2 1 − t 2 dt − x 1 − x2 = 2 1 − x2 − 1 − x2 − x ·
dx dx 0 dx 2 1 − x2
x2 1
= 1 − x2 + =
1 − x2 1 − x2
1/2
97. With L = 10 and r = 1, we have V = 10 12 π − sin−1 h − h 1 − h 2 . Differentiating both sides of the equation

with respect to t, we have

dh 1/2 −1/2
dV dt dh
= 10 − − 1 − h2 + h 12 1 − h2 (−2h)
dt 1 − h2 dt

10 10h 2 dh dh
=− + 10 1 − h 2 − = −20 1 − h 2
1 − h2 1 − h2 dt dt
dV dh
Substituting h = 0.4 and = −0.2 into the equation gives −0.2 = −20 1 − (0.4)2 , and solving, we find
dt dt
dh
≈ 0.011 ft/s.
dt
12 |x| 2y 2
98. V = π x 2 dy, but from y = , we have x 2 = y 2 2 − x 2 = 2y 2 − y 2 x 2 ⇒ x 2 = . But
0 2 − x2 y2 + 1

2y 2 2 y2 + 1 − 2 2
2
= 2
=2− 2 , so
y +1 y +1 y +1
12 2y 2 2 12 1 12
V =π dy = π 012 2− 2 dy = 2π 1− 2 dy = 2π y − tan−1 y
0 y2 + 1 y +1 0 y +1 0

= 2π 12 − tan−1 12 ≈ 66.05

1 1 1 11 1 dx 1 dx
99. a. < < for all x ∈ (0, 1), so dx ≤ ≤ ⇔
2 4 − x2 + x4 4 − x2 0 2 0 4 − x2 + x4 0 4 − x2
1 x 1 1 dx x 1 π
= ≤ ≤ sin−1 = ≈ 0.524.
2 2 0 0 4 − x2 + x4 2 0 6
1 dx
b. Using a calculator or computer, we find ≈ 0.50864.
0 4 − x2 + x4
1 1 1 dx 1 dx 1 1 1 dx
100. a. 2
< 8
< 1 for x ∈ (0, 1), so 2
< 8
< 1 dx ⇔ tan−1 x < < x|10 ⇒
1+x 1+x 0 1+x 0 1+x 0 0 0 1 + x8
π 1 dx
≈ 0.785 < < 1.
4 0 1 + x8
1
dx
b. Using a calculator or computer, we find ≈ 0.92465.
0 1 + x8
 450 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

1 1 − x2 + 1
101. Let f (x) = cos−1 x − x. Then f (x) = − −1 = − . We iterate
1 − x2 1 − x2
cos−1 xn − xn 1 − xn2 xn + 1 − xn2 cos−1 xn
xn+1 = xn + = . Taking the initial guess to be x0 = 0, we find
1 − xn2 + 1 1 − xn2 + 1
x1 ≈ 0.78540, x2 ≈ 0.74031, and x3 ≈ 0.73909 ≈ x4 , so the root is approximately 0.739.

102. We solve the equation tan−1 x = cos−1 x. Let f (x) = tan−1 x − cos−1 x, so

1 1 1 − x2 + x2 + 1 tan−1 xn − cos−1 xn 1 + xn2 1 − xn2

f (x) = + = . We iterate xn+1 = xn − .
1 + x2 1 − x2 1 + x2 1 − x2 1 − xn2 + xn2 + 1
Taking the initial guess to be x0 = 0, we find x1 ≈ 0.78540 and x2 ≈ 0.78615 ≈ x3 , so the point of intersection is about
(0.786, 0.666).

103. Here a = 0 and b = 1, so 1 = 0.1. Therefore,

x = 10
1 −1 x dx ≈ 0.1 cot−1 0 + 4 cot−1 0.1 + 2 cot−1 0.2 + 4 cot−1 0.3 + 2 cot−1 0.4 + 4 cot−1 0.5
0 cot 3

+ 2 cot−1 0.6 + 4 cot−1 0.7 + 2 cot−1 0.8 + 4 cot−1 0.9 + cot−1 1 ≈ 1.132.

1 1 x tan−1 x dx ≈ 0.652, and y = 1 1 1 tan−1 x 2 dx ≈ 0.279, so the centroid

104. A = 01 tan−1 x dx ≈ 0.4388, x = A 0 A 0 2
is (0.652, 0.279).

1 1 2 − x2 0.8 0.8 2 − x2
2 2
105. y = cos−1 x ⇒ y = − ⇒ 1+ y = 1+ 2
= 2
, so L = 1 + y dx = dx.
1 − x2 1−x 1−x 0 0 1 − x2
Using Simpson’s Rule with n = 8, we have x = 0.8 = 0.1, so
8
⎡
1/2 2 1/2 1/2 1/2
0.1 ⎣ 2 − 0 1/2 2 − 0.12 2 − 0.2 2 − 0.32 2 − 0.42
L≈ +4 +2 +4 +2
3 1−0 1 − 0.12 1 − 0.22 1 − 0.32 1 − 0.42
⎤
1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2
2 − 0.52 2 − 0.62 2 − 0.72 2 − 0.82 ⎦ ≈ 1.22787
+4 +2 +4 +
1 − 0.52 1 − 0.62 1 − 0.72 1 − 0.82

106. a. Let y = cos−1 u, so u = cos y. Then b. Let y = tan−1 u, so u = tan y. Then

du d dy dy du d dy dy
= (cos y) · = (− sin y) ⇔ = (tan y) · = sec2 y ⇔
dx dy dx dx dx dy dx dx
dy 1 du 1 du dy 1 du du 1 du
=− =− . = 2
= cos2 y = .
dx sin y dx 1−u 2 dx dx sec y dx dx 1 + u 2 dx

1 Ï1+u@
Ï1-u@ u
y y
u 1
 Section 6.6 Hyperbolic Functions 451

c. Let y = csc−1 u, so u = csc y. Then d. Let y = sec−1 u, so u = sec y. Then

du d dy dy du d dy dy
= (csc y) · = (− csc y cot y) ⇔ = (sec y) · = (sec y tan y) ⇔
dx dy dx dx dx dy dx dx
dy 1 du 1 du dy 1 du 1 du
=− =− . = = .
dx csc y cot y dx 2
|u| u − 1 dx dx sec y tan y dx 2
|u| u − 1 dx

u u
1 Ïu@-1
y y
u@-1 1

e. Let y = cot−1 u, so u = cot y. Then

du d dy dy Ï1+u@
= (cot y) · = − csc2 y ⇔ 1
dx dy dx dx
y
dy 1 du 1 du
=− 2 =− . u
dx csc y dx 1 + u 2 dx
1
107. False: sin−1 x = arcsin x is not equal to (sin x)−1 = = csc x.
sin x
cos−1 π 4 ≈ 0.667457 ≈ 0.73888.
108. False. Take x = π
4 . Then cot
−1 π ≈ 0.90502, but
4
sin−1 π
4
0.903339
2 2 2 2
109. False. Let x = 0. Then sin−1 0 = 0 + 2 = π4 = 1.
+ cos−1 0 π

110. True. Let f (x) = tan−1 x. Then f (−x) = tan−1 (−x) = − tan−1 x = − f (x).
d 1
111. True. f (x) = cos−1 x = − < 0 for x ∈ (−1, 1), and so f is decreasing.
dx 1 − x2
d d
112. True. cos−1 (cos x) = (x) = 1 for x ∈ (0, π).
dx dx

6.6 Concept Questions

1. See page 579.
2. See page 582.
3. See page 582.
4. See page 583.
5. See page 584.
6. See page 585.

6.6 Hyperbolic Functions

1. a. sinh 2 = 12 e2 − e−2 ≈ 3.6269 b. cosh 4 = 12 e4 + e−4 ≈ 27.3082 c. sech 3 ≈ 0.0993

2. a. csch 3 ≈ 0.0998 b. tanh (−2) ≈ −0.9640 c. coth 5 ≈ 1.0001

3. a. cosh 0 = 1 b. sech (−1) ≈ 0.6481 c. csch (ln 2) ≈ 1.3333

4. a. sinh−1 1 ≈ 0.8814 b. cosh−1 2 ≈ 1.3170 c. sech−1 13 ≈ 1.7628

5. a. csch−1 2 ≈ 0.4812 b. csch−1 (−2) ≈ −0.4812 c. coth−1 32 ≈ 0.8047

452 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

6. a. tanh−1 − 12 ≈ −0.5493 b. cosh−1 (ln 5) ≈ 1.0545 c. tanh−1 (sinh 0) = 0

e−x + e−(−x) e x + e−x sinh (−x) sinh x
7. cosh (−x) = = = cosh x 8. tanh (−x) = =− = − tanh x
2 2 cosh (−x) cosh x
1 2 sinh x 2 1 + sinh2 x cosh2 x
9. sech2 x + tanh2 x = + = 2
= =1
cosh x cosh x cosh x cosh2 x

cosh 2x − 1 cosh2 x + sinh2 x − cosh2 x − sinh2 x 2 sinh2 x

10. = = = sinh2 x
2 2 2
1 + cosh 2x cosh2 x − sinh2 x + cosh2 x + sinh2 x 2 cosh2 x
11. = = = cosh2 x
2 2 2
e x − e−x e x + e−x e2x − e−2x
12. 2 sinh x cosh x = 2 · · = = sinh 2x
2 2 2
2 2
e x + e−x e x − e−x e2x + 2 + e−2x + e2x − 2 + e−2x e 2 x + e −2 x
13. cosh2 x + sinh2 x = + = = = cosh 2x
2 2 4 2
e x − e−x e y + e−y e x + e−x e y − e−y
14. sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y = · + ·
2 2 2 2
e x e y + e x e−y − e−x e y − e−x e−y e x e y − e x e−y + e−x e y − e−x e−y
= +
4 4
2e x e y − 2e−x e−y e x+y − e−(x+y)
= = = sinh (x + y)
4 2
x
e +e −x y
e +e −y x
e −e −x y
e − e−y
15. cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y = · + ·
2 2 2 2
e x e y + e x e−y + e−x e y + e−x e−y e x e y − e x e−y − e−x e y + e−x e−y
= +
4 4
2e x e y + 2e−x e−y e x+y + e−(x+y)
= = = cosh (x + y)
4 2
16. Observe that sinh (x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y and cosh (x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y. Therefore,
sinh (x + y) sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y tanh x + tanh y
tanh (x + y) = = = (dividing by cosh x cosh y).
cosh (x + y) cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y 1 + tanh x tanh y
2
17. sinh x = 43 , csch x = sinh
1 = 3 , cosh x =
x 4 1 + sinh2 x = 1 + 43 = 53 , sech x = cosh
1 3 sinh x 4
x = 5 , tanh x = cosh x = 5 ,
1 = 5.
and coth x = tanh x 4

18. cosh x = 54 , sech x = cosh

1 4 cosh2 x − 1 = 5 2 − 1 = 3 , csch x = 1 = 4 , tanh x = sinh x = 3 ,
x = 5 , sinh x = 4 4 sinh x 3 cosh x 5

and coth x = tanh1 = 5.

x 3
d d
19. f (x) = sinh 3x = cosh 3x · (3x) = 3 cosh 3x
dx dx
d d
20. f (x) = cosh (2x + 1) = sinh (2x + 1) · (2x + 1) = 2 sinh (2x + 1)
dx dx
d d
21. g (x) = tanh (1 − 3x) = sech2 (1 − 3x) · (1 − 3x) = −3 sech2 (1 − 3x)
dx dx
d d
22. h (x) = sech x 2 = − sech x 2 tanh x 2 · x 2 = −2x sech x 2 tanh x 2
dx dx
d t et − e−t et + e−t
23. f (t) = e sinh t = et sinh t + et cosh t = et (sinh t + cosh t) = et + = e2t
dt 2 2
d 1 1 d 1 1 1
24. y = coth = − csch2 · = 2 csch2
dx x x dx x x x
 Section 6.6 Hyperbolic Functions 453

d sinh x
25. F (x) = ln (cosh x) = = tanh x
dx cosh x
d 3 cosh 3x
26. y = ln (sinh 3x) = = 3 coth 3x
dx sinh 3x
d 2u sinh u 2
27. g (u) = tanh cosh u 2 = sech2 cosh u 2 · sinh u 2 · 2u =
dx cosh2 cosh u 2
d 2 sinh 2s
28. h (s) = coth (cosh 2s) = − csch2 (cosh 2s) · sinh 2s · 2 = −
ds sinh2 (cosh 2s)
d
29. f (t) = cosh2 3t 2 + 1 = 2 cosh 3t 2 + 1 sinh 3t 2 + 1 · 6t = 12t cosh 3t 2 + 1 sinh 3t 2 + 1
dt
d
30. f (x) = (sinh 2x cosh 4x) = 2 cosh 2x cosh 4x + 4 sinh 2x sinh 4x
dx
d
31. g (v) = v sinh v 2 = sinh v 2 + v cosh v 2 · 2v = sinh v 2 + 2v 2 cosh v 2
dv
d −1/2 2t sinh 2t 2 + 1
32. F (t) = cosh 2t 2 + 1 = sinh 2t 2 + 1 · 12 2t 2 + 1 (4t) =
dt 2t 2 + 1
d
33. f (x) = tanh e2x + 1 = sech2 e2x + 1 · 2e2x = 2e2x sech2 e2x + 1
dx
3
d 3 3 −2/3 2x sinh x 2 + 1
34. y = cosh x 2 + 1 = sinh x 2 + 1 · 13 x 2 + 1 (2x) = 2
dx 3 2
3 x +1
d
35. f (x) = (cosh x − sinh x)2/3 = 23 (cosh x − sinh x)−1/3 (sinh x − cosh x) = − 23 (cosh x − sinh x)2/3
dx
d sinh 2t
36. y = e = esinh 2t · cosh 2t · 2 = 2esinh 2t cosh 2t
dt
d 1 sinh x
37. g (x) = tanh−1 (cosh x) = 2
· sinh x = = − csch x
dx 1 − cosh x 1 − cosh2 x
d √ 3 csch2 3x
38. f (x) = 2 + coth 3x = 12 (2 + coth 3x)−1/2 − csch2 3x (3) = − √
dx 2 2 + coth 3x
d sinh x (1 + cosh x) cosh x − (sinh x) sinh x 1
39. f (x) = = =
dx 1 + cosh x (1 + cosh x)2 1 + cosh x
d sinh x x cosh x − sinh x
40. g (x) = =
dx x x2
(1 + tanh 2t) · √ 12 − 2 cosh−1 t sech2 2t
d cosh−1 t t −1
41. y = =
dt 1 + tanh 2t (1 + tanh 2t)2
d −x
42. f (x) = e sech 2x = −e−x sech 2x − e−x sech 2x tanh 2x · 2 = −e−x sech 2x (2 tanh 2x + 1)
dx
d 3
43. f (x) = sinh−1 3x =
dx 1 + 9x 2
d x 1 1 2
44. g (x) = tanh−1 = · =
dx 2 1 − (x/2)2 2 4 − x2
d 1 −1/2 1 1
45. y = cosh−1 2x = cosh−1 2x · ·2=
dx 2 4x 2 − 1 cosh−1 2x
4x 2 − 1
d 1 3
46. f (x) = sech−1 x 3 = − · 3x 2 = −
dx x3 1 − x6 x 1 − x6
d √ 1 1
47. f (x) = sech−1 2x + 1 = − √ =− √
dx (2x + 1) 1 − (2x + 1) (2x + 1) −2x
454 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

d 1 1
48. y = e x sech−1 x = e x sech−1 x − e x · = e x sech−1 x −
dx x 1−x 2 x 1 − x2
d 2x 2x 2
49. y = x cosh−1 x 2 = cosh−1 x 2 + x · = cosh−1 x 2 +
dx x4 − 1 x4 − 1

d 1/ 1 − x 2 1
50. g (x) = ln tanh−1 x = =
dx tanh−1 x 1 − x 2 tanh−1 x
d √ 1 d 1/2 1
51. f (x) = sech−1 x = − √ √ · x =− √
dx x 1 − x dx 2x 1 − x
d cosh x
52. h (x) = cosh−1 (sinh x) =
dx sinh2 x − 1
d 9x 3 9 (x − 1)
53. y = 9x 2 − 1 − 3 cosh−1 3x = −3· =
dx 9x 2 − 1 9x 2 − 1 9x 2 − 1
d 2 1 d
54. y = 2x coth−1 2x − ln 1 − 4x 2 = 2 coth−1 2x + 2x · − ln 1 − 4x 2
dx 1 − 4x 2 2 dx
4x 4x 8x
= 2 coth−1 2x + + = 2 coth−1 2x +
1 − 4x 2 1 − 4x 2 1 − 4x 2
55. Let u = 2x + 3, so du = 2 dx. Then cosh (2x + 3) dx = 12 cosh u du = 12 sinh u + C = 12 sinh (2x + 3) + C.
√
√ dx sinh x √
56. Let u = x, so du = √ . Then √ dx = 2 sinh u du = 2 cosh u + C = 2 cosh x + C.
2 x x
√
57. Let u = sinh x, so du = cosh x dx. Then sinh x cosh x dx = u 1/2 du = 23 u 3/2 + C = 23 (sinh x)3/2 + C.
sinh x
58. tanh x dx = dx. Let u = cosh x, so du = sinh x dx. Then
cosh x
du
tanh x dx = = ln |u| + C = ln (cosh x) + C.
u
1 1 cosh u
59. u = 3x ⇒ du = 3 dx, so coth 3x dx = coth u du = du = 13 ln |sinh u| + C = 13 ln |sinh 3x| + C.
3 3 sinh u
60. Let u = 3x − 1, so du = 3 dx. Then sech2 (3x − 1) dx = 13 sech2 u du = 13 tanh u + C = 13 tanh (3x − 1) + C.
sinh x du
61. Let u = 1 + cosh x, so du = sinh x dx. Then dx = = ln |u| + C = ln (1 + cosh x) + C.
1 + cosh x u
1 dx sech (1/x) tanh (1/x) 1
62. Let u = , so du = − 2 . Then dx = − sech u tanh u du = sech + C.
x x x2 x
b b x 2 b x
63. V = πy 2 dx = 2π dx = 2πa 2
a cosh cosh2 dx y
−b 0 a 0 a
b1 2x a 2x b
= 2πa 2 1 + cosh dx = πa 2 x + sinh x
0 2 a 2 a y=a cosh
0 a
a 2b b 1 2b
= πa 2 b + sinh = πa 3 + sinh
2 a a 2 a
_b 0 b x
b b b x x b x
2
64. S = 2π y ds = 2π y 1+ y dx = 2π a cosh 1 + sinh2 dx = 2πa cosh2 dx and
0 0 0 a a 0 a
b b x 2 b x 2V
V = πy 2 dx = π a cosh dx = πa 2 cosh2 dx, so = S.
0 0 a 0 a a
1 b Wx 1 b Wx T T Wx b T2 Wb
65. Tav = T0 cosh dx = 2 T0 cosh dx = 0 · 0 sinh = 0 sinh
b − (−b) −b T0 2b 0 T0 b W T0 0 bW T0
 Section 6.6 Hyperbolic Functions 455

mg gk mg 4
66. a. lim v (t) = lim tanh t =
t→∞ t→∞ k m k
√ √
b. If m = 2, g = 32, and k = 8, then v (t) = 2 2 tanh 8 2t
2

0
0.0 0.5 1.0

√
67. a. x (0) = − √1 e0 sinh 2 2 · 0 = − √1 · 0 = 0 and b. 0.0
2 2
d √
v (t) = x (t) = − √1 e−4t sinh 2 2t
dt 2 -0.1
√ √ √
= − √1 −4e−4t sinh 2 2t + 2 2e−4t cosh 2 2t
2
√ -0.2
so v (0) = − √1 0 + 2 2 = −2 ft/s.
2
0 2 4

68. a. The x-coordinate of the point at which missile A intercepts missile B is b. To find the y-coordinate, we compute
⎡ x 1+c x 1−c ⎤
b⎢ 1 − 1 − bc bc bc
b b ⎥
y|x=b = ⎣ − ⎦ + = , so the required point is b, .
2 1+c 1−c 1 − c2 1 − c2 1 − c2
x=b
dy b d x 1+c b d x 1−c
b. = 1− − 1−
dx 2 (1 + c) dx b 2 (1 − c) dx b
b x c 1 b x −c 1
= · (1 + c) 1 − − − (1 − c) 1 − −
2 (1 + c) b b 2 (1 − c) b b
1 x c x −c 1 x c x −c
=− 1− − 1− =− exp ln 1 − − exp ln 1 −
2 b b 2 b b
1 x x x
= − exp c ln 1 − − exp −c ln 1 − = − sinh c ln 1 −
2 b b b
2
c. If b = 1 and c = 12 , then y = − sinh 12 ln (1 − x) ⇒ 1 + y = 1 + sinh2 12 ln (1 − x) = cosh2 12 ln (1 − x) .
Therefore,
2
D = 01 1+ y dx = 01 cosh 12 ln (1 − x) dx = 01 cosh ln (1 − x)1/2 dx
1/2 1/2
= 12 01 eln(1−x) + e− ln(1−x) dx = 12 01 (1 − x)1/2 + (1 − x)−1/2 dx
1
= 12 − 23 (1 − x)3/2 − 2 (1 − x)1/2 = 12 23 + 2 = 43 miles
0

d. If b = 1 and c = 12 , then 1.0

1 (1 − x)3/2 (1 − x)1/2 1 · 12
y= 3
− 1
+
2
2 2 1 − 14 0.5
= 13 (1 − x)3/2 − (1 − x)1/2 + 23 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0
456 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

2
69. y = cosh x ⇒ y = sinh x ⇒ 1 + y = 1 + sinh2 x = cosh2 x, so
b
S = 2π ab y ds = π ab (1 + cosh 2x) dx = π x + 12 sinh 2x = π (b − a) + 12 (sinh 2b − sinh 2a) .
a
3/4 2 3/2
70. V = π 12 y 2 dx = π 12 x2 − 1 dx = π 12 x 2 − 1 dx. Let y

x = cosh u, so dx = sinh u. Then 1

y=(x@-1)#?$
3/2 3
I = x2 − 1 dx = cosh2 u − 1 sinh u du = sinh4 u du

= 1 (cosh 2u − 1) 2 du = 1 cosh2 2u − 2 cosh 2u + 1 du

2 4
0 1 2 x
= 18 1 sinh 4u − 1 sinh 2u + 3 u + C
(cosh 4u + 1 − 4 cosh 2u + 2) du = 32 4 8

Now u = cosh−1 x = ln x + x 2 − 1 , sinh 2u = 2 sinh u cosh u = 2x x 2 − 1,

and sinh 4u = 2 sinh 2u cosh 2u = 4x x 2 − 1 2x 2 − 1 , so

2
V =π 2
8 x 2x − 1 x 2 − 1 − 4x x 2 − 1 + 3 ln x + x2 − 1 ≈ 5.63.
1
a a
71. A = −a cosh x dx = 2 0a cosh x dx = 0a e x + e−x dx = e x − e−x 0 y

= ea − e−a . By symmetry, x = 0. y=cosh x

a 2
Mx = 12 −a cosh2 x dx = 0a 12 e x + e−x dx = 14 0a e2x + 2 + e−2x dx
a
= 14 12 e2x + 2x − 12 e−2x = 18 e2a + 4a − e−2a , _a 0 a x
0
e2a + 4a − e−2a
so y = and the centroid is (0, y).
8 ea − e−a
x ⇒ y = 80 sinh x · 1 = sinh x .
72. y = 80 cosh 80 80 80 80 y

y 100 = sinh 100 5

80 = sinh 4 ≈ 1.6019 ≈ m and
1 ¬
tan θ = 1/y 100 ≈ 1.6019 ≈ 0.6243. Therefore,
θ = tan−1 0.6243 ≈ 0.5581 radians or about 32◦ .
0 100 x

d d eu + e−u du eu − e−u du du
73. cosh u = = = sinh u
dx du 2 dx 2 dx dx
d d 1 du − cosh u du du
74. csch u = = = − coth u csch u
dx du sinh u dx sinh2 u dx dx
d d 1 du − sinh u du du
75. sech u = = = − tanh u sech u
dx du cosh u dx cosh2 u dx dx
d d cosh u du sinh2 u − cosh2 u du du du
76. coth u = = 2
= 1 − coth2 u = − csch2 u
dx du sinh u dx sinh u dx dx dx
3
e x − e−x e x + e−x
77. True: (sinh x + cosh x)3 = + = e3x > 0 for all x.
2 2
d coth2 x − csch2 x 5 = d (1) = 0.
78. True. Observe that coth2 x − csch2 x = 1, so dx dx
79. True. The integrand f (x) = cos x sinh x is odd because f (−x) = cos (−x) sinh (−x) = cos x (− sinh x) = − f (x), so
π
−π cos x sinh x dx = 0.
 Section 6.7 Indeterminate Forms and l’Hôpital’s Rule 457

80. True. The integrand f (x) = x 2 sech x is even because f (−x) = (−x)2 sech (−x) = x 2 sech x = f (x), so
3 2 3 2
−3 x sech x dx = 2 0 x sech x dx.

6.7 Concept Questions

H
Note: The use of l’Hôpital’s Rule is indicated by =.
f (x) f (x)
1. lim =0 2. lim =∞
x→a g (x) x→a g (x)
f (x)
3. lim =∞ 4. lim f (x) − g (x) = ∞
x→a + x − a x→a
f (x) 2
5. lim + =∞
x→3 (x − 3)2 |x − 3|
g(x)
6. lim f (x) is not indeterminate. It has the form 0∞ , so its value is 0.
x→∞
f (x)
x
7. lim is an indeterminate form of type 1∞ .
x→∞ x2 + 5
g(x)
2
8. lim is an indeterminate form of type ∞0 .
x→a f (x)
9. a. See page 591.
f (x) H f (x)
b. i. lim f (x) g (x) = lim = lim
x→a x→a 1/g (x) x→a 1/g (x)

ii. Combine the terms to get an indeterminate form of type 0/0 or ∞/∞, then apply l’Hôpital’s Rule.
iii. Put y = f (x)g(x) ⇒ ln y = g (x) ln f (x), then apply l’Hôpital’s Rule to get
ln f (x) H ln f (x)
lim ln y = ln lim y = lim = lim = L. Then lim y = lim f (x)g(x) = e L .
x→∞ x→∞ x→a 1/g (x) x→a 1/g (x) x→∞ x→∞

6.7 Indeterminate Forms and l’Hôpital’s Rule

x −1 1 1 x 2 − 2x − 3 2x − 2
1. lim = lim = 2. lim = lim = −4
x→1 x 2 − 1 x→1 2x 2 x→−1 x +1 x→−1 1
x3 − 8 3x 2 x7 − 1 7x 6 7
3. lim = lim = 12 4. lim = lim =
x→2 x − 2 x→2 1 x→1 x 4 − 1 x→1 4x 3 4
ex − 1 ex ln x 1/x
5. lim 2 = lim =1 6. lim = lim =1
x→0 x + x x→0 2x + 1 x→1 x − 1 x→1 1
sin t cos t ex − 1 ex 1
7. lim = lim =1 8. lim = lim =
t→π π − t t→π −1 x→0 x + sin x x→0 1 + cos x 2
tan 2θ 2 sec2 2θ sin 2x 2 cos 2x
9. lim = lim =2 10. lim = lim =2
θ→0 θ θ→0 1 x→0 x x→0 1
x + cos x 1 − sin x
11. lim = lim . Observe that the limit on the right-hand side does not exist, so l’Hôpital’s Rule does
x→∞ 2x + 1 x→∞ 2
x + cos x 1 + cosx x 1
not apply. We evaluate the limit as follows: lim = lim = .
x→∞ 2x + 1 x→∞ 2 + 1 2
x
458 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

θ + sin θ 1 + cos θ 2
12. lim = lim = =2
θ→0 tan θ θ→0 sec2 θ 1
sin x − x cos x x sin x 1 x 1
13. lim = lim = lim cos4 x =
x→0 tan3 x x→0 3 tan2 x sec2 x 3 x→0 sin x 3
2 sin2 u 4 sin u cos u
14. lim = lim = − lim 4 cos u = 4
u→π 1 + cos u u→π − sin u u→π
√ √ √
x 1/ 2 x x
15. lim = lim = lim =∞
x→∞ ln x x→∞ 1/x x→∞ 2
ex ex ex ex ex
16. lim 4 = lim = lim = lim = lim =∞
x→∞ x x→∞ 4x 3 x→∞ 12x 2 x→∞ 24x x→∞ 24

(ln x)3 3 (ln x)2 x1 3 (ln x)2 6 ln x 1x 3 ln x 3/x 3

17. lim = lim = lim = lim = lim = lim = lim =0
x→∞ x 2 x→∞ 2x x→∞ 2x 2 x→∞ 4x x→∞ 2x 2 x→∞ 4x x→∞ 4x 2
1 1/ 2 1 −2/3
x 1/2 − x 1/3 x − − x
18. lim = lim 2 3 = 12 − 13 = 16
x→1 x −1 x→1 1
ln 1 + e x ex / 1 + ex 1
19. lim = lim = lim =0
x→∞ x2 x→∞ 2x x→∞ (1/e x + 1) (2x)
1 ln x − 1
a ln x − x x (ln a) a
20. lim = lim 1
= ln a − 1
x→1 ln x x→1
x
√ 1 (x + 2)−1/2 + 1 1 +1
x +2+x 9
21. lim √ = lim 2 2 = 2 2 =
3
x→−1 2x + 1 + 1 x→−1 (2x + 1) −2/3 4
3 3
ln x 2 + 1 2x/ x 2 + 1 2x 2
22. lim = lim = − lim = − lim = −2
x→0 cos x − 1 x→0 − sin x x→0 x 2 + 1 sin x x→0 2x sin x + x 2 + 1 cos x
2 2
ex + x − 1 2xe x + 1
23. lim = lim · 1 − x2 = ∞
x→0+ 1 − 1 − x2 x→0+ x
1 1
− sec2 x − − 2 sec2 x tan x
ln (1 + x) − tan x 1 + x (1 + x)2 1
24. lim = lim = lim =−
x→0 x2 x→0 2x x→0 2 2
sin x − x cos x − 1 − sin x cos x 1
25. lim x = lim x = lim x = − lim x =−
x→0 e − e−x − 2x x→0 e + e−x − 2 x→0 e − e−x x→0 e + e−x 2
2 2
ex − 1 2xe x x 2
26. lim = lim = 2 lim ex = 2
x→0 1 − cos x x→0 sin x x→0 sin x
sin−1 (2x) 2/ 1 − 4x 2
27. lim = lim =2
x→0 x x→0 1

2x 2 2 1 + 9x 2 2
28. lim = lim = lim =
x→0 tan−1 (3x) x→0 3/ 1 + 9x 2 x→0 3 3
1 1 1 x − tan x 1 − sec2 x −2 sec2 x tan x
29. lim cot x − = lim
− = lim = lim 2
= lim =0
x→0 x
x→0 tan x x x→0 x tan x x→0 tan x + x sec x x→0 2 sec2 x + 2x sec x tan x
1 −3/2 2
−1 − 12 1 − x 2 (−2x) 1 + x2
sin−1 x − x 1 − x2 1 1
30. lim = lim = lim = − lim =−
x→0 tan−1 x − x x→0 1 x→0 2x 2 x→0 1 − x 2 3/2 2
−1 −
1 + x2 1+x 2 2

(sin x)2 2 sin x cos x 2 sin x cos x

31. lim = − lim = − lim = − lim 2 cos3 x = −2
x→0 1 − sec x x→0 sec x tan x x→0 sin x x→0
cos2 x
 Section 6.7 Indeterminate Forms and l’Hôpital’s Rule 459

1 − cosh x − sinh x − cosh x 1

32. lim 2
= lim = lim =−
x→0 x x→0 2x x→0 2 2

sinh u cosh u
33. lim = lim =1
u→0 sin u u→0 cos u

x3 3x 2 0
34. lim = lim 2
= =0
x→0 tanh x x→0 sech x 1

1 1 1 − cos x − x sin x − 1
35. lim − = lim = lim = −∞
x→0+ x 1 − cos x x→0+ x (1 − cos x) x→0 + 1 − cos x + x sin x

sin t 1 sin t − 1 cos t

36. lim (tan t − sec t) = lim − = lim = lim =0
t→π /2 t→π /2 cos t cos t t→π /2 cos t t→π /2 sin t
−

1
1 1 x − 1 − ln x 1− x −1 1 1
37. lim − = lim = lim x = lim = lim =
x→1 ln x x −1 x→1 (x − 1) ln x x→1 x −1 x→1 x ln x + x − 1 x→1 1 2
ln x + ln x + x +1
x x

e x − cos x + tan x e x + sin x + sec2 x 1+0+1 2

38. lim = lim = =
x→0 x + tan x + sin x x→0 1 + sec2 x + cos x 1+1+1 3

− cos x
ln (1 − sin x) 1 − sin x = lim 1
39. lim [csc x ln (1 − sin x)] = lim = lim = −1
x→0+ x→0+ sin x x→0+ cos x x→0+ sin x − 1

π − 2x −2
40. lim [(π − 2x) sec x] = lim = lim =2
x→π /2 x→π /2 cos x x→π /2 − sin x

1 −x 1
41. lim e = lim =0
x→∞ x x→∞ xe x

42. lim x sin x is an indeterminate form of type 00 , so let y = x sin x . Then ln y = ln x sin x = sin x ln x, so
x→0+
ln x 1/x sin2 x sin x
ln lim y = lim (ln y) = lim = lim = − lim = − lim tan x
x→0+ x→0+ x→0+ csc x x→0+ − csc x cot x x→0+ x cos x x→0+ x
=1·0=0
Thus, lim y = lim x sin x = e0 = 1.
x→0+ x→0+

43. lim (1 − cos x)tan x is an indeterminate form of type 00 , so let y = (1 − cos x)tan x . Then
x→0+
ln y = ln (1 − cos x)tan x = tan x ln (1 − cos x), so
sin x
ln (1 − cos x) 1 − cos x
ln lim y = lim (ln y) = lim tan x ln (1 − cos x) = lim = lim
x→0+ x→0+ x→0+ x→0+ cot x x→0+ − csc2 x
sin3 x 3 sin2 x cos x
= lim = lim = lim 3 sin x cos x = 0
x→0+ 1 − cos x x→0+ sin x x→0+
Thus, lim y = lim (1 − cos x)tan x 0
= e = 1.
x→0+ x→0+
460 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions
√ √
44. lim (x − sin x) x is an indeterminate form of type 00 , so let y = (x − sin x) x . Then
x→0+
√ √
ln y = ln (x − sin x) x = x ln (x − sin x), so
1 − cos x
ln (x − sin x)
ln lim y = lim (ln y) = lim x 1/2 ln (x − sin x) = lim = lim x 1− sin x
x→0+ x→0+ x→0+ x→0+ x −1/2 x→0+ − x −3/2
2
x 3/2 (1 − cos x) x 1/2 (1 − cos x) + x 3/2 (sin x)
3
= −2 lim = −2 lim 2
x→0+ x − sin x x→0+ 1 − cos x
3/2 sin x 3 x 1/2 sin x + x 3/2 cos x
3 x 1/2 + x x 3/2 sin x
= −2 lim 2 = −2 lim = −2 lim 2
x→0+ 1 − cos x x→0+ 1 − cos x x→0+ sin x
1/2 cos x
3 x 1/2 + x
= −2 lim = −2 0 +
0
=0
x→0+ 2 (sin x) /x 1
√
Thus, lim y = lim (x − sin x) x = e0 = 1.
x→0+ x→0+

1
45. lim (ln x)1/x is an indeterminate form of type ∞0 . Let y = (ln x)1/x . Then ln y = ln (ln x)1/x = ln ln x,
x→∞ x
1/x
ln ln x 1
so ln lim y = lim (ln y) = lim = lim ln x = lim = 0, and thus
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ x x→∞ 1 x→∞ x ln x
lim y = lim (ln x)1/x = e0 = 1.
x→∞ x→∞

1/x
46. lim e2x + 1 is an indeterminate form of type ∞0 , so let
x→∞
1/x 1/x 1
y = e2 x + 1 . Then ln y = ln e2x + 1 = ln e2x + 1 , so
x
2e2x
ln e2x + 1 2x 2
ln lim y = lim (ln y) = lim = lim e + 1 = lim = 2. Thus,
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ x x→∞ 1 x→∞ 1 + e−2x
1/x
lim e2x + 1 = e2 .
x→∞

1 tanh x 1 tanh x
47. lim is an indeterminate form of type ∞0 , so let y = .
x→0+ x x
1 tanh x 1
Then ln y = ln = tanh x ln = − tanh x ln x. We calculate
x x
− ln x 1/x sinh2 x 2 sinh x cosh x
ln lim y = lim (ln y) = lim = − lim 2
= lim = lim = 0, and so
x→0+ x→0+ x→0+ coth x x→0 − csch x
+ x→0 + x x→0+ 1
1 tanh x
lim y = lim = e0 = 1.
x→0+ x→0+ x
1/x 1/x
48. lim x 2 + ex is an indeterminate form of type ∞0 , so let y = x 2 + ex .
x→∞
1 1/x
Then ln y = ln x 2 + e x ln x 2 + e x . We calculate
=
x
2x + e x
ln x 2 + e x 2 x 2x + e x 2 + ex
ln lim y = lim ln y = lim = lim x + e = lim 2 = lim = 1, so
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ x x→∞ 1 x→∞ x + e x x→∞ 2x + e x
1/x
lim y = lim x 2 + ex = e1 = e.
x→∞ x→∞
 Section 6.7 Indeterminate Forms and l’Hôpital’s Rule 461

49. lim (tan x)cos x is an indeterminate form of type ∞0 , so let

x→(π /2)−
y = (tan x)cos x . Then ln y = ln (tan x)cos x = cos x ln tan x. We calculate
sec2 x
ln (tan x) tan x cos x
ln lim y = lim ln y = lim = lim = lim = 0, so
x→(π /2)− x→(π /2)− x→(π /2)− sec x x→(π /2) sec x tan x
− x→(π /2) sin2 x
−

lim y= lim (tan x)cos x = e0 = 1.

x→(π /2)− x→(π /2)−

50. lim x tan(1/x) is an indeterminate form of type ∞0 . Let y = x tan(1/x) , so ln y = ln x tan(1/x) = tan (1/x) ln x. We
x→∞
calculate
ln x 1/x sin2 (1/x)
ln lim y = lim ln y = lim = lim = lim
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ cot (1/x) x→∞ − csc2 (1/x) −1/x 2 x→∞ 1/x
2 sin (1/x) cos (1/x) −1/x 2
= lim = lim 2 sin (1/x) cos (1/x) = 0
x→∞ −1/x 2 x→∞

so lim y = lim x tan(1/x) = e0 = 1.

x→∞ x→∞
3 x2
51. lim (1 + 1/x)x = lim (1 + 1/x)x = ∞. Compare with Example 10, in which we calculated
x→∞ x→∞
lim (1 + 1/x)x = e.
x→∞
52. lim (1 − 1/x)x is an indeterminate form of type 1∞ . Let y = (1 − 1/x)x , so ln y = ln (1 − 1/x)x = x ln (1 − 1/x). Then
x→∞
1 1/x 2
ln 1 −
1 x 1 − 1/x 1
ln lim y = lim ln y = lim x ln 1 − = lim = lim = lim = −1,
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ x x→∞ 1 x→∞ −1/x 2 x→∞ 1/x − 1
x
so lim y = lim (1 − 1/x)x = e−1 = 1/e.
x→∞ x→∞
√
2x + 1 x
53. lim is an indeterminate form of type 1∞ . Let
x→∞ 2x − 1
√ √
2x + 1 x 2x + 1 x √ 2x + 1
y= , so ln y = ln = x ln . Then
2x − 1 2x − 1 2x − 1
4 3 1/2
ln 22xx +
−1
1
2 8x 3/2 8 2x 3
ln lim y = lim ln y = lim = lim 11− 4x = lim = lim = lim = 0,
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ x −1/2 x→∞ − x −3/2 x→∞ 4x 2 − 1 x→∞ 8x x→∞ 2x 1/2
2
√
2x − 1 x
so lim y = lim = e0 = 1.
x→∞ x→∞ 2x + 1

54. lim (sin x)tan x is an indeterminate form of type 1∞ . Let y = (sin x)tan x , so ln y = ln (sin x)tan x = tan x ln sin x.
x→(π /2)−
Then
ln sin x cos x/ sin x
ln lim y = lim ln y = lim tan x ln sin x = lim = lim
x→(π /2)− x→(π /2)− x→(π /2)− x→(π /2)− cot x x→(π /2)− − csc2 x

= lim (− sin x cos x) = 0

x→(π /2)−
so lim y= lim (sin x)tan x = e0 = 1.
x→(π /2)− x→(π /2)−

x− x2 + 1 x+ x2 + 1 −1
55. lim x− x 2 + 1 = lim = lim =0
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ x + x2 + 1
x+ x2 + 1
462 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

2
2 tan−1 x − π 1 + x2 x (ln x)2
56. lim 2 tan−1 x − π ln x = lim = lim = −2 lim
x→∞ x→∞ 1 x→∞ 1 x→∞ 1 + x 2
−
ln x x (ln x)2
(ln x)2 + x (2 ln x) (1/x) (ln x)2 + 2 ln x
= −2 lim = −2 lim
x→∞ 2x x→∞ 2x
2 (ln x) (1/x) + (2/x) ln x 1
= −2 lim = −2 lim = −2 lim =0
x→∞ 2 x→∞ x x→∞ x

2 tan−1 x − π 2/ 1 + x 2 x3 x
57. lim = lim = − lim = − lim = −∞
x→∞ e 1/x 2 −1 x→∞ e 1/x 2 −2/x 3 x→∞ 1 + x 2 e1/x 2 x→∞ 1/x 2 + 1 e1/x 2

a x − bx (ln a) a x − (ln b) b x a
58. lim = lim = ln a − ln b = ln
x→0 x x→0 1 b
1
ln x x 1 sin x 1
59. lim = lim cos x = lim cos x =
x→0+ 2 + 3 ln (sin x) x→0+ 3 sin x 3 x→0+ x 3

a 1/x − 1 −1/x 2 (ln a) a 1/x

60. lim a 1/x − 1 x = lim = lim = ln a
x→∞ x→∞ 1/x x→∞ −1/x 2

x5 − 1 5x 4 5 5x 4
61. lim = lim = . Because lim is not an indeterminate form, we cannot use l’Hôpital’s Rule.
x→1 x 2 − 1 x→1 2x 2 x→1 2x

e3x + x − 1 3e3x + 1
62. lim = lim . This is not an indeterminate form, so we cannot use l’Hôpital’s Rule. In fact, by direct
x→0 ex − 1 x→0 ex
3e3x + 1 3+1
substitution, lim = = 4.
x→0 ex 1
r mt r mt r
63. Let y = 1 + . Then ln y = ln 1 + = mt ln 1 + , so
m m m
−r/m 2 r
r ln 1 + r
1 + r/m m
ln lim y = lim ln y = lim mt ln 1 + = t lim = t lim = t lim r = rt.
m→∞ m→∞ m→∞ m m→∞ 1 m→∞ 1 m→∞
1+
− 2 m
m m
r mt r mt r mt
Therefore, lim y = lim 1 + = ert , so A = lim P 1 + = P lim 1 + = Pert .
m→∞ m→∞ m m→∞ m m→∞ m
mg mg −kt/m mg
64. v (t) = + v0 − e = v 0 e−kt/m + 1 − e−kt/m . We want
k k k
t e−kt/m
mg 1 − e−kt/m
lim v (t) = lim v 0 e−kt/m + 1 − e−kt/m = v 0 + mg lim = v 0 + mg lim m = v 0 + gt.
k→0 k→0 k k→0 k k→0 1
So if there is no resistance, then v (t) = v 0 + gt.
t e−Rt/L
V 1 − e−Rt/L Vt
65. lim I (t) = lim 1 − e−Rt/L = V lim = V lim L =
R→0+ R→0+ R R→0+ R R→0+ 1 L
F0 (−ω sin ω 0 t + ω 0 sin ωt) − sin ω 0 t + ω 0 t cos ωt
66. lim x (t) = lim = F0 lim
ω →ω 0 ω→ω0 ω →ω 0 −2ω 0 ω
ω 0 ω 20 − ω 2
F0 − sin ω 0 t + (ω 0 cos ω 0 t) t F0 sin ω 0 t F cos ω 0 t
= = − 0 t
−2ω 20 2ω 20 2ω 0
So as t increases without bound, the second term increases without bound, and so does x (t).
 Section 6.7 Indeterminate Forms and l’Hôpital’s Rule 463

67. Substituting a = b into the expression for x gives an indeterminate form of type 0/0. We use l’Hôpital’s Rule:
ab 1 − e(b−a)kt d
da ab 1 − e(b−a)kt b 1 − e(b−a)kt + ab (−1) (−kt) e(b−a)kt
lim x = lim = lim = lim
a→b a→b a − be(b−a)kt a→b d
da a − be
(b−a)kt a→b 1 − b (−kt) e(b−a)kt

b 1 − (1 − akt) e(b−a)kt b [1 − (1 − bkt)] b2 kt a 2 kt

= lim = = or
a→b 1 + bkte(b−a)kt 1 + bkt 1 + bkt 1 + akt
a 2 kt a2k
lim x = lim = lim = a, so if there are a moles per liter of each of A and B, then in the long run,
t→∞ t→∞ 1 + akt t→∞ 1/t + ak
the number of moles per liter that have reacted is a.

68. Let N be the smallest integer greater than k. Then applying l’Hôpital’s Rule N times, we obtain
xk kx k−1 k (k − 1) x k−2 k (k − 1) (k − 2) · · · (k − N + 1) x k−N
lim = lim = lim = · · · = lim
x→∞ e x x→∞ ex x→∞ ex x→∞ ex
k (k − 1) (k − 2) · · · (k − N + 1)
= lim =0
x→∞ e x x N −k

ln x 1/x 1
69. Since k > 0, lim x k = ∞, and so we can apply l’Hôpital’s Rule to obtain lim = lim = lim = 0.
x→∞ x→∞ x k x→∞ kx k−1 x→∞ kx k

tan x sin x/ cos x

70. lim = lim = lim sin x = 1. L’Hôpital’s Rule does not lead to a conclusive result.
x→π /2 sec x x→π /2 1/ cos x x→π /2

1 1
x 2 sin x sin
71. lim x = lim x . Since − |x| ≤ x sin 1 ≤ |x|, the Squeeze Theorem shows that lim x sin 1 = 0.
x→0 sin x x→0 sin x x x→0 x
x
1 1 1 1 1 1
x 2 sin 2x sin + x 2 cos − 2 2x sin − cos
x x x x x x
lim = lim = lim . Since the limit in the numerator does
x→0 sin x x→0 cos x x→0 cos x
not exist, l’Hôpital’s Rule is not applicable here.

f (x + h) − f (x − h) f (x + h) − f (x − h) (−1) f (x) + f (x)

72. a. lim = lim = = f (x)
h→0 2h h→0 2 2
f (x + h) − 2 f (x) + f (x − h) f (x + h) + f (x − h) (−1) f (x + h) − f (x − h) (−1)
b. lim = lim = lim
h→0 h2 h→0 2h h→0 2
f (x) + f (x)
= = f (x)
2
x d x
cos t 2 dt cos t 2 dt cos x 2
73. lim 0 = lim dx 0d = lim =1
x 1
dx (x)
x→0 x→0 x→0

x d x 2
0 cos t 2 dt − x dx 0 cos t dt − x cos x 2 − 1 −2x sin x 2 1 sin x 2 1
74. lim = lim d
= lim = lim = − lim =−
x→0 x5 x→0
dx x
5 x→0 5x 4 x→0 20x 3 10 x→0 x 2 10

x d x
sin t 2 dt sin t 2 dt sin x 2 1 sin x 2 1
75. lim 0 3 = lim dx d0 = lim = lim =
x→0 x x→0 x 3 x→0 3x 2 3 x→0 x 2 3
dx
√
√ d x
sin t 2 dt d √x
sin x dx sin x · 11/2
1 x 2 dx 0 2x 1 sin x 1
76. lim sin t dt = lim = lim = lim = lim =
x→0+ x 3/2 0 d 3/2 3 1/ 2 3 1/2 3 x→0 x 3
dx x 2x 2x
x→0 + x→0 + x→0 + +
464 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

e x − e−2x
77. It appears that lim = 3. We calculate
4 x→0 ln (1 + x)

e x − e−2x e x + 2e−2x
lim = lim = 3.
x→0 ln (1 + x) x→0 1/ (1 + x)
3

2
-1 0 1

78. It appears that lim (1/x)tan x = 1. Let y = (1/x)tan x ⇒

2 x→0+
ln y = tan x ln (1/x) = − tan x ln x. Then
ln x 1/x
1 ln lim y = lim ln y = − lim = − lim
x→0+ x→0+ x→0+ cot x x→0 − csc2 x
+

sin x
= lim (sin x) = 0
x→0+ x
0
0 1 2 so lim y = lim (1/x)tan x = e0 = 1.
x→0+ x→0+

1 1
79. It appears that lim − = 12 . We calculate
1.0 x→1 ln x x −1
1 1 x − 1 − ln x 1 − 1/x
lim − = lim = lim
x→1 ln x x −1 x→1 (x − 1) ln x x→1 ln x + (x − 1) /x
0.5 x −1 1
= lim = lim
x→1 x ln x + x − 1 x→1 ln x + x (1/x) + 1
1
0.0
=
2
0 1 2

1
80. It appears that lim (1 + x)1/x − e ≈ −1.4. We calculate
x→0 x
0 1 (1 + x)1/x − e
lim (1 + x)1/x − e = lim
x→0 x x→0 x
d
(1 + x)1/x − e
-2
= lim dx
x→0 d
(x)
dx
-4 d
-1 0 1
To evaluate (1 + x)1/x , let y = (1 + x)1/x , so
dx
1
ln y = ln (1 + x)1/x = ln (1 + x). Differentiating implicitly, we find
x
y 1 1 1 x − (1 + x) ln (1 + x) x − (1 + x) ln (1 + x)
= − 2 ln (1 + x) + · = ⇒y = (1 + x)1/x . Substituting back
y x x 1+x x 2 (1 + x) x 2 (1 + x)
into the limit, we have
1+x
1 x − (1 + x) ln (1 + x) 1− − ln (1 + x)
lim (1 + x)1/x − e = lim (1 + x)1 /x = lim 1+x lim (1 + x)1/x
x→0 x x→0 x 2 (1 + x) x→0 2x + 3x 2 x→0
1
−
= lim 1 + x · e = −e
x→0 2 + 6x 2
 Chapter 6 Review 465

f (x) x3
81. False. Let f (x) = x 3 and g (x) = x 2 . Then lim f (x) = 0 and lim g (x) = 0. lim = lim 2 = lim x = 0. On
x→0 x→0 x→0 g (x) x→0 x x→0
d f (x) d x3 d f (x) d f (x)
the other hand, lim = lim = lim (x) = lim 1 = 1, so lim = lim .
x→0 dx g (x) x→0 dx x 2 x→0 dx x→0 x→0 g (x) x→0 dx g (x)
sin x 0
82. False. lim = = 0. Taking the limit does not result in an indeterminate form, and so l’Hôpital’s Rule
x→π + 1 − cos x 1 − (−1)
is not applicable here.

Chapter 6 Review
Concept Review
x
1. 1 (1/t) dt, x > 0
2. ln x + ln y, ln x − ln y, r ln x
3. a. (0, ∞) b. (−∞, ∞) c. (0, ∞) d. (0, ∞) e. downward, (0, ∞) f. ∞ g. −∞
1 du
4. a. b. ln |u| + C
u dx
5. ( f ◦ g) (x) = x, (g ◦ f ) (x) = x, x = f −1 (y), reflection, y = x
6. f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), one-to-one
1
7.
f (g (x))
8. e x , (−∞, ∞), (0, ∞), (−∞, ∞), upward, (−∞, ∞), 0, ∞
9. a. e x e y b. e x /e y c. er x
du
10. a. eu b. eu + C
dx
du a u
11. e x ln a , (ln a) a u , +C
dx ln a
1 du
12. nx n−1 ,
u ln a dx

Review Exercises
1. ln x = 25 ⇔ x = e2/5
2. e x = 3 ⇔ ln e x = ln 3 ⇔ x = ln 3
3. log3 x = 2 ⇔ x = 32 = 9
4. log8 (x − 3) = 23 ⇔ x − 3 = 82/3 = 4 ⇔ x = 7
√ √ √ √
5. e x = 4 ⇔ ln e x = ln 4 ⇔ x ln e = ln 4 ⇔ x = ln 4 ⇔ x = (ln 4)2
2 2 √
6. e x = 15 ⇔ ln e x = ln 15 ⇔ x 2 = ln 15 ⇔ x = ± ln 15
7. 2 + 3e−x = 6 ⇔ 3e−x = 4 ⇔ e−x = 43 ⇔ ln e−x = ln 43 ⇔ −x = ln 43 ⇔ x = ln 34
x x
8. ln x = −1 + ln (x + 2) ⇔ ln x − ln (x + 2) = −1 ⇔ ln = −1 ⇔ = e−1 ⇔ ex = x + 2 ⇔ x (e − 1) = 2 ⇔
x +2 x +2
2
x=
e−1
√
2± 4+4 √
9. ln x + ln (x − 2) = 0 ⇔ ln x (x − 2) = 0 ⇔ x (x − 2) = 1 ⇔ x 2 − 2x − 1 = 0 ⇔ x = = 1 ± 2. We reject
2
√
the negative root, so the solution is x = 1 + 2.
466 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

50
10. = 20 ⇔ 1 + 4e0.2x = 52 ⇔ 4e0.2x = 32 ⇔ e0.2x = 38 ⇔ 0.2x = ln 38 ⇔ x = 5 ln 38
1 + 4e0.2x
2
11. 32x − 12 · 3x + 27 = 0 ⇔ 3x − 12 3x + 27 = 3x − 3 3x − 9 = 0 ⇒ x = 1 or x = 2
12. ln x e = 2 ⇔ e ln x = 2 ⇔ ln x = 2/e ⇔ x = e2/e
13. tan−1 x = 1 ⇔ tan tan−1 x = tan 1 ⇔ x = tan 1

14. cos−1 (sin x) = 0 ⇒ sin x = 1 ⇒ x = π

2
15. y = e2x + 2 ⇔ e2x = y − 2 ⇔ ln e2x = ln (y − 2) ⇔ 2x = ln (y − 2) ⇔ x = 12 ln (y − 2)
e x − e−x 2y ± 4y 2 + 4
16. y = ⇔ 2y = e x − e−x ⇔ 2ye x = e2x − 1 ⇔ e2x − 2ye x − 1 = 0 ⇔ e x = =y+ y 2 + 1.
2 2
Since e x > 0, we reject the negative root. Thus, e x = y + y 2 + 1 ⇔ x = ln y + y2 + 1 .

y 1/2 y 1/2
17. ln x 3 y/z 2 = ln x 3 = ln x 3 + ln = ln x 3 + ln y 1/2 − ln z = 3 ln x + 12 ln y − ln z
z z
√
x 1/3
18. ln 3
= ln x 1/2 − ln y x 2 + y 2 = 12 ln x − ln y − 13 ln x 2 + y 2
y x 2 + y2
x3 x3 1 x5
19. 2 ln x + ln x 3 /y 2 − 4 ln (x + y)1/2 = ln x 2 + ln 2 − ln (x + y)4(1/2) = ln x 2 · · = ln
y y 2 (x + y)2 y 2 (x + y)2
x 6 y3 x 6 y 8/3
20. 3 ln x − 13 ln (yz) + 6 ln (x y)1/2 = ln x 3 + ln (yz)−1/3 + ln (x y)3 = ln √3 yz
= ln 1/3
z
d √ d 1 d 1 1 1
21. y = ln x + 1 = ln (x + 1)1/2 = ln (x + 1) = · =
dx dx 2 dx 2 x +1 2 (x + 1)
x (x − 1) 1 1 1 x 2 + 4x − 2
22. y = ln = ln x + ln (x − 1) − ln (x + 2) ⇒ y = + − =
x +2 x x −1 x +2 x (x − 1) (x + 2)
d x 1/2 ln x + 2
23. y = x 1/2 ln x = 12 x −1/2 ln x + = √
dx x 2 x
√ √
d 2
√
x x 1/2 2 x 1/2 1 −1/2 √
x 1 √ xe x x +4
24. y = x e = 2xe +x e · 2x =e 2x + 2 x x =
dx 2
d −x
25. y = e (cos 2x + 3 sin 2x) = −e−x (cos 2x + 3 sin 2x) + e−x (−2 sin 2x + 6 cos 2x) = 5e−x (cos 2x − sin 2x)
dx
√
x (x + 2)3 y 1 3 1 3 2x 2 + 7x + 2
26. y = √ 1 1
⇒ ln y = 2 ln x + 3 ln (x + 2) − 2 ln (x + 3), so = + − = .
x +3 y 2x x + 2 2 (x + 3) 2x (x + 2) (x + 3)
√ 2 3 (x + 2)2 2x 2 + 7x + 2
x (x + 2)3 3 2x + 7x + 2
Thus, y = √ · = √ .
x +3 (2x) (x + 2) (x + 3) 2 x (x + 3)3/2
y 1 x y y (y + x ln y)
27. x ln y + y ln x = 3 ⇒ ln y + x + y ln x + y =0⇒y + ln x =− + ln y ⇒ y = −
y x y x x (x + y ln x)
1−y
28. ln (x − y) + sin y − x 2 = 0 ⇒ + (cos y) y − 2x = 0 ⇒ 1 − y + (x − y) (cos y) y − (x − y) (2x) = 0 ⇒
x−y
2x 2 − 2x y − 1
y (x cos y − y cos y − 1) = 2x 2 − 2x y − 1 ⇒ y =
x cos y − y cos y − 1
2 2 (1 − x)
29. y = ln x 2 e−2x = 2 ln x − 2x ⇒ y = − 2 =
x x
2
sec x 1 cos x 1
30. y = ln tan x ⇒ y = = · =
tan x cos2 x sin x cos x sin x
 Chapter 6 Review 467

d −1/2 −1/2 −3/2

31. y = e x 1 + e−x = e x 1 + e−x + e x − 12 1 + e−x −e−x
dx
−3/2 2e x + 3
= − 12 1 + e−x −2e x 1 + e−x − 1 = 3/2
2 1 + e−x
d 2 sec 2x tan 2x + 2 sec2 2x
32. y = ln |sec 2x + tan 2x| = = 2 sec 2x
dx sec 2x + tan 2x
d d
33. y = ecsc x = ecsc x csc x = − csc x cot x · ecsc x
dx dx
d 2 2 2 2
34. y = x · 3x +1 = 3x +1 + x3x +1 (2x) ln 3 = 3 2x 2 ln 3 + 1 3x
dx
x x d x x
35. y = e e ⇒ y = ee e x = ee · e x = ee +x
dx
ln 2 + 1
36. y = (2e)x/2 ⇒ y = (2e)x/2 · 12 ln (2e) = (2e)x/2
2
2
2 2 2 ye−x − e y
37. ye−x + xe y = 8 ⇒ y e−x − ye−x + e y + xe y 2yy =0⇒y = 2
e−x + 2x ye y
−1
d −1 −1 d 2esec x
38. y = 2esec x = 2esec x sec−1 x =
dx dx |x| x 2 − 1
d x cot x d
39. y = 3 = 3x cot x ln 3 · (x cot x) = 3x cot x cot x − x csc2 x ln 3
dx dx
1+ √ 1 2
d 1−x
40. y = x 2 ln x + sin−1 x = 2x ln x + sin−1 x + x 2 ·
dx x + sin−1 x
x2 1 + 1 − x2
= 2x ln x + sin−1 x +
1 − x 2 x + sin−1 x
d (cosh 2x) (2)
41. y = [ln (sinh 2x)] = = 2 coth 2x
dx sinh 2x
d tanh 3x d
42. y = e = etanh 3x (tanh 3x) = 3etanh 3x sech2 3x
dx dx
d 1 x
43. y = x sec−1 x = sec−1 x + x · = sec−1 x +
dx |x| x 2 − 1 |x| x2 − 1
d 1 sech2 x
44. y = sinh−1 (tanh x) = · sech2 x =
dx 1 + tanh2 x 2 − sech2 x

d −2 2 sec2 cos−1 2x
45. y = tan cos−1 2x = sec2 cos−1 2x · =−
dx 1 − 4x 2 1 − 4x 2
d 1/2 1 −1/2 x
46. y = tan−1 x 2 + 1 = · 1 x2 + 1 (2x) =
dx 1 + x2 + 1 2 x2 + 2 x2 + 1

d x +1 1 d x +1 (x + 2)2 1 1
47. y = sin−1 = · = · 2
= √
dx x +2 x +1 2 dx x +2 2x + 3 (x + 2) |x + 2| 2x + 3
1−
x +2
d √ 1 d −1 √ x
48. y = tan−1 cos−1 x = √ 2 · dx cos
dx 1 + cos−1
x
1 −1 −1
= √ 2 · · 1 x −1/2 = √ 2
1 + cos−1 √ 2 2
x 1− x 2 x − x 2 1 + cos−1 x
468 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

cosh y
49. x cosh y + esinh y = 10 ⇒ cosh y + (x sinh y) y + esinh y (cosh y) y = 0 ⇒ y = −
(cosh y) esinh y + x sinh y
d 1 d sech2 x
50. y = sin−1 (tanh x) = · tanh x = = sech x
dx 1 − tanh2 x dx sech x
d ax
51. y = e cosh bx = aeax cosh bx + beax sinh bx = eax (a cosh bx + b sinh bx)
dx
y cos x
52. y = (sin x)cos x ⇒ ln y = ln (sin x)cos x = cos x ln sin x ⇒ = − sin x ln sin x + cos x ⇒
y sin x
cos2 x
y = − sin x ln (sin x) sin x cos x
sin x
1 4x 2 − 1 1
53. f (x) = 2x 2 − ln x ⇒ f (x) = 4x − = = 0 ⇒ x = ± , so _ _ 0 +++++ sign of f»
x x 2
( x
f has a critical number 12 (since x > 0). From the sign diagram, we see 0 1
2

that f is decreasing on 0, 12 and increasing on 12 , ∞ .

54. f (x) = x 2 e−x ⇒ f (x) = 2xe−x − x 2 e−x = x (2 − x) e−x = 0 ⇒ _ _ 0 +++++ 0 _ _ sign of f»

x = 0 or 2, the critical numbers of f . From the sign diagram, we see that x
0 2
f is decreasing on (−∞, 0) and (2, ∞) and increasing on (0, 2).
2x 2 ln x − 2x (1/x) 2 (ln x − 1)
55. y = ⇒y = 2
= . The required slope is m = y x=e = 0, so an equation of the tangent
ln x (ln x) (ln x)2
line is y = 2e.
56. y = xe−x ⇒ y = e−x − xe−x = (1 − x) e−x . The slope of x − y + 3 = 0 is 1, so we want (1 − x) e−x = 1 ⇔
(1 − x) = e x ⇔ x = 0. The point of tangency is y|x=0 = 0, so an equation of the tangent line is y = x.
ln x x (1/x) − ln x 1 − ln x
57. f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = = = 0 ⇒ x = e. f (1) = 0, f (e) = 1/e ≈ 0.368, and
x x2 x2
f (5) = (ln 5) /5 ≈ 0.322, so the absolute minimum value is f (1) = 0 and the absolute maximum value is f (e) = 1/e.
1 1 − (x − 1)2
58. f (x) = tan−1 x − 12 ln x ⇒ f (x) = 2 − = = 0 ⇒ x = 1 is the only critical number in the
x + 1 2x 2x x 2 + 1
√ √ √
interval. f 33 ≈ 0.798, f (1) ≈ 0.785, and f 3 ≈ 0.773, so the absolute minimum value is f 3 ≈ 0.773 and
√
the absolute maximum value is f 3 ≈ 0.798.
3
59. f (x) = x ln x
(1) Since ln x is defined for x > 0, we see that the domain of f is (0, ∞). (2) Setting y = 0 gives x ln x = 0 ⇔ ln x = 0
⇒ x = 1, so the x-intercept is 1. (3) There is no symmetry. (4) lim x ln x = ∞ (5) There is no asymptote.
x→∞
d (x ln x) = x
(6) f (x) = dx 1 + ln x = 1 + ln x is continuous for
x --- _ 0 +++ sign of f»

x > 0 and f (x) = 0 ⇒ 1 + ln x = 0 ⇔ ln x = −1 ⇔ x = e−1 = 1e . ( x

0 1/e
From the sign diagram, we see that f is decreasing on 0, 1e and (10) y

1
increasing on 1e , ∞ . (7) From the sign diagram, we see that f has a

relative minimum at 1e , − 1e ≈ (0.368, −0.368). (8) f (x) = x1 is

0 1 2 x
continuous on (0, ∞) and has no zero. Since f (x) > 0 for all x > 0, we
see that the graph of f is concave upward on (0, ∞). (9) f has no
inflection point.
 Chapter 6 Review 469

60. f (x) = 2 − e−x

y
(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). (2) Setting x = 0 gives 1 as the (10)
2
y-intercept. (3) There is no symmetry. (4) lim 2 − e−x = −∞
x→−∞
_2 0 2 x
and lim 2 − e−x = 2. (5) From (4), we see that y = 2 is a
x→∞ _2
horizontal asymptote of f . (6) f (x) = e−x > 0 for all x, so f is
_4
increasing on (−∞, ∞). (7) f has no relative extremum.
_6
(8) f (x) = −e−x < 0 for all x, so the graph of f is concave downward
on (−∞, ∞). (9) f has no inflection point.

3
61. f (x) =
1 + e−x
(1) The domain of f is (−∞, ∞). (2) Setting x = 0 gives 32 as the y-intercept. (3) There is no symmetry.
(4) lim f (x) = 0 and lim f (x) = 3. (5) From (3), we see that y = 0 and y = 3 are horizontal asymptotes of f .
x→−∞ x→∞

d 1 + e−x −1 −2 3e−x
(6) f (x) = 3 dx = −3 1 + e−x e−x (−1) = 2
> 0 for all x, so f is increasing on
1 + e−x
(−∞, ∞). (7) f has no relative extremum. +++++ 0 _ _ _ _ _ sign of f»»

1 + e−x
2
−3e−x − 3e−x (2) 1 + e−x −e−x x
(8) f (x) = 0
−x 4 1+e y
(10)
3e−x 1 + e−x 2e−x − 1 + e−x 3e−x e−x − 1 3
= =
1+e −x 4 −x 3
1+e 2

so f (x) = 0 ⇒ e−x = 1 ⇒ x = 0. From the sign diagram, we see that

1
f is concave upward on (−∞, 0) and concave downward on (0, ∞).

(9) f has an inflection point at 0, 32 . _4 _2 0 2 4 x

62. f (x) = sin−1 1x

(1) We require that −1 ≤ 1x ≤ 1 ⇔ |x| ≥ 1, so the domain of f is (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞). (2) There is no
intercept. (3) f (−x) = sin−1 − x1 = − sin−1 x1 = − f (x), so f is symmetric with respect to the
origin. (4) lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 0 (5) From (4), we see that y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.
x→−∞ x→∞
d 1 1 1 1
(6) f (x) = sin−1 = − 2 =− < 0 on its domain, so f is decreasing on (−∞, −1)
dx x x x4 − x2
1 − (1/x)2
and
y
(1, ∞). (7) f has no relative extremum. (10)
¹/2
−1/2 4x 3 − 2x x 2x 2 − 1
(8) f d
(x) = − dx x4 − x2 = = ,
3/2 3/2
2 x4 − x2 x4 − x2
so f (x) > 0 if x > 0 and f (x) < 0 if x < 0. Thus, f is concave _3 _2 _1 0 1 2 3 x

downward on (−∞, −1) and concave upward on (1, ∞). (9) f has no
inflection point. _¹/2

1 1 du
63. Let u = 5x − 3, so du = 5 dx. Then dx = = 15 ln |u| + C = 15 ln |5x − 3| + C.
5x − 3 5 u
470 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

64. Let u = 2x 2 + 1, so du = 4x dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 1, and x = 1 ⇒ u = 3. Thus,

1 x 1 3 du 3
2
dx = = 14 ln |u| = 14 ln 3.
0 2x + 1 4 1 u 1

2 x 3 − 2x + 1 2
2 2 x2 1
65. dx = x − + x −2 dx = − 2 ln x − = 2 − 2 ln 2 − 12 − 12 − 1 = 2 (1 − ln 2)
1 x2 1 x 2 x
1
cos x 1 du
66. Let u = 2 + 3 sin x, so du = 3 cos x dx. Then dx = = 13 ln |u| + C = 13 ln |2 + 3 sin x| + C.
2 + 3 sin x 3 u
2x + 1 2 1/3
67. dx = − dx = 23 x − 19 ln |3x + 2| + C
3x + 2 3 3x + 2
dx (ln x)3
68. Let u = ln x, so du = . Then dx = u 3 du = 14 u 4 + C = 14 (ln x)4 + C.
x x
2
2 1 2t
69. Let u = t 2 , so du = 2t dt. Then t · 2t dt = 12 2u du = · 2u + C = + C.
2 ln 2 2 ln 2
ex du
70. Let u = e x − 1, so du = e x dx. Then dx = = ln |u| + C = ln e x − 1 + C.
ex − 1 u
dx sin ln x
71. Let u = ln x, so du = . Then dx = sin u du = − cos u + C = − cos ln x + C.
x x
1 dx e1/x
72. Let u = , so du = − 2 . Then dx = − eu du = −eu + C = −e1/x + C.
x x x2
73. Let u = 1 + e3x , so du = 3e3x dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 2, and x = 1 ⇒ u = 1 + e3 . Then
1 e3x 1 1+e du
3
1 1+e3 1 1 e3 + 1
3 x
dx = = ln |u| = ln 1 + e3 − ln 2 = ln .
0 1+e 3 2 u 3 2 3 3 2
√ dx
74. Let u = x, so du = √ . Then
2 x
√
tan x sin u √
√ dx = 2 tan u du = 2 du = −2 ln |cos u| + C = −2 ln cos x + C.
x cos u
dx sin−1 x 2
75. Let u = sin−1 x, so du = . Then dx = u du = 12 u 2 + C = 12 sin−1 x + C.
1 − x2 1 − x2
2 tan−1 2x 2
76. Let u = tan−1 2x, so du = dx. Then dx = 12 u du = 14 u 2 + C = 14 tan−1 2x + C.
1 + 4x 2 1 + 4x 2
sec t tan t du
77. Let u = 1 + sec t, so du = sec t tan t dt. Then dt = = ln |u| + C = ln |1 + sec t| + C.
1 + sec t u
78. Let u = 2t, so du = 2 dt. Then sinh 2t dt = 12 sinh u du = 1 cosh u + C = 1 cosh 2t + C.
2 2
√ 1 1
79. Because 1 + e4x ≥ e4x , we have 1 + e4x ≥ e4x = e2x ⇒ 0 1 + e4x dx ≥ 01 e2x dx = 12 e2x = 12 e2 − 1 .
0
2 1 1 x2 1 1 x2
80. For 0 < x < 1 we have 1 < e < e, and so 0 1 dx < 0 e dx < 0 e dx ⇔ x|0 < 0 e dx < ex|10 ⇔
x 1
2
1 < 01 e x dx < e.
81. Using Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus along with the Chain Rule, we calculate
2 2 2
d x et dt ex d 2xe x
f (x) = 2
= 2
x2 = 4 .
dx 0 t + 1 x 2 + 1 dx x +1
√ 1/2 1/2
x
82. f (x) = ln x sinh t dt = lnc x sinh t dt + cx sinh t dt = − cln x sinh t dt + cx sinh t dt, so
√
d (ln x) + sinh x 1/2 d x 1/2 = − sinh ln x + sinh
f (x) = − sinh (ln x) dx √
x
.
dx x 2 x
 Chapter 6 Review 471

2
83. A = 04 xe−x dx. Let u = −x 2 , so du = −2x dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 0, and x = 4 ⇒ u = −16. Then
−16
A = − 12 0−16 eu du = − 12 eu = 12 1 − e−16 .
0

84. A = 12 e2x + 1/x dx y

2
= 1 e2x + ln x 40
2 1
= 12 e4 + ln 2 − 12 e2 + 0 20
y=e2x
= 12 e4 + 2 ln 2 − e2 0
1 2
y=_1/x
_20

1 2 ln x 2 2 ln x dx
85. f av = dx = 2 dx. Let u = ln x, so du = , x = 1 ⇒ u = 0, and x = 2 ⇒ u = ln 2. Then
2−1 1 x 1 x x
2 ln x ln 2 ln 2
f av =2 dx = 2 u du = u 2 = (ln 2)2 .
1 x 0 0
1 1 x2
86. V = 2π x y dx = 2π x· dx y
0 0 1 + x4
0.6
x3 1 1
= 2π dx = 2π 14 ln 1 + x 4
0 1 + x 4 0 0.4
π ln 2 0.2
=
2
0 1 x

x 3 − 2x 2 + x 3x 2 − 4x + 1 0
87. lim 5
= lim = =0
x→1 x −1 x→1 5x 4 5
√ √ 1 x −1/2 √
x− 2 2 1 1 2
88. lim = lim = lim √ = √ =
x→2 x − 2 x→2 1 x→2 2 x 2 2 4
sin 2x 2 cos 2x 2
89. lim = lim =
x→0 sin 3x x→0 3 cos 3x 3
e2x 1
90. lim = lim e x · =∞
x→∞ e x + x 2 x→∞ 1 + x 2 /e x
cos x
91. lim e−x cos x = lim =0
x→∞ x→∞ e x
92. lim (cos x)tan x is an indeterminate form of type 0∞ . If y = (cos x)tan x , then ln y = ln (cos x)tan x = tan x ln cos x,
x→(π /2)−

so ln lim y = lim ln y = lim tan x ln cos x = −∞. Therefore,

x→(π /2)− x→(π /2)− x→(π /2)−
lim y= lim (cos x)tan x = 0.
x→(π /2)− x→(π /2)−

1 1 x − sin x 1 − cos x sin x

93. lim (csc x − 1/x) = lim − = lim = lim = lim =0
x→0 x→0 sin x x x→0 x sin x x→0 sin x + x cos x x→0 cos x + cos x − x sin x

94. lim (sin x)tan x is an indeterminate form of type 1∞ . If y = (sin x)tan x , then ln y = ln (sin x)tan x = tan x ln sin x, so
x→π /2
ln sin x cos x/ sin x
ln lim y = lim ln y = lim tan x ln sin x = lim = lim = − lim cos x sin x = 0.
x→π /2 x→π /2 x→π /2 x→π /2 cot x x→π /2 − csc2 x x→π /2
Therefore, lim y = lim (sin x)tan x = 1.
x→π /2 x→π /2
 472 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

1 1 ex − 1 − x ex − 1 ex 1 1
95. lim − x = lim x = lim x x = lim x = lim =
x→0+ x e −1 x→0+ x (e − 1) x→0+ e − 1 + xe x→0+ e + e x + xe x x→0+ 2 + x 2
1 0
96. lim x 2 cosh − 1 is an indeterminate form of type ∞ · 0. We write it in the form as follows:
x→∞ x 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
cosh − 1 − 2 sinh sinh − 2 cosh 1
lim x = lim x x = lim x = lim x x = .
x→∞ 1 x→∞ 2 x→∞ 2 x→∞ 2 2
− 3 − 2
x2 x x x
√ √ √ √
√ √ x +1− x −1 x +1+ x −1 2
97. lim x + 1 − x − 1 = lim ·√ √ = lim √ √ =0
x→∞ x→∞ 1 x +1+ x −1 x→∞ x +1+ x −1

98. lim x n ln x is an indeterminate form of type 0 · ∞. Thus,

x→0+
ln x 1/x xn
lim x n ln x = lim = lim = lim − = 0 because n > 0.
x→0+ x→0+ x −n x→0+ −nx −n+1 x→0+ n
sin x − x cos x − 1 − sin x 1 1
99. lim = lim = lim = lim cos3 x =
x→0 x − tan x x→0 1 − sec2 x x→0 −2 sec2 x tan x 2 x→0 2
100. The cost of the house four years from now will be A = 300,000 (1 + 0.03)4 ≈ $337,653.
101. a. The projected number at the beginning of 2005 is N (1) = 34.68 + 23.88 ln (6.35) ≈ 78.82 million.
1.05 25.074
b. N (t) = 23.88 = , so the projected number is changing at a rate of
1.05t + 5.3 1.05t + 5.3
25.074
N (1) = ≈ 3.95 million per year.
1.05 + 5.3
2 n 2 d d d 2
102. a. ln V = ln C 1 − = ln C + n ln 1 − ⇒ ln V = (ln C) + n ln 1 − ⇔
N N dn dn dn N
V 2 2 2 n 2
= ln 1 − , so V = V ln 1 − =C 1− ln 1 − .
V N N N N
n
V (n) C 1 − N2 ln 1 − N2
b. The relative rate of change of V (n) is = n = ln 1 − N2 .
V (n) C 1 − N2
d d d
103. x (t) = aet + be−t ⇒ v (t) = aet + be−t = aet − be−t ⇒ a (t) = v (t) = aet − be−t = aet + be−t
dt dt dt
d −2t
104. v (t) = x (t) = e (2 cos 4t − 3 sin 4t) = −2e−2t (2 cos 4t − 3 sin 4t) + e−2t (−8 sin 4t − 12 cos 4t)
dt
= −2e−2t (8 cos 4t + sin 4t)
d
a (t) = v (t) = −2e−2t (8 cos 4t + sin 4t) = 4e−2t (8 cos 4t + sin 4t) − 2e−2t (−32 sin 4t + 4 cos 4t)
dt
= 4e−2t (6 cos 4t + 17 sin 4t)

105. y = 200 e0.01x + e−0.02x ⇒ y = 2 e0.01x − 2e−0.02x ⇒ e0.01x = 2e−0.02x ⇒ e0.03x = 2 ⇔ x = 0.103 ln 2. The
absolute minimum value of y is y|x=(ln 2)/0.03 ≈ 378, so the plane gets to about 378 ft above the ground.

gk
d m gk m sinh mt gk mg gk
106. v (t) = x (t) = ln cosh t = = tanh t and
dt k m k gk m k m
cosh mt
mg gk gk gk
a (t) = v (t) = sech2 t = g sech2 t
k m m m
 Chapter 6 Review 473

1 x2 − 1
107. y = 14 x 2 − 12 ln x ⇒ y = 12 x − = , so
2x 2x
2
2 x2 + 1
2 x2 − 1 4x 2 + x 4 − 2x 2 + 1 x 4 + 2x 2 + 1
1+ y = 1+ = = = . Therefore,
2x 4x 2 4x 2 (2x)2
2 2 x2 + 1 2 x 1 2
2 1 x 2 + 1 ln x
L= 1+ y dx = dx = + dx = 4 2 = 14 (3 + 2 ln 2).
1 1 2x 1 2 2x 1
ex + 1 ex ex −2e x
108. y = ln x = ln e x + 1 − ln e x − 1 ⇒ y = x − x = 2x ⇒
e −1 e +1 e −1 e −1
2
2 4e2x e4x + 2e2x + 1 e2x + 1
1+ y =1+ 2
= 2
= ⇒
e2 x − 1 e2 x − 1 e2x − 1
2 2 e2 x + 1 2 e x + e−x
L = 1+ y
2
dx = dx x −x 2 = ln e2 − e−2 − ln e − e−1
= x −x dx = ln e − e 1
1 1 e2 x − 1 1 e −e
2
e −e − 2 4
e −1 2
e +1
= ln = ln 3 = ln = ln e2 + 1 − 1
e − e−1 e −e e
1 1
109. a. For 0 < x < 12 , we have 1 − x2 < 1 − x 2n < 1 (for n > 1). This implies that 1 < <
1 − x 2n 1 − x2
1/2 1/2 dx 1/2 dx 1/2 dx 1/2
1/2
⇒ 1 dx < < ⇒ x|0 < < sin−1 x ⇒
0 0 1 − x 2n 0 1 − x2 0 1 − x 2n 0

1 1/2 dx π 1/2 dx
< < ⇒ 0.5 < < 0.524.
2 0 1 − x 2n 6 0 1 − x 2n
1/2 dx
b. Using a calculator or computer, we find that ≈ 0.500005.
0 1 − x 12
⎧
⎨ −140e−1.4t if 0 < t < 1 A
110. a. A (t) = b.
⎩ −140 1 + e1.4 e−1.4t if t > 1 120
100
After 12 hours, the amount of drug is changing at the 80
60
rate of A 1
2 = −140e−0.7 ≈ −70; that is, it is
40
decreasing at the rate of 70 mg per day. After two 20
days, it is changing at a rate of 0
1 2 3 t

A (2) = −140 1 + e1.4 e−2.8 ≈ −43; that is, it is From the graph of A, we see that the maximum
decreasing at the rate of 43 mg per day. occurs at t = 1, at the time when she takes the
second dose.
c. The maximum amount is
A (1) = 100 1 + e1.4 e−1.4 ≈ 125 mg.
474 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

Challenge Problems
⎧
⎨ − ln x if 0 < x ≤ 1
1. Write f (x) = |ln x| =
⎩ ln x if 1 < x
f (1 + h) − f (1) |ln (1 + h)| − |ln 1| ln (1 + h) 1
Now lim = lim = lim = lim = 1, but
h→0+ h h→0 + h h→0+ h h→0+ 1 + h
f (1 + h) − f (1) − ln (1 + h) − ln 1 1
lim = lim = lim = −1, showing that f is not differentiable at 1.
h→0− h h→0 − h h→0 − (1 + h)
−

d 1
2. g (x) = f −1 (x) ⇒ g (x) = f −1 (x) = ⇒
dx f (g (x))
d −1 −2 f f
g (x) = f (g (x)) = − f (g (x)) g (x) = − 2
= − 3
⇒
dx f f f
3 2 3 2 2
f f g − f 3 f f g f f 1/ f −3 f f 1/ f
g (x) = − 6
=− 6
f f
2 2 2
f · f −3 f f 3 f − f f
=− 6
= 5
f f

3. To find the points of intersection of y = f (x) and y = f (x) sin ax, we solve the two equations
simultaneously, obtaining f (x) = f (x) sin ax ⇔ f (x) (1 − sin ax) = 0. Since f (x) > 0, we must have
π (1 + 4k)
sin ax = 1 ⇒ ax = π 2 + 2kπ ⇔ x = , k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .. y1 = f (x) ⇒ y1 = f (x) and
2a
π (1 + 4k) π (1 + 4k)
y2 = f (x) sin ax ⇒ y2 = f (x) sin ax + a f (x) cos ax. At x = , y1 = f and
2a 2a
π (1 + 4k) π (1 + 4k) π (1 + 4k) π (1 + 4k) π (1 + 4k)
y2 = f sin + af cos = f = y1 . This shows
2a 2a 2a 2a 2a
that the graphs of y = f (x) and y = f (x) sin ax are tangent to one another at their points of intersection.

d x cos x − sin x
sin x (cos x) (x − tan x)
4. a. f (x) = = = < 0 for 0 < x < π2 , showing that f is decreasing on
dx x x2 x2
sin x π sin π2 = 2 ⇒ R sin x > 2R ⇒ − R sin x < − 2R ⇒
0, π
2 . Thus, since R > 0, f (x) = > f = π
x 2 2 π x π x π
2Rx
−R sin x < − ,0<x < π x
2 . Because the exponential function g (x) = e is increasing on (−∞, ∞), we see that
π
e−R sin x < e−2 Rx/π on 0, π 2 .
π /2 π /2
b. Using the result of part a, we have 0 e−R sin x dx < 0 e−(2 R/π)x dx. To evaluate the
integral on the right, let u = − 2πR x ⇒ du = − 2πR dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 0, and x = π
2 ⇒
π /2 −(2 R/π )x
dx = − 2πR 0−R eu du = − 2πR eu 0 = − 2πR e−R − 1 , and so
−R
u = −R. Then 0 e
π/2 −R sin x
0 e dx < 2πR 1 − e−R .

f (0 + h) − f (0) 2h/ 3 + e1/ h 2

5. If h > 0, then f (0) = lim = lim = lim = 0. If h < 0, then h = −u for
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 3 + e1/ h

f (0 + h) − f (0) −2u/ 3 + e−1/u 2 2

u > 0, so f (0) = lim = lim = lim = . Since the left- and
h→0 h u→0 −u u→0 3 + e−1/u 3
right-hand limits are not equal, we conclude that f (0) does not exist, so f is not differentiable at x = 0.
 Chapter 6 Challenge Problems 475

x 1 (x + 1) − x x
6. Put f (x) = ln (x + 1) − . Then f (x) = − 2
= > 0 for x > 0, showing that f is
x +1 x +1 (x + 1) (x + 1)2
x x
increasing on (0, ∞). Therefore, f (x) = ln (x + 1) − > f (0) = 0 ⇒ ≤ ln (x + 1) for x ≥ 0. Next, put
x +1 x +1
1 x
g (x) = x − ln (x + 1). Then g (x) = 1 − = > 0 for x > 0, showing that g is increasing on (0, ∞).
x +1 x +1
Therefore, g (x) = x − ln (x + 1) > g (0) = 0 ⇒ ln (x + 1) ≤ x for x ≥ 0. Combining these two results leads to the
desired conclusion.

2
dx sin2 x + cos2 x sin4 x + 2 sin2 x cos2 x + cos4 x
7. = dx = dx
sin2 x cos4 x sin2 x cos4 x sin2 x cos4 x
sin2 x 2 1
= 4
+ 2
+ 2 dx = tan2 x sec2 x dx + 2 sec2 x dx + csc2 x dx
cos x cos x sin x
= 13 tan3 x + 2 tan x − cot x + C

ln g (x)
8. y = log f (x) g (x) = ⇒
ln f (x)
g (x) f (x)
ln f (x) − ln g (x)
d ln g (x) g (x) f (x) f (x) g (x) ln f (x) − g (x) f (x) ln g (x)
y = = 2
= 2
dx ln f (x) ln f (x) f (x) g (x) ln f (x)

n n 1 n 1 1
9. lim = lim . This is a Riemann sum for the function f (x) = , so
n→∞ k=1 n 2 + k 2 n→∞ n k=1 1 + (k/n)2 1 + x2
n n 1 1 1 π
lim = dx = tan−1 x = .
n→∞ k=1 n 2 + k 2 0 1+x 2 0 4

x 1 1 + x 2 − x (2x) 2x 2
10. Let f (x) = tan−1 x − , so f (x) = − = > 0 for x > 0, so f is increasing
1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2
2
1 + x2
2

x x
on (0, ∞) and therefore f (x) = tan−1 x − > f (0) = 0 for x > 0, establishing the inequality < tan−1 x.
1 + x2 1 + x2
1 x2
Next, let g (x) = x − tan−1 x. Then g (x) = 1 − = > 0 for x > 0, so g is increasing on (0, ∞) and
1 + x2 1 + x2
therefore g (x) = x − tan−1 x > g (0) = 0 for x > 0. This shows that tan−1 x < x for x > 0.
The desired result follows from the two inequalities.

x + cos a dx
11. Let u = , so that x = u sin a − cos a. Then du = , so
sin a sin a
dx sin a du sin a du
= =
1 + 2x cos a + x 2 1 + 2 (u sin a − cos a) cos a + (u sin a − cos a)2 1 − cos2 a + u 2 sin2 a
du 1 du 1 1 x + cos a
= sin a 2
= 2
= · tan−1 u + C = tan−1 +C
sin a 1 + u 2 sin a 1+u sin a sin a sin a
476 Chapter 6 The Transcendental Functions

12. a. Let f (x) = tan−1 x. Note that f is continuous and differentiable on (−∞, ∞). In particular, f is continuous on [0.9, 1]
1 2x
and differentiable on (0.9, 1). Also, f (x) = and f (x) = − . Since f (x) < 0 for x > 0, we see
1 + x2 1 + x2
2

that f is decreasing on (0, ∞). Using the Mean Value Theorem with a = 0.9 and b = 1, we see that there
f (1) − f (0.9)
exists a number c in (0.9, 1) such that f (c) = . Since f is decreasing on (0.9, 1), we see
1 − 0.9
f (1) − f (0.9) 1 1
that f (1) < < f (0.9), but f (1) = 2
= 0.5 and f (0.9) = ≈ 0.6, and
0.1 1+1 1 + (0.9)2
π − f (0.9)
since f (1) = tan−1 1 = π 4 , we have 0.5 < 4 < 0.6 ⇒ 0.05 < π 4 − f (0.9) < 0.06 ⇒
0.1
π − 0.06 < f (0.9) < π − 0.05 ⇒ 0.725 < tan−1 0.9 < 0.735.
4 4
b. tan−1 0.9 ≈ 0.733

1/3
x3 d x 3 tan t 1/3 dt tan x 3 · 3x 2
0 tan t 1/3 dt dx 0 3 tan x 3 sec2 x 3
13. lim 2
= lim 2
= lim 2
= lim = lim =
x→0 2 x x→0 d 2 x x→0 2x · 4x x→0 8x 8 x→0 1 8
0 t dt dx 0 t dt

b b d b f (x) dx
1 f (x) dx f (b)
14. lim f (x) dx = lim a = lim db d a = lim = f (a)
b→a b − a 0 b→a b−a b→a (b − a) b→a 1
db

15. lim x sin x is an indeterminate form of type 00 . Let y = x sin x , so ln y = ln x sin x = sin x ln x. Then
x→0+
ln x 1/x sin2 x
ln lim y = lim ln y = lim sin x ln x = lim = lim = − lim
x→0+ x→0+ x→0+ x→0+ csc x x→0+ − csc x cot x x→0+ x cos x
sin x
= − lim tan x = 1 · 0 = 0 ⇒
x→0 + x
lim y = lim x sin x = e0 = 1.
x→0+ x→0+

tan 3x 2 6x sec2 3x 2 6x sec2 3x 2

16. lim = lim = − lim
x→0 ln cos 3x 2 − x x→0 sin 3x 2 − x x→0 (6x − 1) tan 3x 2 − x
− (6x − 1)
cos 3x 2 − x
6 sec2 3x 2 + (6x) 2 sec 3x 2 · sec 3x 2 tan 3x 2 · 6x 6 (1) + 0
= − lim =− = −6
x→0 6 tan 3x 2 − x + (6x − 1) sec2 3x 2 − x (6x − 1) 6 (0) + (−1) (1) (−1)

2 f (x + h) − f (x) − f (x − h) 2 f (x + h) − 0 − f (x − h) (−1) 2 f (x + h) + f (x − h)
17. lim = lim = lim
h→0 3h h→0 3 h→0 3
3 f (x)
= = f (x)
3
 Chapter 6 Challenge Problems 477

1/n 1/n
18. Put A = x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a0 and B = x n + bn−1 x n−1 + · · · + b0 .

Then An − B n = an−1 − bn−1 x n−1 + an−2 − bn−2 x n−2 + · · · + (a0 − b0 ). But

An − B n = (A − B) An−1 + An−2 B + · · · + B n−1 , so

an−1 − bn−1 x n−1 + an−2 − bn−2 x n−2 + · · · + (a0 − b0 )

A−B =
An−1 + An−2 B + · · · + B n−1
a − bn−2 a −b
an−1 − bn−1 + n−2 + · · · + 0 n−1 0
= x x
A n−1 A n−2 B B n−1
+ + ··· +
x x x x
A an−1 a0 1/n B
But lim = lim 1 + + ··· + = 1 and lim = 1, so
x→∞ x n→∞ x x x→∞ x
a − bn−2 a −b
an−1 − bn−1 + n−2 + · · · + 0 n−1 0 a − bn−1
lim (A − B) = lim x x = n−1 .
x→∞ x→∞ A n−1 A n−2 B B n−1 n
+ + ··· +
x x x x
19. a. lim f (x) = lim x x (1 − x)1−x is an indeterminate form of type 00 .
x→0+ x→0+
Now ln f (x) = ln x x (1 − x)1−x = x ln x + (1 − x) ln (1 − x), so
ln x 1/x
ln lim f (x) = lim ln f (x) = lim + 0 = lim = − lim x = 0.
x→0+ x→0+ x→0+ 1/x x→0+ −1/x 2 x→0+
Thus, lim f (x) = e0 = 1. Putting y = 1 − x, we see that lim f (x) = 1.
x→0+ x→1−

b. ln f (x) = x ln x + (1 − x) ln (1 − x) ⇒
---- 0 ++++ sign of f»
f (x) 1 −1
= ln x + x − ln (1 − x) + (1 − x) · ( )
f (x) x 1−x x
0 1 1
x 2
= ln x − ln (1 − x) = ln ⇒
1−x
x x
x
f (x) = x (1 − x) 1−x ln . Thus, f (x) = 0 ⇒ = 1 ⇔ x = 1 − x ⇔ x = 12 , a critical number.
1+x 1−x
Considering the sign diagram and the result of part a, we see that f has an absolute minimum of f 1 = 12 . f has no
2
absolute maximum because neither 0 nor 1 lies in the domain of f .
 7 Techniques of Integration

7.1 Concept Questions

b b b
1. a. u dv = uv − v du b. a f (x) g (x) dx = f (x) g (x)|a − a g (x) f (x) dx

2. See page 607. To apply the integration by parts formula to find xe−x dx, we would pick u = x and dv = e−x dx. Then
du = dx and v = e−x dx = −e−x . Using this choice of u and dv, we see that du is simpler than u and dv is easily
integrated. This is in agreement with the general guidelines. On the other hand, had we picked u = e−x and dv = x dx,
then du = −e−x dx and v = 12 x 2 . In this case du is not simpler than u, although dv is still easily integrated. We obtain
xe−x dx = uv − v du = 12 x 2 e−x + 12 x 2 e−x dx. We end up having to find an integral that is more complicated than
the original one!

7.1 Integration by Parts

1. xe2x dx. Let u = x and dv = e2x dx. Then du = dx and v = e2x dx = 12 e2x , so
xe2x dx = uv − v du = 12 xe2x − 1 e2x dx = 1 xe2x − 1 e2x + C = 1 (2x − 1) e2x + C.
2 2 4 4
2. xe−x dx. Let u = x and dv = e−x dx. Then du = dx and v = e−x dx = −e−x , so
xe−x dx = uv − v du = −xe−x + e−x dx = −xe−x − e−x + C = − (x + 1) e−x + C.
3. x sin x dx. Let u = x and dv = sin x dx. Then du = dx and v = sin x dx = − cos x, so
x sin x dx = uv − v du = −x cos x + cos x dx = −x cos x + sin x + C = sin x − x cos x + C.
4. x cos 2x dx. Let u = x and dv = cos 2x dx. Then du = dx and v = cos 2x dx = 12 sin 2x, so
x cos 2x dx = uv − v du = 12 x sin 2x − 1 sin 2x dx = 1 x sin 2x + 1 cos 2x + C = 1 (2x sin 2x + cos 2x) + C.
2 2 4 4
5. x ln 2x dx. Let u = ln 2x and dv = x dx. Then du = dx/x and v = x dx = 12 x 2 , so
x ln 2x dx = uv − v du = 12 x 2 ln 2x − 1 x dx = 1 x 2 ln 2x − 1 x 2 + C = 1 x 2 (2 ln 2x − 1) + C.
2 2 4 4
6. x 3 ln x dx. Let u = ln x and dv = x 3 dx. Then du = dx/x and v = x 3 dx = 14 x 4 , so
x 3 ln x dx = uv − v du = 14 x 4 ln x −
1 x 3 dx = 1 x 4 ln x − 1 x 4 + C = 1 x 4 (4 ln x − 1) + C.
4 4 16 16
7. I = 2 −x 2
x e dx. Let u = x and dv = e dx. Then du = 2x dx and v = e−x dx = −e−x , so
−x

I = uv − v du = −x 2 e−x + 2xe−x dx. To evaluate J = xe−x dx, let s = x and dt = e−x dx. Then
ds = dx and t = e−x dx = −e−x , so J = st − t ds = −xe−x + e−x dx = −xe−x − e−x , and therefore
I = x 2 e−x dx = −x 2 e−x + 2J = −x 2 e−x + 2 −xe−x − e−x + C = − x 2 + 2x + 2 e−x + C.

8. I = t 3 et dt. Let u = t 3 and dv = et dt. Then du = 3t 2 dt and v = et dt = et , so I = uv − v du = t 3 et − 3t 2 et dt.

To evaluate J = t 2 et dt, Let p = t 2 and dq = et dt. Then dp = 2t dt and q = et dt = et , so
J = pq − q dp = t 2 et − 2tet dt = t 2 et − 2 tet − et = t 2 − 2t + 2 et . (See Example 1 in Section 7.1.) Therefore,

t 3 et dt = t 3 et − 3 t 2 − 2t + 2 et + C = t 3 − 3t 2 + 6t − 6 et + C.
479
480 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

9. x 2 cos x dx. Let u = x 2 and dv = cos x dx. Then du = 2x dx and v = cos x dx = sin x, so
x 2 cos x dx = uv − v du = x 2 sin x − 2 x sin x dx. Using the result of Exercise 3, we then obtain
x 2 cos x dx = x 2 sin x − 2 (sin x − x cos x) + C = x 2 − 2 sin x + 2x cos x + C.

10. x 2 sin 2x dx. Let u = x 2 and dv = sin 2x dx. Then du = 2x dx and v = sin 2x dx = − 12 cos 2x,
so x 2 sin 2x dx = − 12 x 2 cos 2x + x cos 2x dx. Using the result of Exercise 4, we then obtain
x 2 sin 2x dx = − 12 x 2 cos 2x + 12 x sin 2x + 14 cos 2x + C = 14 cos 2x 1 − 2x 2 + 12 x sin 2x + C.

dx
11. tan−1 x dx. Let u = tan−1 x and dv = dx. Then du = and v = x, so
1 + x2
x dx
tan−1 x dx = uv − v du = x tan−1 x − = x tan−1 x − 12 ln 1 + x 2 + C.
1 + x2

dx
12. sin−1 x dx. Let u = sin−1 x and dv = dx. Then du = and v = x, so
1 − x2
x dx x dx −1/2
sin−1 x dx = uv − v du = x sin−1 x − . To evaluate J = = x 1 − x2 dx, use
1 − x2 1 − x2
substitution with u = 1 − x 2 , so du = −2x dx. Then J = − 12 u −1/2 du = −u 1/2 + D = − 1 − x 2 + D, and so
sin−1 x dx = x sin−1 x − J = x sin−1 x + 1 − x 2 + C.
√
13. t ln t dt. Let u = ln t and dv = t 1/2 dt. Then du = dt/t and v = t 1/2 dt = 23 t 3/2 , so
√
t ln t dt = uv − v du = 23 t 3/2 ln t − 23 t 1/2 dt = 23 t 3/2 ln t − 49 t 3/2 + C
√
= 29 t 3/2 (3 ln t − 2) + C = 29 t t (3 ln t − 2) + C

ln t dt
14. √ dt = t −1/2 ln t dt. Let u = ln t and dv = t −1/2 dt. Then du = and v = t −1/2 dt = 2t 1/2 , so
t t
ln t √
1/ 2
dt = uv − v du = 2t 1/2 ln t − 2t −1/2 dt = 2t 1/2 ln t − 4t 1/2 + C = 2 t (ln t − 2) + C.
t

15. x sec2 x dx. Let u = x and dv = sec2 x dx. Then du = dx and v = sec2 x dx = tan x, so
sin x
x sec2 x dx = uv − v du = x tan x − tan x dx = x tan x − dx = x tan x + ln |cos x| + C.
cos x

16. I = e−x sin x dx. Let u = e−x and dv = sin x dx. Then du = −e−x dx and v = sin x dx = − cos x,
so I = uv − v du = −e−x cos x −
e−x cos x dx. To find the integral on the right,
let s = e −x and dt = cos x dx. Then ds = −e−x dx and t = cos x dx = sin x, so
I = −e−x cos x − e−x sin x + e−x sin x dx = −e−x cos x − e−x sin x − I . Then 2I = −e−x (cos x + sin x) and
I = − 12 e−x (cos x + sin x) + C.

17. I = e2x cos 3x dx. Let u = e2x and dv = cos 3x dx, so du = 2e2x dx and v = cos 3x dx = 13 sin 3x.
Then I = uv − v du = 13 e2x sin 3x − 23 e2x sin 3x dx. To evaluate the integral on the
right, let s = e2x and dt = sin 3x dx, so ds = 2e2x dx and t = sin 3x dx = − 13 cos 3x.
Then I = 13 e2x sin 3x − 23 − 13 e2x cos 3x + 23 I = 13 e2x sin 3x + 29 e2x cos 3x − 49 I . Thus,

1 + 49 I = 13 e2x sin 3x + 29 e2x cos 3x ⇒ I = 1 e2x (3 sin 3x + 2 cos 3x) + C.

e2x cos 3x dx = 13
 Section 7.1 Integration by Parts 481

dx
18. 01 x tan−1 x dx. Let u = tan−1 x and dv = x dx, so du = and v = x dx = 1 x 2 . Then
2
1 + x2
1 1 1 1 x2 1 π 1 1 1
x tan−1 x dx = 12 x 2 tan−1 x − 2
dx = · − 1− dx (by long division)
0 0 2 0 1 + x 2 4 2 0 1 + x2
1
=π 1
8 − 2 x − tan
−1 x =π 1 π π 1 1
8 − 2 1 − 4 = 4 − 2 = 4 (π − 2)
0

19. u sin (2u + 1) du. Let p = u and dq = sin (2u + 1) du, so dp = du, q = sin (2u + 1) du = − 12 cos (2u + 1), and
u sin (2u + 1) du = pq − q dp = − 12 u cos (2u + 1) + 12 cos (2u + 1) du

= − 12 u cos (2u + 1) + 14 sin (2u + 1) + C = 14 [sin (2u + 1) − 2u cos (2u + 1)] + C

20. θ csc2 θ dθ. Let u = θ and dv = csc2 θ dθ, so du = dθ and v = csc2 θ dθ = − cot θ. Then
cos θ
θ csc2 θ dθ = uv − v du = −θ cot θ + cot θ dθ = −θ cot θ + dθ = −θ cot θ + ln |sin θ| + C.
sin θ

21. x tan2 x dx. Let u = x and dv = tan2 x dx, so du = dx and v = tan2 x dx = sec2 x − 1 dx = tan x − x. Then
sin x
x tan2 x dx = uv − v du = x (tan x − x) − (tan x − x) dx = x (tan x − x) − dx + x dx
cos x
= x (tan x − x) + ln |cos x| + 12 x 2 + C = x tan x + ln |cos x| − 12 x 2 + C

sin (ln x)
22. cos (ln x) dx. Let u = cos (ln x) and dv = dx. Then du = − dx and v = x, so
x
I = cos (ln x) dx = uv − v du = x cos (ln x) + sin (ln x) dx. We evaluate the integral on
cos (ln x)
the right using parts with U = sin (ln x) and dV = dx, so dU = dx and V = x. Thus,
x
I = x cos (ln x) + x sin (ln x) − cos (ln x) dx = x cos (ln x) + x sin (ln x) − I ⇔ 2I = x cos (ln x) + x sin (ln x) ⇔
I = 12 x [cos (ln x) + sin (ln x)] + C.

√ √ √ dx
23. I = x cos x dx. Let u = x, so du = √ ⇔ dx = 2u du. Then I = 2u 2 cos u du, and using the result of
2 x
√ √ √ √ √
Exercise 9, we get x cos x dx = 2 u 2 − 2 sin u + 2u cos u + C = 2 (x − 2) sin x + 2 x cos x + C.

24. csc3 θ dθ. Let u = csc θ and dv = csc2 θ dθ, so du = − csc θ cot θ dθ and v = − cot θ. Then
csc3 θ dθ = uv − v du = − csc θ cot θ − cot θ csc θ cot θ dθ = − csc θ cot θ − csc θ csc2 θ − 1 dθ

= − csc θ cot θ − csc3 θ dθ + csc θdθ ⇒

2 csc3 θ dθ = − cot θ csc θ + csc θ dθ = − cot θ csc θ + ln |csc θ − cot θ| + D, so
csc3 θ dθ = 12 (ln |csc θ − cot θ| − cot θ csc θ) + C.
482 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

25. sec5 θ dθ. Let u = sec3 θ and dv = sec2 θ dθ, so du = 3 sec2 θ sec θ tan θ dθ = 3 sec3 θ tan θ dθ and v = tan θ. Then
sec5 θ dθ = uv − v du = sec3 θ tan θ − 3 sec3 θ tan2 θ dθ = sec3 θ tan θ − 3 sec3 θ sec2 θ − 1 dθ

= sec3 θ tan θ − 3 sec5 θ dθ + 3 sec3 θ dθ ⇔

4 sec5 θ dθ = sec3 θ tan θ + 3 sec3 θ dθ, so sec5 θ dθ = 14 sec3 θ tan θ + 34 sec3 θ dθ. To evaluate
J= sec3 θ dθ, let s = sec θ and dt = sec2 θ dθ, so ds = sec θ tan θ dθ and t = tan θ. Then
J = sec θ tan θ − sec θ tan2 θ dθ = sec θ tan θ − sec θ sec2 θ − 1 dθ = sec θ tan θ − sec3 θ dθ + sec θ dθ ⇔

sec θ + tan θ sec2 θ + sec θ tan θ

2J = sec θ tan θ + sec θ dθ = sec θ tan θ + dθ
sec θ + tan θ sec θ + tan θ
= sec θ tan θ + ln |sec θ + tan θ| + E ⇔
J = 12 (sec θ tan θ + ln |sec θ + tan θ|) + D, and so sec5 θ dθ = 14 sec3 θ tan θ + 38 (sec θ tan θ + ln |sec θ + tan θ|) + C.

26. x sinh x dx. Let u = x and dv = sinh x dx, so du = dx and v = cosh x. Then
x sinh x dx = uv − v du = x cosh x − cosh x dx = x cosh x − sinh x + C.

27. x 3 sinh x dx. Let u = x 3 and dv = sinh x dx, so du = 3x 2 dx and v = cosh x. Then
x 3 sinh x dx = uv − v du = x 3 cosh x − 3 x 2 cosh x dx. To find J = x 2 cosh x dx, let s = x 2 and dt = cosh x dx,
so ds = 2x dx and t = sinh x. Then J = st − t ds = x 2 sinh x − 2 x sinh x dx = x 2 sinh x − 2 (x cosh x − sinh x) + D
(see Exercise 26). Thus,
x 3 sinh x dx = x 3 cosh x − 3 x 2 sinh x − 2x cosh x + 2 sinh x + C

= x 3 cosh x − 3x 2 sinh x + 6x cosh x − 6 sinh x + C

28. x cosh 2x dx. Let u = x and dv = cosh 2x dx, so du = dx and v = 12 sinh 2x. Then
x cosh 2x dx = uv − v du = 12 x sinh 2x − 12 sinh 2x dx = 12 x sinh 2x − 14 cosh 2x + C.

ex
29. e−x ln e x + 1 dx. Let u = ln e x + 1 and dv = e−x dx, so du = x and v = −e−x . Then
e +1
dx e−x
e−x ln e x + 1 dx = uv − v du = −e−x ln e x + 1 + x = −e−x ln e x + 1 + dx
e +1 1 + e−x
= −e−x ln e x + 1 − ln 1 + e−x + C

30. x 2 − 1 cos x dx. Let u = x 2 − 1 and dv = cos x dx, so du = 2x dx and v = sin x. Then

x 2 − 1 cos x dx = uv − v du = x 2 − 1 sin x − 2 x sin x dx. To evaluate x sin x dx, Let s = x and

dt = sin x dx, so ds = dx and t = − cos x. Then x sin x dx = st − t ds = −x cos x + cos x dx = −x cos x + sin x.
Therefore, x 2 − 1 cos x dx = x 2 − 1 sin x − 2 (−x cos x + sin x) + C = x 2 − 3 sin x + 2x cos x + C.
 Section 7.1 Integration by Parts 483

ln x
31. I = √ dx. Let u = ln x and dv = (1 − x)−1/2 dx. Then du = dx/x and v = −2 (1 − x)1/2 , so
1−x
√ (1 − x)1/2
I = uv − v du = −2 1 − x ln x + 2 dx. To evaluate the last integral, use the substitution t 2 = 1 − x, so
x
x = 1 − t 2 and dx = −2t dt. Then
(1 − x)1/2 t2 4t 2 dt
2 dx = −4 2
dt = 2
dt = 4 dt + 4 2
(by long division)
x 1−t t −1 t −1
−1/2 1/2
= 4 dt + 4 + dt = 4t − 2 (ln |t + 1| − ln |t − 1|) + C
t +1 t −1
t +1
= 4t − 2 ln +C
t −1
√
√ √ √ 1−x +1 √
Therefore, because t = s = 1 − x, we have I = 4 1 − x − 2 ln √ − 2 1 − x ln x + C.
1−x −1

32. 01 (t − 1) e−2t dt. Let u = t − 1 and dv = e−2t dt, so du = dt and v = − 12 e−2t . Then
1 1
−2t dt = − 1 (t − 1) e−2t + 1 1 e−2t dt = − 1 − 1 e−2t
1 e2 + 1
0 (t − 1) e 2 2 0 2 4 = − 12 − 14 e−2 + 14 = − .
0 0 4e2
e 2 2 1 x 3 . Then
33. 1 x ln x dx. Let u = ln x and dv = x dx, so du = dx/x and v = 3
e 2 1 3 e 1 e 2 1 3 1 e 1 3 1
3
1 x ln x dx = 3 x ln x 1 − 3 1 x dx = 3 e − 9 x 1 = 3 e − 9 e
3 − 1 = 19 2e3 + 1 .

34. 02 ln (x + 1) dx. Let u = x + 1, so du = dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 1, and x = 2 ⇒ u = 3. Then

2 3 3
0 ln (x + 1) dx = 1 ln u du = (u ln u − u)|1 = 3 ln 3 − 2. (See Example 6.)
1/2
35. 0 cos−1 x dx. Let u = cos−1 x and dv = dx, so du = −dx 1 − x 2 and v = x. Then

1/2 1/2 −1/2 1/2 1/2 √

0 cos
−1 x dx = x cos−1 x + x 1 − x2 dx = 12 · π
3 + − 12 2 1 − x 2 =π 3
6 − 2 +1
0 0
√
= 16 π + 6 − 3 3

36. 0π x sin 2x dx. Let u = x and dv = sin 2x dx, so du = dx and v = − 12 cos 2x. Then
π 1 π 1 π π 1 sin 2x π = − π .
0 x sin 2x dx = − 2 x cos 2x 0 + 2 0 cos 2x dx = − 2 + 4 0 2
e −2 ln x dx. Let u = ln x and dv = x −2 dx, so du =
37. √
ex dx/x and v = −1/x. Then
e √ √
e
−2 ln x dx = − ln x
e
−2 dx = − 1 + ln√ e − 1 e 1 1 1 1 3 2 3 e−4
√ x x √e
+ √ x
e x √e
= − + √ −
e 2 e e
+ √ = √ − = .
e e e e 2 e e 2e
π /2 2x
38. I = 0 e cos x dx. Let u = e2x and dv = cos x dx, so du = 2e2x dx and v = sin x. Then
π /2 2 x π /2 π /2 π /2
0 e cos x dx = e2x sin x − 2 0 e2x sin x dx = eπ − 2 0 e2x sin x dx. Now let s = e2x and dt = sin x dx,
0
π /2 π /2
so ds = 2e2x dx and t = − cos x. Then I = eπ − 2 −e2x cos x + 2 0 e2x cos x dx = eπ − 2 − 4I ⇔
0
π /2
5I = eπ − 2 ⇔ I = 0 e2x cos x dx = 15 eπ − 2 .
dx
39. 12 x sec−1 x dx. Let u = sec−1 x and dv = x dx, so du = and v = 12 x 2 . Then
x x2 − 1
−1/2 2
2 2
−1 x dx = 1 x 2 sec−1 x − 1 2 x x 2 − 1 dx = 2 sec−1 2 − 12 1 (2) x 2 − 1 1/2
1 x sec 2 1 2 1 2
1
√ √ √
= 2 sec−1 2 − 23 = 12 4 sec−1 2 − 3 = 4π −63 3
484 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

π /2 π /2 π /2 π /2 2 π /2
40. 0 (x + x cos x) dx = 0 x dx + 0 x cos x dx = 12 x 2 + J = π8 + J , where J = 0 x cos x dx. Let
0
π /2 π /2 π /2
u = x and dv = cos x dx, so du = dx and v = sin x. Then J = x sin x|0 − 0 sin x dx = π
2 + [cos x]0 =π
2 − 1,
π /2 2
so 0 (x + x cos x) dx = π8 + π 1 2
2 − 1 = 8 π + 4π − 8 .

2t
41. 01 ln 1 + t 2 dt. Let u = ln 1 + t 2 and dv = dt, so du = dt and v = t. Then
1 + t2
1 1 1 2t 2 1 2 1
ln 1 + t 2 dt = t ln 1 + t 2 − 2
dt = ln 2 − 2− 2
dt = ln 2 − 2t − 2 tan−1 t
0 0 0 1 + t 0 1 + t 0
2 ln 2 + π − 4
= ln 2 − 2 − 2 · π π
4 = ln 2 − 2 + 2 = 2

π2 /4 √ √ dx 2
42. 0 sin x dx. Let t = x, so dt = √ , x = 0 ⇒ t = 0, and x = π4 ⇒ t = π
2 . Then
2 x
π2 /4 √ π /2 π /2
0 sin x dx = 2 0 t sin t dt = 2 (sin t − t cos t)|0 = 2. (See Exercise 3.)

π/3 θ dθ π /3
43. π/4 = π/4 θ csc2 θ dθ. Using the result of Exercise 20, we find
sin2 θ
π /3 θ dθ √ √ √ √
π /3
2
= (−θ cot θ + ln |sin θ|)|π/4 = − π 3 3 π 2 1 3 π
3 · 3 + ln 2 + 4 − ln 2 = 2 ln 2 + 36 9 − 4 3 .
π /4 sin θ

√ dx√
44. I = 01 tan−1 x, so dt = √ ⇔ dx = 2t dt, x = 0 ⇒ t = 0, and x = 1 ⇒ t = 1. Then
x dx. Let t =
2 x
dt
I = 2 01 t tan−1 t dt. Now let u = tan−1 t and dv = t dt, so du = and v = 12 t 2 . Then we have
1 + t2
1
1 t2 1 1 t 2 dt π 1 1 1 1
t tan−1 t dt = tan−1 t − 2
= − 1− 2 dt = π 1
8 − 2 t − tan
−1 t
0 2 2 0 t +1 8 2 0 t +1 0
0
=π 1 π 1
8 − 2 1 − 4 = 4 (π − 2)
√
Therefore, 01 tan−1 x dx = 12 (π − 2).

45. A = 1e (ln x)2 dx. Let u = (ln x)2 and dv = dx, so y

du = (2 ln x) (1/x) dx and v = x. Then

e 2
A = x (ln x)2 − 2 1e ln x dx
1
= e − 2 [(x ln x − x)]e1 (see Example 6) 1

= e − 2 (e − e + 1) = e − 2
0 1 2 e 3 x

1 xe x
46. A = dx. Let u = xe x and dv = (1 + x)−2 dx, so y
0 (1 + x)2
dx
du = (x + 1) e x dx and v = − . Then
1+x
1
xe x 1 1 xe x 1
A=− + e x dx = − + ex
1+x 0 0 1+x 0
ex 1 e e−2
= = −1 = 0 x
1+x 0 2 2 1
 Section 7.1 Integration by Parts 485

47. Observe that the graphs of y = tan−1 x and y = π

4 x intersect at (0, 0) and y

1, π
4 , as can be seen by substituting these points into the equations. 1

Also, the graph of y = tan−1 x lies above that of y = π 4 x on (0, 1). Thus,

A = 01 tan−1 x − π 1
4 x dx = 0 tan
−1 x dx − π 1 x dx. Using the
4 0
results of Exercise 11, we find
1
A = x tan−1 x − 12 ln 1 + x 2 − π 2 π 1 π
8 x 0 = 4 − 2 ln 2 − 8
0 1 x
= 18 (π − 4 ln 2)

π /2 −x 3π /2
48. A = 0 e cos x dx − π/2 e−x cos x dx. To find y

I = e−x cos x dx, let u = e−x and dv = cos x dx, so du = −e−x dx 1

and v = sin x. Then I = e−x sin x + e−x sin x dx. Now let s = e−x and
dt = sin x dx, so ds = −e−x dx and v = − cos x, so
I = e−x sin x − e−x cos x − e−x cos x dx = e−x (sin x − cos x) − I ⇔
0 1 ¹ 2 3 4 3¹ x
I = 12 (sin x − cos x) e−x + C. Finally, 2 2

π /2 3π /2
A = 12 (sin x − cos x) e−x − 12 (sin x − cos x) e−x
0 π /2
= 1 e−π /2 + 1 − 12 −e−3π/2 − e−π/2
2 2

= 12 2e−π/2 + e−3π/2 + 1

49. a. b. Since g (x) ≥ f (x) on [−1, 0.555], the required area is

√
1
A ≈ −0.1555 g (x) − f (x) dx = −0.1555 1 − x 2 − x x + 1 dx.
√
Put I = x x + 1 dx and let u = x and dv = (x + 1)1/2 , so that
0 du = dx and v = 23 (x + 1)3/2 . Then I = 23 x (x + 1)3/2 −
2
3 (x + 1)3/2 dx = 23 x (x + 1)3/2 − 15
4 (x + 1)5/2 + C. Thus,
-1
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 4 (x + 1)5/2 0.555 ≈ 1.251.
A = x − 13 x 3 − 23 x (x + 1)3/2 + 15
−1
Using a graphing utility we find the
x-coordinates of the points of
intersection to be −1 and about 0.555.

50. a. 0.5 Using a graphing utility we find the x-coordinates of the points of
intersection to be 0 and about 2.553.

0.0 b. The required area is

√ √
A ≈ 02.553 f (x) − g (x) dx = 02.553 e−x sin x + x cos x dx.
-0.5 Using the results of Exercises 16 and 31, we have
−x √ √ √ 2.553
0 1 2 3 A ≈ − e 2 (cos x + sin x) + 2 (x − 2) sin x + 2 x cos x
0
≈ 1.444
486 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

51. V = π 01 y 2 dx = π 01 cos−1 x dx. Let u = cos−1 x and dv = dx, so y

dx
du = − and v = x. Then
1 − x2
1 −1/2 1
V = π x cos−1 x + 01 x 1 − x 2 dx
0
1/2 1
= π 0 + − 12 (2) 1 − x 2 =π
0 0 1 x

dx y
52. V = π 1e (ln x)2 dx. Let u = (ln x)2 and dv = dx, so du = 2 ln x
x
1
and v = x. Then
e
V = πx (ln x)2 − 2π 1e ln x dx = πe − [2πx (ln x − 1)]e1
1
0 1 2 e 3 x
= πe − 2π = (e − 2) π

_1

π /2 2 π /2 x/2 2 π /2
53. V = π 0 y dx = π 0 e cos x dx = π 0 e x cos2 x dx. To find I = e x cos2 x dx, let u = cos2 x

and dv = e x dx, so du = −2 cos x sin x dx = − sin 2x dx and v = e x . Then I = e x cos2 x + e x sin 2x dx.
To find J = e x sin 2x dx, let s = e x and dt = sin 2x dx, so ds = e x dx and t = − 12 cos 2x. Then
J = − 12 e x cos 2x + 12 e x cos 2x dx. We integrate the last integral by parts with p = e x and dq = cos 2x dx, so
dp = e x dx and q = 12 sin 2x: J = − 12 e x cos 2x + 12 12 e x sin 2x − 12 e x sin 2x dx = − 14 e x (2 cos 2x − sin 2x) − 14 J

⇔ J = 45 − 14 e x (2 cos 2x − sin 2x) + C. Therefore, I = e x cos2 x − 15 e x (2 cos 2x − sin 2x) + C, and so

π /2
V = πe x cos2 x − 15 (2 cos 2x − sin 2x) =π
5 2e
π /2 − 3 .
0

π /2 π /2
54. V = 2π 0 x y dx = 2π 0 x (1 − sin x) dx y

π /2 π /2
= 2π 0 x dx − 2π 0 x sin x dx 1
Using the result of Exercise 3, we find y=sin x

π /2
V = 2π 12 x 2 − (sin x − x cos x) =π 2
4 π −8 .
0
0 ¹ x
2

55. V = 2π 0π [x − (−1)] y dx = 2π 0π (x + 1) sin x dx y

y=sin x
= 2π 0π x sin x dx + 2π 0π sin x dx 1

Using the result of Exercise 3, we find

x=_1
V = 2π [(sin x − x cos x) − cos x]π
0 = 2π (π + 2).
0 ¹ x
 Section 7.1 Integration by Parts 487

π /2 π /2
2x x2 π 4−π
56. m = sin x − dx = − cos x − = − +1 = .
0 π π 4 4
0
π /2 2x π /2 2 π/2 2
My = x sin x − dx = x sin x dx − x dx. Using the result
0 π 0 π 0
π /2
2 x3 12 − π2
of Exercise 3, we find M y = (sin x − x cos x) − · = , and so
π 3 12
0
My 12 − π2
4 12 − π2 1 π /2 4 1 π /2
x= = ·
= ≈ 0.83. Mx = sin2 x − 2 x 2 dx = (1 − cos 2x) dx −
m 12 4−π 3 (4 − π) 2 0 π 4 0
2 3 π/2 1 1 2 3 π /2 π Mx π 4 π
2
x = x − sin 2x − x = , and so y = = · = ≈ 0.61. Thus,
3π 0 4 2 3π 2 0 24 m 24 4 − π 6 (4 − π)
the centroid is approximately (0.83, 0.61).
57. P (t) = 2te−0.05t dt. Let u = 2t and dv = e−0.05t dt, so du = 2 dt and v = −20e−0.05t . Then
P (t) = −40te−0.05t + 40 e−0.05t dt = −40te−0.05t − 800e−0.05t + C. P (0) = 20 ⇒ −800 + C = 20
⇒ C = 820, so P (t) = 820 − 40 (t + 20) e−0.05t . Over the next ten years, the company hopes to produce
P (10) = 820 − 40 (10 + 20) e−0.05 · 10 ≈ 92.2 million metric tons.
58. Let N (t) denote the number of such accidents. Then we want to find
N (12) = 012 [−R (t)] dt + 882 = − 012 20 + te0.1t dt + 882 = − 012 20 dt − 012 te0.1t dt + 882. To evaluate the

last integral, let u = t and dv = e0.1t dt, so du = dt and v = 10e0.1t . Then

12 12
N (12) = −20t|12
0 − 10te0.1t − 10 012 e0.1t dt + 882 = −240 − 120e1.2 + 100e0.1t + 882
0 0

= −240 − 120e1.2 + 100 e1.2 − 1 + 882 ≈ 476

so the number of accidents expected is approximately 476.
59. x (t) = v (t) dt = 3e−4t (1 − 4t) dt. Let u = 3 (1 − 4t) and dv = e−4t dt, so du = −12 dt and v = − 14 e−4t . Then
x (t) = − 34 (1 − 4t) e−4t − 3 e−4t dt = − 34 (1 − 4t) e−4t + 34 e−4t + C = 3te−4t + C. x (0) = 0 ⇒ 0 + C = 0 or
C = 0, so the required position function is x (t) = 3te−4t .

60. a. A (0) = 180 1 − e0 − 6 (0) e0 = 0 lb

b. A (180) = 180 1 − e−180/30 − 6 (180) e−180/30 ≈ 176.9 lb

c. The average amount of salt over the first 3 hours is
180
1
A = 180 0 180 1 − e−t/30 −6te−t/30 dt = 0180 1 − e−t/30 dt − 30
1 180 te−t/30 dt. Call the first integral
0
I1 and the second integral I2 . Then
180
I1 = 0180 1 − e−t/30 dt = (t + 30e−t/30 ) [Using the substitution u = −t/30]
0
= 180 + 30e−6 − 0 + 30e0 ≈ 150.074

To evaluate I2 , consider the corresponding indefinite integral J = te−t/30 dt. Integrating

by parts with u = t and dv = e−t/30 dt, so du = dt and v = −30e−t/30 , we find
J = −30te−t/30 − −30e−t/30 dt = −30te−t/30 − 900e−t/30 + C = −30(t + 30)e−t/30 + C.

1 J 180 180
Therefore, I2 = 30 = − (t + 30) e−t/30 = − (180 + 30) e−6 + 30e0 ≈ 29.479, and so
0 0
A = I1 − I2 ≈ 150.074 − 29.479 ≈ 120.6 lb.
488 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

61. q (t) = i (t) dt = − 200

3 e−20t sin 60t dt = − 200
3 I , where I = e
−20t sin 60t dt. Let u = sin 60t and

1 e−20t . Then I (t) = − 1 e−20t sin 60t + 3 e−20t cos 60t dt.
dv = e−20t dt, so du = 60 cos 60t dt and v = − 20 20
To find J = e−20t cos 60t dt, let p = cos 60t and dq = e−20t dt, so dp = −60 sin 60t dt and
1 e−20t . Then J = − 1 e−20t cos 60t − 3 e−20t sin 60t dt = − 1 e−20t cos 60t − 3I . Therefore,
q = − 20 20 20
1 e−20t sin 60t + 3 − 1 e−20t cos 60t − 3I
I = − 20 1 e−20t sin 60t − 3 e−20t cos 60t − 9I ⇔
= − 20
20 20
1 e−20t (sin 60t + 3 cos 60t) + C . Thus,
I = − 200 q (t) = − 200 1 −20t (sin 60t + 3 cos 60t) + C.
1 3 I = 3e
1
q (0) = 3 (3) + C = q0 ⇒ C = q0 − 1, so q (t) = 1 e−20t (sin 60t + 3 cos 60t) + q − 1.
3 0
62. x (t) = v (t) dt = e−2t (cos 4t − 3 sin 4t) dt. Let u = cos 4t − 3 sin 4t and dv = e−2t dt. Then
du = −4 (sin 4t + 3 cos 4t) dt and v = − 12 e−2t , so x (t) = − 12 e−2t (cos 4t − 3 sin 4t) − 2 e−2t (sin 4t + 3 cos 4t) dt.
To find I = e−2t (sin 4t + 3 cos 4t) dt, let U = sin 4t + 3 cos 4t and dV = e−2t dt. Then dU = 4 (cos 4t − 3 sin 4t) dt
and V = − 12 e−2t , so I = − 12 e−2t (sin 4t + 3 cos 4t) + 2 e−2t (cos 4t − 3 sin 4t) dt. Therefore,
x (t) = − 12 e−2t (cos 4t − 3 sin 4t) + e−2t (sin 4t + 3 cos 4t) − 4x (t) + C1 ⇔ 5x (t) = 52 e−2t (cos 4t + sin 4t) + C1 ⇔
x (t) = 12 e−2t (cos 4t + sin 4t) + C. x (0) = 12 ⇒ 12 + C = 12 ⇒ C = 0, so x (t) = 12 e−2t (cos 4t + sin 4t).
r r
63. h (t) = v (t) dt = v 0 − gt − s ln 1 − t dt = v 0 t − 12 gt 2 − s ln 1 − t dt. To find
m m
r r r m m
I = ln 1 − t dt, let u = 1 − t, so du = − dt. Then I = − ln u du = − u (ln u − 1), so
m m m r r
1 2 ms r r ms ms
h (t) = v 0 t − 2 gt + 1 − t ln 1 − t − 1 + C. h (0) = 0 ⇒ (−1) + C = 0 ⇒ C = , so
r m m r r
ms r r
h (t) = v 0 t − 12 gt 2 + 1 − t ln 1 − t − 1 + 1 .
r m m
√ √ √ dt
64. The membership 5 years from now will be N = 05 9 t + 1 ln t + 1 dt + 50. Let x = t + 1, so dx = √ ,t =0
2 t +1
√ √
⇒ x = 1, and t = 5 ⇒ x = 6. Then N = 18 1 6 x 2 ln x dx + 50. Now let u = ln x and dv = x 2 dx, so du = dx/x and
v = 13 x 3 . Then
√ √ √
1 x 3 ln x 6 − 1 6
6 2 1 · 63/2 · ln
√
N = 18 3 3 1 x dx + 50 = 18 3 6 − 19 x 3 + 50
1 1
√
= 18 13 · 63/2 · ln 6 − 19 63/2 − 1 + 50 ≈ 101.606, or about 101,606 people.
65. The average concentration from r = r1 to r = r2 is
1 r2 1 r2 c1 − c2
A= c (r) dr = (ln r − ln r2 ) +c2 dr
r2 − r 1 r1 r2 − r 1 r1 ln r1 − ln r2
1 c1 − c2 r2 r2 1 r2
= ln r dr − ln r2 dr + c2 dr
r2 − r1 ln r1 − ln r2 r1 r1 r2 − r 1 r1
We integrate ln r dr by parts with u = ln r and dv = dr , so du = dr/r and v = r. Then
dr
ln r dr = r ln r− r = r ln r − r = r (ln r − 1). Therefore,
r
1 c1 − c2 r
A= [r (ln r − 1)] rr21 − ln r 2 r2 + c2
r2 − r1 ln r1 − ln r2 1

1 c1 − c2
= r2 (ln r2 − 1) − r1 (ln r1 − 1) − (r2 − r1 ) ln r2 + c2
r2 − r1 ln r1 − ln r2
1 c1 − c2 r1 1
= r1 (ln r2 − ln r1 ) − (r2 − r1 ) + c2 = (c2 − c1 ) + + c2
r2 − r1 ln r1 − ln r2 r2 − r1 ln r1 − ln r2
 Section 7.2 Trigonometric Integrals 489

66. a. s (t) = v (t) dt = 8t sin 2t dt. Let u = 8t and dv = sin 2t dt, so b.

40
du = 8 dt and v = − 12 cos 2t. Then
20
s (t) = −4t cos 2t + 4 cos 2t dt = −4t cos 2t + 2 sin 2t + C.
0
s (0) = 0 ⇒ C = 0, so s (t) = −4t cos 2t + 2 sin 2t.
d -20
c. s (t) = (−4t cos 2t + 2 sin 2t)
dt
-40
= −4 cos 2t + 8t sin 2t + 4 cos 2t = 8t sin 2t 0 2 4 6 8 10
s (t) = 0 ⇒ t = n2π , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . ., and these are the critical numbers of s. The relative maximum values of s are
(2n + 1)π
attained at π 3π
2 , 2 ,..., 2 , . . ., and the relative minimum values are attained at π, 2π, . . . , nπ, . . .. Thus, each
successive maximum of s (t) is larger than 4t, and since lim 4t = ∞, we see that lim |s (t)| does not exist. The
t→∞ t→∞
amplitude increases without bound; in other words, the motion is one of resonance.

67. 13 x f (x) dx. Let u = x and dv = f (x) dx, so du = dx and v = f (x). Then
3 3 3
1 xf (x) dx = x f (x) 1 − 13 f (x) dx = 3 f (3) − f (1) − f (x) 1 = 3 f (3) − f (1) − f (3) + f (1)

= 3 (5) − 2 − (−1) + 2 = 16
1 dx
68. Letting u = and dv = dx, so du = − 2 and v = x + C1 , the integration by parts formula gives
x x
dx 1 1 C dx
= uv − v du = (x + C1 ) − (x + C1 ) − 2 dx = 1 + 1 + + C1 x −2 dx
x x x x x
C dx 1
=1+ 1 + + C1 − + C 2
x x x
or 0 = 1 + C1 C2 . Because C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants, this is a contradiction, and therefore the so-called proof is
invalid.
69. True. Let u = e x and dv = f (x) dx, so du = e x dx and v = f (x) dx = f (x). Then
e x f (x) dx = uv − v du = e x f (x) − e x f (x) dx.
70. True. Let F = uv and dG = dw. Then d F = u dv + v du and G = w, so
uv dw = F dG = FG − G d F = uvw − w (u dv + v du) = uvw − uw dv − vw du.

7.2 Concept Questions

1. See pages 618 and 619.
2. See page 620.
3. a. Let m = 2k + 1. We retain a factor of csc x cot x and use cot2 x = csc2 x − 1 to write
k k
cot2k+1 x cscn x dx = cot2 x cscn−1 x csc x cot x dx = csc2 x − 1 cscn−1 x csc x cot x dx.
Then integrate using the substitution u = csc x.
b. Let n = 2k. We retain a factor of csc2 x and use csc2 x = 1 + cot2 x to write
k−1 k−1
cotm x csc2k x dx = cotm x csc2 x csc2 x dx = cotm x 1 + cot2 x csc2 x dx.
Then integrate using the substitution u = cot x.

4. See page 622.

490 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

7.2 Trigonometric Integrals

1. sin3 x cos x dx. Let u = sin x, so du = cos x dx. Then sin3 x cos x dx = u 3 du = 14 u 4 + C = 14 sin4 x + C.

2. sin3 x cos2 x dx = sin2 x cos2 x sin x dx = 1 − cos2 x cos2 x sin x dx = cos2 x − cos4 x sin x dx.
Let u = cos x, so du = − sin x dx. Then
sin3 x cos2 x dx = − u 2 − u 4 du = − 13 u 3 + 15 u 5 + C = 15 cos5 x − 13 cos3 x + C.

3. cos3 2x sin5 2x dx = cos2 2x sin5 2x cos 2x dx = 1 − sin2 2x sin5 2x cos 2x dx. Let u = sin 2x, so du = 2 cos 2x.
Then
cos3 2x sin5 2x dx = 12 1 − u 2 u 5 du = 12 u 5 − u 7 du = 12 16 u 6 − 18 u 8 + C

= 14 13 sin6 2x − 14 sin8 2x + C

π /2 √ π /2 π /2
4. 0 cos x sin3 x dx = 0 cos1/2 x · sin2 x · sin x dx = 0 cos1/2 x 1 − cos2 x sin x dx
π /2
= 0 cos1/2 x − cos5/2 x sin x dx
Let u = cos x, so du = − sin x dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 1, and x = π 2 ⇒ u = 0. Then
π /2 √ 0
0 cos x sin3 x dx = − 10 u 1/2 − u 5/2 du = − 23 u 3/2 + 27 u 7/2 = − − 23 + 27 = 21
8 .
1

5. sin3 x dx = sin2 x · sin x dx = 1 − cos2 x sin x dx. Let u = cos x, so du = − sin x dx. Then

sin3 x dx = − 1 − u 2 du = −u + 13 u 3 + C = 13 cos3 x − cos x + C.

6. cos3 2x dx = cos2 2x · cos 2x dx = 1 − sin2 2x cos 2x dx. Let u = sin 2x, so du = 2 cos 2x dx. Then

cos3 2x dx = 12 1 − u 2 du = 12 u − 13 u 3 + C = 12 sin 2x − 13 sin3 2x + C.

π x π 1 + cos x x + sin x π π
7. cos2 dx = dx = =
0 2 0 2 2 0 2
2 1 (1 + cos 2x) 2 dx = 1
8. cos4 x dx = cos2 x dx = 2 4 (1 + cos 2x)2 dx = 14 1 + 2 cos 2x + cos2 2x dx

= 14 1 + 2 cos 2x + 12 (1 + cos 4x) dx = 14 3 + 2 cos 2x + 1 cos 4x dx

2 2

= 14 32 x + sin 2x + 18 sin 4x + C = 32
1 (12x + 8 sin 2x + sin 4x) + C

2 2
9. 01 sin4 πx dx = 01 sin2 πx dx = 01 12 (1 − cos 2πx) dx = 14 01 (1 − cos 2πx)2 dx

= 14 01 1 − 2 cos 2πx + cos2 2πx dx = 14 01 1 − 2 cos 2πx + 12 (1 + cos 4πx) dx

1
= 14 x − 22π sin 2πx + 12 x + 81π sin 4πx = 38
0

10. sin2 2x cos4 2x dx = 1 (1 − cos 4x) 1 (1 + cos 4x) 2 dx = 1 (1 − cos 4x) 1 + 2 cos 4x + cos2 4x dx
2 2 8

= 18 1 + 2 cos 4x + cos2 4x − cos 4x − 2 cos2 4x − cos3 4x dx

= 18 1 + cos 4x − cos2 4x − cos3 4x dx = 18 sin2 4x + (cos 4x) 1 − cos2 4x dx

= 18 1 (1 − cos 8x) + sin2 4x cos 4x dx = 1

2 8
1 − 1 cos 8x + sin2 4x cos 4x dx
2 2
1 x − 1 sin 8x + 1 sin3 4x + C
= 16 8 6
 Section 7.2 Trigonometric Integrals 491

x x 1 − cos x 1 + cos x 1 1 1 + cos 2x

11. sin2 cos2 dx = · dx = 1 − cos2 x dx = 1− dx
2 2 2 2 4 4 2
= 14 1 − 1 cos 2x dx = 1
2 2 8 x − 12 sin 2x + C = 16
1 (2x − sin 2x) + C

12. cos4 x sin4 x dx = (sin x cos x)4 dx = 1 (sin 2x) 4 dx = 1 1

sin4 2x dx = 16 1 (1 − cos 4x) 2 dx
2 16 2
1
= 64 1
1 − 2 cos 4x + cos2 4x dx = 64 1 − 2 cos 4x + 12 (1 + cos 8x) dx
1
= 64 3 − 2 cos 4x + 1 cos 8x dx = 1 3 x − 1 sin 4x + 1 sin 8x + C
2 2 64 2 2 16
2
13. 0π sin2 x cos4 x dx = 0π 21 (1 − cos 2x) 12 (1 + cos 2x) dx = 18 0π (1 − cos 2x) 1 + 2 cos 2x + cos2 2x dx

= 18 0π 1 + 2 cos 2x + cos2 2x − cos 2x − 2 cos2 2x − cos3 2x dx

= 18 0π 1 + cos 2x − cos2 2x − cos3 2x dx = 18 0π 1 − cos2 2x + (cos 2x) 1 − cos2 2x dx

= 18 0π sin2 2x + sin2 2x cos 2x dx = 18 1 (1 − cos 4x) + sin2 2x cos 2x dx

2
π π
= 18 12 x − 18 sin 4x + 16 sin3 2x = 16
0
3 1 (1 − cos 2u) 3 du = 1
14. sin6 u du = sin2 u du = 2 8 1 − 3 cos 2u + 3 cos2 2u − cos3 2u du

= 18 1 − 3 cos 2u + 32 (1 + cos 4u) − 1 − sin2 2u cos 2u du

= 18 5 − 4 cos 2u + 3 cos 4u + sin2 2u cos 2u du = 1

2 2 8
5 u − 2 sin 2u + 3 sin 4u + 1 sin3 2u + C
2 8 6
1 60u − 48 sin 2u + 9 sin 4u + 4 sin3 2u + C
= 192

15. x cos4 x 2 dx. Let u = x 2 , so du = 2x dx. Then

x cos4 x 2 dx = 12 cos4 u du = 12 · 18 3u + 2 sin 2u + 14 sin 4u + C (see Exercise 8)

1 12x 2 + 8 sin 2x 2 + sin 4x 2
= 64 +C

16. θ sin2 θ2 cos2 θ 2 dθ. Let x = θ2 , so dx = 2θ dθ. Then

θ sin2 θ2 cos2 θ 2 dθ = 12 sin2 x cos2 x dx = 12 (sin x cos x)2 dx = 12 1 sin 2x 2 dx = 1 sin2 2x dx

2 8
1
= 16 1 x − 1 sin 4x + C = 1 θ 2 − 1 sin 4θ 2
(1 − cos 4x) dx = 16 +C
4 16 4

17. x sin2 x dx. Let u = x and dv = sin2 x dx, so du = dx and v = sin2 x dx = 12 (1 − cos 2x) dx = 12 x − 12 sin 2x .
Then
x sin2 x dx = uv − v du = 12 x x − 12 sin 2x − 12 x − 12 sin 2x dx

= 12 x x − 12 sin 2x − 12 12 x 2 + 14 cos 2x + C = 18 2x 2 − cos 2x − 2x sin 2x + C

18. This can be found using steps similar to those used in Exercise 17. Alternatively, we can use the result
of that exercise, as follows: x dx = cos2 x + sin2 x x dx = x cos2 x dx + x sin2 x dx, so

x cos2 x dx = x dx − x sin2 x dx = 12 x 2 − 18 2x 2 − cos 2x − 2x sin 2x + C = 18 2x 2 + cos 2x + 2x sin 2x + C.

π /4 π /4 π /4
19. 0 tan2 x dx = 0 sec2 x − 1 dx = (tan x − x)|0 =1− π 4−π
4 = 4

20. tan3 (π − x) dx = tan (π − x) tan2 (π − x) dx = tan (π − x) sec2 (π − x) − 1 dx

sin (π − x) tan2 (π − x)
= tan (π − x) sec2 (π − x) dx − dx = − − ln |cos (π − x)| + C
cos (π − x) 2
492 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

2 2
21. tan5 x2 dx = tan x2 · tan2 x2 dx = tan x2 · sec2 x2 − 1 dx = tan x2 · sec4 x2 − 2 sec2 x2 + 1 dx
sin x2
= sec3 x2 sec x2 tan x2 dx − 2 tan x2 · sec2 x2 dx + dx
cos x2
= 14 (2) sec4 x2 − 2 (2) 12 tan2 x2 − 2 ln cos x2 + C = 12 sec4 x2 − 2 tan2 x2 − ln cos2 x2 + C

2
22. tan5 x sec3 x dx = tan4 x sec2 x sec x tan x dx = sec2 x − 1 sec2 x sec x tan x dx

= sec6 x − 2 sec4 x + sec2 x sec x tan x dx = 17 sec7 x − 25 sec5 x + 13 sec3 x + C

23. I = sec2 (πx) tan3 (πx) dx. Let u = tan πx, so du = π sec2 πx dx. Then
1
I =π u 3 du = 41π u 4 + C = 41π tan4 (πx) + C.

π /4 π /4
24. 0 sec2 x tan2 x dx = 13 tan3 x = 13
0

25. sec4 3x tan2 3x dx = sec2 3x tan2 3x sec2 3x dx = 1 + tan2 3x tan2 3x sec2 3x dx

= tan2 3x + tan4 3x sec2 3x dx = 19 tan3 3x + 15

1 tan5 3x + C

26. I = sec4 (π − x) tan (π − x) dx. Let u = π − x, so du = −dx. Then

I = − sec4 u tan u du = − sec3 u (sec u tan u) du = − 14 sec4 u + C = − 14 sec4 (π − x) + C.

√
27. sec4 θ tan θ dθ = sec2 θ tan1/2 θ sec2 θ dθ = 1 + tan2 θ tan1/2 θ sec2 θ dθ

= tan1/2 θ + tan5/2 θ sec2 θ dθ = 23 tan3/2 θ + 27 tan7/2 θ + C

x x x dx
28. I = sec4 tan4 dx. Let u = , so du = . Then
2 2 2 2
I = 2 sec4 u tan4 u du = 2 sec2 u tan4 u sec2 u du = 2 1 + tan2 u tan4 u sec2 u du

=2 tan4 u + tan6 u sec2 u du = 2 15 tan5 u + 17 tan7 u + C = 25 tan5 x2 + 27 tan7 x2 + C

29. cot2 2x dx = csc2 2x − 1 dx = − 12 cot 2x − x + C

π /2 π /2 π /2 π /2
30. π/4 cot3 x dx = π/4 cot2 x cot x dx = π/4 csc2 x − 1 cot x dx = π/4 csc2 x cot x − cos x
sin x dx
π /2 √
= − 12 cot2 x − ln sin x = 0 − − 12 − ln 22 = 1 −2ln 2
π /4

31. csc3 x dx. Let u = csc x and dv = csc2 x dx, so du = − csc x cot x dx and v = − cot x. Then
csc3 x dx = uv − v du = − cot x csc x − cot2 x csc x dx = − cot x csc x − csc2 x − 1 csc x dx

= − cot x csc x − csc3 x dx + csc x dx ⇒

csc x + cot x csc2 x + csc x cot x
2 csc3 x dx = − cot x csc x + csc x · dx = − cot x csc x + dx
csc x + cot x csc x + cot x
= − cot x csc x − ln |csc x + cot x|
so csc3 x dx = − 12 (cot x csc x + ln |csc x + cot x|) + C.
 Section 7.2 Trigonometric Integrals 493

32. I = csc5 x dx. Let u = csc3 x and dv = csc2 x dx, so du = 3 csc2 x (− csc x cot x) dx = −3 csc3 x cot x dx and
v = − cot x. Then
I = uv − v du = − csc3 x cot x − 3 cot2 x csc3 x dx = − csc3 x cot x − 3 csc2 x − 1 csc3 x dx

= − csc3 x cot x − 3I + 3 csc3 x dx ⇒

4I = − csc3 x cot x + 3 − 12 (cot x csc x + ln |csc x + cot x|) (see Exercise 31). Therefore,

I = 14 − csc3 cot x − 32 (cot x csc x + ln |csc x + cot x|) + C.

33. csc4 t dt = csc2 t csc2 t dt = 1 + cot2 t csc2 t dt = csc2 t dt + cot2 t csc2 t dt = − cot t − 13 cot3 t + C

= − cot t + 13 cot3 t + C

34. csc4 θ cot4 θ dθ = csc2 θ cot4 θ csc2 θ dθ = cot4 θ csc2 θ + cot6 θ csc2 θ dθ = − 15 cot5 θ − 17 cot7 θ + C

35. cot6 t dt = cot4 t cot2 t dt = cot4 t csc2 t − 1 dt = − cot4 t dt + cot4 t csc2 t dt

=− cot2 t csc2 t − 1 dt − 15 cot5 t = − 15 cot5 t + 13 cot3 t + csc2 t − 1 dt

= − 15 cot5 t + 13 cot3 t − cot t − t + C

36. cot3 x csc4 x dx = cot3 x csc2 x csc2 x dx = cot3 x 1 + cot2 x csc2 x dx

= cot3 x csc2 x + cot5 x csc2 x dx = − 14 cot4 x − 16 cot6 x dx + C

π /4 dx π /4 π /4 π /4 π /4
37. 4
= sec4 x dx = sec2 x sec2 x dx = 1 + tan2 x sec2 x dx = tan x + 13 tan3 x
0 cos x 0 0 0 0

= 1 + 13 = 43

38. (1 + cot x)2 csc x dx = 1 + 2 cot x + cot2 x csc x dx = 1 + 2 cot x + csc2 x − 1 csc x dx

= 2 cot x csc x dx + csc3 x dx

= −2 csc x − 12 (cot x csc x + ln |csc x + cot x|) + C using the result of Exercise 31.
π /2 π /2 π /2
39. 0 sin x cos 2x dx = 12 0 [sin (1 − 2) x + sin (1 + 2) x] dx = 12 0 (− sin x + sin 3x) dx
π /2
= 12 cos x − 13 cos 3x = 12 0 − 23 = − 13
0

40. sin 3θ sin 4θ dθ = 12 [cos (3 − 4) θ − cos (3 + 4) θ] dθ = 12 (cos θ − cos 7θ) dθ = 12 sin θ − 14

1 sin 7θ + C

41. cos 2θ cos 4θ dθ = 12 [cos (2 − 4) θ + cos (2 + 4) θ] dθ = 12 (cos 2θ + cos 6θ) dθ = 14 sin 2θ + 12

1 sin 6θ + C

sin3 x
42. dx = sin2 x cos2 x sin x dx = 1 − cos2 x cos2 x sin x dx = cos2 x − cos4 x sin x dx
sec2 x
= − 13 cos3 x + 15 cos5 x + C

cos 2θ cos3 2θ
43. cos2 2θ cot 2θ dθ = cos2 2θ · dθ = dθ. Let u = sin 2θ, so du = 2 cos 2θ dθ. Then
sin 2θ sin 2θ

cos2 2θ 1 − sin2 2θ cos 2θ 1 1 − u 2 du

cos2 2θ cot 2θ dθ = · cos 2θ dθ = dθ =
sin 2θ sin 2θ 2 u
1 1 ln |u| u 2 ln |sin 2θ| sin2 2θ
= − u du = − +C = − +C
2 u 2 4 2 4
494 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

π /2 sin t
44. dt. Let u = 1 + cos t, so du = − sin t dt, t = 0 ⇒ u = 2, and t = π
2 ⇒ u = 1. Then
0 1 + cos t
π /2 sin t 1 du
dt = − = − ln u|12 = − ln 1 + ln 2 = ln 2.
0 1 + cos t 2 u

√ √
tan3 t sec2 t √ dt
45. √ dt. Let u = t = t 1/2 , so du = 12 t −1/2 dt = √ . Then
t 2 t
√ √
tan3 t sec2 t √
√ dt = 2 tan3 u sec2 u du = 2 14 tan4 u + C = 12 tan4 t + C.
t

dx sin2 x 1 − cos2 x sin x

46. = sin x · dx = dx. Let u = cos x, so du = − sin x dx. Then
csc x cot2 x cos2 x cos2 x
dx 1 − u2 1
2
=− 2
du = 1 − u −2 du = u + + C = cos x + sec x + C.
csc x cot x u u

1 − tan2 x 1 − sec2 x − 1 2 − sec2 x

47. dx = dx = dx = 2 cos2 x − 1 dx = cos 2x dx = 12 sin 2x + C
sec2 x sec2 x sec2 x

cos 2θ cos2 θ − sin2 θ (cos θ + sin θ) (cos θ − sin θ)

48. dθ = dθ = dθ = (cos θ − sin θ) dθ
cos θ + sin θ cos θ + sin θ cos θ + sin θ
= sin θ + cos θ + C

1 2π 1 2π 1 + cos 2x 1 sin 2x 2π 2π 1
49. f av = cos2 x dx = dx = x+ = =
2π − 0 0 2π 0 2 4π 2 0 4π 2

50. f av = π1−0 0π cos2 x sin3 x dx = π

1 π cos2 x sin2 x sin x dx = 1 π cos2 x 1 − cos2 x sin x dx
0 π 0
1 π cos2 x − cos4 x sin x dx = 1 − 1 cos3 x + 1 cos5 x π = 1
=π 1 − 1 − − 13 + 15 = 154π
0 π 3 5 0 π 3 5

1 1 1 − cos 2πx 1 sin 2πx 1 1

51. A = sin2 πx dx = dx = x− = y
0 0 2 2 2π 0 2
1

0 1 x

π /4
52. A = 0 cos4 x − sin4 x dx y

= 0
π /4
cos2 x + sin2 x cos2 x − sin2 x dx 1
y=cos$ x
π /4 π /4 y=sin$ x
= 0 cos 2x dx = 12 sin 2x = 12
0

0 ¹ 1 x
4
 Section 7.2 Trigonometric Integrals 495

53. a. Using a graphing utility we find the x-coordinates of the points of

1.0
intersection to be about ±0.835.

b. Taking advantage of symmetry and using the fact that g (x) ≥ f (x) on
0.5 [0, 0.835], we have
A ≈ 2 00.835 g (x) − f (x) dx = 2 00.835 1 − x 2 − sin4 x dx.
0.0 Using the result of Example 3, we have
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
1 sin 4x 0.835 ≈ 1.165.
A ≈ 2 x − 13 x 3 − 38 x + 14 sin 2x − 32
0

54. a. Using a graphing utility we find the x-coordinate of the point of

1.0
intersection to be about 0.244.

b. The required area is

0.5 √
A ≈ 00.244 f (x) − g (x) dx = 00.244 cos 2x cos 4x − x dx.
Using the result of Exercise 41, we find
0.0
A≈ 1 sin 2x + 1 sin 6x − 2 x 3/2 0.244 ≈ 0.120.
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 4 12 3 0

π /4 π /4
55. V = π ab y 2 dx = π 0 tan4 x dx = π 0 tan2 x tan2 x dx y
π /4 π /4 1
=π 0 tan2 x sec2 x − 1 dx = π 0 tan2 x sec2 x − tan2 x dx
π /4 π /4
=π 0 tan2 x sec2 x − sec2 x + 1 dx = π 13 tan3 x − tan x + x
0 0 ¹/4 x
1 π π (3π − 8)
=π 3 −1+ 4 =
12

56. V = 2π 0π x y dx = 2π 0π x sin3 x dx. Let u = x and dv = sin3 x dx, y

so du = dx and
1
v= sin3 x dx = 1 − cos2 x sin x dx = − cos x + 13 cos3 x. Then
π
V = 2πx − cos x + 13 cos3 x − 2π 0π − cos x + 13 cos3 x dx ¹
0
0 1 2 3 x
= 2π 2 1 − 13 + 2π 0π cos x − 13 1 − sin2 x cos x dx
π
= 43 π 2 + 2π sin x − 13 sin x + 19 sin3 x = 43 π 2
0

π /2 π /2 1 π /2 π /2
57. A = 0 cos x dx = sin x|0 = 1. x = A 0 x cos x dx = 0 x cos x dx. Let u = x and dv = cos x dx,
π /2 π /2 π /2
so du = dx and v = sin x. Then x = x sin x|0 − 0 sin x dx = π 2 + [cos x]0 = π 1
2 − 1 = 2 (π − 2).

y= A 1 π /2 1 cos2 x dx = 1 π/2 (1 + cos 2x) dx = 1 x + 1 sin 2x π /2 = π , so the centroid is 1 (π − 2) , π .

0 2 4 0 4 2 0 8 2 8
496 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

π /2 π /2
2 x2 π π 4−π
58. A = cos x − 1 − x dx = sin x − x + =1− + =
0 π π 2 4 4
0
π /2
1 π/2 2 4 x2 2x 3
x = x cos x − 1 + x dx = x sin x + cos x − +
A 0 π 4−π 2 3π
0
4 π π2 π2 12π − π2 − 24
= − + −1 = ≈ 0.744
4−π 2 8 12 6 (4 − π)

1 π/2 1 2x 2 2 π/2 1 + cos 2x 2x 2

y= cos2 x − 1 − dx = − 1− dx
A 0 2 π 4−π 0 2 π
π /2
2 x sin 2x π 1 2x 3 2 π π π
= + − − 1− = − ·1 = ≈ 0.610
4−π 2 4 2 3 π 4−π 4 6 6 (4 − π)
0
The centroid is roughly (0.744, 0.610).

59. The distance traveled by the particle is d = 06 |v (t)| dt = 06 sin3 πt dt = 6 01 sin3 πt dt.
Let u = πt, so du = π dt, t = 0 ⇒ u = 0, and t = 1 ⇒ u = π. Then
6 π sin3 u du = 6 1 cos3 u − cos u π (see Exercise 5) = 6
d= π − 13 + 1 − 13 − 1 8 . The position
= π
0 π 3 0 π

of the particle at time t is x (t) = v (t) dt = 1 1 cos3 πt − cos πt + C and x (0) = 0

sin3 πt dt = π 3
1 1 − 1 + C = 0 ⇒ C = 2 . Thus, x (t) = 1 1 cos3 πt − cos πt + 2 . At t = 6, its position is
⇒ π 3 3π π 3 3
1 1 cos3 6π − cos 6π + 2 = 0; that is, it is at the origin.
x (6) = π 3 3

π /2 2x 2
60. V = 2 π (sin x)2 − dx y
2
0 π y=¹ x
1
π /2 1 − cos 2x 4 y=sin x
= 2π − 2 x 2 dx ¹
0 2 π _2
π /2 _2 _1 0 1 ¹ x
x sin 2x 4x 3 2
= 2π − −
2 4 3π2 _1
0
π 4 π3 π2
= 2π − · =
4 3π 2 8 6

b π /4 sin x 2 y
61. V = π y 2 dx = π dx
a 0 cos3 x
π /4 2 π /4 2
=π 0 tan x sec2 x dx = π 0 tan2 x sec4 x dx
π /4
=π 0 tan2 x sec2 x sec2 x dx 1

π /4
=π 0 tan2 x 1 + tan2 x sec2 x dx
π /4 0 ¹/4 1 x
=π 0 tan2 x + tan4 x sec2 x dx

Let u = tan x, so du = sec2 x dx. If x = 0, then u = 0 and if x = π

4 , then u = 1, so
1
V = π 01 u 2 + u 4 du = π 13 u 3 + 15 u 5 π.
= 815
0
 Section 7.2 Trigonometric Integrals 497

62. Let x (t) denote the runner’s position at time t. Then x (t) = v (t) dt = π t cos2 π t dt. Let u = π t, so
5 + 100 sin2 16 16 16
π dt ⇔ dt = 16 du. Then
du = 16 π
2
x (t) = 16
π 5 + 100 sin2 u cos2 u du = 16
π 5 + 100 (sin u cos u)2 du = 16
π 5 + 100 12 sin 2u du

= 16
π 5 + 25 sin2 2u du = 16
π 5 + 25 16 35 u − 25 sin 4u + C
2 (1 − cos 4u) du = π 2 8

= 352 t − 50 πt
π sin 4 + C
x (0) = 0 ⇒ C = 0, so her position as measured from the marker is x (t) = 352 t − 50 πt
π sin 4 .

1 π /ω ω π/ω ω I0 1 π /ω I
63. Iav = I (t) dt = I0 cos (ωt + α) dt = · sin (ωt + α) = 0 [sin (π + α) − sin α]
π/ω − 0 0 π 0 π ω 0 π
2I0 sin α
=−
π

64. The average value is

T
1 T 2πt 2 E 2 T 2 2πt E2 T 4πt E 02 T 4πt
A= E 0 sin dt = 0 sin dt = 0 1 − cos dt = t− sin
T −0 0 T T 0 T 2T 0 T 2T 4π T
0
E 02 E 02
= ·T =
2T 2

T 2πt T T1 2πt
65. Q = 0.24R I 2 dt = 0.24R I02 sin2
− φ dt = 0.24R I02 1 − cos 2 −φ dt
0 0 T 0 2 T
T 2πt T T
= 0.12R I02 t − sin 2 −φ = 0.12R I02 T − [sin (2 (2π − φ)) − sin (−2φ)] = 0.12R I02 T
4π T 0 4π

d π 2 20 2
66. y = sin π π π π
2 t = 2 cos 2 t, so ds = 1 + 2 cos 2 t dt. Therefore, the length is L = 0 1 + π4 cos2 π
2 t dt.
dt
Using a calculator or computer, we find L ≈ 29.2739.

2
67. a. V = π 02 f (x) dx = π 02 e−2x sin2 π
2 x dx. Using a calculator
or computer, we find V ≈ 0.55.
0.4
b. V = 2π 02 x y dx = 2π 02 xe−x sin π
2 x dx. Using a calculator or
computer, we find V ≈ 2.63. 0.2

0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

68. The distance is d = 060 |v (t)| dt = 060 5 + 100 sin2 16

π t cos2 π t
16 dt. Using a calculator or computer, we find
d = 1050 ft.

π
69. I = −π sin mx cos nx dx. Let f (x) = sin mx cos nx. Since
f (−x) = sin (−mx) cos (−nx) = − sin mx cos nx = − f (x), f is an odd function, and so −ππ f (x) dx = 0.
498 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

70. I = −ππ sin mx sin nx dx = 12 −ππ [cos (m − n) x − cos (m + n) x] dx. If m = n, then

π
I = 12 −ππ (1 − cos 2mx) dx = 1 x − 1 sin 2mx
2 4m = π, and if m = n, then
−π
1 1 1 π
I = sin (m − n) x − sin (m + n) x
2 m −n m+n −π
1 sin (m − n) π sin (m + n) π sin (m − n) π sin (m + n) π
= − + +
2 m−n m+n m −n m+n
1
= sin (m − n) π = 0 because m − n is an integer.
m−n

71. I = −ππ cos mx cos nx dx = 12 −ππ [cos (m − n) x + cos (m + n) x] dx. If m = n, then

π
I = 12 −ππ (1 + cos 2mx) dx = 1 x + 1 sin 2mx
2 2m = π, and if m = n, then
−π
1 1 1 π
I = sin (m − n) x + sin (m + n) x
2 m −n m+n −π
1 sin (m − n) π sin (m + n) π sin (m − n) π sin (m + n) π
= + + +
2 m−n m+n m −n m+n
1 1
= sin (m − n) π + sin (m + n) π = 0 because m − n is an integer.
m−n m+n

π π π n π
a a0 n ak bk
72. f (x) dx = 0 dx + (ak cos kx + bk sin kx) dx = · 2π + sin kx − cos kx = πa0 ,
−π 2 −π −π k=1 2 k=1 k k
−π
1 π f (x) dx. Next, using the results of Exercises 69 and 71, we have
and so a0 = π −π
π a π π n
f (x) cos kx dx = 0 cos kx dx + am cos kx cos mx + bm cos kx sin mx dx
−π 2 −π −π m=1
a π n n
= 0 sin kx + am −ππ cos kx cos mx dx + bm −ππ cos kx sin mx dx = 0 + πak
2k −π m=1 m=1
1 π f (x) cos kx dx. Using the results of Exercises 69 and 70, we have
so ak = π −π
π a π π n
f (x) sin kx dx = 0 sin kx dx + am sin kx cos mx + bm sin kx sin nx dx
−π 2 −π −π m=1
a π n n
= − 0 cos kx + am −ππ sin kx cos mx dx + bm −ππ sin kx sin mx dx = 0 + πbk
2k −π m=1 m=1
1 π f (x) sin kx dx.
so bk = π −π

7.3 Concept Questions

1. See pages 627 and 628.

2. We use the technique of completing the square in x to rewrite the integrand in one of the forms in Exercise 1. Then find the
resulting integral using an appropriate trigonometric substitution.
 Section 7.3 Trigonometric Substitutions 499

7.3 Trigonometric Substitutions

x dx
1. . Let u = 9 − x 2 , so du = −2x dx. Then
9 − x2
x dx 1 du 1
=− =− u −1/2 du = −u 1/2 + C = − 9 − x 2 + C.
9 − x2 2 u 1/2 2

4 − x2
2. dx. Let x = 2 sin θ, so dx = 2 cos θ dθ and
x2
4 − x2 = 4 − 4 sin2 θ = 2 cos θ. Then 2
x

4 − x2 (2 cos θ) (2 cos θ) dθ ¬
dx = = cot2 θ dθ = csc2 θ − 1 dθ Ï4-x@
x2 4 sin2 θ
4 − x2 x
= (− cot θ − θ) + C = − − sin−1 + C
x 2

3. x 4 − x 2 dx. Let x = 2 sin θ, so dx = 2 cos θ dθ and

2
x
4 − x2 = 4 − 4 sin2 θ = 2 cos θ. Then
¬
x 4 − x 2 dx = (2 sin θ) (2 cos θ) (2 cos θ) dθ = 8 cos2 θ sin θdθ Ï4-x@

3/2
3 4 − x2
8 cos3 θ 8 4 − x2
=− +C =− +C = − +C
3 3 2 3

Note that the problem can be solved more easily using the substitution u = 4 − x 2 .

dx
4. . Let x = sin θ, so dx = cos θ dθ and 1 − x2 = 1 − sin2 θ = cos θ.
x2 1 − x2 1
x
Then ¬
dx cos θ dθ 1 − x2 Ï1-x@
= = csc2 θ dθ = − cot θ + C = − + C.
x2 1 − x2 sin2 θ cos θ x

dx
5. . Let x = 2 tan θ, so dx = 2 sec2 θ dθ and
x 4 + x2
4 + x2 = 4 + 4 tan2 θ = 2 1 + tan2 θ = 2 sec θ. Then Ï4+x@
x
dx 2 sec2 θ dθ 1 1 csc θ (csc θ + cot θ) ¬
= = csc θ dθ = dθ
x 4 + x2 (2 tan θ) (2 sec θ) 2 2 csc θ + cot θ 2
1 csc2 θ + csc θ cot θ 1
= dθ = − ln |csc θ + cot θ| + C
2 csc θ + cot θ 2
1 4 + x2 2 1 4 + x2 + 2
= − ln + + C = − ln +C
2 x x 2 x
500 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

6. x 3 1 + x 2 dx. Let x = tan θ, so dx = sec2 θ dθ and 1 + x2 = 1 + tan2 θ = sec θ.

Then
Ï1+x@
x 3 1 + x 2 dx = tan3 θ sec θ sec2 θ dθ = tan2 θ sec2 θ (sec θ tan θ dθ) x
¬
= sec2 θ − 1 sec2 θ (sec θ tan θ dθ) 1

= sec4 θ − sec2 θ (sec θ tan θ) dθ = 15 sec5 θ − 13 sec3 θ + C

1 sec3 θ 3 sec2 θ − 5 + C = 1 1 + x 2 3/2 3x 2 − 2 + C

= 15 15

Note that the problem can also be solved using the substitution u = 1 + x 2 .

dx
7. . Let x = 2 tan θ, so dx = 2 sec2 θ dθ and
x2 x2 + 4
Ïx@+4
x2 + 4 = 4 tan2 θ + 4 = 2 tan2 θ + 1 = 2 sec θ. Then x
dx 2 sec2 θ dθ 1 sec θ 1 ¬
= = dθ = (sin θ)−2 cos θ dθ 2
x2 x2 + 4 4 tan2 θ (2 sec θ) 4 tan2 θ 4
1 x2 + 4
=− +C =− +C
4 sin θ 4x

dx
8. . Let x = 2 sec θ, so dx = 2 sec θ tan θ dθ and
x3 x2 − 4
x2 − 4 = 4 sec2 θ − 4 = 2 sec2 θ − 1 = 2 tan θ. Then
x
dx 2 sec θ tan θ dθ 1 1 1 + cos 2θ Ïx@-4
= = cos2 θ dθ = dθ
x3 x2 − 4 8 sec3 θ (2 tan θ) 8 8 2 ¬
2
1 θ + 1 sin 2θ + C = 1 (θ + sin θ cos θ) + C
= 16 2 16

1 x x2 − 4 2
= sec−1 + · +C
16 2 x x

1 x 2 x2 − 4
= sec−1 + +C
16 2 x2

9. x 3 1 − x 2 dx. Let x = sin θ, so dx = cos θ dθ and 1 − x2 = 1 − sin2 θ = cos θ.

Then
1
x 3 1 − x 2 dx = sin3 θ cos θ cos θ dθ = sin2 θ cos2 θ sin θ dθ x
¬
= 1 − cos2 θ cos2 θ sin θ dθ = cos2 θ − cos4 θ sin θ dθ
Ï1-x@
= − 13 cos3 θ + 15 cos5 θ + C = − 15
1 cos3 θ 5 − 3 cos2 θ + C

1 1 − x2 3/2 1 3x 2 + 2 3/2
= − 15 5 − 3 1 − x2 + C = − 15 1 − x2 +C

Note that the problem can also be solved using the substitution u = 1 − x 2 .
 Section 7.3 Trigonometric Substitutions 501

10. x 3 4 − x 2 dx. Let x = 2 sin θ, so dx = 2 cos θ dθ and

4 − x2 = 4 − 4 sin2 θ = 2 cos θ. Then 2

x
x 3 4 − x 2 dx = (2 sin θ)3 (2 cos θ) (2 cos θ dθ) = 32 sin3 θ cos2 θ dθ ¬
Ï4-x@
= 32 sin2 θ cos2 θ sin θ dθ = 32 1 − cos2 θ cos2 θ sin θ dθ

= 32 cos2 θ − cos4 θ sin θ dθ = 32 − 13 cos3 θ + 15 cos5 θ + C = − 32 3

15 cos θ 5 − 3 cos2 θ + C
3/2
32 4 − x2 4 − x2 3/2
=− · · 5−3· 1 3x 2 + 8
+ C = − 15 4 − x2 +C
15 8 4

Note that the problem can also be solved using the substitution u = 4 − x 2 .

x 3 dx
11. . Let x = 3 tan θ, so dx = 3 sec2 θ dθ and Ïx@+9
x2 + 9 x
x2 + 9 = 9 tan2 θ + 9 = 3 tan2 θ + 1 = 3 sec2 θ. Then ¬
3
x 3 dx (3 tan θ)3 3 sec2 θ dθ
= = 27 tan3 θ sec θ dθ
x2 + 9 3 sec θ

= 27 tan2 θ sec θ tan θ dθ = 27 sec2 θ − 1 sec θ tan θ dθ = 27 13 sec3 θ − sec θ + C

x2 + 9 x2 + 9
= 9 sec θ sec2 θ − 3 + C = 9 − 3 + C = 13 x 2 − 18 x2 + 9 + C
3 9

Note that the problem can also be solved using the substitution u = x 2 + 9.

3/4 x 2 dx
12. I = . Let u = 2x, so du = 2 dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 0, and x = 34 ⇒ u = 32 . Then
0 9 − 4x 2
1u 2 1 du
3/4 x 2 dx 3/2 2 1 3/2 u 2 du
2
= =. Now let u = 3 sin θ, so du = 3 cos θ dθ. Then
0 9 − 4x 2 0 9 − u2 8 0 9 − u2
√
9 − u 2 = 9 − 9 sin2 θ = 3 1 − sin2 θ = 3 cos2 θ = 3 cos θ, u = 0 ⇒ θ = 0, and u = 32 ⇒ 3 sin θ = 32 ⇒ θ = π
6.
Thus,
1 3/2 u 2 du 1 π/6 (3 sin θ)2 (3 cos θ dθ) 9 π/6 9 π/6 1 − cos 2θ
I = = = sin 2 θ dθ = dθ
8 0 9 − u2 8 0 3 cos θ 8 0 8 0 2
√
9 θ − 1 sin 2θ π /6 = 9 π − 3 = 3 2π − 3 3
√
= 16 2 16 6 4 64
0

dx
13. . Let x = 3 sec θ, so dx = 3 sec θ tan θ dθ and
x2 − 9
3/2 x
Ïx@-9

x2 − 9 = 9 sec2 θ − 9 = 3 sec2 θ − 1 = 3 tan θ. Then ¬

3
dx 3 sec θ tan θ dθ 1 sec θ
3/2
= = dθ
x2 − 9 (3 tan θ)3 9 tan2 θ
1
1 cos θ dθ = 1 1 x
= 9 sin−2 θ cos θ dθ = − +C =− + C.
9 sin2 θ 9 sin θ 9 x2 − 9
cos2 θ
502 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

3/2
14. 4 − x2 dx. Let x = 2 sin θ, so dx = 2 cos θ dθ and
2
x
4 − x2 = 4 − 4 sin2 θ = 2 1 − sin2 θ = 2 cos θ. Then ¬
3/2 2 Ï4-x@
4 − x2 dx = (2 cos θ)3 (2 cos θ dθ) = 16 cos4 θ dθ = 16 cos2 θ dθ

1 + cos 2θ 2
= 16 dθ = 4 1 + 2 cos 2θ + cos2 2θ dθ
2
1 + cos 4θ 3 + 2 cos 2θ + 1 cos 4θ dθ
=4 1 + 2 cos 2θ + dθ = 4 2 2
2
= 4 32 θ + sin 2θ + 18 sin 4θ + C = 12 [12θ + 8 (2 sin θ cos θ) + 2 sin 2θ cos 2θ] + C

= 12 12θ + 16 sin θ cos θ + (4 sin θ cos θ) cos2 θ − sin2 θ + C = 12 12θ + 20 sin θ cos θ − 8 sin3 θ cos θ + C
3 1
= 6 sin−1 12 x + 10 12 x 1
2 4 − x 2 − 4 12 x 2 4−x
2 + C = 6 sin−1 1 x + 1 x 10 − x 2
2 4 4 − x2 + C

16x 2 − 9 16x 2 − 9 u2 − 9
15. dx. Let u = 4x, so du = 4 dx. Then dx = du.
x x u u
Ïu@-9
Next, let u = 3 sec θ, so du = 3 sec θ tan θ dθ and
¬
u2 − 9 = 9 sec2 θ − 9 = 3 sec2 θ − 1 = 3 tan θ. Then 3

u2 − 9 (3 tan θ) (3 sec θ tan θ)

du = dθ = 3 tan2 θ dθ = 3 sec2 θ − 1 dθ = 3 (tan θ − θ) + C
u 3 sec θ
= 3 13 u 2 − 9 − sec 13 u +C = 16x 2 − 9 − 3 sec−1 43 x + C

x 2 dx √ √
16. . Let x = 3 sin θ, so that dx = 3 cos θ dθ and
3 − x2
Ï3
√ x
3 − x2 = 3 − 3 sin2 θ = 3 cos θ. Then
¬
√ 2 √
3 sin θ 3 cos θ dθ Ï3-x@
x 2 dx
= √ = 3 sin2 θ dθ
3 − x2 3 cos θ
1 − cos 2θ
=3 dθ = 32 θ − 12 sin 2θ + C = 32 θ − 32 sin θ cos θ + C
2
√ √ √ √
= 32 sin−1 3 − 32 3 3 3 − x 2 + C = 32 sin−1 3 − 12 x 3 − x 2 + C
3 x 3 x 3 3 x

1 − x2
17. dx. Let x = sin θ, so dx = cos θ dθ and 1 − x2 = 1 − sin2 θ = cos θ.
x4
Then 1
x
1 − x2 cos θ (cos θ dθ)
dx = = cot2 θ csc2 θ dθ = − 13 cot3 θ + C ¬
x4 sin4 θ
Ï1-x@
3/2
3 1 − x2
1 1 − x2
=− +C =− +C
3 x 3x 3
 Section 7.3 Trigonometric Substitutions 503

9x 2 + 4
18. I = dx. Let u = 3x, so du = 3 dx. Then
x4 Ïu@+4
u
9x 2 + 4 u 2 + 4 du u2 + 4 ¬
dx = = 27 du. Next, let u = 2 tan θ, so
x4 1u 4 3 u4 2
3

du = 2 sec2 θ dθ and u2 + 4 = 4 tan2 θ + 4 = 2 sec θ. Then

(2 sec θ) 2 sec2 θ dθ 27 sec3 θ

I = 27 = dθ = 27
4 sin
−4 θ cos θ dθ = 27 − 1 sin−3 θ + C
4 3
(2 tan θ)4 4 tan4 θ
3/2 3/2
3 2 2
9 u2 + 4 9 u +4 9 9x + 4
= − 94 csc3 θ + C = − +C =− +C =− +C
4 u 4 u3 4 (3x)3
3/2
9x 2 + 4 9x 2 + 4
so dx = − + C.
x4 12x 3

1 du
dx 3 du
19. I = . Let u = 3x, so du = 3 dx. Then I = = .
x 9x 2 + 4 1 u u2 + 4 u u2 + 4
3 Ïu@+4
u
Next, let u = 2 tan θ, so du = 2 sec2 θ dθ and u2 + 4 = 4 tan2 θ + 4 = 2 sec θ. Then ¬
2

2 sec2 θ dθ 1 sec θ 1 1 csc θ (csc θ + cot θ)

I = = dθ = csc θ dθ = dθ
(2 tan θ) (2 sec θ) 2 tan θ 2 2 csc θ + cot θ
1 1 u2 + 4 2
= − ln |csc θ + cot θ| + D = − ln + +D
2 2 u u

dx 1 9x 2 + 4 + 2 1 9x 2 + 4 + 2
Therefore, = − ln + D = − ln + C.
2
x 9x + 4 2 3x 2 x

dx
20. I = 2
. Let x = 3 tan θ, so dx = 3 sec2 θ dθ and
9 + x2 Ï9+x@
x
9 + x2 = 9 + 9 tan2 θ = 3 sec θ. Then ¬
3 sec2 θ dθ 1 dθ 1 3
I = = = cos2 θ dθ
(3 sec θ)4 27 sec2 θ 27
1 1 + cos 2θ 1 1 θ + 1 sin 2θ + C = 1 1 θ + 1 sin θ cos θ + C
= dθ = 27 2 4 27 2 2
27 2
1 x 1 x 3 1 x x
= tan−1 + +C = tan−1 + +C
54 3 54 9 + x2 9 + x2 54 3 18 9 + x 2

√ √
3
21. I = √ 4 − x 2 dx = 2 0 3 4 − x 2 dx. Let x = 2 sin θ, so dx = 2 cos θ dθ, 4 − x2 = 4 − 4 sin2 θ = 2 cos θ,
− 3
√
x = 0 ⇒ θ = 0, and x = 3 ⇒ θ = π3 . Then
π /3 π /3 π /3 π /3
I =2 0 (2 cos θ) (2 cos θ) dθ = 8 0 cos2 θ dθ = 4 0 (1 + cos 2θ) dθ = 4 θ + 12 sin 2θ
0
√
=4 π 3 = 1 4π + 3√3
3 + 4 3
504 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

4 x2 − 4
22. I = dx. Let x = 2 sec θ, so dx = 2 sec θ tan θ dθ,
2 x4
x2 − 4 = 4 sec2 θ − 4 = 2 tan θ, x = 2 ⇒ θ = 0, and x = 4 ⇒ θ = π
3 . Then
4 x2 − 4 π /3 2 tan θ (2 sec θ tan θ dθ) √ 3 √
I = dx =
π /3 1 sin3 θ π /3 = 1
= 14 0 sin2 θ cos θ dθ = 12 3 = 323 .
x 4 4 12 2
2 0 (2 sec θ) 0

√
3 dx
23. I = 3/2
. Let x = tan θ, so dx = sec2 θ dθ, 1 + x2 = 1 + tan2 θ = sec θ, x = 1 ⇒ θ = π
4 , and
1 1 + x2
√ π/3 sec2 θ √ √ √ √
π /3 π /3
x= 3⇒θ= π
3 . Then I = dθ = π/4 cos θ dθ = sin θ|π/4 = 23 − 22 = 12 3− 2 .
π /4 sec3 θ

2x + 3 x dx dx
24. I = dx = 2 +3 . To evaluate the first integral, let u = 1 − x 2 , so du = −2x dx. Then
1 − x2 1 − x2 1 − x2
x dx dx
= − 12 u −1/2 du = −u 1/2 + C = − 1 − x 2 + C. The second integral is = sin−1 x + C, so
1 − x2 1 − x2
2x + 3
dx = −2 1 − x 2 + 3 sin−1 x + C = 3 sin−1 x − 2 1 − x 2 + C.
1 − x2

25. I = e x 4 − e2x dx. Let u = e x , so du = e x dx. Then I = 4 − u 2 du. Next, let u = 2 sin θ, so du = 2 cos θ dθ and
4 − u2 = 4 − 4 sin2 θ = 2 1 − sin2 θ = 2 cos θ. Then
1 + cos 2θ
I = (2 cos θ) (2 cos θ dθ) = 4 cos2 θ dθ = 4 dθ = 2θ + sin 2θ + C = 2θ + 2 sin θ cos θ + C
2
= 2 sin−1 12 u + 12 u 12 4 − u 2 +C

Therefore, e x 4 − e2x dx = 2 sin−1 12 e x + 12 e x 4 − e2x + C.

26. I = et 1 + e2t dt. Let u = et , so du = et dt. Then I = 1 + u 2 du. Next, let

u = tan θ, so du = sec2 θ dθ and 1 + u2 = 1 + tan2 θ = sec θ. Then

Ï1+u@
I = sec θ sec2 θ dθ = sec3 θ dθ u
¬
= 12 sec θ tan θ + 12 ln |sec θ + tan θ| + C (see Example 5 in Section 7.1) 1

= 12 1 + u 2 u + 12 ln 1 + u2 + u + C

Thus, et 1 + e2t dt = 12 et 1 + e2t + ln 1 + e2t + et + C.

√
3/2 dx
27. I = . Let x = sin θ, so dx = cos θ dθ, 1 − x2 = 1 − sin2 θ = cos θ, x = 12 ⇒ θ = π
6 , and
1/2 x 1 − x2
√
x = 23 ⇒ θ = π 3 . Then
π /3 cos θ dθ π /3 π/3 csc θ (csc θ + cot θ) dθ
π /3
I = = csc θ dθ = = (− ln |csc θ + cot θ|)|π/6
π /6 sin θ cos θ csc θ + cot θ
π /6 π /6
√ √ √ √ √ √
= − ln 2 3 3 + 33 + ln 2 + 3 = − ln 3 + ln 2 + 3 = ln 2 33+3
 Section 7.3 Trigonometric Substitutions 505

28. I = 4x − x 2 dx. Observe that

4x − x 2 = − x 2 − 4x = − x 2 − 4x + (−2)2 + 4 = 4 − (x − 2)2 , so 2
u
¬
I = 4 − (x − 2)2 dx. Let u = x − 2, so du = dx. Then I = 4 − u 2 du. Next, let
Ï4-u@
u = 2 sin θ, so du = 2 cos θdθ and 4 − u2 = 4 − 4 sin2 θ = 2 cos θ. Then
1 + cos 2θ
I = (2 cos θ) (2 cos θ dθ) = 4 cos2 θ dθ = 4 dθ = 2θ + sin 2θ + C = 2θ + 2 sin θ cos θ + C
2
x −2 x −2
= 2 sin−1 12 u + 12 u 1
2 4 − u2 + C = 2 sin−1 + 4x − x 2 + C
2 2

dt
29. I = . Observe that 2t − t 2 = − t 2 − 2t = − t 2 − 2t + (−1)2 + 1 = 1 − (t − 1)2 , so
2t − t 2
dt du
I = . Let u = t − 1, so du = dt. Then I = = sin−1 u + C = sin−1 (t − 1) + C.
1 − (t − 1)2 1 − u2

t 2 dt
30. I = . Observe that
4t − t 2
2
4t − t 2 = − t 2 − 4t = − t 2 − 4t + (−2)2 + 4 = 4 − (t − 2)2 , so u
¬
t 2 dt Ï4-u@
I = . Let u = t − 2, so du = dt. Then
4 − (t − 2)2
(u + 2)2 u 2 + 4u + 4 u du u2 + 4
I = du = du = 4 + du. Now
4 − u2 4 − u2 4 − u2 4 − u2
u du −1/2
4 = 4 u 4 − u2 du = −4 4 − u 2 + C1 using the substitution v = 4 − u 2 . To evaluate the other
4 − u2
integral, let u = 2 sin θ, so du = 2 cos θ dθ and 4 − u2 = 4 − 4 sin2 θ = 2 cos θ. Then

u2 + 4 4 sin2 θ + 4 (2 cos θ dθ) 1 − cos 2θ

du = =4 1 + sin2 θ dθ = 4 1+ dθ
4 − u2 2 cos θ 2

= (6 − 2 cos 2θ) dθ = 6θ − sin 2θ + C2 = 6θ − 2 sin θ cos θ + C2

= 6 sin−1 12 u − 2 12 u 1
2 4 − u 2 + C2
Therefore,
I = −4 4 − u 2 + 6 sin−1 12 u − 12 u 4 − u 2 = 6 sin−1 12 u − 12 (8 + u) 4 − u 2 + C
t −2 t +6
= 6 sin−1 − 4t − t 2 + C
2 2
506 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

dx
31. I = 2
. Observe that
x 2 + 4x + 8
Ï4+u@
dx u
x 2 + 4x + 8 = x 2 + 4x + 22 + 8 − 4 = 4 + (x + 2)2 , so I = 2
. Let
4 + (x + 2)2 ¬
2
du
u = x + 2, so du = dx. Then I = 2
. Next, let u = 2 tan θ, so du = 2 sec2 θ dθ
4 + u2
and 4 + u 2 = 4 + 4 tan2 θ = 4 sec2 θ. Then
2 sec2 θ dθ 1 dθ 1 1 1 + cos 2θ 1 θ + 1 sin 2θ + C
I = 2
= = cos2 θ dθ = dθ = 16 2
4 sec2 θ 8 sec2 θ 8 8 2

1 θ + 1 sin θ cos θ + C = 1 tan−1 u + 1

= 16
u 2
+C =
1
tan−1
u
+
u
+C
16 16 2 16 16 2 8 4 + u2
4 + u2 4 + u2
1 x +2 x +2
Therefore, I = tan−1 + + C.
16 2 8 x 2 + 4x + 8

dx
32. I = 5/2
. Observe that
3 − 2x − x 2
2
3 − 2x − x 2 = − x 2 + 2x + 3 = − x 2 + 2x + 1 + 3 + 1 = 4 − (x + 1)2 , so u
¬
dx du
I = . Let u = x + 1, so du = dx. Then I = . Now let Ï4-u@
5/2 5/2
4 − (x + 1)2 4 − u2

u = 2 sin θ, so du = 2 cos θdθ and 4 − u2 = 4 − 4 sin2 θ = 2 cos θ. Then

2 cos θ dθ 1 sec4 θ dθ = 1 1
I = = 16 16 sec2 θ sec2 θ dθ = 16 1 + tan2 θ sec2 θ dθ
(2 cos θ)5
1 tan θ + 1 tan3 θ + C = 1 tan θ 1 + 1 tan2 θ + C
= 16 3 16 3

1 u u2 1 u 12 − 3u 2 + u 2 u 6 − u2
= 1+ +C = + C = 3/2
+C
16 4 − u2 3 4 − u2 16 4 − u2 3 4 − u
2
24 4 − u 2
(x + 1) 5 − 2x − x 2
Therefore, I = 3/2
+ C.
24 3 − 2x − x 2

√
2 dx
33. The required area is A = . Let x = 2 sin θ, so dx = 2 cos θ dθ, 4 − x2 = 4 − 4 sin2 θ = 2 cos θ,
1 x 4 − x2
√ √
x = 1 ⇒ 2 sin θ = 1 ⇒ sin θ = 12 ⇒ θ = π π
6 , and x = 2 ⇒ 2 sin θ = 2 ⇒ θ = 4 . Then
π /4 2 cos θ dθ 1 π/4 1 π/4 csc θ (csc θ + cot θ) π /4
A= = csc θ dθ = dθ = − 12 ln (csc θ + cot θ)
π /6 (2 sin θ) (2 cos θ) 2 π/6 2 π /6 csc θ + cot θ π /6
√ √ √
1
= − 2 ln 2 + 1 − ln 2 + 3 = − 2 ln √1 2+ 1
3+2
 Section 7.3 Trigonometric Substitutions 507

34. The region is shown in the first figure at right. Solving the given equation y
x=5
8
for y, we obtain 16x 2 − 9y 2 = 144 ⇔ 9y 2 = 16x 2 − 144 = 16 x 2 − 9
4
⇔ y = ± 43 x 2 − 9. Using symmetry, we see that the required area is
0 2 4 6 x
A = 2 35 34 x 2 − 9 dx = 83 35 x 2 − 9 dx. Let x = 3 sec θ, so _4

dx = 3 sec θ tan θ dθ and x2 − 9 = 9 sec2 θ − 9 = 3 tan θ. Then _8

x 2 − 9 dx = (3 tan θ) (3 sec θ tan θ dθ) = 9 tan2 θ sec θ dθ

=9 sec2 θ − 1 sec θ dθ = 9 sec3 θ − sec θ dθ

= 9 sec3 θ dθ − 9 sec θ dθ

But sec3 θ dθ = 12 (sec θ tan θ + ln |sec θ + tan θ|) + C (see Example 5 x

Ïx@-9
in Section 7.1) and ¬
sec θ (sec θ + tan θ) 3
sec θ dθ = dθ = ln |sec θ + tan θ| + D.
sec θ + tan θ
Therefore,

x 2 − 9 dx = 9 12 (sec θ tan θ + ln |sec θ + tan θ|) − ln |sec θ + tan θ| + C

9 x x2 − 9 x x2 − 9
= 92 (sec θ tan θ − ln |sec θ + tan θ|) + C = − ln +
2 3 3 3 3
Finally,
5
8 5 2 8 9 x x2 − 9 x + x2 − 9
A= x − 9 dx = · − ln
3 3 3 2 9 3
3
= 12 5 · 4 − ln 5 + 4 − [0 − ln 1] = 43 (20 − 9 ln 3)
9 3

x2 y2
35. Solving 2 + 2 = 1 for y in terms of x gives y
a b b
y= a Ïa@-x@
b
x2 b2 b
y 2 = b2 1 − 2 = 2 a2 − x 2 ⇔ y = ± a 2 − x 2 . The average
a a a
_a 0 a x
value of the positive y-coordinates of the ellipse is
1 a 1 b a 2b a 2
yav = y dx = · a 2 − x 2 dx = a − x 2 dx. Let x = a sin θ, so
a − (−a) −a 2a a −a 2a 2 0
dx = a cos θ dθ, a 2 − a 2 sin2 θ = a cos θ, x = 0 ⇒ θ = 0, and x = a ⇒ θ = π
a2 − x 2 = 2 . Then
b π/2 π /2 π /2 1 + cos 2θ π /2
yav = 2 (a cos θ) (a cos θ dθ) = b cos2 θ dθ = b dθ = 12 b θ + 12 sin 2θ =π
4 b.
a 0 0 0 2 0
508 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

36. The region is shown in the first figure at right. The required volume is y
2
4 4 2 4 x 2 dx
x
V =π y 2 dx = π 1/4
dx = π . Let 1
0 0 9 + x2 0 9 + x2
_2 0 2 4 x
x = 3 tan θ, so dx = 3 sec2 θ dθ and
_1
9 + x2 = 9 + 9 tan2 θ = 3 sec θ. Then the indefinite integral
_2

x 2 dx 9 tan2 θ 3 sec2 θ dθ
= = 9 tan2 θ sec θ dθ
9 + x2 3 sec θ Ï9+x@
x
=9 sec2 θ − 1 sec θ dθ = 9 sec3 θ − sec θ dθ ¬
(sec θ) (sec θ + tan θ) 3
=9 sec3 θ dθ − dθ
sec θ + tan θ
= 9 12 sec θ tan θ + 12 ln |sec θ + tan θ| − ln |sec θ + tan θ| + C (see Example 5 in Section 7.1)

9 9 + x2 x 9 + x2 x
= 92 (sec θ tan θ − ln |sec θ + tan θ|) + C = · − ln + +C
2 3 3 3 3
4 x 2 dx 4
9π x 9 + x2 9 + x2 + x 9π 4·5 π
Therefore, V = π = − ln = − ln 3 = (20 − 9 ln 3).
0 9+x 2 2 9 3 2 9 2
0

37. The region is shown in the first figure at right. The required volume is y
2 2 x dx 2 x 2 dx
V = 2π x y dx = 2π x = 2π . Let 1/2
0 0 16 − x 2 0 16 − x 2
x = 4 sin θ, so dx = 4 cos θ dθ and
0 1 2 x
16 − x 2 = 16 − 16 sin2 θ = 4 cos θ. Then the indefinite integral

x 2 dx 16 sin2 θ (4 cos θ dθ)

= = 16 sin2 θ dθ
16 − x 2 4 cos θ
1 − cos 2θ 4
= 16 dθ = 8θ − 4 sin 2θ + C x
2
¬
= 8θ − 8 sin θ cos θ + C
Ï16-x@
x x 16 − x 2
= 8 sin−1 −8 +C
4 4 4
Therefore,
2 √
2 x 2 dx x x 16 − x 2 1 2 12
V = 2π = 2π 8 sin−1
− = 2π 8 sin−1 −
0 16 − x 2 4 2 2 2
0
√ √
= 2π 8 · π
6 − 2 3 = 4π 2π − 3 3
3

38. The graph of y = e x is shown at right. The surface area of the solid is y
3
2
S = 2π 01 y 1 + y dx = 2π 01 e x 1 + e2x dx, since y = e x .
2
Using the result of Exercise 26, we find 1

1 1
S = 2π 2 et 1 + e2t + ln 1 + e2t + et 0 1 x
0
√ √
= π e 1 + e2 + ln 1 + e2 + e − 2 − ln 2+1
 Section 7.3 Trigonometric Substitutions 509

39. y = ln 2x = ln 2 + ln x, so y = 1/x. y

2 1 2 1 x2 + 1 1
1+ y = 1+ = 1+ 2 = , so the required arc
x x x
√
3 x2 + 1
length is L = dx. Let x = tan θ, so dx = sec2 θ dθ,
1 x 0 x
1 Ï3 2
x 2 + 1 = tan2 θ + 1 = sec θ, x = 1 ⇒ tan θ = 1 ⇒ θ = π
4 , and
√
x = 3⇒θ= π 3 . Then

π /3 (sec θ) sec2 θ dθ π /3 dθ π /3 sin2 θ + cos2 θ π /3

L = = 2
= 2
dθ = (tan θ sec θ + csc θ) dθ
π /4 tan θ π /4 cos θ sin θ π /4 cos θ sin θ π /4
π /3 π /3 csc θ
csc θ + cot θ π /3
= tan θ sec θ + dθ = [sec θ + ln |csc θ − cot θ|]π/4
·
π /4 π /4 csc θ − cot θ 1
√ √ √ √
= 2 + ln 2 3 3 − 33 − 2 − ln 2−1

2
40. y = − 12 x 2 + 2x ⇒ y = −x + 2 ⇒ 1 + y = 1 + (2 − x)2 . The y
Q(2, 2)
2
required arc length is L = 02 1 + (2 − x)2 dx. Let u = 2 − x, so
1
du = −dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 2, and x = 2 ⇒ u = 0. Then
P(0, 0)
L = − 20 1 + u 2 du = 02 1 + u 2 du. Let u = tan θ, so
0 2 4 x
du = sec2 θ dθ and 1 + u2 = 1 + tan2 θ = sec θ. Then _1

1 + u 2 du = 12 u 1 + u 2 + ln 1 + u2 + u + C (see Exercise 26). Thus,

2 √ √
L = 02 1 + u 2 du = 12 u 1 + u 2 + ln 1 + u2 + u = 12 2 5 + ln 5+2 .
0

41. The window can be represented by the equation x 2 + y 2 = 1 or y

x = ± 1 − y 2 . The depth of the partially submerged window is x@+y@=1

1 − y ft. Taking the weight of water to be 64 lb/ft3 , the force is 1

2 2

1/2
1 − y (2) 1 − y 2 dy
F = 64 −1 2 0 x

1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2

= 64 −1 1 − y 2 dy − 128 −1 y 1 − y 2 dy
To evaluate the first integral, let y = sin θ, so dy = cos θ dθ, _1

1 − y2 = 1 − sin2 θ = cos θ, y = −1 ⇒ θ = − π 1
2 , and y = 2 ⇒
θ= π
6 . Then
1/2 π /6 π /6 π /6 1 + cos 2θ
64 −1 1 − y 2 dy = 64 −π/2 (cos θ) (cos θ dθ) = 64 −π/2 cos2 θ dθ = 64 −π/2 dθ
2
π /6 √ √
= 64 12 θ + 14 sin 2θ = 64 π +1· 3 − −π = 64 π + 3
−π /2 12 4 2 4 3 8

1/2 1/2 3/2 1/2 √

3 3/2 = 128 · 3 3 = 16 3.
√
Next, −128 −1 y 1 − y 2 dy = (−128) − 12 23 1 − y 2 = 128
3 4 3 8
−1
√
Therefore, F = 64 π + 3 + 16√3 = 8 8π + 9√3 ≈ 108.59 lb.
3 8 3
510 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

42. By symmetry, the area is

2 8 x2 2 8 x2 2 dx 1 2 2
A= − dx = 2 − dx = 16 − x dx
−2 x2 + 4 4 0 x2 + 4 4 0 x2 + 4 2 0
2 2
= 16 12 arctan 12 x − 12 13 x 3 = 16 · π 1 4
8 − 6 · 8 = 2π − 3
0 0

43. a. Using a graphing utility we find the x-coordinates of the points of

intersection to be about ±0.953.
1.0
b. g (x) ≥ f (x) on [−0.953, 0.953], so taking advantage of symmetry we
0.5 find
1
A ≈ 2 00.953 g (x) − f (x) dx = 2 00.953 1 − x 2 − 3/2
dx.
0.0 4 + x2
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 Using the result of Example 3, we have
0.953
x
A = 2 x − 13 x 3 − ≈ 1.114.
4 4 + x2 0

44. a. Using a graphing utility we find the x-coordinates of the points of

0.4
intersection to be about 0.545 and 0.997.
0.3
b. We have
0.2
A ≈ 00..545
997
f (x) − g (x) dx
0.1 1/2 −3/2
= 00..545
997
x3 1 − x2 − 0.2 1 + x 2 dx
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 Using the results of Exercises 9 and 23, we find
0.997
1 3x 2 + 2 3/2 x
A≈ − 15 1 − x2 − 1/2
= 0.068.
5 1 + x2 0.545

x2 y2 b
45. + = 1. Solving the equation for y gives y = ± a 2 − x 2 . The y
a2 b2 a
b
required surface area is obtained by revolving the graph of the function
b
y= a 2 − x 2 about the x-axis.
a
_a 0 a x
b 1 −1/2 bx
y = a2 − x 2 (−2x) = − and 1 +
a 2 a a2 − x 2
_b
b2 x 2 a 4 − a 2 x 2 + b2 x 2 a 4 − a 2 − b2 x 2
2
y = 1+ 2 2 = = .
a a − x2 a2 a2 − x 2 a2 a2 − x 2
Therefore, by symmetry, the required surface area is

a ab a 4 − a 2 − b2 x 2
S =2 2πy ds = 4π a2 − x 2 dx
0 0 a a2 a2 − x 2
2
4πb a 4 4πb a 2 − b2 a a2
= 2
a − a 2 − b2 x 2 dx = − x 2 dx
a 0 a2 0 a 2 − b2
 Section 7.3 Trigonometric Substitutions 511

a2 4πb a 2
Defining c = , we can write S = c − x 2 dx. Let
c 0 c
a 2 − b2 x
x = c sin θ, so dx = c cos θ dθ and ¬
c2 − x 2 = c2 − c2 sin2 θ = c cos θ. Then Ïc@-x@

1 + cos 2θ θ sin 2θ
c2 − x 2 dx = (c cos θ) (c cos θ dθ) = c2 cos2 θ dθ = c2 dθ = c2 + +C
2 2 4
c2 c2 x x c2 − x 2
= (θ + sin θ cos θ) + C = sin−1 + +C
2 2 c c c

c2 x x c2 − x 2
= sin−1 + +C
2 c c2
Therefore,
a
4πb c2 x x c2 − x 2 4πbc a a c2 − a 2
S= · sin−1 + = sin−1 +
c 2 c c2 2 c c2
0
⎡ ⎤
4πbc a a a 2 2πba 2 ⎣ −1 a 2 − b2 a 2 − b2 a 2 − b2 ⎦
= sin−1 + 1− = sin + 1−
2 c c c a 2 − b2 a a a2

2πa 2 b a 2 − b2 b a 2 − b2
= sin−1 +
a 2 − b2 a a2

x2 y2 a
46. Solving 2 + 2 = 1 for x yields x = ± b2 − y 2 . The required force is y
a b b
b a b
F =δ (h − y) (2) b2 − y 2 dy
−b b
h
2δah b 2δa b
= b2 − y 2 dy − y b2 − y 2 dy
b −b b −b
The second integral is 0 because the integrand is odd, so _a 0 a x
2δah b 4δah b
F= −b b2 − y 2 dy = 0 b2 − y 2 dy. Let y = b sin θ, so
b b
dy = b cos θ dθ, b2 − y 2 = b2 − b2 sin2 θ = b cos θ, y = 0 ⇒ θ = 0, _b

and y = b ⇒ θ = π
2 . Then
π /2 π /2 π /2
F = 4δbah 0 (b cos θ) (b cos θ) dθ = 4δabh 0 1 + cos
2
2θ dθ = 4δabh θ + sin 2θ
2 4 = 4δabh π
4 = πabδh.
0

1 5 1 5 544 544 5 dt 5
47. Aav = A (t) dt = 2
+ 28 dt = 2
+ 15 (28t) .
5−0 0 5 0 4 + (t − 4.5) 5 0 4 + (t − 4.5) 0
To evaluate the remaining integral, let u = t − 4.5, so du = dt, t = 0 ⇒ u = −4.5, and t = 5
544 0.5 du
⇒ u = 0.5. Then Aav = + 28. Let u = 2 tan θ, so du = 2 sec2 θ dθ and
5 −4.5 4 + u 2
du 2 sec2 θ dθ 1
4 + u 2 = 4 + 4 tan2 θ = 4 sec2 θ. Then = = dθ = 12 θ + C = 12 tan−1 12 u + C, so
4 + u2 2
4 sec θ 2
0.5
Aav = 544
5
1 tan−1 1 u
2 2 + 28 = 544
10 tan
−1 (0.25) − tan−1 (−2.25) + 28 ≈ 104 PSI.
−4.5
512 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

48. The work done is

qQ dx qQ b dx
W = ab F (x) dx = ab · = . To Ïx@+c@
4πε0 x x 2 + c2 4πε0 a x x 2 + c2 x

b ¬
dx c
find , let x = c tan θ, so dx = c sec2 θ dθ and
a x x 2 + c2
x 2 + c2 = c2 tan2 θ + c2 = c sec θ. Then
dx c sec2 θ dθ 1 1 (csc θ) (csc θ + cot θ) 1
= = csc θ dθ = dθ = − ln |csc θ + cot θ| + K
x x 2 + c2 (c tan θ) (c sec θ) c c csc θ + cot θ c
1 x 2 + c2 + c
= − ln +K
c x
Therefore,
b
qQ x 2 + c2 + c qQ b2 + c2 + c a 2 + c2 + c
W = − ln =− ln − ln
4πε0 c x 4πε0 c b a
a
⎛ ⎞
qQ b a 2 + c2 + c
= ln ⎝ ⎠
4πε0 c a b2 + c2 + c

2a 2a dx
49. W = f (x) dx = k 3/2
. Let x = a tan θ, so
0 0 x 2 + a2
Ïx@+a@
dx = a sec2 θ and x 2 + a2 = a 2 tan2 θ + a 2 = a sec θ. Then x
¬
dx a sec2 θ dθ 1 sin2 θ
= = 2 cos θ dθ = + C. Thus, a
3/2 a 3 sec3 θ a a2
x 2 + a2
√ 2a
2a dx kx
2k 2 5k
W =k 3/2
= =√ = .
0 x 2 + a2 a2 x 2 + a2 0 5a 2 5a 2

h
50. From the diagram, d1 = h 2 + x 2 , cos α1 = , y
h2 + x 2
h
d2 = h 2 + (d − x)2 , and cos α2 = . Therefore,
ŒÁ
h2 + d − x 2 Œª
dÁ dª
⎧ ⎫ h
⎪
⎨ ⎪
⎬
cos α1 cos α2 1 1
I =k + = kh + ,
d12 d22 ⎩ x 2 + h 2 3/2
⎪
(d − x)2 + h 2
3/2 ⎪
⎭ P
0 x d-x x
kh d dx kh d dx d
so Iav = 3/ 2
+ 3/2
.
d 0 x 2 + h2 d 0
(d − x)2 + h 2
Substituting x = h tan θ in the first integral and d − x = h tan φ in the second, we find
⎡ ⎤d
kh ⎣ x d−x ⎦ = 2k
Iav = − .
d h2 x 2 + h2 h d 2 + h2
h 2 (d − x)2 + h 2
0
 Section 7.3 Trigonometric Substitutions 513

u
51. a 2 − u 2 du = 12 u a 2 − u 2 + 12 a 2 sin−1 + C. Let u = a sin θ, so
a a
u
du = a cos θ dθ and a2 − u2 = a 2 − a 2 sin2 θ = a cos θ. Then ¬
Ïa@-u@

a2 a2 sin 2θ
a 2 − u 2 du = a cos θ (a cos θ dθ) = a 2 cos2 θ dθ = (1 + cos 2θ) dθ = θ+ +C
2 2 2
a2 u u a2 − u2
= (θ + sin θ cos θ) + C = 12 a 2 sin−1 + +C
2 a a a
u a2 u
= a2 − u2 + sin−1 + C
2 2 a

a2 + u2
52. I = du. Let u = a tan θ, so du = a sec2 θ dθ and Ïa@+u@
u
u
a2 + u2 = a 2 + a 2 tan2 θ = a sec θ. Then ¬
a

(a sec θ) a sec2 θ dθ dθ cos2 θ + sin2 θ

I = =a =a (csc θ + tan θ sec θ) dθ
dθ = a
a tan θ cos2 θ sin θ cos2 θ sin θ
(csc θ) (csc θ + cot θ)
=a + tan θ sec θ dθ = −a ln |csc θ + cot θ| + a sec θ + C
csc θ + cot θ
a+ a2 + u2
= a 2 + u 2 − a ln +C
u

du
53. I = . Let u = a tan θ, so du = a sec2 θ dθ and Ïa@+u@
u a2 + u2 u
a2 + u2 = a 2 + a 2 tan2 θ = a sec θ. Then ¬
a

a sec2 θ dθ 1 1 (csc θ) (csc θ + cot θ) 1

I = = csc θ dθ = dθ = − ln |csc θ + cot θ| + C
(a tan θ) (a sec θ) a a csc θ + cot θ a
1 a2 + u2 a 1 a2 + u2 + a
= − ln + + C = − ln +C
a u u a u

u2 − a2
54. I = du. Let u = a sec θ, so du = a sec θ tan θ dθ and
u2 u
Ïu@-a@
u 2 − a2 = a 2 sec2 θ − a 2 = a tan θ. Then ¬
a

(a tan θ) (a sec θ tan θ dθ) tan2 θ sec2 θ − 1

I = = dθ = dθ = (sec θ − cos θ) dθ
a 2 sec2 θ sec θ sec θ
(sec θ) (sec θ + tan θ)
= dθ − cos θ dθ = ln |sec θ + tan θ| − sin θ + C1
sec θ + tan θ
u u2 − a2 u2 − a2 u2 − a2
= ln + − + C1 = ln u + u2 − a2 − + C, where C = C1 − ln a.
a a u u
514 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

55. a. Let x = a tan θ, so dx = a sec2 θ dθ and Ïa@+x@

x
x 2 + a2 = a 2 tan2 θ + a 2 = a sec θ. Then
¬
a

dx a sec2 θ dθ (sec θ) (sec θ + tan θ)

= = sec θ dθ = dθ = ln |sec θ + tan θ| + C1
x 2 + a2 a sec θ sec θ + tan θ
a2 + x 2 x
= ln + + C1 = ln a 2 + x 2 + x + C, where C = C1 − ln a.
a a

x tan−1 x x dx dx
b. I = dx. Let u = tan−1 x and dv = . Then du = and
1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2
−1/2
v= x 1 + x2 dx = 1 + x 2 , so

1 + x2 dx
I = uv − v du = 1 + x 2 tan−1 x − dx = 1 + x 2 tan−1 x −
1 + x2 1 + x2
= 1 + x 2 tan−1 x − ln 1 + x2 + x + C
π /4 dx
56. I = . Let u = tan x, so x = tan−1 u and Ïu@+1
0 a 2 cos2 x + b2 sin2 x
u
du 1 x
dx = . From the diagram, cos x = and
1 + u2 2
u +1 1
u
sin x = . Also, x = 0 ⇒ u = 0 and x = π 4 ⇒ u = 1, so
u2 + 1
1
1 du 1 1
2
u +1 du 1 1 du 1 b bu 1 b
I = = 2 2 2
= 2 2
= 2 · tan−1 = tan−1 .
0 1 u 2 0 a + b u b 0 a b a a 0 ab a
a2 + b 2
2
+ u2
u2 + 1 u2 + 1 b
57. We want to give a geometric proof that y

x a2 a
x
0 a 2 − u 2 du = 12 x a 2 − x 2 + sin−1 + C for 0 ≤ x ≤ a. From x@+y@=a@
2 a
A ¬
the figure, the integral 0xa 2 − u 2 du gives the sum of the areas of
x ¬ B
regions A and B. But the area of sector A is 12 a 2 θ = 12 a 2 sin−1 and the
a
0 x a x
area of triangle B is 12 x a 2 − x 2 . This establishes the result.
58. F = 200 −2 3 9 − y 2 dy − 100 −2 3 y 9 − y 2 dy. Now
y y 2 √
200 −2 3 9 − y 2 dy = 200 9 − y 2 + 92 sin−1 = 200 5 + 92 sin−1 23 + 92 · π
2 ≈ 2517.7. Also,
2 3 −3
3/2 2
−100 −2 3 y 9 − y 2 dy = −100 − 12 2
3 9 − y2 = 100
3 5
3/2 ≈ 372.7, so F ≈ 2517.7 + 372.7 ≈ 2890 lb.
−3
 Section 7.4 The Method of Partial Fractions 515

7.4 Concept Questions

1. See page 635. 2. See page 637. 3. See page 638.

7.4 The Method of Partial Fractions

3 A B 2x A B
1. a. = + b. = +
x (x − 5) x x −5 (x + 1) (3x − 2) x + 1 3x − 2
2x + 1 2x + 1 A B x −4 x −4 A B
2. a. 2 = = + b. 2 = = +
x −x −2 (x − 2) (x + 1) x −2 x +1 x + 4x + 3 (x + 1) (x + 3) x +1 x +3
2x 2 − 1 2x 2 − 1 A B C 7 7 A B
3. a. 3 2
= 2 = + 2 + b. = = +
x +x x (x + 1) x x x +1 x 2 + 3x − 4 (x + 4) (x − 1) x +4 x −1
2x + 1 2x + 1 A Bx + C 8x 8x A B C
4. a. 3 = = + 2 b. 3 = 2 = + 2+
x +x x x2 + 1 x x +1 x − 5x 2 x (x − 5) x x x −5
x 3 − 2x + 1 x 3 − 2x + 1 x 3 − 2x + 1 A B Cx + D
5. a. = = = + + 2
x 4 − 16 x2 − 4 x2 + 4 (x + 2) (x − 2) x 2 + 4 x +2 x −2 x +4
x 2 − x − 27 x 2 − x − 27 x 2 − x − 27 A Bx + C
b. = 2 = = + 2
2x 3 − x 2 + 8x − 4 x (2x − 1) + 4 (2x − 1) (2x − 1) x 2 + 4 2x − 1 x +4
2x 3 − 3x − 5 A B C D E
6. a. = + 2 + + +
x 2 (x + 1)3 x x x + 1 (x + 1)2 (x + 1)3
2x 4 − 3x 2 + 8x + 1 A B Cx + D Ex + F Gx + H
b. 3
= + + 2 + +
(x − 1)2 x 2 + x + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2 x +x +1 2
x +x +1
2 2
x +x +1
3

dx 1 A B (A + B) x − 4A
7. I = . Now = + = ⇒ A + B = 0 and −4A = 1 ⇒ A = − 14 and
x (x − 4) x (x − 4) x x −4 x (x − 4)
1 dx 1 dx 1 x −4
B = 14 , so I = − + = − 14 ln |x| + 14 ln |x − 4| + C = ln + C.
4 x 4 x −4 4 x
3x + 2 3x + 2 A B (A + B) x − 2A
8. I = dx. Now = + = ⇒ A + B = 3 and −2A = 2 ⇒ A = −1 and
x (x − 2) x (x − 2) x x −2 x (x − 2)
dx dx (x − 2)4
B = 4, so I = − +4 = − ln |x| + 4 ln |x − 2| + C = ln + C.
x x −2 |x|
t +3 t +3 A B (A + B) t + A
9. I = dt. Now = + = ⇒ A + B = 1 and A = 3 ⇒ B = −2, so
t (t + 1) t (t + 1) t t +1 t (t + 1)
dt dt |t|3
I =3 −2 = 3 ln |t| − 2 ln |t + 1| + C = ln + C.
t t +1 (t + 1)2
2x − 1 2x − 1 dx
10. In this case the method of partial fractions is unnecessary: dx = dx = = ln |x| + C.
2x 2 − x x (2x − 1) x
4 dx 1 1 A B (A + B) x − 2 (A − B)
11. I = . Now 2 = = + = ⇒ A + B = 0 and
3 x2 − 4 x −4 (x + 2) (x − 2) x +2 x −2 (x + 2) (x − 2)
−2A + 2B = 1. The first equation gives B = −A, and substituting into the second, we find −4A = 1 ⇒ A = − 14 , so
B = 14 . Then
4 − 14 1 4 1 x −2 4
I = + 4 dx = − 14 ln |x + 2| + 14 ln |x − 2| = ln
3 x +2 x −2 3 4 x +2 3

= 14 ln 26 − ln 15 = 14 (ln 2 − ln 6 − ln 1 + ln 5) = 14 ln 53
516 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

dx dx 1 A B 2 (A + B) x + 3 (−A + B)
12. I = = . Now = + =
4x 2 − 9 (2x + 3) (2x − 3) (2x + 3) (2x − 3) 2x + 3 2x − 3 (2x + 3) (2x − 3)
⇒ A + B = 0 and 3 (−A + B) = 1 ⇒ A = − 16 and B = 16 , so
1 dx 1 dx 1 1 1 2x − 3
I =− + = − ln |2x + 3| + ln |2x − 3| + C = ln + C.
6 2x + 3 6 2x − 3 12 12 12 2x + 3

(x − 1) dx x −1 x −1 A B (A + B) x + A − 2B
13. I = . Now 2 = = + =
x2 − x − 2 x −x −2 (x − 2) (x + 1) x −2 x +1 (x − 2) (x + 1)
⇒ A + B = 1 and A − 2B = −1 ⇒ B = 23 and A = 13 , so
1 dx 2 dx
I = + = 13 ln |x − 2| + 23 ln |x + 1| + C = 13 ln (x − 2) (x + 1)2 + C.
3 x −2 3 x +1

1 (2u + 3) du 2u + 3 2u + 3 A B (A + B) u + 3A + B
14. I = 2
. Now 2 = = + =
0 u + 4u + 3 u + 4u + 3 (u + 1) (u + 3) u + 1 u + 3 (u + 1) (u + 3)
⇒ A + B = 2 and 3A + B = 3 ⇒ A = 2 and B = 2 , so1 3

1 1 du 3 1 du 1
I = + = 12 ln |u + 1| + 32 ln |u + 3| = 12 ln 2 + 32 ln 4 − 12 ln 1 − 32 ln 3 = 72 ln 2 − 32 ln 3 or
2 0 u+1 2 0 u+3 0
1 ln 128 .
2 27

2x 2 + 3x + 6
15. I = dx. Now
(x + 3) x 2 − 4
2x 2 + 3x + 6 2x 2 + 3x + 6 A B C
2
= = + +
(x + 3) x − 4 (x + 3) (x + 2) (x − 2) x +3 x +2 x −2
A (x + 2) (x − 2) + B (x + 3) (x − 2) + C (x + 3) (x + 2)
=
(x + 3) (x + 2) (x − 2)
A x 2 − 4 + B x 2 + x − 6 + C x 2 + 5x + 6
=
(x + 3) (x + 2) (x − 2)
(A + B + C) x 2 + (B + 5C) x − (4A + 6B − 6C)
= ⇒
(x + 3) (x + 2) (x − 2)
A + B + C = 2, B + 5C = 3, and −4A − 6B + 6C = 6. Adding the first two equations gives A − 4C = −1.
Adding 6 times the second equation to the third gives −4A + 36C = 24 or A − 9C = −6. Now subtracting
the second of these equations from the first gives 5C = 5 ⇒ C = 1, so A = 3 and B = −2. Therefore,
dx dx dx (x + 3)3 (x − 2)
I =3 −2 + = 3 ln |x + 3| − 2 ln |x + 2| + ln |x − 2| + C = ln + C.
x +3 x +2 x −2 (x + 2)2

x 2 + 2x + 8
16. I = dx. Now
x 3 − 4x

x 2 + 2x + 8 x 2 + 2x + 8 A B C A x 2 − 4 + B x 2 − 2x + C x 2 + 2x
= = + + =
x 3 − 4x x (x + 2) (x − 2) x x +2 x −2 x (x + 2) (x − 2)
(A + B + C) x 2 − (2B − 2C) x − 4A
= ⇒
x (x + 2) (x − 2)
A + B + C = 1, −2B + 2C = 2, and −4A = 8. The third equation gives A = −2. Adding twice
the first equation to the second gives 2A + 4C = 4, so C = 2, and it follows that B = 1. Thus,
dx dx dx |x + 2| (x − 2)2
I = −2 + +2 = −2 ln |x| + ln |x + 2| + 2 ln |x − 2| + C = ln + C.
x x +2 x −2 x2
 Section 7.4 The Method of Partial Fractions 517

2x 2 + x − 1
17. I = dx. The degree of the numerator is greater than that of the 2
x2 − x
x2 − x 2x 2 + x − 1
3x − 1
denominator; long division gives I = 2+ 2 dx. Now 2x 2 − 2x
x −x
3x − 1 A B (A + B) x − A 3x − 1
= + = ⇒ A + B = 3 and −A = −1,
x (x − 1) x x −1 x (x − 1)
1 2
so A = 1 and B = 2. Thus, I = 2+ + dx = 2x + ln |x| + 2 ln |x − 1| + C = 2x + ln x (x − 1)2 + C.
x x −1

3 x 3 − 2x + 7
18. I = dx. The degree of the numerator is greater than that of the x − 1
2 x2 + x − 2
3
x2 + x − 2 x3 − 2x + 7
x +5
denominator; long division gives I = x −1+ 2 dx. Now x 3 + x 2 − 2x
2 x +x −2
x +5 x +5 A B (A + B) x − A + 2B −x 2 +7
2
= = + = ⇒ −x 2 − x + 2
x +x −2 (x + 2) (x − 1) x +2 x −1 (x + 2) (x − 1)
A + B = 1 and −A + 2B = 5. Adding these equations gives 3B = 6 ⇒ B = 2, x +5
and so A = −1. Thus,
3 1 2 3
I = x −1− + dx = 1 x 2 − x − ln |x + 2| + 2 ln |x − 1|
x +2 x −1 2 2
2
= 92 − 3 − ln 5 + 2 ln 2 − (2 − 2 − ln 4) = 32 + ln 16
5

2x 2 − 3x + 3
19. I = dx. Now
x 3 − 2x 2 + x
2x 2 − 3x + 3 2x 2 − 3x + 3 2x 2 − 3x + 3 A B C A (x − 1)2 + Bx (x − 1) + C x
= = = + + =
x 3 − 2x 2 + x x x 2 − 2x + 1 x (x − 1)2 x x − 1 (x − 1)2 x (x − 1)2
A x 2 − 2x + 1 + B x 2 − x + C x (A + B) x 2 − (2A + B − C) x + A
= = ⇒
x (x − 1)2 x (x − 1)2
A + B = 2, 2A + B − C = 3, and A = 3. Solving, we find B = −1 and so C = 2A + B − 3 = 6 − 1 − 3 = 2, so
3 1 2 2 x3 2
I = − + dx = 3 ln |x| − ln |x − 1| − + C = ln − + C.
x x − 1 (x − 1)2 x −1 x −1 x −1

x 4 − 3x 2 − 3x − 2
20. I = dx. The degree of the numerator is x + 1
x 3 − x 2 − 2x
x 3 − x 2 − 2x x4 − 3x 2 − 3x − 2
greater than that of the denominator; long division gives
x 4 − x 3 − 2x 2
x +2
I = x +1− 3 dx. Now x 3 − x 2 − 3x − 2
x − x 2 − 2x
x +2 x +2 x +2 x 3 − x 2 − 2x
3 2
= 2
=
x − x − 2x x x −x −2 x (x − 2) (x + 1) −x − 2
A B C A (x − 2) (x + 1) + Bx (x + 1) + C x (x − 2)
= + + =
x x −2 x +1 x (x − 2) (x + 1)
A x 2 − x − 2 + B x 2 + x + C x 2 − 2x (A + B + C) x 2 + (−A + B − 2C) x − 2A
= =
x (x − 2) (x + 1) x (x − 2) (x + 1)
518 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

⇒ A + B + C = 0, −A + B − 2C = 1, and −2A = 2. The third equation gives A = −1. Adding the first two equations
gives 2B − C = 1, and so B + C = 1, B − 2C = 0, C = 13 , and B = 23 . Thus,
2 1
1
I = x +1+ − 3 − 3 dx = 12 x 2 + x + ln |x| − 23 ln |x − 2| − 13 ln |x + 1| + C
x x −2 x +1

x2 1 x3
= + x + ln + C.
2 3 (x − 2)2 (x + 1)

4x 2 + 3x + 2
21. I = dx. Now
x3 + x2
4x 2 + 3x + 2 4x 2 + 3x + 2 A B C Ax (x + 1) + B (x + 1) + C x 2
3 2
= 2
= + 2+ =
x +x x (x + 1) x x x +1 x 2 (x + 1)
A x 2 + x + B (x + 1) + C x 2
(A + C) x 2 + (A + B) x + B
= =
x 2 (x + 1) x 2 (x + 1)
⇒ A + C = 4, A + B = 3, and B = 2, leading to A = 1 and C = 3. Thus,
1 2 3 2 2
I = + 2 + dx = ln |x| − + 3 ln |x + 1| + C = ln x (x + 1)3 − + C.
x x x +1 x x

4 3x − 5 3x − 5 A B A (x − 1) + B Ax + (B − A)
22. I = 2
dx. Now 2
= + 2
= 2
=
2 (x − 1) (x − 1) x − 1 (x − 1) (x − 1) (x − 1)2
⇒ A = 3 and B − A = −5, so B = −2. Therefore,
4 3 2 2 4
I = − dx = 3 ln |x − 1| + = 3 ln 3 + 23 − (3 ln 1 + 2) = 3 ln 3 − 43 .
2 x − 1 (x − 1)2 x −1 2

v3 + 1
23. I = dv. Now
v (v − 1)3
v3 + 1 A B C D A (v − 1)3 + Bv (v − 1)2 + Cv (v − 1) + Dv
= + + + =
v (v − 1)3 v v − 1 (v − 1)2 (v − 1)3 v (v − 1)3
A v 3 − 3v 2 + 3v − 1 + B v 3 − 2v 2 + v + C v 2 − v + Dv
=
v (v − 1)3
(A + B) v 3 − (3A + 2B − C) v 2 + (3A + B − C + D) v − A
=
v (v − 1)3
⇒ A + B = 1, 3A + 2B − C = 0, 3A + B − C + D = 0, and −A = 1. We find A = −1, B = 2,
C = 3A + 2B = −3 + 4 = 1, and D = −3A − B + C = 3 − 2 + 1 = 2. Therefore,
−1 2 1 2 1 1
I = + + 2
+ 3
dv = − ln |v| + 2 ln |v − 1| − − +C
v v − 1 (v − 1) (v − 1) v − 1 (v − 1)2
(v − 1)2 v
= ln − +C
v (v − 1)2
 Section 7.4 The Method of Partial Fractions 519

2 x 2 + 10x − 36
24. I = dx. Now
1 x (x − 3)2
x 2 + 10x − 36 A B C A (x − 3)2 + Bx (x − 3) + C x
= + + =
x (x − 3)2 x x − 3 (x − 3)2 x (x − 3)2
A x 2 − 6x + 9 + B x 2 − 3x + C x (A + B) x 2 − (6A + 3B − C) x + 9A
= =
x (x − 3)2 x (x − 3)2
⇒ A + B = 1, 6A + 3B − C = −10, and 9A = −36. Solving, we find A = −4, B = 5, and C = 1, so
2 −4 5 1 1 2
I = + + dx = −4 ln |x| + 5 ln |x − 3| −
1 x x − 3 (x − 3)2 x −3 1
= (−4 ln 2 + 5 ln 1 + 1) − −4 ln 1 + 5 ln 2 + 12 = 12 − 9 ln 2

x3 − x + 2
25. I = dx. The degree of the numerator is equal to that of 1
x 3 + 2x 2 + x
x 3 + 2x 2 + x x3 − x +2
2x 2 + 2x − 2
the denominator; long division gives I = 1− 3 dx. x 3 + 2x 2 + x
x + 2x 2 + x
−2x 2 − 2x + 2
Now

2x 2 + 2x − 2 2x 2 + 2x − 2 2x 2 + 2x − 2 A B C A (x + 1)2 + Bx (x + 1) + C x
= = = + + =
x 3 + 2x 2 + x x x 2 + 2x + 1 x (x + 1)2 x x + 1 (x + 1)2 x 3 + 2x 2 + x
A x 2 + 2x + 1 + B x 2 + x + C x
(A + B) x 2 + (2A + B + C) x + A
= =
x 3 + 2x 2 + x x 3 + 2x 2 + x
⇒ A + B = 2, 2A + B + C = 2, and A = −2, so B = 4 and C = 2. Thus,
2 4 2 2 x 2
I = 1+ − − 2
dx = x + 2 ln |x| − 4 ln |x + 1| + + C = 2 ln 2
+ + x + C.
x x + 1 (x + 1) x +1 (x + 1) x +1

4x 2 dx
26. I = 2
. Now
x2 − 4
4x 2 4x 2 A B C D
2
= 2 2
= + 2
+ +
2
x −4 (x − 2) (x + 2) x − 2 (x − 2) x + 2 (x + 2)2
A (x − 2) (x + 2)2 + B (x + 2)2 + C (x + 2) (x − 2)2 + D (x − 2)2
= 2
x2 − 4
A x 3 + 2x 2 − 4x − 8 + B x 2 + 4x + 4 + C x 3 − 2x 2 − 4x + 8 + D x 2 − 4x + 4
= 2
x2 − 4
(A + C) x 3 + (2A + B − 2C + D) x 2 + (−4A + 4B − 4C − 4D) x − 8A + 4B + 8C + 4D
= 2
x2 − 4
⇒ A + C = 0, 2A + B − 2C + D = 4, −4A + 4B − 4C − 4D = 0, and −8A + 4B + 8C + 4D = 0. Solving, we find
A = 12 , B = 1, C = − 12 , and D = 1, so
1 dx 1 dx
2 dx 2 dx 1 1
I = + − + = 12 ln |x − 2| − − 1 ln |x + 2| − +C
x −2 x +2 (x − 2)2 (x + 2)2 x −2 2 x +2
1 x −2 2x
= ln − 2 +C
2 x +2 x −4
520 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

dx
27. I = 2
. Now
x x2 − 1
1 1 A B C D E
2
= = + + + +
x x2 − 1 x (x − 1)2 (x + 1)2 x x − 1 (x − 1)2 x + 1 (x + 1)2
2
A x2 − 1 + Bx (x − 1) (x + 1)2 + C x (x + 1)2 + Dx (x − 1) x 2 − 1 + E x (x − 1)2
= 2
x x2 − 1

A x 4 − 2x 2 + 1 + B x 4 + x 3 − x 2 − x + C x 3 + 2x 2 + x + D x 4 − x 3 − x 2 + x + E x 3 − 2x 2 + x
= 2
x x2 − 1
⇒ A = 1, A + B + D = 0, B + C − D + E = 0, −2A − B + 2C − D − 2E = 0, and −B + C + D + E = 0. Solving, we
obtain A = 1, B = − 12 , C = 14 , D = − 12 , and E = − 14 . Therefore,
1 1 1 1
1
I = − 2 + 4 − 2 − 4 dx
x x − 1 (x − 1)2 x + 1 (x + 1)2
1 1
= ln |x| − 12 ln |x − 1| + − 1 ln |x + 1| − +C
4 (x − 1) 2 4 (x + 1)
1 1 1 1
= ln |x| − 12 ln x 2 − 1 − − + C = ln |x| − 12 ln x 2 − 1 − 2
+C
4 x −1 x +1 2 x −1

x 2 dx
28. I = 2
. Now
x 2 + 4x + 3
x2 x2 A B C D
2
= 2 (x + 3)2
= + 2
+ +
2
x + 4x + 3 (x + 1) x + 1 (x + 1) x + 3 (x + 3)2
A (x + 1) (x + 3)2 + B (x + 3)2 + C (x + 3) (x + 1)2 + D (x + 1)2
= 2
x 2 + 4x + 3
(A + C) x 3 + (7A + B + 5C + D) x 2 + (15A + 6B + 7C + 2D) x + (9A + 9B + 3C + D)
= 2
x 2 + 4x + 3
⇒ A + C = 0, 7A + B + 5C + D = 1, 15A + 6B + 7C + 2D = 0, and 9A + 9B + 3C + D = 0. Solving, we obtain
A = − 34 , B = 14 , C = 34 , and D = 94 . Therefore,
3 dx 1 dx 3 dx 9 dx
I =− + + +
4 x + 1 4 (x + 1)2 4 x + 3 4 (x + 3)2
1 9
= − 34 ln |x + 1| − + 3 ln |x + 3| − +C
4 (x + 1) 4 4 (x + 3)
3 x +3 (x + 3) + 9 (x + 1) 3 x +3 5x + 6
= ln − + C = ln − 2
+C
4 x +1 4 (x + 1) (x + 3) 4 x +1 2 x + 4x + 3

6x 2 + 28x + 28 6x 2 + 28x + 28
29. I = dx = dx. Now
x 3 + 4x 2 + x − 6 (x − 1) (x + 2) (x + 3)
6x 2 + 28x + 28 A B C (A + B + C) x 2 + (5A + 2B + C) x + (6A − 3B − 2C)
3 2
= + + = , so
x + 4x + x − 6 x −1 x +2 x +3 x 3 + 4x 2 + x − 6
A + B + C = 6, 5A + 2B + C = 28, and 6A − 3B − 2C = 28. Solving, we obtain A = 31 4 1
6 , B = 3 , and C = − 2 .
Therefore,
31 dx 4 dx 1 dx
I = + − = 31 4 1
6 ln |x − 1| + 3 ln |x + 2| − 2 ln |x + 3| + C
6 x −1 3 x +2 2 x +3
= 16 (31 ln |x − 1| + 8 ln |x + 2| − 3 ln |x + 3|) + C
 Section 7.4 The Method of Partial Fractions 521

x 2 + 16x + 7 x 2 + 16x + 7
30. I = dx = dx. Now
x3 − x2 + x + 3 (x + 1) x 2 − 2x + 3
x 2 + 16x + 7 A Bx + C (A + B) x 2 + (−2A + B + C) x + (3A + C)
= + = , so A + B = 1,
x3 − x2 + x + 3 x +1 x 2 − 2x + 3 x3 − x2 + x + 3
−2A + B + C = 16, and 3A + C = 7. Solving, we obtain A = − 43 , B = 73 , and C = 11, so
7 x + 11
4 dx 3 7 (2x − 2) + 80
7
I =− + 2
dx = − 43 ln |x + 1| + dx
3 x +1 x − 2x + 3 6 x 2 − 2x + 3
7 2x − 2 40 dx
= − 43 ln |x + 1| + dx +
6 x 2 − 2x + 3 3 (x − 1)2 + 2
40 1 x −1
= − 43 ln |x + 1| + 76 ln x 2 − 2x + 3 + · √ tan−1 √ +C
3 2 2
⎡ 7 ⎤
x 2 − 2x + 3 √
−1 2 (x − 1) ⎥ + C
1⎢ √
= ⎣ln + 40 2 tan ⎦
6 (x + 1)8 2

x3 + 3 x2 + x − 2
31. I = dx = 1− dx = x − J , 1
(x + 1) x 2 + 1 (x + 1) x 2 + 1
x3 + x2 + x + 1 x3 +3
x2 + x − 2 x3 + x2 + x + 1
where J = dx. Now
(x + 1) x 2 + 1
−x 2 − x + 2
x2 + x − 2 A Bx + C
= + 2
(x + 1) x 2 + 1 x +1 x +1
(A + B) x 2 + (B + C) x + (A + C)
=
(x + 1) x 2 + 1
so A + B = 1, B + C = 1, and A + C = −2. Solving, we obtain A = −1, B = 2, and C = −1,
dx x dx dx
so J = − +2 2
− 2
= − ln |x + 1| + ln x 2 + 1 − tan−1 x + C1 . Finally,
x +1 x +1 x +1
x +1
I = x + tan−1 x + ln 2 + C.
x +1

2r 2 − 3r + 4 2r 2 − 3r + 4
Ar + B Cr + D Ar 3 + Br 2 + (2A + C) r + (2B + D)
32. I = 2
dr. Now 2
+= = ,
r2 + 2 r2 + 2 r2 + 2 r2 + 2
2
r2 + 2
2

so A = 0, B = 2, 2A + C = −3, and 2B + D = 4. Solving, we find A = 0, B = 2, C = −3, and D = 0, so

2 dr 3r dr √ √ 3
I = − = 2 tan−1 2 r + + C.
r2 + 2 2 2 2 2 r 2+2
r +2

5x 3 − 3x 2 + 7x − 3
33. I = 2
dx. Now
x2 + 1
5x 3 − 3x 2 + 7x − 3 Ax + B Cx + D Ax 3 + Bx 2 + (A + C) x + B + D
2
= + = , so A = 5,
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 x2 + 1
2
x2 + 1
2

B = −3, A + C = 7, and B + D = −3. Solving, we obtain A = 5, B = −3, C = 2, and D = 0, so

5x dx 3 dx 2x dx 1
I = 2
− 2
+ 2
= 52 ln x 2 + 1 − 3 tan−1 x − 2 + C.
x +1 x +1 2
x +1 x +1
522 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

(13x + 4) dx
34. I = . Now
(x − 2) x 2 + 2x + 2
13x + 4 A Bx + C (A + B) x 2 + (2A − 2B + C) x + 2A − 2C
2
= + 2 = , so A + B = 0,
(x − 2) x + 2x + 2 x −2 x + 2x + 2 (x − 2) x 2 + 2x + 2
2A − 2B + C = 13, and 2A − 2C = 4. Solving, we find A = 3, B = −3, and C = 1, so
8
dx 3x − 1 3 2x + 2 − 3
I =3 − dx = 3 ln |x − 2| − dx
x −2 x 2 + 2x + 2 2 x 2 + 2x + 2
3 2x + 2 dx
= 3 ln |x − 2| − dx + 4
2 x 2 + 2x + 2 (x + 1)2 + 1
3 (x − 2)2
= 3 ln |x − 2| − 32 ln x 2 + 2x + 2 + 4 tan−1 (x + 1) + C = ln 2 + 4 tan−1 (x + 1) + C
2 x + 2x + 2
(8 − 3x) dx
35. I = . Now
(x + 1) x 2 − 4x + 6
8 − 3x A Bx + C (A + B) x 2 + (−4A + B + C) x + 6A + C
2
= + 2 = , so A + B = 0,
(x + 1) x − 4x + 6 x +1 x − 4x + 6 (x + 1) x 2 − 4x + 6
−4A + B + C = −3, and 6A + C = 8. Solving, we obtain A = 1, B = −1, and C = 2. Therefore,
(x − 2) dx 2
I =
dx
− = ln |x + 1| − 1 ln x 2 − 4x + 6 + C = 1 ln (x + 1) + C.
x +1 x 2 − 4x + 6 2 2 x 2 − 4x + 6

x2 + 1 x 2 + 1 dx
36. I = dx = . Now
x3 − 1 (x − 1) x 2 + x + 1
x2 + 1 A Bx + C (A + B) x 2 + (A − B + C) x + A − C
2
= + 2 = , so A + B = 1, A − B + C = 0,
(x − 1) x + x + 1 x −1 x +x +1 (x − 1) x 2 + x + 1
and A − C = 1. Solving, we obtain A = 23 , B = 13 , and C = − 13 . Therefore,
2 dx 1 2x + 1 1 dx
I = + dx −
3 x − 1 6 x2 + x + 1 2 2
x + 12 + 34
√ √
2 1 2 3 −1 3 |2x + 1|
= ln |x − 1| + ln x + x + 1 − tan +C
3 6 3 3
√
1 √ 3 |2x + 1|
= ln (x − 1)4 x 2 + x + 1 − 2 3 tan−1 +C
6 3

x dx x dx
37. I = = . Now
x3 + 1 (x + 1) x 2 − x + 1
x A Bx + C (A + B) x 2 + (B + C − A) x + A + C
= + = , so A + B = 0,
(x + 1) x 2 − x + 1 x +1 x2 − x + 1 (x + 1) x 2 − x + 1
−A + B + C = 1, and A + C = 0. Solving, we obtain A = − 13 and B = C = 13 . Thus,
1 dx 1 (x + 1) dx 1 (2x − 1) + 3
I =− + = − 13 ln |x + 1| + dx
3 x + 1 3 x2 − x + 1 6 x2 − x + 1
1 2x − 1 1 dx
= − 13 ln |x + 1| + dx +
6 x2 − x + 1 2 2
x − 12 + 34
√
x − 1/2
= − 13 ln |x + 1| + 16 ln x 2 − x + 1 + 12 · 2 3 3 tan−1 √ +C
3/2
√
1 x2 − x + 1 √ −1 3 (2x − 1) + C
= ln + 2 3 tan
6 (x + 1)2 3
 Section 7.4 The Method of Partial Fractions 523

x 2 − x − 21
38. I = dx. Now 2x 3 − x 2 + 8x − 4 = x 2 (2x − 1) + 4 (2x − 1) = (2x − 1) x 2 + 4 ,
2x 3 − x 2 + 8x − 4
x 2 − x − 21 A Bx + C (A + 2B) x 2 + (2C − B) x + 4A − C
so 3 2
= + 2 = , giving A + 2B = 1,
2x − x + 8x − 4 2x − 1 x +4 (2x − 1) x 2 + 4
−B + 2C = −1, and 4A − C = −21. Solving, we obtain A = −5, B = 3, and C = 1, so
dx 3x + 1 x dx dx
I = −5 + 2
dx = − 52 ln |2x − 1| + 3 2
+ 2
2x − 1 x +4 x +4 x +4
⎡ 3 ⎤
x 2 + 4
1⎢ x⎥
= − 52 ln |2x − 1| + 32 ln x 2 + 4 + 12 tan−1 12 x + C = ⎣ln + tan−1 ⎦ + C
2 (2x − 1)5 2

1 3x 3 + 5x 2 + 5x + 1
39. I = dx. Now
0 (x + 1)2 x 2 + 1
3x 3 + 5x 2 + 5x + 1 A B Cx + D
= + + 2
(x + 1)2 x 2 + 1 x + 1 (x + 1)2 x +1
(A + C) x 3 + (A + B + 2C + D) x 2 + (A + C + 2D) x + A + B + D
=
(x + 1)2 x 2 + 1
Thus, A + C = 3, A + B + 2C + D = 5, A + C + 2D = 5, and A + B + D = 1. Solving, we get A = 1, B = −1, C = 2,
and D = 1, so
1 1 1 2x 1 1 1
I = − + + dx = ln (x + 1) + + ln x 2 + 1 + tan−1 x
0 x + 1 (x + 1)2 x2 + 1 x2 + 1 x +1 0
= ln 2 + 12 + ln 2 + π π 1
4 − 1 = 2 ln 2 + 4 − 2

3x − x 2 dx
40. I = . Now
x2 + 1 x2 + 2
3x − x 2 dx Ax + B Cx + D (A + C) x 3 + (B + D) x 2 + (2A + C) x + 2B + D
= + = , so A + C = 0,
x2 + 1 x2 + 2 x2 + 1 x2 + 2 x2 + 1 x2 + 2
B + D = −1, 2A + C = 3, and 2B + D = 0. Solving, we find A = 3, B = 1, C = −3, and D = −2, so
3x 1 3x 2 √ √
I = + − − dx = 3 ln x 2 + 1 + tan−1 x − 3 ln x 2 + 2 − 2 tan−1 2 x + C
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 x2 + 2 x2 + 2 2 2 2

x2 + 1 √ √
= 32 ln 2 + tan−1 x − 2 tan−1 22 x + C
x +2

3x 2 + x + 2
41. I = 2
dx. Now
x2 + x + 1
3x 2 + x + 2 Ax + B Cx + D Ax 3 + (A + B) x 2 + (A + B + C) x + B + D
= 2 2
+ 2
= 2
, so A = 0, A + B = 3,
x2 + x + 1 x +x +1 x2 + x + 1 x2 + x + 1
A + B + C = 1, and B + D = 2. Solving, we find A = 0, B = 3, C = −2, and D = −1, so
3 dx (2x + 1) dx 3 dx 1
I = − = + 2
x2 + x + 1 x2 + x + 1
2 1 2 3 x +x +1
x+2 +4
√ x + 1/2 1 √ √ 1
= 3 · 2 3 3 tan−1 √ + 2 + C = 2 3 tan−1 33 (2x + 1) + 2 +C
3/2 x +x +1 x +x +1
524 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

t 4 dt t4 − 1 + 1 1 dt
42. I = 4
= 4
dt = 1+ 4 dt = t + . Now
t −1 t −1 t −1 (t + 1) (t − 1) t 2 + 1
1 A B Ct + D
= + + 2
(t + 1) (t − 1) t 2 + 1 t +1 t −1 t +1
(A + B + C) t 3 + (B − A + D) t 2 + (A + B − C) t + B − A − D
=
(t + 1) (t − 1) t 2 + 1
We have A + B + C = 0, −A + B + D = 0, A + B − C = 0, and −A + B − D = 1. Solving, we get A = − 14 , B = 14 ,
C = 0, and D = − 12 . Thus,
1 dt 1 dt 1 dt
I =− + − + t = − 14 ln |t + 1| + 14 ln |t − 1| − 12 tan−1 t + t + C
4 t + 1 4 t − 1 2 t2 + 1
1 t −1
= ln − 12 tan−1 t + t + C
4 t +1

3x 2 − x + 4
43. I = 2
dx. Let u = 2x 3 − x 2 + 8x + 4, so du = 6x 2 − 2x + 8 dx = 2 3x 2 − x + 4 dx. Then
2x 3 − x 2 + 8x + 4
1 du 1 1
I = =− +C =− + C.
2 u2 2u 3 2
2 2x − x + 8x + 4

cos x dx du du
44. I = . Let u = sin x, so du = cos x dx. Then I = = . Now
sin2 x − sin x − 6 u2 − u − 6 (u − 3) (u + 2)
1 A B (A + B) u + 2A − 3B
= + = , so A + B = 0 and 2A − 3B = 1. We find A = 15 and
(u − 3) (u + 2) u−3 u+2 (u − 3) (u + 2)
1 du 1 du 1 u−3 1 3 − sin x
B = − 15 , so I = − = 15 ln |u − 3| − 15 ln |u + 2| + C = ln + C = ln + C.
5 u−3 5 u+2 5 u+2 5 2 + sin x

sin x dx du du
45. I = . Let u = cos x, so du = − sin x dx. Then I = − =− .
cos3 x + cos2 x u3 + u2 u 2 (u + 1)
1 A B C (A + C) u 2 + (A + B) u + B
Now − 2 = + 2 + = , giving A + C = 0,
u (u + 1) u u u+1 u 2 (u + 1)
A + B = 0, and B = −1. Solving, we find A = 1, B = −1, and C = −1. Thus,
du du du 1 u 1 cos x
I = − − = ln |u| + − ln |u + 1| + C = ln + + C = ln + sec x + C.
u u2 u+1 u u+1 u cos x + 1

sec2 θ dθ du
46. I = . Let u = tan θ, so du = sec2 θ dθ. Then I = . Now
tan θ (tan θ − 1) u (u − 1)
1 A B (A + B) u − A
= + = , so A + B = 0 and −A = 1 ⇒ B = 1. Thus,
u (u − 1) u u−1 u (u − 1)
du du u−1 tan θ − 1
I =− + = − ln |u| + ln |u − 1| + C = ln + C = ln + C.
u u−1 u tan θ

et dt du
47. I = . Let u = et , so du = et dt. Then I = . Now
et − 1 e t + 2 (u − 1) (u + 2)
1 A B (A + B) u + 2A − B
= + = , so A + B = 0 and 2A − B = 1. Solving, we find A = 13 and
(u − 1) (u + 2) u−1 u+2 (u − 1) (u + 1)
1 du 1 du u−1 1 et − 1
B = − 13 , so I = − = 13 ln |u − 1| − 13 ln |u + 2| + C = ln + C = ln t + C.
3 u−1 3 u+2 u+2 3 e +2
 Section 7.4 The Method of Partial Fractions 525

e x dx du du
48. I = . Let u = e x , so du = e x dx. Then I = = . Now
e2x + 2e x − 8 u 2 + 2u − 8 (u − 2) (u + 4)
1 A B (A + B) u + 4A − 2B
= + = , giving A + B = 0 and 4A − 2B = 1. Solving, we find
(u − 2) (u + 4) u−2 u+4 (u − 2) (u + 4)
1 du 1 du 1 u−2 1 ex − 2
A = 16 and B = − 16 . Thus, I = − = ln + C = ln x + C.
6 u−2 6 u+4 6 u+4 6 e +4

e4t dt e3t · et dt
49. I = = . Let u = et , so du = et dt. Then
et + 2 e2t − 1 et + 2 e2t − 1

u 3 du u 3 du −2u 2 + u + 2 −2u 2 + u + 2 du
I = = = 1+ du = u + .
(u + 2) u 2 − 1 u + 2u 2 − u − 2
3 (u + 2) u 2 − 1 (u + 2) (u + 1) (u − 1)
−2u 2 + u + 2 A B C (A + B + C) u 2 + (B + 3C) u + (−A − 2B + 2C)
Now = + + = . We
(u + 2) (u + 1) (u − 1) u+2 u+1 u−1 (u + 2) (u + 1) (u − 1)
have A + B + C = −2, B + 3C = 1, and −A − 2B + 2C = 2. The solution is A = − 83 , B = 12 , and C = 16 , so
8 du 1 du 1 du
I =u− + + = u − 83 ln |u + 2| + 12 ln |u + 1| + 16 ln |u − 1| + C
3 u+2 2 u+1 6 u−1
3
1 (u + 1)3 (u − 1) 1 et + 1 et − 1
=u+ ln 16
+ C = et + ln 16
+C
6 (u + 2) 6 et + 2

dx e x dx du
50. I = = . Let u = e x , so du = e x dx. Then I = .
e x 1 + e2x e2 x 1 + e2 x u2 1 + u2
1 Au + B Cu + D (A + C) u 3 + (B + D) u 2 + Au + B
Now 2 = + = , so A + C = 0,
u 1 + u2 u2 1 + u2 u2 1 + u2
B + D = 0, A = 0, and B = 1, giving A = 0, B = 1, C = 0, and D = −1. Therefore,
du du 1
I = − = − − tan−1 u + C = −e−x − tan−1 e x + C.
u2 1 + u2 u

x 1/3 dx
51. I = . Let u = x 1/3 , so du = 13 x −2/3 dx ⇔ dx = 3u 2 du. Then
1+x
3u 3 du 3u 3 du −3
I = = = 3+ du. Now
1 + u3 (u + 1) u 2 − u + 1 (u + 1) u 2 − u + 1
−3 A Bu + C (A + B) u 2 + (B + C − A) u + A + C
= + = , so A + B = 0,
(u + 1) u 2 − u + 1 u+1 u2 − u + 1 (u + 1) u 2 − u + 1
−A + B + C = 0, and A + C = −3. The solution is A = −1, B = 1, and C = −2, so
du (u − 2) du 1 2u − 1 3 du
I = 3 du − + 2
= 3u − ln |u + 1| + 2
du −
u+1 u −u+1 2 u −u+1 2 2
u − 12 + 34
√ √
(2u − 1) du
1
= 3u − ln |u + 1| + 2
− 32 · 2 3 3 tan−1 33 (2u − 1) + C
2u −u+1
1 u2 − u + 1 √ −1
√
3
= 3u + ln − 3 tan 3 (2u − 1) + C
2 (u + 1)2
1 x 2/3 − x 1/3 + 1 √ √
= 3x 1/3 + ln 2
− 3 tan−1 3
3 2x
1/3 − 1 +C
2 x 1/3 + 1
526 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

x x 1
52. Let u = tan . Referring to the figure, we see that cos = and Ï1+u@
2 2 1 + u2 u
x u x/2
sin = . Then
2 1
1 + u2
2
x x 1
cos x = cos 2 · = 2 cos2 − 1 = 2 −1
2 2 1 + u2
2 1 − u2
= − 1 =
1 + u2 1 + u2
x x x u 1 2u x
and sin x = sin 2 · = 2 sin cos = 2 = . Thus, u = tan
2 2 2 1 + u2 1 + u2 1 + u2 2
x 1 2
⇒ = tan−1 u ⇒ dx = 2 · du = du. Making these substitutions, we obtain
2 1 + u2 1 + u2
2u 1 − u2 2
R (sin x, cos x) dx = R , du. The integral on the right is an integral involving a rational
1 + u 1 + u2
2 1 + u2
function of u.

dx x 1 − u2 2 du
53. I = . Let u = tan , so cos x = 2
and dx = . Then
1 + cos x 2 1+u 1 + u2
2
du
1 + u2 x
I = 2
= du = u + C = tan + C.
1−u 2
1+
1 + u2

dx sin x x
54. I = . Let u = = tan , so
3 sin x − 4 cos x 1 + cos x 2
2
du
1 + u2 du du
I = = = . Now
2u 1 − u2 2u 2 + 3u − 2 (2u − 1) (u + 2)
3 −4
1 + u2 1 + u2
1 A B (A + 2B) u + 2A − B
= + = , so A + 2B = 0 and 2A − B = 1. Solving, we get A = 25
(2u − 1) (u + 2) 2u − 1 u + 2 (2u − 1) (u + 2)
and B = − 15 . Therefore,
2 du 1 du 1 2u − 1
I = − = 15 ln |2u − 1| − 15 ln |u + 2| + C = ln +C
5 2u − 1 5 u + 2 5 u+2
1 2 tan (x/2) − 1 1 cos x − 2 sin x + 1
= ln + C = ln +C
5 tan (x/2) + 2 5 2 cos x + sin x + 2

dx sin x x
55. I = . Let u = = tan . Then
5 + sin x − 3 cos x 1 + cos x 2
2
du
1 + u2 du 1 du 1 du
I = = = =
2u 1 − u2 4u 2 + u + 1 4 u 2 + 14 u + 14 4 2
5+ −3 u + 18 + 15
64
1 + u2 1 + u2
√ 1 √ √
1 8 15 −1 u + 8 8 2 15 −1 15 (8 sin x + cos x + 1)
= · tan √ +C = tan +C
4 15 15 15 15 (1 + cos x)
 Section 7.4 The Method of Partial Fractions 527

dx sin x x
56. I = . Let u = = tan . Then
sin x (2 + cos x − 2 sin x) 1 + cos x 2
2
du
1 + u2 u2 + 1
I = = du. Now
2u 1−u 2 2u u (u − 1) (u − 3)
2+ −2·
1 + u2 1 + u2 1 + u2
u2 + 1 A B C (A + B + C) u 2 + (−4A − 3B − C) u + 3A
= + + = , so A + B + C = 1,
u (u − 1) (u − 3) u u−1 u−3 u (u − 1) (u − 3)
4A + 3B + C = 0, and 3A = 1. Solving, we find A = 13 , B = −1, and C = 53 . Therefore,
1 du du 5 du
I = − + = 13 ln |u| − ln |u − 1| + 53 ln |u − 3| + C
3 u u−1 3 u−3
1 u (u − 3)5 1 sin x (sin x − 3 cos x − 3)5
= ln 3
+ C = ln +C
3 (u − 1) 3 (cos x + 1)3 (cos x − sin x + 1)3

π /2 dx sin x x
57. I = . Let u = = tan . Then
0 1 + cos x + sin x 1 + cos x 2
2
1 du 1 du
I = 1 + u2 = = ln |u + 1||10 = ln 2.
0 1 − u2 2u 0 u+1
1+ +
1 + u2 1 + u2

π /4 tan x dx sin x x
58. I = . Let u = = tan . Then the indefinite integral is
0 1 + cos x 1 + cos x 2
2u 1 + u2 2
2
· 2
du
1+u 1−u 1 + u2 u du
J = = −2 = − ln u 2 − 1 + C, so
1 − u2 u2 − 1
1+
1 + u2
2 π /4
sin x √ √
I = − ln −1 = − ln 2 − 2 2 = − ln 2 2 − 2 .
1 + cos x
0

dx cos x dx sin x x
59. I = = . Let u = = tan . Then
1 + tan x cos x + sin x 1 + cos x 2
1 − u2 2
· du
1 + u 2 1 + u2 2u 2 − 2
I = 2
= du. Now
1−u 2u 1 + u u 2 − 2u − 1
2
+
1 + u2 1 + u2
2
2u − 2 A B Cu + D
= √ + √ +
1 + u 2 u 2 − 2u − 1 u− 1+ 2 u− 1− 2 1 + u2
√ √
(A + B + C) u 3 + − 1 − 2 A − 1 + 2 B + 2C + D u 2
√ √
+ (A + B − C − 2D) u + −1 + 2 A − 1 + 2B − D
= √ √
1 + u2 u − 1 + 2 u− 1− 2
528 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

√ √
We have A + B + C = 0, − 1 − 2 A + 1 + 2 B − 2C + D = 2, A + B − C − 2D = 0, and
√ √
− 1 − 2 A + 1 + 2 B − D = −2. Solving, we find A = B = 12 , C = −1, and D = 1, so
1 du 1 du u du du
I = + − +
2 u − 1 + √2 2 u − 1 − √2 1 + u2 1 + u2
√ √
= 12 ln u− 1+ 2 u− 1− 2 − 12 ln 1 + u 2 + tan−1 u + C

1 u 2 − 2u − 1
= ln + tan−1 u + C = 12 (ln |sin x + cos x| + x) + C
2 1 + u2

π /6 sin x dx sin x x
60. I = . Let J be the corresponding indefinite integral and let u = = tan . Then
0 cos x (1 + sin x) 1 + cos x 2
2u 2
· du
1 + u2 1 + u2 4u du −4u du
J= 2
= 2
= . Now
1−u 2u 2
1 − u (u + 1) (u − 1) (u + 1)3
1 +
1 + u2 1 + u2
−4u A B C D
= + + +
(u − 1) (u + 1)3 u − 1 u + 1 (u + 1)2 (u + 1)3
(A + B) u 3 + (3A + B + C) u 2 + (3A − B + D) u + A − B − C − D
=
(u − 1) (u + 1)3
We have A + B = 0, 3A + B + C = 0, 3A − B + D = −4, and A − B − C − D = 0. Solving, we find A = − 12 , B = 12 ,
C = 1, and D = −2, so
1 du 1 du
I =− + + (u + 1)−2 du − 2 (u + 1)−3 du
2 u−1 2 u+1
1 1 1 u+1 u
= − 12 ln |u − 1| + 12 ln |u + 1| − + + C = ln −
u + 1 (u + 1)2 2 u−1 (u + 1)2
1
1
Now x = 0 ⇒ u = 0 and x = π
6 ⇒ u =
2√ = √ , so
1 + 23 2+ 3
√ √ √
1 u+1 u 1/ 2+ 3 1 3+3 2+ 3
I = ln − = ln √ − √ 2 ≈ 0.108.
2 u−1 (u + 1)2 0 2 3+1 3+ 3

2 dx 2 1 1
61. A = = − dx y
1 x (x + 1) 1 x x +1
= [ln x − ln (x + 1)]21 2

= (ln 2 − ln 3) − (0 − ln 2) = ln 43 1

_1 0 1 2 x

_1
 Section 7.4 The Method of Partial Fractions 529

2 x 3 dx 2 1
62. A = = 1− 3 dx y
0 x3 + 1 0 x +1
2 1 1
= 1− dx
0 (x + 1) x 2 − x + 1
Now
1 A Bx + C 0
= + 2 1 2 x
2
(x + 1) x − x + 1 x +1 x −x +1
(A + B) x 2 + (B + C − A) x + A + C
=
(x + 1) x 2 − x + 1
so A + B = 0, −A + B + C = 0, and A + C = 1. Solving, we find A = 13 , B = − 13 , and C = 23 , so
⎡ ⎤
2 1 1x − 2 2 1 1
⎢ 1 2x − 1 ⎥
A= 1 − 3 + 23 3 dx = ⎣1 −
3 + − 2
⎦ dx
0 x +1 x −x +1 0 x + 1 6 x2 − x + 1 1 2 3
x−2 +4
√ √ 2 √
= x − 13 ln |x + 1| + 16 ln x 2 − x + 1 − 33 tan−1 3
3 (2x − 1) = 2 − 16 ln 3 + 3π
0

63. a. Using a graphing utility we find the x-coordinate of the point of

3
intersection to be about 2.144.
2 2.144 x +3
b. A ≈ − ln x dx. Using the results of Exercise 9 and
1 1 x (x + 1)
Example 7.1.6, we find
0
2.144
-1 x3
A ≈ ln − x (ln x − 1) ≈ 0.892.
0 1 2 3 (x + 1)2 1

64. a. Using a graphing utility we find the x-coordinates of the points of

1.0
intersection to be 0 and about 1.118.
1.118 1.118 x
0.5
b. A ≈ f (x) − g (x) dx ≈ − 13 x 3 dx. Using
0 0 x3 + 1
0.0 the result of Exercise 37, we obtain
√ 1.118
1 x2 − x + 1 √ 3 (2x − 1) 1 x4
-0.5 A≈ 6 ln + 2 3 tan−1 − 12
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 (x + 1)2 3
0
≈ 0.300
530 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

2 dx 2
65. V = π y 2 dx = π . Now y
1 1 x 2 (x + 1)2
1 A B C D 2
= + 2+ +
x 2 (x + 1)2 x x x + 1 (x + 1)2
1
Ax (x + 1)2 + B (x + 1)2 + C x 2 (x + 1) + Dx 2
=
x 2 (x + 1)2
_1 0 1 2 x
A x 3 + 2x 2 + x + B x 2 + 2x + 1 + C x 3 + x 2 + Dx 2
_1
=
x 2 (x + 1)2
(A + C) x 3 + (2A + B + C + D) x 2 + (A + 2B) x + B
= ⇒
x 2 (x + 1)2
A + C = 0, 2A + B + C + D = 0, A + 2B = 0, and B = 1. Solving, we find A = −2, B = 1, C = 2, and D = 1, so
2 −2 1 2 1 1 1 2
V =π + 2+ + dx = π −2 ln x − + 2 ln (x + 1) −
1 x x x + 1 (x + 1)2 x x +1 1
=π −2 ln 2 − 12 + 2 ln 3 − 13 − −1 + 2 ln 2 − 12 = 23π (1 + 3 ln 3 − 6 ln 2)

2 x 2 dx
66. V = π 02 y 2 dx = 4π 2
. Now y
0 x2 + 1
1
x2 Ax + B Cx + D
2
= 2 + 2
2
x +1 x + 1 x2 + 1
(Ax + B) x 2 + 1 + (C x + D)
= _1 0 1 2 x
2
x2 + 1

Ax 3 + Bx 2 + Ax + B + C x + D Ax 3 + Bx 2 + (A + C) x + B + D
= 2
= 2
⇒
x2 + 1 x2 + 1
A = 0, B = 1, A + C = 0, and B + D = 0. Solving, we find C = 0 and D = −1, so
2 x 2 dx 2 1 1
V = 4π 2
= 4π − dx
0 x2 + 1 0 x2 + 1 x2 + 1
2

2 2 dx 2 dx
= 4π tan−1 x − 4π 2
= 4π tan−1 2 − 4π 2
0 0 x2 + 1 0 x2 + 1
To evaluate the remaining integral, we use the substitution x = tan θ, so dx = sec2 θ dθ and x 2 + 1 = tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ.
Then
dx sec2 θ dθ 1 + cos 2θ θ sin 2θ
= = cos2 θ dθ = dθ = + +C
2 2 4
sec θ 2 2 4 Ïx@+1
x +1 x
θ sin θ cos θ x 1 ¬
= + + C = 12 tan−1 x + 12 +C
2 2 x2 + 1 x2 + 1 1
x
= 12 tan−1 x + +C
2 x2 + 1
Therefore,
2
x
V = 4π tan−1 2 − 4π 12 tan−1 x + = 4π tan−1 2 − 4π 12 tan−1 2 + 2 2· 5
2 x2 + 1
0
= 4π 12 tan−1 2 − 15
 Section 7.4 The Method of Partial Fractions 531

4 −2 (−2x) 4x
67. y = 2 ln 2
= 2 ln 4 − 2 ln 4 − x 2 ⇒ y = 2
= , so
4−x 4−x 4 − x2
2
16x 2 16 − 8x 2 + x 4 + 16x 2 x2 + 4
2
1+ y = 1+ 2
= 2
= 2
. Thus,
4 − x2 4 − x2 4 − x2
1 1 x2 + 4 1 x2 + 4 1 8
2
L = 1+ y dx = 2
dx = − 2
dx = − 1+ 2 dx.
0 0 4−x 0 x −4 0 x −4
8 A B (A + B) x + 2B − 2A
Now = + = gives A + B = 0
x2 − 4 x +2 x −2 x2 − 4
and −2A + 2B = 8. Solving, we get A = −2 and B = 2, so
1 2 2 x +2 1
L =− 1− + dx = (−x + 2 ln |x + 2| − 2 ln |x − 2|)|10 = −x + 2 ln = 2 ln 3 − 1.
0 x +2 x −2 x −2 0
2 2x dx 2
68. m = = ln x 2 + 1 = ln 5,
0 x2 + 1 0
2 2 2x 2 dx 2 2 2
My = x y dx =
2
2− 2 = dx = 2x − 2 tan−1 x = 4 − 2 tan−1 2, so
0 0 x + 1 0 x + 1 0
My −
4 − 2 tan 2 1 1 2 2x 2
x = = ≈ 1.11. Mx = dx = 15 5 tan−1 2 − 2 (see Exercise 66), so
m ln 5 2 0 x2 + 1
1 5 tan−1 2 − 2
Mx 5
y= = ≈ 0.44. Therefore, the centroid is approximately (1.11, 0.44).
m ln 5
69. a. Using the long division below, we find
x 4 + 6x 3 + 12x 2 + 11x + 6 = (x + 2) x 3 + 4x 2 + 4x + 3 = (x + 2) (x + 3) x + x 2 + 1 . Now

x2 + 1 A B Cx + D
= + +
x 4 + 6x 3 + 12x 2 + 11x + 6 x + 2 x + 3 x2 + x + 1
A (x + 3) x 2 + x + 1 + B (x + 2) x 2 + x + 1 + (C x + D) (x + 2) (x + 3)
=
(x + 2) (x + 3) x 2 + x + 1
(A + B + C) x 3 + (4A + 3B + 5C + D) x 2 + (4A + 3B + 6C + 5D) x + (3A + 2B + 6D)
=
(x + 2) (x + 3) x 2 + 1
Equating coefficients, we have
⎫
A + =0⎪B⎪ +C x 3 + 4x 2 + 4x + 3
⎪
⎪
⎪ x 4 + 6x 3 + 12x 2 + 11x + 6
4A + 3B + 5C + D = 1 ⎬ x +2
f (x) = Solving, we find
4A + 3B + 6C + 5D = 0 ⎪
⎪ x 4 + 2x 3
⎪
⎪
⎪ 4x 3 + 12x 2
3A + 2B + 6D = 1 ⎭
4x 3 + 8x 2
A = 53 , B = − 10 5 4
7 , C = − 21 , and D = − 21 , so
4x 2 + 11x
5 dx 10 dx 1 5x + 4
I = − − dx 4x 2 + 8x
3 x +2 7 x + 3 21 x2 + x + 1
⎡ ⎤ 3x + 6
5 dx 10 dx 1 ⎢5 (2x + 1) dx 3 dx ⎥ 3x + 6
= − − ⎣ 2
+
2 √ 2⎦
3 x +2 7 x + 3 21 2 x +x +1 2 3
x + 12 + 2 0

= 53 ln |x + 2| − 10 1 5 2 3 √2 −1 x +√(1/2) + C
7 ln |x + 3| − 21 2 ln x + x + 1 + 2 · 3 tan 3/2
5 10 1
√ 2 x 1
= 3 ln |x + 2| − 7 ln |x + 3| − 42 5 ln x 2 + x + 1 + 2 3 tan−1 √ + +C
3
532 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

x2 + 1 5 10 5x + 4
b. = − −
x 4 + 6x 3 + 12x 2 + 11x + 6 3 (x + 2) 7 (x + 3) 21 x 2 + x + 1
1 √ 2x + 1
c. −2 3 tan−1 √ + 70 ln (x + 2) − 5 12 ln (x + 3) + ln x 2 + x + 1
42 3
70. a. Using a calculator or computer, we find
785 13,404 2 (232x + 255) 4 (184x − 2793)
f (x) = + − −
961 (2x − 3)2 29,791 (2x − 3) 2883 3x 2 + 1 2 89,373 3x 2 + 1
b. Using a calculator or computer, we find
1 −219,015 62 (765x − 232) √ √
I = − + 6534 3 tan−1 3x − 120,636 ln (2x − 3) − 736 ln 12x 2 + 4 .
536,238 2x − 3 3x 2 + 1
1 10 2
3t + 130t + 270 1 10 112t + 135
71. Pav = dt = 3+ 2 dt
10 0 t 2 + 6t + 45 10 0 t + 6t + 45
⎡ ⎤
1 10 ⎣ 56 2t + 135
56 28 10 2t + 6 201 10 dt
= 3+ 2 ⎦ dt = 3 + dt −
10 0 t + 6t + 45 5 0 t 2 + 6t + 45 10 0 (t + 3)2 + 36

28 10 201 1 t + 3 10
=3+ ln t 2 + 6t + 45 − · tan−1 ≈ 9.231
5 0 10 6 6 0
or about 9,231 people.
2 2 2x − 3
72. W = F (x) dx = k dx. Now
1 1 x 2 (x − 3)2
2x − 3 A B C D (A + C) x 3 + (−6A + B − 3C + D) x 2 + (9A − 6B) x + 9B
= + 2 + + = , so
x 2 (x − 3)2 x x x − 3 (x − 3)2 x 2 (x − 3)2
A + C = 0, −6A + B − 3C + D = 0, 9A − 6B = 2, 9B = −3. Solving, we get A = 0, B = − 13 , C = 0, and D = 13 , so
1 1 2
W = k 12 − 13 x −2 + 13 (x − 3)−2 dx = k − = k 16 + 13 − 13 + 16 = 0.
3x 3 (x − 3) 1
73. False. Since the degree of the numerator is greater than that of the x + 1
denominator, we perform the long division at right to find x2 − x − 2 x3 + 2x
x 3 + 2x 5x + 2 x 3 − x 2 − 2x
= x +1+ 2 . We then write
(x + 1) (x − 2) x −x −2 x 2 + 4x
5x + 2 A B x2 − x − 2
= + and determine A and B.
(x + 1) (x − 2) x +1 x −2
5x + 2
4x 2 − 15x − 1 4x 2 − 15x − 1 A B C
74. True. 2
= = + +
x x − 4x − 5 x (x − 5) (x + 1) x x −5 x +1
1 A B C
75. False. = + +
x (x − 1)2 x x − 1 (x − 1)2
4x 3 − x 2 + 4x + 2 Ax + B Cx + D
76. False. 2
= 2 + 2
x2 + 1 x +1 x2 + 1
 Section 7.5 Integration Using Tables of Integrals and a CAS; Summary of Techniques 533

7.5 Integration Using Tables of Integrals and a CAS; Summary of Techniques

√
1. x 1 + 2x dx. We use Formula 27 with a = 1 and b = 2, giving
√ 2
x 1 + 2x dx = [3 (2) x − 2 (1)] (1 + 2x)3/2 + C = 15
1 (3x − 1) (1 + 2x)3/2 + C.
15 22

x dx
2. √ . Use Formula 28 with a = 2 and b = 3 to obtain
2 + 3x
x dx 2 √ 2 (3x − 4) √2 + 3x + C.
√ = 2
[3x − 2 (2)] 2 + 3x + C = 27
2 + 3x 3 3

x 2 dx
3. . Use Formula 22 with a = 1 and b = 2 to obtain
(1 + 2x)2
x 2 dx 1 1 1 1
= 3 1 + 2x − − 2 ln |1 + 2x| + C = 1 + 2x − − 2 ln |1 + 2x| + C.
(1 + 2x)2 2 1 + 2x 8 1 + 2x

dx
4. √ . Use Formula 30 with a = 4 and b = 1, giving
x 4+x
√ √ √
dx 1 4+x − 4 1 4+x −2
√ = √ ln √ √ + C = ln √ + C.
x 4+x 4 4+x + 4 2 4+x +2
√ √ √
3 + 2x 3 + 2x 3 + 2x 2 dx
5. 2
dx. Use Formula 32 with a = 3 and b = 2, giving 2
dx = − + √ . Then use
x x x 2 x 3 + 2x
√ √ √ √ √
3 + 2x 3 + 2x 3 3 + 2x − 3
Formula 30 with a = 3 and b = 2 to obtain 2
dx = − + ln √ √ + C.
x x 3 3 + 2x + 3

1u 2
x 2 dx x 2 dx 2 du 1 u 2 du
6. I = . Let u = 2x, so du = 2 dx. Then = = .
9 + 4x 2 9 + 4x 2 9 + u2 2 8 9 + u2
1 u 2 du 1 u 9
Now use Formula 42 with a = 3, giving = 9 + u 2 − ln u + 9 + u2 + C, so
8 9 + u2 8 2 2

I = 18 x 9 + 4x 2 − 92 ln 2x + 9 + 4x 2 + C.

dx √ √ dx 1 du du
7. I = . Let u = 2x, so du = 2 dx. Then = √ = . Use
x 3 + 2x 2 x 3 + 2x 2 √1 u 3 + u2 2 u 3 + u2
2
√ √ √ √
√ du 3 3 + u2 + 3 3 3 + 2x 2 + 3
Formula 43 with a = 3, giving =− ln + C, so I = − ln √ + C.
u 3 + u2 3 u 3 2x
√
√ √ u2 du 3
8. I = x 2 4 − 3x 2 dx. Let u = 3x, so du = 3 dx. Then I = 4 − u2 √ = u 2 4 − u 2 du. Now
3 3 9
u 16 −1 u
use Formula 47 with a = 2 to get u 2 4 − u 2 du = 2u 2 − 4 4 − u2 + sin + C, so
8 8 2
√ √ √ √ √
3 3x 3x
I = 6x 2 − 4 4 − 3x 2 + 2 sin−1 1 x 3x 2 − 2
+ C = 12 4 − 3x 2 + 2 9 3 sin−1 23 x + C
9 8 2
√
2 − x2 √ √ 2+ 2 − x2
9. I = dx. Use Formula 48 with a = 2, so I = 2 − x2 − 2 ln + C.
x x
534 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

9 − 2x 2 √ √ 9 − u2 du √ 9 − u2
10. I = 2
dx. Let u = 2x, so du = 2 dx. Then I = 1 u2
·√ = 2 du.
x 2
2 u2

9 − u2 1 u
Now use Formula 49 with a = 3. Then 2
du = − 9 − u 2 − sin−1 + C, so
u u 3
√ √
√ 1 2x 9 − 2x 2 √ 2x
I = 2 −√ 9 − 2x 2 − sin−1 +C =− − 2 sin−1 + C.
2x 3 x 3

√
x2 − 3 √ √ 3
11. I = dx. Use Formula 57 with a = 3 to get I = x2 − 3 − 3 cos−1 + C.
x |x|

dx √ x2 − 5
12. I = . Use Formula 61 with a = 5 to get I = + C.
x2 x2 − 5 5x

e x dx du
13. I = 3/2
. Let u = e x , so du = e x dx and the integral becomes 3/2
. Now use Formula 54 with
1 − e2x 1 − u2
u ex
a = 1 to obtain I = +C = + C.
1 − u2 1 − e2 x

14. I = x 4 sin x dx. Using Formulas 77 and 78 repeatedly, we obtain

I = −x 4 cos x + 4 x 3 cos x dx = −x 4 cos x + 4 x 3 sin x − 3 x 2 sin x dx

= −x 4 cos x + 4x 3 sin x − 12 −x 2 cos x + 2 x cos x dx

= −x 4 cos x + 4x 3 sin x + 12x 2 cos x − 24 (cos x + x sin x) + C (using Formula 76)

= −x 4 cos x + 4x 3 sin x + 12x 2 cos x − 24 cos x − 24x sin x + C

Where we have used Formula 83 in the last integral above, we could also have written
I = − x 4 − 12x 2 + 24 cos x + 4x x 2 − 6 sin x + C.

15. I = x cos−1 2x dx. Let u = 2x, so du = 2 dx. Then I = 12 u cos−1 u 12 du = 14 u cos−1 u du.

2u 2 − 1 u 1 − u2
Now use Formula 91 to obtain u cos−1 u du = cos−1 u − + C, so
4 4
1 8x 2 − 1 2x 1 − 4x 2 1
x cos−1 2x dx = cos−1 2x − + C = 16 8x 2 − 1 cos−1 2x − 2x 1 − 4x 2 + C.
4 4 4

−1 3
16. I = csc5 θ dθ. We use Formula 86 to obtain csc5 θ dθ = cot θ csc3 θ + csc3 θ dθ. Now use Formula 83 to
5−1 4
write
I = − 14 cot θ csc3 θ + 34 − 12 csc θ cot θ + 12 ln |csc θ − cot θ| + C

= − 14 cot θ csc3 θ − 38 csc θ cot θ + 38 ln |csc θ − cot θ| + C

17. I = x 3 sin x 2 + 1 dx. Let u = x 2 + 1, so du = 2x dx. Then

x 3 sin x 2 + 1 dx = 12 (u − 1) sin u du = 12 u sin u du − 12 sin u du.

Now use Formula 75: u sin u du = sin u − u cos u + C, so
I = 12 sin x 2 + 1 − x 2 + 1 cos x 2 + 1 + 12 cos x 2 + 1 + C = 12 sin x 2 + 1 − 12 x 2 cos x 2 + 1 + C.
 Section 7.5 Integration Using Tables of Integrals and a CAS; Summary of Techniques 535

18. I = x 2 tan−1 3x dx. Let u = 3x, so du = 3 dx. Then I = 19 u 2 tan−1 u 1 du

3
1
= 27 u 2 tan−1 u du. Now use
Formula 95 to write
1 3 −1 u 3 du u3 1 u
u 2 tan−1 u du = u tan u − 2
= tan−1 u − u− du
3 1+u 3 3 u2 + 1

= 13 u 3 tan−1 u − 16 u 2 + 16 ln u 2 + 1 + C
1 9x 3 tan−1 3x − 3 x 2 + 1 ln 9x 2 + 1
Thus, I = 27 + C = 13 x 3 tan−1 3x − 18
1 x 2 + 1 ln 9x 2 + 1 + C.
2 6 162
√ √ dx
19. I = 01 sin−1 x dx. Let u = x, so du = √ ⇒ dx = 2u du, x = 0 ⇒ u = 0, and
2 x
√
x = 1 ⇒ u = 1. Then 01 sin−1 x dx = 2 01 u sin−1 u du. We use Formula 90 to obtain
1
2u 2 − 1 −1 u 1 − u2 1 π π
I =2 sin u + =2 · = .
4 4 4 2 4
0
√
cos−1 x √ dx
20. I = √ dx. Let u = x, so du = √ . Then by Formula 88,
x 2 x
√ √ √
I = 2 cos−1 u du = 2 x cos−1 x− 1 − x + C.

21. I = e−2x sin 3x dx. Use Formula 98 with a = −2 and b = 3 to obtain

e−2x 1 e−2x (2 sin 3x + 3 cos 3x) + C.
I = (−2 sin 3x − 3 cos 3x) + C = − 13
(−2)2 + 3
22. I = e2x sin−1 e x dx. Let u = e x , so du = e x dx. Then I = e x sin−1 e x e x dx = u sin−1 u du. Using Formula 90,
2e2x − 1 −1 x e x 1 − e2x
we get I = sin e + + C.
4 4
23. I = x 3 e−2x dx. Use Formula 97 with n = 3 and a = −2 to get
I = − 12 x 3 e−2x + 32 x 2 e−2x dx. Then use the same formula with n = 2 and a = −2:
I = − 12 x 3 e−2x + 32 − 12 x 2 e−2x − (−22) xe−2x dx = − 12 x 3 e−2x − 34 x 2 e−2x + 32 xe−2x dx. Use the formula one

more time: x 3 e−2x dx = − 12 x 3 e−2x − 34 x 2 e−2x − 34 xe−2x − 38 e−2x + C = − 18 e−2x 4x 3 + 6x 2 + 6x + 3 + C.

dx dx dx e−x dx
24. I = = = = . Let u = e−x , so du = −e−x dx. Then,
1 + e2 x e 2 x 1 + e −2 x e x 1 + e −2 x 1 + e −2 x
du
using Formula 41 with a = 1, I = − = − ln e−x + 1 + e−2x + C.
1 + u2
sin x dx
25. I = . Let u = cos x, so du = − sin x dx. Then using Formula 17 with a = 1, we get
1 + cos2 x
du
I =− = − tan−1 (cos x) + C.
1 + u2
√
sec3 x √ dx
26. I = √ dx. Let u = x, so du = √ . Then by Formula 82,
x 2 x
3 1 √ √ 1 √ √ √ √ √ √
I = 2 sec u du = 2 2 sec x tan x + 2 ln sec x + tan x + C = sec x tan x + ln sec x + tan x + C.

27. I = x 3 ln 5x dx. Let u = 5x, so du = 5 dx. Then I = 1 u 3 ln u · 1 du 1

= 625 u 3 ln u du. Using Formula 102
5 5
1 (5x)4 x4
with n = 3, we obtain I = · 2 [4 ln 5x − 1] + C = (4 ln 5x − 1) + C.
625 4 16
536 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

dx √ dx 1 dx du
28. I = √ . Let u = x, so du = √ . Then I = √ √ √ =2 . Now use Formula 103 to obtain
x ln x 2 x x ln x x u ln u
√
I = 2 ln ln x + C.

x −3 3−x
29. I = 6x − x 2 dx. Use Formula 115 with a = 3 to obtain I = 6x − x 2 + 92 cos−1 + C.
2 3

4x − 2x 2 √ 2x − x 2
30. I = dx = 2 dx. We use Formula 117 with a = 1, giving
x x
√
I = 2 2x − x 2 + cos−1 (1 − x) + C.
√
x 2 dx 3 x 2 dx
31. I = = . Use Formula 121 with a = 43 , giving
8x − 3x 2 3 8 x − x2
3
√ √
3 x +4 8 x − x 2 + 8 cos−1 4 − 3x 8 3 4 − 3x x +4
I = − 3 3 +C = cos−1 − 8x − 3x 2 + C.
3 2 4 9 4 6

32. I = e2x ln 1 + e2x dx. Let u = 1 + e2x , so du = 2e2x dx. Then by Formula 101,

I = 12 ln u du = 12 1 + e2x ln 1 + e2x − 1 + e2x + C = 12 1 + e2x ln 1 + e2x − 1 + C.

e2ln t dt dt 2 u du
33. I = √ . Let u = ln t, so du = , t = 1 ⇒ u = 0, and t = e2 ⇒ u = 2. Then I = √ . Now use
1 t 1 + ln t t 0 1+u
√ 2
Formula 28 with a = b = 1 to obtain I = 23 (u − 2) 1 + u = 43 .
0
π /4 dx π /4
sec2 x dx
34. I = = . Let u = tan x, so du = sec2 x dx, x = 0 ⇒
0 a 2 cos2 x + b2 sin2 x 0 a 2 + b2 tan2 x
1 du 1 1 du
u = 0, and x = π 4 ⇒ u = 1. Then I = 2 2 2
= 2 . Using Formula 17, we get
0 a +b u b 0 a 2 /b2 + u 2
1 b bu 1 1 b
I = · tan−1 = tan−1 .
b2 a a 0 ab a

35. I = ecos x sin 2x dx. Let u = cos x, so du = − sin x dx. Then I = 2 ecos x sin x cos x dx = −2 ueu du. Using
Formula 96 with a = 1, we get I = −2 (cos x − 1) ecos x + C.

36. I = e2x ln 1 + e x dx = e x ln 1 + e x e x dx . Let u = 1 + e x , so du = e x dx. Then

I = (u − 1) ln u du = u ln u du − ln u du. Using Formulas 102 and 101, we get
I = 14 u 2 (2 ln u − 1) − u ln u + u + C1 = 14 u [2 (u − 2) ln u − u + 4] + C1

= 14 1 + e x 2 e x − 1 ln 1 + e x − e x + 3 + C1 = 12 e2x − 1 ln 1 + e x − 14 e x e x − 2 + C

where C = C1 + 34 .

37. A = 1e x 2 ln x dx y
e
x3
= (3 ln x − 1) (by Formula 102)
9
1
5
e3 1
= (3 ln e − 1) − (−1)
9 9
= 19 2e3 + 1
0 1 2 e x
 Section 7.5 Integration Using Tables of Integrals and a CAS; Summary of Techniques 537

1 2 1 x2 + 1
38. f (x) = ln x ⇒ f (x) = , so 1 + f (x) = 1 + 2 = . y
x x x2
e
2
e x2 + 1 1
Therefore, L = 1 + f (x) dx = dx. We use
1 1 x
Formula 39 with a = 1, giving
e
1+ 1 + x2 0 1 2 e 3 x
L = 1 + x 2 − ln
x
1
1+ 1 + e2 √ √
= 1 + e2 − ln − 2 + ln 1 + 2 ≈ 2.0035
e

π /2 π /2 2 π /2
39. V = 0 πy 2 dx = π 0 cos2 x dx = π 0 cos4 x dx. Using y

Formula 70 with n = 4 gives 1

π /2 π /2 π /2
V =π 1 cos3 x sin x
4 + 34 0 cos2 x dx = 34π 0 cos2 x dx
0
π /2 π /2 π2
= 34π 0 21 (1 + cos 2x) dx = 38π x + 12 sin 2x = 316 0
0 1 ¹ x
2

40. V = 2π 01 x y dx = 2π 01 x sin−1 x dx. Using Formula 90, we obtain y

1
2x 2 − 1 −1 x 1 − x2 π2
V = 2π sin x + = 2π 14 · π
2 = .
4 4 4 1
0

0 1 x

π /2 π /2 π /2 π /2
41. m = 0 cos2 x dx = 12 0 (1 + cos 2x) dx = 12 x + 18 sin 2x = π
4 . My = 0 x cos2 x dx. Letting u = x
0
and dv = cos2 x dx, so du = dx and v = 12 x + 12 sin 2x , we have
π /2 π /2 π /2
M y = 12 x x + 12 sin 2x − 12 0 x + 12 sin 2x dx = 18 π 2 − 1 x 2 − 1 cos 2x
4 8
0 0
2
1 π2 − 1 = π − 4
= 18 π 2 − 16 4 16
My π2 − 4 4 π2 − 4
and so x = = · = .
m 16 π 4π
1 π/2 1 π/2 1 + cos 2x 2 1 π /2
Mx = cos4 x dx = dx = 0 1 + 2 cos 2x + cos2 2x dx
2 0 2 0 2 8
1 π/2 1 + cos 4x 3π
= 1 + 2 cos 2x + dx =
8 0 2 32
3π 4 3 π2 − 4 3
so y = · = . The centroid is thus , .
32 π 8 4π 8

b 4 x 2 dx
42. W = F (x) dx = . Using Formula 22 with a = 1 and b = 2, we find
a 0 (1 + 2x)2
1 1 4 20 − 9 ln 3
W= 1 + 2x − − 2 ln |1 + 2x| = ≈ 0.562 ft-lb.
8 1 + 2x 0 18
538 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

4 4 60 dt √
43. The number of visitors admitted by noon is N = R (t) dt = 3/2
. Using Formula 45 with a = 2, we find
0 0 2 + t2
4 4
dt t 4
N = 60 3/2
= 60 · = 60 √ ≈ 28.284, or approximately 28,284 people.
0 2 + t2 2 2 + t2 0 2 18

44. Using Formula 41,

5 3000 5 √
N (5) − N (0) = dt = 3000 ln t + 4 + t2 = 3000 ln 5 + 29 − ln 2 ≈ 4941.69.
0 4 + t2 0
Thus, N (5) ≈ 4942 + 20,000 = 24,942.

45. We use Formula 100 with a = 0.02 and b = 24. Over the first 10 days,
10 10 10
1 10 N (t) dt = 1
Nav = 10
1000 dt
= 100
dt
= 100 t + 0.102 ln 1 + 24e−0.02t
0 .
10 0 1 + 24e − 0 02t 0 1 + 24e−0.02t 0

≈ 44.0856
or approximately 44 fruit flies. Over the first 20 days,
1 20 1000 dt 20 dt 20
Nav = = 50 = 50 t + 0.102 ln 1 + 24e−0.02t ≈ 49 fruit flies.
20 0 1 + 24e−0.02t 0 1 + 24e −0.02t 0

1 v2 m 0 dv cm 0 v2 dv
46. m av = = . Using Formula 15, we find
v2 − v1 v1 2
1 − v /c 2 v2 − v1 v1 c − v2
2
cm 0 v v2 cm 0 v v
m av = sin−1 = sin−1 2 − sin−1 1 .
v2 − v1 c v1 v2 − v1 c c

2 2
47. y = x 2 ⇒ y = 2x, so 1 + y = 1 + 4x 2 and ds = 1+ y dx = 1 + 4x 2 dx.
Thus, S = 2π 01 y ds = 2π 01 x 2 1 + 4x 2 dx. Let u = 2x, so du = 2 dx. Then
2
S = 2π 02 12 u 1 + u 2 12 du = π 2 2
4 0 u 1 + u 2 du. Using Formula 38 with a = 1, we obtain
2 √ √ π 18√5 − ln 2 + √5 .
S=π u
4 8 1 + 2u
2 1 + u 2 − 18 ln u + 1 + u 2 =π 1 1
4 4 (9) 5 − 8 ln 2 + 5 = 32
0

48. y 2 = x 3 − x 4 ⇒ y = x x − x 2 . m = 2 01 y dx = 2 01 x x − x 2 dx. Using Formula 115 with a = 12 , we obtain

1
2x 2 − 12 x − 34 1 −x
1
m=2 x − x2 + 2
1
= 18 cos−1 (−1) − cos−1 (1) = π
cos−1 8 . Mx = 0 by symmetry
6 16
2 0
√
and M y = 2 01 x y dx = 2 01 x 2 x − x 2 dx = 2 01 x 5/2 1 − x dx. Using Formula 33 with a = 1, b = −1, and n = 52 ,
1 √ √
we obtain M y = (−48) x 5/2 (1 − x)3/2 − 52 01 x 3/2 1 − x dx = 54 01 x 3/2 1 − x dx. Using Formula 33 again with
0
1 √ √
n = 32 , we get M y = 54 · (−26) x 3/2 (1 − x)3/2 − 32 01 x 1/2 1 − x dx = 58 01 x 1/2 1 − x dx. Now put x = t 2 ,
0

so dx = 2t dt, x = 0 ⇒ t = 0, and x = 1 ⇒ t = 1. Then M y = 58 01 2t 2 1 − t 2 dt = 54 01 t 2 1 − t 2 dt. Using

1 5 sin−1 1 = 5 · π = 5π . Therefore,
Formula 47, we obtain M y = 54 18 t 2t 2 − 1 1 − t 2 + 18 sin−1 t = 32 32 2 64
0
/64
x = 5π 5 5
π /8 = 8 and the centroid is 8 , 0 .
 Section 7.5 Integration Using Tables of Integrals and a CAS; Summary of Techniques 539

d a2 − u2 u d 1/2 d u
49. − − sin−1 + C =− u −1 a 2 − u 2 − sin−1
du u a du du a
1/2 −1/2 1 1
= − −u −2 a 2 − u 2 + u −1 · 12 a 2 − u 2 (−2u) − ·
a
1 − (u/a)2
−1/2 1
= u −2 a 2 − u 2 a2 − u2 + u 2 −
a2 − u2
a2 1 a2 − u2 a2 − u2
= − = =
u2 a2 − u2 a2 − u2 u2 a2 − u2 u2
which is the integrand of the given integral, so the result is verified.
d 1 b a + bu 1 d b d 1 b b 1
50. − + 2 ln +C =− u −1 + 2 (ln |a + bu| − ln |u|) = 2 + 2 −
du au a u a du a du au a a + bu u
1 b −a 1 b a + bu − bu 1
= 2 + 2 = 2 − = 2 = 2
au a u (a + bu) au au (a + bu) au (a + bu) u (a + bu)
which is the integrand of the given integral, so the result is verified.
d 1 u n+1 1 u n+1 u n+1
51. u n+1 tan−1 u − du = (n + 1) u n tan−1 u + − = u n tan−1 u, which
du n+1 1 + u2 n+1 1 + u2 1 + u2
is the integrand of the given integral, so the result is verified.
d u n+1 n+1 n [(n + 1) ln u − 1] + u
n+1 n+1
52. [(n + 1) ln u − 1] + C = u · = u n ln u, which is the
du (n + 1)2 (n + 1)2 (n + 1)2 u
integrand of the given integral, so the result is verified.
√ 2 (x + 2)5/2 4 (x + 2)3/2 2 (2 + x)3/2 (−4 + 3x), and
53. I = x x + 2 dx. Maple gives I = − , Mathematica gives I = 15
5 3
2 (x + 2)3/2 (3x − 4)
the TI-89 gives I = .
15
√
x (1 + 2x)3/2 1 + 2x √
54. I = √ dx. Maple gives I = − , Mathematica gives I = 13 (−1 + x) 1 + 2x, and the
1 + 2x 6 2
√
(x − 1) 2x + 1
TI-89 gives I = .
3
√ √
x +1 √ √ x +2 2
55. I = √ dx. Maple gives I = 2 x + 2 − 2 arctanh ,
x x +2 2
√
√ √ 2+x
Mathematica gives I = 2 2 + x − 2 arctanh √ , and the TI-89 gives
2
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
2 ln x + 2 − 2 − 2 ln x +2+ 2 +4 x +2
I = .
2
√
x2 + x + 1 1 1 2 2
√ (2x − 1) 3
56. I = dx. Maple gives I = 3 ln (x + 1) + 3 ln x − x + 1 + 3 3 arctan ,
x3 + 1 3

2 arctan √1 (−1 + 2x)

3
Mathematica gives I = √ + 13 ln 1 + x 3 , and the TI-89 gives
3
√ √
ln (x + 1) x 2 − x + 1 2 3 tan−1 13 3 (2x − 1)
I = + .
3 3
57. I = cos4 x dx. Maple and the TI-89 give I = 14 cos3 x sin x + 38 cos x sin x + 38 x and Mathematica gives
I = 38 x + 14 sin 2x + 32
1 sin 4x.
540 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

58. I = tan5 x dx. Maple gives I = 14 tan4 x − 12 tan2 x + 12 ln 1 + tan2 x , Mathematica gives

4 cos4 x ln |cos x| + sin2 x 3 cos2 x − 1

I = − ln (cos x) − sec2 x + 14 sec4 x, and the TI-89 gives I = − .
4 cos4 x

59. I = x 5 e x dx. Maple gives I = x 5 e x − 5x 4 e x + 20x 3 e x − 60x 2 e x + 120xe x − 120e x ,

Mathematica gives I = e x −120 + 120x − 60x 2 + 20x 3 − 5x 4 + x 5 , and the TI-89 gives

I = x 5 − 5x 4 + 20x 3 − 60x 2 + 120x − 120 e x .

60. I = x 3 e−2x dx. Maple gives I = − 12 x 3 e−2x − 34 x 2 e−2x − 34 xe−2x − 38 e−2x , Mathematica gives
I = − 18 e−2x 3 + 6x + 6x 2 + 4x 3 , and the TI-89 gives I = − 12 x 3 − 34 x 2 − 34 x − 38 e−2x .

e2x 3/2 √ √
61. I = √ dx. Maple gives I = 23 e x + 1 − 2 e x + 1, Mathematica gives I = 23 −2 + e x 1 + e x , and the
x
e +1
√
2 ex − 2 ex + 1
TI-89 gives I = .
3

62. I = x sin−1 x dx. Maple gives I = 12 x 2 arcsin x + 14 x 1 − x 2 − 14 arcsin x, Mathematica gives

I = 14 x 1 − x 2 + −1 + 2x 2 arcsin x , and the TI-89 gives I = 12 x 2 − 14 sin−1 x + 14 x 1 − x 2 .

x dx
63. I = √
3
. Let u = 2 − x, so du = −dx. Then
2−x
2−u
I = (−du) = u 2/3 − 2u −1/3 du = 35 u 5/3 − 3u 2/3 + C = 35 u 2/3 (u − 5) + C
u 1/3
= 35 (2 − x)2/3 (2 − x − 5) + C = − 35 (x + 3) (2 − x)2/3 + C

t 3 dt
64. I = . Let t = sin θ, so dt = cos θ dθ. Then
1 − t2 1
t
sin3 θ ¬
I = cos θ dθ = sin3 θ dθ = sin2 θ sin θ dθ
1 − sin2 θ Ï1-t@

= 1 − cos2 θ sin θ dθ = − cos θ + 13 cos3 θ + C

= − 13 cos θ 3 − cos2 θ + C = − 13 1 − t 2 3 − 1 − t 2 +C

= − 13 t 2 + 2 1 − t2 + C

cos (1/x) 1 dx
65. I = dx. Let u = , so du = − 2 . Then I = − cos u du = − sin u + C = − sin (1/x) + C.
x2 x x

66. I = 1 + 2 cos2 x sin 2x dx. Let u = cos2 x, so du = −2 cos x sin x dx = − sin 2x dx. Then
3/2
I = − (1 + 2u)1/2 du = − 12 · 23 (1 + 2u)3/2 + C = − 13 1 + 2 cos2 x + C.

1/2 x +1 1/2 −1/2 1/2 dx 1/2 1/2 1/2

67. dx = x 1 − x2 dx + = − 12 (2) 1 − x 2 + sin−1 x
0 1 − x2 0 0 1 − x2 0 0
1/2 √
= − 34 + 1 + sin−1 1
2 =1+ π
6 − 2
3
 Section 7.5 Integration Using Tables of Integrals and a CAS; Summary of Techniques 541

(x + 3) dx (x + 3) dx
68. I = = upon completing the square in the radicand. Let u = x + 2, so du = dx. Then
5 − 4x − x 2 9 − (x + 2)2
u+1 −1/2 du 1/2
I = du = u 9 − u2 du + = − 12 (2) 9 − u 2 + sin−1 13 u + C
9 − u2 32 − u 2
x +2
= sin−1 − 5 − 4x − x 2 + C
3
1 x dx
69. I = . Let u = x 2 , so du = 2x dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 0, and x = 1 ⇒ u = 1. Then
0 x4 + 3
√
1 1 du 1 1 u 1
−1 √ 3π
I = 0 2
= · √ tan = .
2 u +3 2 3 3 0 36

√ 2
1/ 2 sin−1 x dx
70. I = dx. Let u = sin−1 x, so du = , x = 0 ⇒ u = 0, and x = √1 ⇒ u = π
4 . Then
0 1 − x2 1 − x2 2

π /4 2 π /4
I = 0 u du = 13 u 3 1 π3 .
= 192
0

dx dx
71. I = . Let u = ln x, so du = . Then, using Formula 41 or the substitution x = tan θ,
x
x 1 + (ln x)2
du
I = = ln u + 1 + u 2 + C = ln ln x + 1 + (ln x)2 + C.
1 + u2
√ √ dx
72. I = e x dx. Let u = x, so du = √ and dx = 2u du. Then, integrating by parts or using Formula 96,
2 x
√ √
I = 2 ueu du = 2 (u − 1) eu + C = 2 x − 1 e x + C.
√eln x + 3
73. I = dx. Let u = ln x, so du = dx/x, x = 1 ⇒ u = 0, and x = e ⇒ u = 1. Then
1 x
√ √
e ln x + 3 1 2 1
16 √ 2 8−3 3
dx = (u + 3)1/2 du = (u + 3)3/2 = −2 3 = .
1 x 0 3 0 3 3

e x dx
74. I = √ . Let u = e x , so du = e x dx. Then
1 − ex
du √
I = √ = (1 − u)−1/2 du = −2 (1 − u)1/2 + C = −2 1 − e x + C.
1−u
3
3 1 3x
75. I = x 2 3x +1 dx. Let u = x 3 + 1, so du = 3x 2 dx. Then I = 13 3u du = · 3u + C = + C.
3 ln 3 ln 3
dx
76. I = tan−1 x dx. Let u = tan−1 x and dv = dx, so du = and v = x. Then
1 + x2
x dx
I = x tan−1 x − = x tan−1 x − 12 ln 1 + x 2 + C.
1 + x2
dx
77. I = x sin−1 x dx. Let u = sin−1 x and dv = x dx, so du = and v = 12 x 2 . Then
1 − x2
1 x 2 dx
I = uv − v du = 12 x 2 sin−1 x − . To evaluate the integral, we can use the substitution x = sin θ or
2 1 − x2
Formula 50 to obtain I = 12 x 2 sin−1 x − 12 − 12 x 1 − x 2 + 12 sin−1 x + C = 14 2x 2 − 1 sin−1 x + x 1 − x 2 + C.
542 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

78. I = 1e sin (ln x) dx. Let u = ln x, so du = dx/x ⇒ dx = eu du, x = 1 ⇒ u = 0, and

x = e ⇒ u = 1. Then I = 01 eu sin u du. Integrating by parts or using Formula 98, we obtain
1
I = 12 eu (sin u − cos u) = 12 e (sin 1 − cos 1) − 12 (−1) = 12 (e sin 1 − e cos 1 + 1).
0
√
79. I = 2 5 x 2 − 4 dx. Using Formula 55 with a = 2 (or using the substitution x = 2 sec θ), we obtain
√ √ √ √ √
5 √
I = 12 x x 2 − 4 − 42 ln x + x2 − 4 = 25 − 2 ln 5 + 1 + 2 ln 2 = 2 ln √ 2 + 25 = 2 ln 52−1 + 25 .
2 5+1

80. I = x 2 e3x dx. We can integrate by parts twice, or use Formula 97 twice, obtaining
I = 13 x 2 e3x − 23 xe3x dx = 13 x 2 e3x − 23 13 xe3x − 13 e3x dx = 13 x 2 e3x − 29 xe3x + 27
2 e3x + C

1 9x 2 − 6x + 2 e3x + C
= 27

2 ln x dx dx 1
81. I = dx. Let u = ln x and dv = , so du = and v = − . Then
1 x2 x2 x x
ln x 2 2 dx ln 2 1 2 ln 2 1
I = uv|21 − 12 v du = − + 2
= − − =− − + 1 = 12 (1 − ln 2).
x 1 1 x 2 x 1 2 2

2
82. sin2 x cos5 x dx = sin2 x cos4 x cos x dx = sin2 x 1 − sin2 x cos x dx

= sin2 x − 2 sin4 x + sin6 x cos x dx = 13 sin3 x − 25 sin5 x + 17 sin7 x + C

83. I = x tan2 x dx = x sec2 x − 1 dx = x sec2 x dx − x dx. We integrate the first integral

on the right-hand side by parts with u = x and dv = sec2 x dx, so du = dx and v = tan x. Then
sin x
I = x tan x − tan x dx − x dx = x tan x − dx − 12 x 2 = x tan x + ln |cos x| − 12 x 2 + C.
cos x

84. I = e x sin2 x dx. Let u = sin2 x and dv = e x dx, so du = 2 sin x cos x dx and v = e x . Then
I = uv − v du = e x sin2 x − e x sin 2x dx. We can integrate by parts again or use Formula 98 with a = 1 and b = 2 to
obtain
I = e x sin2 x − 15 e x (sin 2x − 2 cos 2x) + C = 15 e x 2 cos 2x − sin 2x + 5 sin2 x + C

= 15 e x 2 + sin2 x − sin 2x + C

π /3 √
85. I = 0 1 − cos x dx. Now 1 − cos x = 2 sin2 12 x, so
π /3 √ √ π /3 √ √ √ √
I = 0 2 sin 12 x dx = −2 2 cos 12 x = −2 2 23 − 1 = 2 2 − 3 .
0

86. sin 3x cos 4x dx = 12 [sin (3 − 4) x + sin (3 + 4) x] dx = 12 (− sin x + sin 7x) dx = 12 cos x − 17 cos 7x + C
1 (7 cos x − cos 7x) + C
= 14

dx dx √ dx
87. I = √ = √ √ . Let u = x + 1 + 1, so du = √ . Then
x +1+ x +1 x +1 x +1+1 2 x +1
du √
I =2 = 2 ln |u| + C = 2 ln x + 1 + 1 + C.
u
 Section 7.5 Integration Using Tables of Integrals and a CAS; Summary of Techniques 543

dx cos x dx x u 2 − 1 du
88. I = = . Use the substitution u = tan . This gives I = 2 .
1 + tan x sin x + cos x 2 u 2 + 1 u 2 − 2u − 1
Now the method of partial fractions gives
1 −u + 1 u−1 u du du (u − 1) du
I =2· du + du = − + +
2 u2 + 1 u 2 − 2u − 1 u2 + 1 u2 + 1 u 2 − 2u − 1
1 u 2 − 2u − 1
= − 12 ln u 2 + 1 + tan−1 u + 12 ln u 2 − 2u − 1 + C = ln + tan−1 u + C
2 u2 + 1
x x
1 tan2 − 2 tan − 1 x
= ln 2 2 + + C = 12 ln |sin x + cos x| + 12 x + C
2 x 2
sec2
2
dx dx du
89. I = = . Let u = x − 3, so du = dx. Then I = . Now use the substitution
x 2 − 6x (x − 3)2 − 9 u2 − 9

u = 3 sec θ, or apply Formula 59 to get I = ln x − 3 + x 2 − 6x + C.

π /2 sin x dx
90. I = √ . Let u 2 = cos x, so 2u du = − sin x dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 1, and x = π
2 ⇒ u = 0. Then
0 1 + cos x
0 2u du 1 2u du 1 2
I =− = = 2− du = 2 (u − ln |u + 1|)|10 = 2 (1 − ln 2).
1 1+u 0 u+1 0 u+1

91. I = cot4 2x dx. Let u = 2x, so du = 2 dx. Then using Formulas 84 and 80, we obtain
I = 12 cot4 u du = − 16 cot3 u + 12 cot u + 12 u + C = − 16 cot3 2x + 12 cot 2x + x + C.

9 − 4x 2 9 − 4x 2 9 − u2
92. I = dx. Let u = 2x, so du = 2 dx. Then dx = du. Using Formula 48 with a = 3,
x x u
9 − 4x 2 3+ 9 − 4x 2
we obtain dx = 9 − 4x 2 − 3 ln + C.
x 2x

x2 + 9
93. I = dx. We can use the substitution x = 3 tan θ, or we can apply Formula 39 with a = 3 to get
x
3+ x2 + 9
I = x 2 + 9 − 3 ln + C.
x

π /4 π /4 π /4
94. 0 tan3/2 x sec4 x dx = 0 tan3/2 x sec2 x sec2 x dx = 0 tan3/2 x 1 + tan2 x sec2 x dx
π /4 π /4
= 0 tan3/2 x + tan7/2 x sec2 x dx = 2 tan5/2 x + 2 tan9/2 x
5 9 = 25 + 29 = 28
45
0
dx dx
95. I = = . Using partial fraction decomposition, we can write
x3 − 1 (x − 1) x 2 + x + 1
1 1 x +2 1 x + 12 + 32
I = − dx = 13 ln |x − 1| − dx
3 x − 1 x2 + x + 1 3 x2 + x + 1
1 x + 12 1 3
2
= 13 ln |x − 1| − 2
dx − 2
dx
3 x +x +1 3
x + 12 + 34
√ √
= 13 ln |x − 1| − 13 · 12 ln x 2 + x + 1 − 13 · 32 · 2 3 3 tan−1 3
3 (2x + 1) + C
√ √
= 13 ln |x − 1| − 16 ln x 2 + x + 1 − 33 tan−1 3
3 (2x + 1) + C
 544 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

1 x 3 dx x3 A B Cx + D
96. I = . We write = + + 2 and find A = 2,
0 (x + 1)2 x 2 + x + 1 (x + 1)2 x 2 + x + 1 x + 1 (x + 1)2 x +x +1
1 dx 1 1 x +1
B = C = D = −1. Thus, I = 2 − (x + 1)−2 dx − dx
0 x +1 0 0 x2 + x + 1
1 1 1 x+ 1 1 1
= [2 ln |x + 1|]10 + − 2 dx − 2 dx
x +1 0 0 x2 + x + 1 0 x+ 1 2+ 3
2 4
1 √ √ 1
= 2 ln 2 − 12 − 12 ln x 2 + x + 1 − 12 · 2 3 3 tan−1 2 3 3 x + 12
0 0
√ √ √
= 1 1 3
2 ln 2 − 2 − 2 ln 3 − 3 tan − 1 3 − tan−1 3
3
√
= 1 1 3 π π
2 ln 2 − 2 − 2 ln 3 − 3 3 − 6 ≈ 0.0347

dx dxdx dx
97. I = = = = . We write
x4 + x2 + 1 x 4 + 2x 2 − x 2 + 1
2
x2 + 1 − x2 x2 + x + 1 x2 − x + 1
1 Ax + B Cx + D
= 2 + and find that A = B = D = 12 and C = − 12 , so
x2 + x + 1 x2 − x + 1 x + x + 1 x2 − x + 1
1 x +1 1 x −1
I = 2
dx − 2
dx
2 x +x +1 2 x −x +1
1 x + 12 1 1 1 x − 12 1 1
= 2
dx + 2
dx − dx + dx
2 x +x +1 4 2 x2 − x + 1 4 2
x + 12 + 34 x − 12 + 34
√ √ √
1 x2 + x + 1 3 3 (2x + 1) 3 (2x − 1)
= ln 2 + tan−1 + tan−1 +C
4 x −x +1 6 3 3

x 4 dx x 4 dx
98. I = =− . By long division, x + 3
(1 − x)3 (x − 1)3
x 3 − 3x 2 + 3x − 1 x4
x4 6x 2 − 8x + 3
= x +3+ , and x 4 − 3x 3 + 3x 2 − x
(x − 1)3 (x − 1)3
3x 3 − 3x 2 + x
6x 2 − 8x + 3 A B C
= + + ⇒ 3x 3 − 9x 2 + 9x − 3
(x − 1)3 x − 1 (x − 1)2 (x − 1)3
6x 2 − 8x + 3
A = 6, B = 4, and C = 1, so
6 4 1 4 1
I =− x +3+ + + dx = − 12 x 2 + 3x + 6 ln |x − 1| − − +C
x − 1 (x − 1)2 (x − 1)3 x − 1 2 (x − 1)2
x 4 + 4x 3 − 11x 2 − 2x + 7
= −6 ln |x − 1| − +C
2 (x − 1)2
2 x 2 2 x2 u
99. I = xe x +e dx = xe x · ee dx. Let u = x 2 , so du = 2x dx. Then I = 12 eu ee du. Now let v = eu , so
u x 2
dv = eu du. Then I = 12 ev dv = 12 ev + C = 12 ee + C = 12 ee + C.
π /4 sin x dx √
100. I = 2
. Let u = cos x, so du = − sin x dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 1, and x = π
4 ⇒ u = 22 . Then
0 1 − 4 cos x
√ √ √
2/2 du 2/2 du 1 2/2 1 1
I =− 2
=− =− + du
1 1 − 4u 1 (1 − 2u) (1 + 2u) 2 1 1 − 2u 1 + 2u
√ √
2/2 2+1
= − 12 − 12 ln |1 − 2u| + 12 ln |1 + 2u| = − 14 ln √
1 3 2−1
 Section 7.6 Improper Integrals 545

7.6 Concept Questions

1. a. See page 655, Definition 2. b. See page 655, Definition 1. c. See page 655, Definition 3.

2. a. See page 660, Definition 1. b. See page 660, Definition 2. c. See page 660, Definition 3.

3. See page 664.

7.6 Improper Integrals

4 4
dx √
1. A = = lim a4 (x − 1)−1/2 dx = lim 2 (x − 1)1/2 = lim 2 31/2 − 2 (a − 1)1/2 = 2 3
√
1 x − 1 a→1 + a→1 +
a a→1 +

4 b b √
dx −3/ 2 2 2 2 3
2. A = = lim (4 − x) dx = lim √ = lim √ − = ∞, so the area does not
1 (4 − x)3/2 b→4− 1 b→4− 4 − x 1 b→4− 4 − b 3
exist.
b
b −2x
3. A = 0∞ e−2x dx = lim e dx = lim − 12 e−2x = lim − 12 e−2b + 12 = 12
b→∞ 0 b→∞ 0 b→∞
0
0 0 2x 1 e2 x − e x
4. A = − −∞ e2x − e x dx = − lim e − e x dx = − lim
a→−∞ a a→−∞ 2 a
= − lim 1 −1 − 1 e2a − ea = 12
a→−∞ 2 2

∞ x2 ∞ dx 0 dx b dx
5. A = 1− dx = = lim + lim
−∞ 1 + x2 −∞ 1 + x 2 a→−∞ a 1 + x 2 b→∞ 0 1 + x 2
0 b
= lim tan−1 x + lim tan−1 x = lim − tan−1 a + lim tan−1 b = − − π π
2 + 2 =π
a→−∞ a b→∞ 0 a→−∞ b→∞
0 dx ∞ dx
Note that we could have used symmetry: A = 2 =2 .
−∞ 1 + x 2 0 1 + x2
0 dx −1 0
6. A = = (x + 1)−2/3 dx + (x + 1)−2/3 dx
−2 (x + 1)2/3 −2 −1
b 0 b 0
= lim (x + 1)−2/3 dx + lim (x + 1)−2/3 dx = lim 3 (x + 1)1/3 + lim 3 (x + 1)1/3
b→−1− −2 a→−1+ a b→−1− −2 a→−1+ a

= lim 3 (b + 1)1/3 − 3 (−1) + lim 3 − 3 (a + 1)1/3 = 3 + 3 = 6

b→−1− a→−1+
∞ dx b b
7. = lim x −3 dx = lim − 1 1
= lim − 2 +
1
=
1
1 x 3 b→∞ 1 b→∞ 2
2x 1 b→∞ 2b 2 2
∞ dx b b
8. 0. 99
= lim x −0.99 dx = lim 100x 0.01 = lim 100b0.01 − 100 = ∞, so the integral diverges.
1 x b→∞ 1 b→∞ 1 b→∞
∞ dx b b
9. 1. 01
= lim x −1.01 dx = lim −100x −0.01 = lim −100b−0.01 + 100 = 100
1 x b→∞ 1 b→∞ 1 b→∞
∞ dx b 1 b 1
10. = lim (x + 1)−2 dx = lim − = lim − +1 =1
0 (x + 1)2 b→∞ 0 b→∞ x + 1 0 b→∞ b+1
b √ √
∞ dx b −2 −2 2 3 2 3
11. = lim (x + 2)−3/2 dx = lim = lim + =
1 (x + 2)3/2 b→∞ 1 b→∞ (x + 2)1/2 1 b→∞ (b + 2)1/2 3 3
546 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

∞ dx b b
12. √
3
= lim (x − 1)−1/3 dx = lim 32 (x − 1)2/3 = lim 32 (b − 1)2/3 − 32 = ∞, so the integral
2 x − 1 b→∞ 2 b→∞ 2 b→∞
diverges.
b 1
13. 1∞ e−2x dx = lim 1b e−2x dx = lim − 12 e−2x = lim − 12 e−2b + 12 e−2 = 2
b→∞ b→∞ 1 b→∞ 2e
∞ dx b (ln x)−2 1 b 1
14. = lim dx = lim − = lim − +1 =1
e x ln2 x b→∞ e x b→∞ ln x e b→∞ ln b
15. 0∞ sin x dx = lim 0b sin x dx = lim [− cos x]b0 = lim (− cos b + 1), which does not exist. The integral diverges.
b→∞ b→∞ b→∞

16. I = 0∞ e−x sin x dx = lim 0b e−x sin x dx. Using the result from Exercise 7.1.16, we find
b→∞
b
I = lim − 12 e−x (sin x + cos x) = lim − 12 e−b (sin b + cos b) + 12 = 12 .
b→∞ 0 b→∞
∞ x dx b x dx b
17. = lim = lim 12 ln 1 + x 2 = lim 1 ln 1 + b2 = ∞, so the integral diverges.
0 1 + x2 b→∞ 0 1 + x 2 b→∞ 0 b→∞ 2
0 0
18.
dx
= lim
dx
= lim 1 tan−1 1 (x + 1) 0
x 2 2x 5 2 2 2
−∞ + + a→−∞ a (x + 1) + 4 a→−∞ a

= lim 1 tan−1 1 − 12 tan−1 12 (a + 1) = 12 tan−1 21 − 12 − π 1

2 = 2 tan
−1 1 + π
a→−∞ 2 2 2 4

∞ 0 ∞ dx ∞ dx b dx b
dx dx 1 lim tan−1 1 x
19. = + = 2 = 2 lim = 2 · 2 2
−∞ x 2 + 4 −∞ x 2 + 4 0 x2 + 4 0 x2 + 4 b→∞ 0 x 2 + 4 b→∞ 0
= lim tan−1 12 b − 0 = π
2
b→∞
2 0 2 2 2 2
∞
20. −∞ xe−x dx = −∞ xe−x dx + 0∞ xe−x dx = lim a0 xe−x dx + lim 0b xe−x dx
a→−∞ b→∞
2 0 2 b 2 2
= lim − 12 e−x + lim − 12 e−x = lim − 12 + 12 e−a + lim − 12 e−b + 12 = − 12 + 12
a→−∞ a b→∞ 0 a→−∞ b→∞

=0
∞ e x dx 0 e x dx b e x dx e x dx e x dx
21. 2
= lim 2
+ lim . Consider the indefinite integral I = = .
−∞ 1 + e x a→−∞ a 1 + e x b→∞ 0 1 + e2x 1 + e2x 1 + (e x )2
du
Let u = e x , so du = e x dx. Then I = = tan−1 u + C = tan−1 e x + C. Using this result, we find
1 + u2
∞ e x dx 0 b
= lim tan−1 e x + lim tan−1 e x = lim π − tan−1 ea + lim tan−1 eb − π = 0+
−∞ 1 + e 2 x a→−∞ a b→∞ 0 a→−∞ 4 b→∞ 4
π = π.
2 2
∞ 0
22. −∞ cos2 x dx = −∞ cos2 x dx + 0∞ cos2 x dx, provided both integrals exist. But
0 2 lim a0 12 (1 + cos 2x) dx = lim 1 x + 1 sin 2x 0 = lim − 12 a − 14 sin 2a
−∞ cos x dx = a→−∞ a→−∞ 2 4 a a→−∞
= ∞, so the
integral diverges.
∞ x dx0 x dx ∞ x dx 0 x dx b x dx
23. /
= /
+ /
= lim /
+ lim
2
−∞ x + 1 3 2 2
−∞ x + 1 3 2 0 2
x +1
3 2 a→−∞ 2
a x +1 3 2 b→∞ 0 x + 1 3/2
2

1 0 1 b
= lim 1 (−2) x 2 + 1 − 2 + lim 1 (−2) x 2 + 1 − 2
a→−∞ 2 b→∞ 2
a 0
1 1
= lim −1 + + lim − + 1 = −1 + 1 = 0
a→−∞ a2 + 1 b→∞ b2 + 1
 Section 7.6 Improper Integrals 547

0
∞ −|x|
24. −∞ e dx = −∞ e x dx + 0∞ e−x dx = lim a0 e x dx + lim 0b e−x dx = lim 1 − ea + lim −e−b + 1
a→−∞ b→∞ a→−∞ b→∞

=1+1=2
1 dx 1
25. = lim a1 x −2/3 dx = lim 3x 1/3 = lim 3 1 − a 1/3 = 3
0 x 2/3 a→0+ a→0+ a a→0+
1 dx 0 1
a 1
26. 2
= x −2 dx + x −2 dx = lim −a 2 x −2 dx + lim b1 x −2 dx = lim −1/x −2 + lim −1/x b
−2 x −2 0 a→ 0− b→ 0+ a→ 0− b→ 0+

= lim − a1 − 12 + lim −1 + b1 = ∞
a→0− b→0+
so the integral is divergent.
√
27. −1 8 1/ 3 x dx = −0 8 x −1/3 dx + 01 x 1/3 dx = lim −a 8 x −1/3 dx + lim b1 x −1/3 dx
a→0− b→0+

= lim 3 x 2/3 a + lim 3 x 2/3 1 = lim 3 a 2/3 − 3 · 4 + lim 3 − 3 b2/3 = −6 + 32 = − 92

a→0− 2 −8 b→0 + 2 b a→0− 2 2 b→0+ 2 2

2dx 3/2 dx 2 dx
28. = + . Since
0 2x − 3 0 2x − 3 3/2 2x −3
a dx
3/2 dx
= lim = lim 1 ln |2x − 3| a = lim 1 ln |2a − 3| − 1 ln 3 = ∞, we
0 2x − 3 2 2 2
a→(3/2) 0 2x − 3
− a→(3/2) − 0 a→(3/2)−
conclude that the integral is divergent.
4 dx b b √
29. = lim (4 − x)−2/3 dx = lim −3 (4 − x)1/3 = lim −3 (4 − b)1/3 + 3 31/3 =333
1 (4 − x)2/3 b→4− 1 b→4− 1 b→4−
2 dx 2 dx 2 −1/2 1/2 1 2 dx 1 2 dx
30. = = + dx = − + . But
0 x 2 − 2x 0 x (x − 2) 0 x x −2 2 0 x 2 0 x −2
2 dx
2 dx 2
x
= lim a x = lim+ [ln x]a = lim+ (ln 2 − ln a) = ∞, so the integral is divergent.
0 a→0+ a→0 a→0
4
dx 1 dx 4 dx √
31. √= √ + √ . For the first integral, put u = x, so
0 x −1 0 x −1 1 x −1
dx
du = √ ⇒ dx = 2u du, x = 0 ⇒ u = 0, and x = 1 ⇒ u = 1. Then
2 x
1 dx 1 2u du 1 1
√ = =2 1+ du = [2u]10 + 2 lim [ln |u − 1|]c0 = −∞, so the integral diverges.
0 x −1 0 u−1 0 u−1 c→1−
32. Using the result of Example 6, we find
e e e
0 ln x dx = lim+ a ln x dx = lim+ [x ln x − x]a = lim+ [0 − (a ln a − a)]
a→0 a→0 a→0
1 − ln a
= lim [a (1 − ln a)] = lim (an indeterminate form; use l’Hôpital’s Rule)
a→0+ a→0+ 1/a
−1/a
= lim = lim a = 0
a→0+ −1/a 2 a→0+
33. Using the result of Example 2,
1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
0 x ln x dx = lim+ a x ln x dx = lim+ 4 x (2 ln x − 1) a = lim+ − 4 − 4 a (2 ln a − 1)
a→0 a→0 a→0
1 1 2 ln a − 1
=− − lim (an indeterminate form; use l’Hôpital’s Rule)
4 4 a→0+ 1/a 2
1 1 2/a
=− − lim = − 14 + 14 lim a 2 = − 14
4 4 a→0+ −2/a 3 a→0+
548 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

π /2
34. 0π sec2 x dx = 0 sec2 x dx + ππ/2 sec2 x dx = lim c 2
0 sec x dx + lim π 2
c sec x dx, but
c→(π /2)− c→(π /2)+
c 2
lim 0 sec x dx = lim tan c = ∞, and the integral diverges.
c→(π /2)− c→(π /2)−
π /2 cos x dx c cos x dx √ √ √
c
35. √ = lim √ = lim −2 1 − sin x π/6 = −2 (0) − (−2) 22 = 2
π /6 1 − sin x c→(π /2) π /6 1 − sin x
− c→(π/2)−

π /2 c c
36. 0 tan2 x dx = lim 2
0 tan x dx = lim 2
0 sec x − 1 dx = lim [tan x − x]c0
c→(π /2)− c→(π /2)− c→(π /2)−

= lim (tan c − c) = ∞
c→(π /2)−
so the integral diverges.
b
∞ ln x b ln x x −1/2 4
37. dx = lim dx = lim − 12 ln x − 1 (by Formula 102) = lim √ − 12 ln b − 1 + 4 = 4
1 x 3/2 b→∞ 1 x 3/2 b→∞ 1/4
1
b→∞ b

√ 1/2
∞ tan−1 x b tan−1 x 3/2 b 3/2
38. 2
dx = lim 2
dx = lim 23 tan−1 x = lim 23 tan−1 b − 23 (0)
0 1+x b→∞ 0 1+x b→∞ 0 b→∞
√
3/2
= 23 π
2 = 62 π 3/2
∞ dx −1 0 1 ∞
39. = x −4/3 dx + x −4/3 dx + x −4/3 dx + x −4/3 dx provided all four integrals exist. But
−∞ x 4/3 −∞ −1 0 1
0 −4/3 3 c 3
−1 x dx = lim −c 1 x −4/3 dx = lim − 1/3 = lim − 1/3 + 3 = −∞, so the integral diverges.
c→0− c→0− x −1 c→0 − c
∞ dx 1 dx ∞ dx
40. x = x + x , but
0 e −1 0 e −1 1 e −1
1 dx 1 dx 1 e−x dx
1
x = lim x = lim = lim ln 1 − e−x a = lim ln 1 − e−1 − ln 1 − e−a
0 e −1 a→0 a e − 1
+ a→0 a 1 − e−x
+ a→0+ a→0+

=∞
so the integral is divergent.
ln x
√ dx, we use parts with u = ln x and dv = x −1/2 dx ⇒
41. Working with the indefinite integral I =
x
√ √ √ √ √
du = dx/x and v = 2 x: I = 2 x ln x − 2x −1/2 dx = 2 x ln x − 4 x + C = 2 x (ln x − 2) + C,
1 ln x √ √
1
so √ dx = lim 2 x (ln x − 2) a = lim −4 − 2 a (ln a − 2) = −4 since, by l’Hôpital’s Rule,
0 x a→ 0+ a→ 0+

ln a 1/a √
lim −1/2 = lim 1
= lim −2 a = 0.
a→0 a
+ a→0 − a
+ −3 /2 a→0 +
2
∞ dx 2 dx ∞ dx 2 dx b dx
42. = + = lim + lim
1 x x2 − 1 1 x x2 − 1 2 x x2 − 1 a→1+ a x x2 − 1 b→∞ 2 x x2 − 1
2 b
= lim sec−1 x + lim sec−1 x = lim sec−1 2 − sec−1 a + lim sec−1 b − sec−1 2
a→1+ a b→∞ 2 a→1+ b→∞

= sec−1 2 + π
2 − sec
−1 2 = π
2
1 1
43. Let f (x) = 2
and g (x) = . Then both f and g are continuous on [1, ∞), and furthermore f (x) > g (x)
x 1 + x2
∞ ∞ dx b 1
on [1, ∞). Since f (x) dx = 2
= lim x −2 dx = lim 1 − = 1 is convergent, we see that
1 1 x b→∞ 1 b→∞ b
∞ dx
∞
1 g (x) dx = is convergent also.
1 1 + x2
 Section 7.6 Improper Integrals 549

1 1
44. Let f (x) = and g (x) = . Then both f and g are continuous on
x 3/2 x3 + 1
1 1 1
[1, ∞). Furthermore, g (x) = < √ = 3/2 = f (x) on [1, ∞). Since
3
x +1 x 3 x
∞ ∞ dx b 2 ∞ dx
f (x) dx = 3/ 2
= lim x −3/2 dx = lim 2 − √ = 2 is convergent, so is .
1 1 x b→∞ 1 b→∞ b 1 x3 + 1

1 cos2 x cos2 x 1
45. Let f (x) = 2 and g (x) = . Then both f and g are continuous on [1, ∞), and furthermore g (x) = ≤ 2
x x2 x2 x
on [1, ∞). Since 1∞ f (x) dx is convergent by Exercise 43, so is 1∞ g (x) dx.

1 1
46. Let f (x) = . Then both f and g are continuous on [1, ∞), and furthermore f (x) ≥ g (x) on
and g (x) =
x + sin2 x x +1
∞ ∞ dx ∞
[1, ∞). Since g (x) dx = is divergent, so is f (x) dx.
1 1 x +1 1

2 + cos x 1
47. Let f (x) = √ and g (x) = √ . Then both f and g are continuous on [1, ∞), and furthermore f (x) ≥ g (x) on
x x
∞ ∞
[1, ∞) since 2 + cos x ≥ 1. Since g (x) dx diverges, so does f (x) dx.
1 1

1 1
48. Let f (x) = and g (x) = . Then both f and g are continuous on [1, ∞), and furthermore, since
x4 + x2 + 1 x2
√ ∞ ∞
x4 + x2 + 1 > x 4 = x 2 , we see that f (x) ≤ g (x). Since g (x) dx is convergent, so is f (x) dx.
1 1

2 2
49. Let us consider the indefinite integral I = x 5 e−x dx. Integrating by parts with u = x 4 and dv = xe−x ⇒ du = 4x 3 dx
2 2 2 2
and v = − 12 e−x , we find I = − 12 x 4 e−x + 2 x 3 e−x dx. We integrate by parts again with U = x 2 and dV = xe−x dx
2 2 2 2 2
⇒ dU = 2x dx and V = − 12 e−x : I = − 12 x 4 e−x +2 − 12 x 2 e−x + xe−x dx = − 12 x 4 + x 2 + 1 e−x +C. Thus,
∞ 5 −x 2 2
dx = lim 0b x 5 e−x dx = − lim 1 x 4 + x 2 + 1 e−x 2 b = lim − 1 b4 + b2 + 1 e−b2 + 1 = 1.
0 x e b→∞ b→∞ 2 0 b→∞ 2
We have used l’Hôpital’s Rule to evaluate the limit of the first term.

∞ 0 y
50. A = −∞ y dx = −∞ y dx + 0∞ y dx
2
0 dx dx
= lim + lim 1
a→−∞ a 1 x 2 − x + 1 b→∞ x 2 − x + 1
2 2
0 dx dx 1
= lim + lim
a→−∞ a 1 (x − 1)2 + 1 b→∞ (x − 1)2 + 1
2
0 b
= 2 lim tan−1 (x − 1) + 2 lim tan−1 (x − 1) -10 0 10 x
a→−∞ a b→∞ 0

= 2 lim tan−1 (−1) − tan−1 (a − 1) + 2 lim tan−1 (b − 1) − tan−1 (−1)

a→−∞ b→∞

= 2 −π π
4 − −2 +2 π − −π
2 4 = 2π
550 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

∞ ∞ 1 1 2
y
51. V = y 2 dx = π 2 2
− 4 dx
1 1 x x
∞ 1 2 1
= 4π − 6 + 8 dx
1 x4 x x
b 1
= 4π lim x −4 − 2x −6 + x −8 dx 0
b→∞ 1 2 3 4 5 x
b
= 4π lim − 13 x −3 + 25 x −5 − 17 x −7
b→∞ 1
1 2 1 1 2 1 32π
= 4π lim − + 5 − 7 − − + − =
b→∞ 3b3 5b 7b 3 5 7 105

2
52. y = e−x ⇒ y = −e−x , so 1 + y = 1 + e−2x . Thus, y

2
A = 2π 0∞ y 1 + y dx = 2π 0∞ e−x 1 + e−2x dx. Let u = e−x , 1

so du = −e−x dx. Then

e−x 1 + e−2x dx = − 1 + u 2 du
_1 0 1 2 x
= − 12 u 1 + u 2 + ln u + 1 + u2 +C
Therefore,
b −x b
A = 2π lim e 1 + e−2x dx = −π lim e−x 1 + e−2x + ln e−x + 1 + e−2x
b→∞ 0 b→∞ 0
√ √ √ √
= −π lim e−b 1 + e−2b + ln e−b + 1 + e−2b − 2 − ln 1 + 2 = π 2 + ln 1 + 2
b→∞

2
53. V = π 0∞ y 2 dx = π 0∞ e−x dx = π 0∞ e−2x dx y

b −2 x b
= π lim e dx = π lim − 12 e−2x 1
b→∞ 0 b→∞ 0

= π lim − 12 e−2b + 12 = π
2
b→∞

_1 0 1 2 x

b −x
54. V = 2π 0∞ x y dx = 2π 0∞ xe−x dx = 2π lim xe dx y
b→∞ 0
b
= 2π lim − (x + 1) e−x 0 (by parts) 1
b→∞
b+1
= 2π lim − + 1 = 2π
b→∞ eb
_1 0 1 2 x

1 dx c dx
55. A = = lim y
0 1 − x2 c→1− 0 1 − x2
c
= lim sin−1 x = lim sin−1 c = π
2 2
c→1− 0 c→1−

0 1 x
 Section 7.6 Improper Integrals 551

∞ 1 2 ∞ b 1
56. V = π y 2 dx = π dx = π lim x −2 dx = π lim 1 − = π. To find
1 1 x b→∞ 1 b→∞ b
1 1 2 1 x4 + 1
the surface area, note that y = ⇒ y = − 2 , so 1 + y = 1+ 4 = . Thus,
x x x x4
∞ ∞1 x4 + 1 ∞ x4 + 1
S = 2π y ds = 2π 4
dx = 2π dx. Let u = x 2 , so du = 2x dx, x = 1 ⇒ u = 1, and
1 1 x x 1 x3
x → ∞ ⇒ u → ∞. Then
b b
∞1 u2 + 1 u2 + 1 u2 + 1
S = 2π 2
du = π lim du = π lim ln u + u2 + 1 − (by Formula 40)
1 2 u b→∞ 1 u2 b→∞ u
1
b2 − 1 √ √
= π lim ln b + b2 + 1 − − ln 1 + 2 + 2 = ∞
b→∞ b
The surface area is infinite.

1 x 3/2 dx b x 3/2 dx √ dx
57. A = 2 √ = 2 lim √ . Let u = x, so du = √ ⇒ dx = 2u du, x = 0 ⇒ u = 0, and x = b ⇒
0 1−x b→1− 0 1−x 2 x
√ √
√ b u3 b u 4 du
u = b. Then A = 2 lim · 2u du = 4 lim . Now let u = sin θ, so du = cos θ dθ, u = 0
b→1− 0 1 − u2 b→1− 0 1 − u2
√ √
⇒ θ = 0, and u = b ⇒ θ = sin−1 b. Then
√
sin−1 b sin4 θ sin−1
√
b
A = 4 lim 0 · cos θ dθ = 4 lim 0 sin4 θ dθ
b→1− 1 − sin2 θ b→1−
−1
√
= 4 lim 3 θ − 1 sin 2θ + 1 sin 4θ sin b
(see Example 7.2.3)
b→1− 8 4 32 0
√ √ √
= 4 lim 3 sin−1
8 b − 14 sin 2 sin−1 b + 32
1 sin 4 sin−1 b = 4 38 π 1 1 3π
2 − 4 sin π + 32 sin 2π = 4
b→1−

3/2 1/2
58. x 2/3 + y 2/3 = a 2/3 ⇒ y = a 2/3 − x 2/3 ⇒ y = 32 a 2/3 − x 2/3 − 23 x −1/3 , so
⎡ 1/2 ⎤2
a 2/3 − x 2/3 a 2/3
2 ⎢ ⎥
1 + y = 1 + ⎣− 1/3 ⎦ = . By symmetry,
x x
a a a 1/3 a
2
L =4 1+ y dx = 4 dx = 4a 1/3 lim 0a x −1/3 dx = 4a 1/3 lim 32 x 2/3
0 0 x c→0+ c→0+ c

= 4a 1/3 lim 3 a 2/3 − 3 c2/3

2 2 = 4a 1/3 32 a 2/3 = 6a
c→0+

qQ ∞ dx qQ b qQ 1 a
59. W = a∞ F (x) dx = 2
= · lim x −2 dx = · lim −
4πε0 a x 4πε0 b→∞ a 4πε0 b→∞ x b
qQ 1 1 qQ
= · lim − + =
4πε0 b→∞ b a 4πaε0
552 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

Pα −α|x| Pα −αx
60. y = e (cos αx + sin α |x|). For x ≥ 0, y = e (cos αx + sin αx),
2k 2k
Pα2 −αx Pα3 −αx
y = − e sin αx, and y = e (sin αx − cos αx), so
k k
2
∞
2
∞ Pα3 −αx Ee P 2 α6 ∞ −2αx
W = Ee y dx = Ee e (sin αx − cos αx) dx = e (sin αx − cos αx)2 dx
0 0 k k2 0

Ee P 2 α6 b Ee P 2 α6 b
= 2
lim e−2αx (1 − 2 sin αx cos αx) dx = 2
lim e−2αx (1 − sin 2αx) dx
k b→∞ 0 k b→∞ 0
b
Ee P 2 α6 e−2αx Ee P 2 α5
= 2
− (2 − sin 2αx − cos 2αx) = lim 1 − e−2αb (2 − sin 2αb − cos 2αb)
k 4α 4k 2 b→∞
0
Ee P 2 α5
=
4k 2

qQ ∞ dx qQ b dx
61. W = a∞ F (x) dx = = lim
4πε0 a x x 2 + c2 4πε0 b→∞ a x x 2 + c2
b
qQ 1 x 2 + c2 + c
= lim − ln (by Formula 43)
4πε0 b→∞ c x
a
qQ 1 b2 + c2 + c 1 a 2 + c2 + c qQ a 2 + c2 + c
= lim − ln + ln = ln
4πε0 b→∞ c b c a 4πε0 c a

∞ mg R 2 b mg R 2 1 b 1 1
62. W = 2
dr = lim 2
dr = mg R 2 lim = mg R 2 lim − +
− = mg R. Equating this
R r b→∞ R r b→∞ r R b→∞ b R
√
value of W with the initial kinetic energy, we obtain mg R = 12 mv 02 ⇒ v 0 = 2g R.

R b R R
63. a. C V ≈ 0∞ Re−it dt = R lim 0b e−it dt = − lim e−i t = − lim e−ib − 1 =
b→∞ i b→∞ 0 i b→∞ i
10,000
b. Letting R = 10,000 and i = 0.1, we find C V = = $100,000.
0.1

64. Pav = lim b1 0b P (t) dt = lim b1 0b V I dt = lim b1 0b (V0 cos ωt) I0 cos (ωt + φ) dt
b→∞ b→∞ b→∞

= V0 I0 lim b1 0b (cos ωt) (cos ωt cos φ − sin ωt sin φ) dt = V0 I0 lim b1 0b cos φ cos2 ωt − sin φ cos ωt sin ωt dt
b→∞ b→∞

= V0 I0 lim b1 0b cos φ · 12 (1 + cos 2ωt) − sin φ cos ωt sin ωt dt

b→∞
b
= V0 I0 lim b1 cos φ 12 t + 41ω sin 2ωt − sin φ · 21ω sin2 ωt
b→∞ 0

= V0 I0 lim b1 cos φ 12 b + 41ω sin 2ωb − 21ω sin φ sin2 ωb = 12 V0 I0 cos φ

b→∞

1 ∞ −(1/2)[(x−160)/20]2
65. Using a calculator or computer, we find P = √ e dx ≈ 0.02275, that is, about 2.3%.
20 2π 200
 Section 7.6 Improper Integrals 553
√
x
66. 3y 2 = x (x − 1)2 ⇒ y = ± √ (x − 1). The required arc length is y
3
2 √
L = 2 01 1 + y dx, where y = √1 x (x − 1) = √1 x 3/2 − x 1/2
3 3

3 x 1/2 − 1 x −1/2 3x − 1 0 1 x
⇒ y = √1 2 2 = √ √ ⇒
3 2 3 x

2 3x − 1 2 9x 2 − 6x + 1 1 + 6x + 9x 2 (3x + 1)2
1+ y =1+
√ √ = 1+ = = , so
2 3 x 12x 12x 12x
√
1 3x + 1 3 1 √
L =2 √ √ dx = 3x 1/2 + x −1/2 dx = 33 lim a1 3x 1/2 + x −1/2 dx
0 2 3 x 3 0 a→0+
√ 1 √ √
= 33 lim 2x 3/2 + 2x 1/2 = 33 lim 2 + 2 − 2a 3/2 − 2a 1/2 = 4 3 3
a→0+ a a→0+

∞ 1 C b b
67. √ −√ dx = lim x −1/2 − C (x + 1)−1/2 dx = lim 2x 1/2 − 2C (x + 1)1/2
1 x x +1 b→∞ 1 b→∞ 1
1/ 2 1/ 2
√
= 2 lim b − C (b + 1) − 1 + 2C
b→∞
The limit clearly diverges to infinity if C ≤ 0, so assume that C > 0. Then the right-hand side of the expression can be
written
1/2 1/2
1/2 √ b1/2 − C 2 (b + 1) b1/2 + C 2 (b + 1) √
2 lim b1/2 − C 2 (b + 1) − 2 1 − 2C = 2 lim 1/2
− 2 + 2 2C
b→∞ b→∞ b1/2 + C 2 (b + 1) 1
√
= 2 lim 1 − C 2 b − C 2 − 2 + 2 2C
b→∞
⎧
⎪
⎪ ∞ if C < 1
1∞ C ⎨ √
From this, we can see that √ −√ dx = 2 2−1 if C = 1 Thus, the integral converges if
1 x x +1 ⎪
⎪
⎩
−∞ if C > 1
√
C = 1, in which case its value is 2 2−1 .

1 dx
68. a. Let u = , so du = − 2 , x → 0+ ⇒ u → ∞, and x → ∞ ⇒ u → 0. Then
x x
∞ x 2 dx 0 14 du ∞ du ∞ dx
u
I = 4
=− 1
= 4
= . Adding I to both sides of the last equation gives
0 x +1 ∞ 4 +1 0 1+u 0 x4 + 1
u
∞ x 2 dx ∞ x2 + 1 1
∞ dx 1 ∞ 1 + x2
2I = + = dx ⇒ I = dx.
0 x4 + 1 0 x4 + 1 0 x4 + 1 2 0 x 2 + 12
x
1 1
b. Let v = x − , so dv = 1+ 2 dx, x → 0+ ⇒ v → −∞, and x → ∞ ⇒ v → ∞. Also,
x x
1 2 1 1 1 ∞ dv
v2 + 2 = x − + 2 = x 2 − 2 + 2 + 2 = x 2 + 2 . Thus, I = .
x x x 2 −∞ v 2 + 2
∞ x 2 dx 1 ∞ dv ∞ dv
c. I = = = because the integrand is even. Continuing,
0 x4 + 1 2 −∞ v 2 + 2 0 v2 + 2
b dv b √ √ √
v 2 lim tan−1 b − 0 = 2 · π = 2 π.
I = lim = lim √1 tan−1 √ =
b→∞ 0 v 2 + 2 2 2 2 2 4
b→∞ 2 0 b→∞
554 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

∞ dx b dx
69. If p = 1, then = lim = lim (ln b − ln 1) = ∞, so the integral diverges. If p = 1, then
1 x b→∞ 1 x b→∞
⎧1
b ⎨
∞ dx
− p dx = lim x 1− p
b b1− p 1 if p > 1
= lim x = lim − = p − 1
1 xp b→∞ 1 b→∞ 1 − p b→∞ 1 − p 1− p ⎩
1 ∞ if p < 1
The integral converges if p > 1 and diverges if p ≤ 1.

70. a. b. Let us write

1 1 1
2 f (x) = = 3/2 · and
1 2 x 1 2
x3 1− 1− 1− 1−
x x x x
1 1 2 2 1
note that if x ≥ 3, then 1 − ≥ and 1 − ≥ . Thus,
x 3 x 3
√
1 2 2 1 2
0 1− 1− ≥ · = , and we see that
x x 3 3 3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
√
1 3 3 2
f (x) ≤ 3/2 · √ = 3/2 for all x in [3, ∞).
x 2 2x
√ √ √
3 2 ∞ 3 2 3 2 ∞ dx
c. Since f (x) ≤ g (x) = 3/2 on [3, ∞) and /
dx = is convergent ( p = 32 > 1), the
2x 3 2x 3 2 2 3 x 3/2
Comparison Test implies that I converges.

√ 1 dx
sin 1/ x 1
71. Observe that if 0 < x ≤ 1, then 0 ≤ √ ≤ √ . Since √ converges, the Comparison Test implies that
x x 0 x
1 sin 1/
√ √
1 sin 1/ x
x
√ dx converges, and so √ dx converges as well.
0 x 0 x

2 2 2 2 2
72. a. Let f (x) = e−x and g (x) = xe−x . Then for x ≥ 4, h (x) = g (x) − f (x) = xe−x − e−x = (x − 1) e−x > 0,
showing that f (x) < g (x) on [0, ∞). Thus,
∞ −x 2 2 2 2 b 2
4 e dx ≤ 4∞ xe−x dx = lim 4b xe−x dx = lim − 12 e−x = lim − 12 e−b + 12 e−16
b→∞ b→∞ 4 b→∞

= 12 e−16 ≈ 5.63 × 10−8 < 10−7

2 2 2 2 2
Writing 0∞ e−x dx = 04 e−x dx + 4∞ e−x dx, we see from the previous result that 0∞ e−x dx ≈ 04 e−x dx.
2
b. Using a calculator or computer, we find 04 e−x dx ≈ 0.8862.

t3 − t2 + 1 t 3/2
73. a. Let f (t) = ≤ = t −7/2 for t ≥ 1. This suggests b.
t5 + t + 2 t5
∞ −7/2
1 t dt as the “test integral”. 0.4

c. Since 1∞ t −7/2 dt is convergent (see Exercise 69), so is the original

0.2
integral.

0.0
1 2 3 4
 Section 7.6 Improper Integrals 555

1 − 4 sin 2x 1 − 4 sin 2x 1 + 4 |sin 2x| 5

74. a. Let f (x) = ≤ ≤ ≤ 3 b.
x 3 + x 1/3 x 3 + x 1/3 x 3 + x 1/3 x 1
for x ≥ 1. This suggests the “test integral” 1∞ 5x −3 dx.

c. Since 1∞ 5x −3 dx is convergent (see Exercise 69), so is the original 0

integral.

-1
1 2 3 4 5 6

∞ b 1 b 1 1 1
75. F (s) = 1 · e−st dt = lim e−st dt = lim − e−st = lim − e−sb + = if s > 0.
0 b→∞ 0 b→∞ s 0 b→∞ s s s
b b
∞ e−(s−a)t 1 − e−(s−a)b 1
76. F (s) = eat e−st dt = lim e−(s−a)t dt = lim = lim = if s > a.
0 b→∞ 0 b→∞ − (s − a) b→∞ s−a s−a
0
b b
∞ 1 1 (sb + 1) e−sb 1
77. F (s) = te−st dt = lim te−st dt = lim (−st − 1) e −st (by parts) = lim − = 2
0 b→∞ 0 b→∞ s 2 0 b→∞ s 2 s2 s
if s > 0.
b b
∞ e−st
78. F (s) = e−st cos ωt dt = lim e−st cos ωt dt = lim
(−s cos ωt + ω sin ωt) (using a table)
0 b→∞ 0 b→∞ s 2 + ω2 0
s e−sb (−s cos ωb + ω sin ωb) s
= lim − = 2 if s > 0.
b→∞ s 2 + ω 2 s 2 + ω2 s + ω2

79. G (s) = 0∞ f (t) e−st dt = lim 0b f (t) e−st dt. Let us calculate the indefinite integral I = f (t) e−st dt.
b→∞
Integrating by parts with u = e−st and dv = f (t) dt, so that du = −se−st dt and v = f (t), we find
I = e−st f (t) − f (t) −se−st dt = e−st f (t) + s f (t) e−st dt, so
b
G (s) = lim e−st f (t) 0 + s 0b f (t) e−st dt = lim e−sb f (b) − f (0) + s 0∞ f (t) e−st dt
b→∞ b→∞

= lim e−sb f (b) − f (0) + s F (s) = 0 − f (0) + s F (s) (using the given condition) = s F (s) − f (0)
b→∞
∞ 0
80. False. Consider f (x) = x. f is continuous on (−∞, ∞), and by definition, −∞ f (x) dx = −∞ x dx + 0∞ x dx.
0
Now −∞ x dx = lim 1 x 2 0 = lim − 12 a 2 = −∞, so the integral diverges. On the other hand,
a→−∞ 2 a a→−∞
t t
lim −t x dx = lim 12 x 2 = lim 12 t 2 − 12 (−t)2 = lim 0 = 0.
t→∞ t→∞ −t t→∞ t→∞
1 1
81. False. Let f (x) = . f is continuous on [0, ∞) and lim f (x) = lim = 0, but
x +1 x→∞ x→∞ x + 1
∞ ∞ dx b dx
f (x) dx = = lim = lim ln (b + 1) = ∞.
0 0 x +1 b→∞ 0 x + 1 b→∞

82. False. Let f (x) = x and g (x) = −x. Then 0∞ f (x) + g (x) dx = 0∞ (x − x) dx = 0∞ 0 dx = 0, but
∞ ∞
0 f (x) dx = 0 x dx = ∞.

83. True. Since 0∞ f (x) + g (x) dx = lim 0b f (x) + g (x) dx = lim 0b f (x) dx +
b→∞ b→∞
lim b g (x) dx = 0∞ f (x) dx + 0∞ g (x) dx, its convergence follows from that of the other two integrals.
b→∞ 0

84. False. Take f (x) = 1x , g (x) = − 1x , and a = 1. Then both 1∞ dx ∞ dx

x and 1 − x diverge, but
∞
1 f (x) + g (x) dx = 1∞ 0 dx evidently converges.
556 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

85. True. Take f (x) = 12 and g (x) = x1 for all x in [1, ∞). Then f (x) ≤ g (x) on [1, ∞), but 1∞ g (x) dx diverges and
x
∞
1 f (x) dx converges.
86. False. Take f (x) = 12 and g (x) = 1x for all x in [1, ∞). Then f (x) ≤ g (x) on [1, ∞) and 1∞ f (x) dx converges, but
x
∞
1 g (x) dx diverges.
87. True. We have ab f (x) dx = ac f (x) dx + cb f (x) dx. Because the first integral on the right is a proper integral and
b b
c f (x) dx always exists by assumption, a f (x) dx exists.

Chapter 7 Review
Concept Review
1. product; uv − v du; u; easily integrated; f (x) g (x)|ba − ab g (x) f (x) dx

2. a. cos x; odd b. sin x; odd c. 12 (1 − cos 2x); 12 (1 + cos 2x)

3. a. sec x; odd b. tan x; even

4. 12 [cos (m − n) x − cos (m + n) x]; 12 [sin (m − n) x + sin (m + n) x]; 12 [cos (m − n) x + cos (m + n) x]

5. a. a sin θ b. a tan θ c. a sec θ

A B C Dx + E Fx + G
6. rational; less; linear; quadratic; + + + 2 + ; integrating
x − 1 (x − 1)2 (x − 1)3 x +x +1 2
x +x +1
2
b b c ∞ c c b
7. lim f (x) dx; lim a f (x) dx; −∞ f (x) dx + c f (x) dx; lim a f (x) dx; a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx
a→−∞ a b→∞ c→b−
8. a∞ g (x) dx; a∞ f (x) dx

Review Exercises
2x 2 (x + 1) − 2 2
1. dx = dx = 2− dx = 2x − 2 ln |x + 1| + C = 2 (x − ln |x + 1|) + C
x +1 x +1 x +1
2. I = x 2 cos 3x dx. Let u = x 2 and dv = cos 3x dx, so du = 2x dx and v = 13 sin 3x. Then
I = uv − v du = 13 x 2 sin 3x − 23 x sin 3x dx. Next, let U = x and dV = sin 3x, so dU = dx and V = − 13 cos 3x.
Then
I = 13 x 2 sin 3x − 23 − 13 x cos 3x + 13 cos 3x dx = 13 x 2 sin 3x + 29 x cos 3x − 27
2 sin 3x + C

= 29 x cos 3x + 27
1 9x 2 − 2 sin 3x + C

x 3 dx
3. I = . Let x = 3 sin θ, so dx = 3 cos θ dθ and 9 − x 2 = 9 − 9 sin2 θ = 9 cos2 θ. Then
9 − x2
27 sin3 θ
I = (3 cos θ dθ) = 27 sin3 θ dθ = 27 1 − cos2 θ sin θ dθ
3 cos θ 3
x
= 27 sin θ − cos2 θ sin θ dθ = 27 − cos θ + 13 cos3 θ + C ¬
Ï9-x@
1 cos2 θ − 1 = 27 9 − x2 1 9 − x2
= 27 cos θ 3 3 −1 +C
3 9

= − 13 x 2 + 18 9 − x2 + C
 Chapter 7 Review 557

cos3 x cos x 1 − sin2 x cos x

4. dx = dx = − sin x cos x dx = ln |sin x| + 12 cos2 x + C
sin x sin x sin x

5. I = x 2 ln x dx. Let u = ln x and dv = x 2 dx, so du = dx/x and v = 13 x 3 . Then

I = uv − v du = 13 x 3 ln x − 13 x 2 dx = 13 x 3 ln x − 19 x 3 + C = 19 x 3 (3 ln x − 1) + C.

2x − 1 2x − 1 A B C (A + B + C) x 2 + (2C − 2B) x − 4A
6. I = dx. Now = + + =
x x2 − 4 x x2 − 4 x x +2 x −2 x x2 − 4
⇒ −4A = −1, 2C − 2B = 2, and A + B + C = 0, giving A = 14 , B = − 58 , and C = 38 . Thus,
1/4 5/8 3/8 1 x 2 (x − 2)3
I = − + dx = 14 ln |x| − 58 ln |x + 2| + 38 ln |x − 2| + C = ln + C.
x x +2 x −2 8 (x + 2)5

dθ (1 + cos θ) dθ (1 + cos θ) dθ 1 + cos θ

7. I = = = = dθ = csc2 θ + cot θ csc θ dθ
1 − cos θ (1 − cos θ) (1 + cos θ) 1 − cos2 θ sin2 θ
= − cot θ − csc θ + C

dx (1 + sin x) dx 1 + sin x
8. = = dx = sec2 x + tan x sec x dx = tan x + sec x + C
1 − sin x (1 − sin x) (1 + sin x) cos2 x

(x + 1) dx (x + 1) dx
9. I = = . Now
x 4 + 6x 3 + 9x 2 x 2 (x + 3)2
x +1 A B Cx + D (A + C) x 3 + (3A + B + 6C + D) x 2 + (9C + 6D) x + 9D
= + + = ⇒
x 2 (x + 3)2 x +3 (x + 3)2 x2 x 2 (x + 3)2
1 , B = − 2 , C = 1 , and
A + C = 0, 3A + B + 6C + D = 0, 9C + 6D = 1, and 9D = 1, which has the solution A = − 27 9 27
D = 19 . Thus,
−1/27 2/9 1/27 1 ln |x + 3| 2 ln |x| 1
I = − + + 2 dx = − + + − +C
x +3 (x + 3)2 x 9x 27 9 (x + 3) 27 9x
1 x 6 3
= ln + − +C
27 x +3 x +3 x

2
10. sec3 x tan5 x dx = sec2 x tan4 x (sec x tan x dx) = sec2 x sec2 x − 1 (sec x tan x dx)

= sec6 x − 2 sec4 x + sec2 x (sec x tan x dx) = u 6 − 2u 4 + u 2 du (put u = sec x)

= 17 u 7 − 25 u 5 + 13 u 3 + C = 17 sec7 x − 25 sec5 x + 13 sec3 x + C

11. I = x 2 − 4 dx. Let x = 2 sec θ, so dx = 2 sec θ tan θ dθ. Then

x
I = (2 sec θ)2 − 4 (2 sec θ tan θ dθ) Ïx@-4
¬
= 2 tan θ (2 sec θ tan θ dθ) = 4 tan2 θ sec θ dθ 2

=4 sec2 θ − 1 sec θ dθ = 4 sec3 θ − sec θ dθ

= 4 12 sec θ tan θ + 12 ln |sec θ + tan θ| − ln |sec θ + tan θ| + C (see Example 7.1.5)

x x2 − 4 x x2 − 4
= 2 sec x tan x + ln |sec x + tan x| + C = 2 + ln + +C
2 2 2 2
x
= x 2 − 4 − 2 ln x + x2 − 4 + C
2
558 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

1 1 1 + cos 2πx 2 1 1
12. cos4 πx dx = dx = 1 + 2 cos 2πx + cos2 2πx dx
0 0 2 4 0
= 14 01 1 + 2 cos 2πx + 12 (1 + cos 4πx) dx = 14 01 32 + 2 cos 2πx + 12 cos 4πx dx

1 sin 2πx + 1 sin 4πx 1 = 3

= 14 32 x + π 8π 0 8

dθ θ2
13. I = θ sin−1 θ dθ. Let u = sin−1 θ and dv = θ dθ, so du = and v = . Then
1 − θ2 2
θ2 1 θ2 dθ θ2 dθ
I = uv − v du = sin−1 θ − . To find J = , let θ = sin w. Then
2 2 1 − θ2 1 − θ2
sin2 w
J = (cos w dw) = sin2 w dw
1 − sin2 w 1
¬
= 12 (1 − cos 2w) dw = 12 w − 12 sin 2w + C u
Ï1-¬@
= 12 sin−1 θ − θ 1 − θ2 + C

Therefore, I = 12 θ 2 sin−1 θ − 14 sin−1 θ − θ 1 − θ 2 + C = 14 2θ2 − 1 sin−1 θ + θ 1 − θ2 + C.

14. I = 4 + x 2 dx. Let x = 2 tan θ, so dx = 2 sec2 θ dθ. Then

I = 4 + 4 tan2 θ 2 sec2 θ dθ = 4 sec3 θ dθ
Ï4+x@
x
= 4 12 sec θ tan θ + 12 ln |sec θ + tan θ| + C1
¬
4 + x2 x 4 + x2 x 2
=2 + 2 ln + + C1
2 2 2 2
x
= 4 + x 2 + 2 ln 4 + x 2 + x + C, where C = C1 − 2 ln 2.
2

π
15. I = 1e cos (ln x) dx. Let θ = ln x, so dθ = dx/x ⇒ dx = x dθ = eθ dθ, x = 1 ⇒ θ = 0, and x = eπ ⇒ θ = π. Then
π
I = 0π eθ cos θ dθ. Integrating by parts twice, we find I = 12 eθ (cos θ + sin θ) = 12 eπ (−1) − 12 = − 12 eπ + 1 .
0

x 2 + 4x dx x 2 + 4x dx
16. I = = . Now
x3 − x2 + x − 1 (x − 1) x 2 + 1
x 2 + 4x A Bx + C (A + B) x 2 + (C − B) x + A − C
= + = , so A + B = 1, −B + C = 4, and
(x − 1) x 2 + 1 x −1 x2 + 1 (x − 1) x 2 + 1
A − C = 0. We find A = 52 , B = − 32 , and C = 52 . Thus,
5 − 3 x + 52
2 5 dx 3 x dx 5 dx
I = + 22 dx = − +
x −1 x +1 2 x − 1 2 x2 + 1 2 x2 + 1
1 (x − 1)10
= 52 ln |x − 1| − 34 ln x 2 + 1 + 52 tan−1 x + C = ln 3
+ 10 tan−1 x + C
4 x2 + 1
 Chapter 7 Review 559

(x + 2) dx (x + 2) dx
17. I = = . Now
x2 + x x2 + 1 x (x + 1) x 2 + 1
x +2 A B Cx + D (A + B + C) x 3 + (A + C + D) x 2 + (A + B + D) x + A
2
= + + 2 = ⇒
x (x + 1) x + 1 x x +1 x +1 x (x + 1) x 2 + 1
A + B + C = 0, A + C + D = 0, A + B + D = 1, and A = 2. We find A = 2, B = − 12 , C = − 32 , and D = − 12 , so
2 − 12 3x + 1
dx 1 dx 3 x dx 1 dx
I = + − 22 2 dx = 2 − − 2
−
x x +1 x +1 x 2 x +1 2 x +1 2 x2 + 1
1 x8
= 2 ln |x| − 12 ln |x + 1| − 34 ln x 2 + 1 − 12 tan−1 x + C = ln 3
− 2 tan−1 x + C
4 (x + 1)2 x 2 + 1

18. 1∞ sin (ln x) dx = lim 1b sin (ln x) dx. To evaluate the indefinite integral I = sin (ln x) dx, we let u = ln x, so
b→∞
du = dx/x. Then we can integrate by parts twice or use a table to find I = (sin u) eu du = 12 eu (sin u − cos u) + C.

Then 1∞ sin (ln x) dx = lim 1 (sin u − cos u) eu b = lim 1 (sin b − cos b) eb + 1 e , which does not exist. The
b→∞ 2 0 b→∞ 2 2
integral diverges.

19. I = sec4 2x tan6 2x dx. Let u = 2x, so du = 2 dx. Then

I = 12 sec4 u tan6 u du = 12 sec2 u tan6 u sec2 u du = 12 1 + tan2 u tan6 u sec2 u du

= 12 tan6 u + tan8 u sec2 u du = 12 17 tan7 u + 19 tan9 u + C = 12 17 tan7 2x + 19 tan9 2x + C

2
20. I = 0 4x − x 2 dx. Using Formula 113 in the Table of Integrals, we find
2
x −2 4 2−x
I = 4x − x 2 + cos−1 =2 π
2 − 2 (0) = π.
2 2 2 0

cos x dx cos x 1 − cos x cos x − cos2 x cos x cos2 x

21. I = = · dx = dx = − dx
1 + cos x 1 + cos x 1 − cos x 1 − cos2 x sin2 x sin2 x
= cot x csc x − cot2 x dx = cot x csc x − csc2 x + 1 dx = − csc x + cot x + x + C
x sin x + cos x − 1
= +C
sin x

22. I = e x cos 2x dx. Let u = e x and dv = cos 2x dx, so du = e x dx and v = 12 sin 2x. Then
I = uv − v du = 12 e x sin 2x − 12 e x sin 2x dx. To find J = e x sin 2x dx, let U = e x and
dV = sin 2x dx, so dU = e x dx and V = − 12 cos 2x, so J = − 12 e x cos 2x + 12 e x cos 2x dx.
Therefore, I = 12 e x sin 2x − 12 − 12 e x cos 2x + 12 I , giving 54 I = 12 e x sin 2x + 12 cos 2x + C1 , and so

I = 15 e x (2 sin 2x + cos 2x) + C where C = 45 C1 .

(ln x)3 dx
23. I = dx. Let u = ln x, so du = . Then I = u 3 du = 14 u 4 + C = 14 (ln x)4 + C.
x x
560 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

dθ 2u 1 − u2
24. I = . Let u = tan 12 θ. Then sin θ = , cos θ = , and
3 sin θ + 4 cos θ 1 + u2 1 + u2
2
du
2 1 + u2 −du −du
dθ = du, so I = = = . Now
1 + u2 2u 1−u 2 2u 2 − 3u − 2 (2u + 1) (u − 2)
3 + 4
1 + u2 1 + u2
−1 A B (A + 2B) u + (−2A + B)
= + = gives A + 2B = 0 and −2A + B = −1. Solving, we
(2u + 1) (u − 2) 2u + 1 u − 2 2u 2 − 3u − 2
find A = 25 and B = − 15 , so
2/5 −1/5
I = + du = 15 ln |2u + 1| − 15 ln |u − 2| + C
2u + 1 u − 2
1 2u + 1 1 2 tan 12 θ + 1
= ln + C = ln +C
5 u−2 5 tan 12 θ − 2

dx 4x − 1 √
25. I = √ . Using Formula 30, we obtain I = 2 tan−1 + C = 2 tan−1 4x − 1 + C.
x 4x − 1 − (−1)

26. I = tan3 x sec3 x dx = tan2 x sec2 x (sec x tan x) dx = sec2 x − 1 sec2 x (sec x tan x) dx

= sec4 x − sec2 x (sec x tan x) dx = 15 sec5 x − 13 sec3 x + C

27. I = sec2 x ln (tan x) dx. Let u = tan x, so du = sec2 x dx. Then

I = ln u du = u (ln |u| − 1) + C = tan x (ln |tan x| − 1) + C.

dx dx
28. I = = . Let u = x + 2, so du = dx. Then
x 2 + 4x + 20 (x + 2)2 + 16
du
I = = 14 tan−1 14 u + C = 14 tan−1 14 (x + 2) + C.
u + 42
2

29. sin x cos 3x dx = 12 [sin (1 − 3) x + sin (1 + 3) x] dx = 12 (− sin 2x + sin 4x) dx = 14 cos 2x − 18 cos 4x + C

= 18 (2 cos 2x − cos 4x) + C

dx
30. I = cosh−1 x dx. Let u = cosh−1 x and dv = dx, so du = and v = x. Then
x2 − 1
x dx
I = uv − v du = x cosh−1 x − = x cosh−1 x − 12 (2) x 2 − 1 + C = x cosh−1 x − x 2 − 1 + C.
x2 − 1

dx 1 du
31. I = . Let u = 2x +3, so du = 2 dx. Then I = = 12 sin−1 u +C = 12 sin−1 (2x + 3)+C.
2 1 − u2
1 − (2x + 3)2

x2 + 4 x2 + 4
32. I = dx. Using Formula 40, we obtain I = − + ln x + x 2 + 4 + C.
x2 x

sin t cos5 t 1
33. I = sin 2 t cos4 t dt. Using Formula 79, we find I = − + cos4 t dt. Then, using Formula 79 again, we get
6 6
I = − 16 sin t cos5 t + 16 14 cos3 t sin t + 34 cos2 t dt = − 16 sin t cos5 t + 24
1 cos3 t sin t + 1
16 (1 + cos 2t) dt

= − 16 sin t cos5 t + 24
1 sin t cos3 t + 1 sin 2t + 1 t + C = − 1 sin t cos5 t + 1 sin t cos3 t + 1 sin t cos t + 1 t + C
32 16 6 24 16 16
 Chapter 7 Review 561

1 + cos 2x
34. I = x cos2 x dx = x dx = 12 (x + x cos 2x) dx = 14 x 2 + 12 x cos 2x dx.
2
To find x cos 2x dx, let u = x and dv = cos 2x dx, so du = dx and v = 12 sin 2x. Then
x cos 2x dx = 12 x sin 2x − 12 sin 2x dx = 12 x sin 2x + 14 cos 2x + K . Therefore,
I = 14 x 2 + 12 12 x sin 2x + 14 cos 2x + C1 = 14 x 2 + 14 x (2 sin x cos x) + 18 cos2 x − sin2 x + C1

= 14 x 2 + 12 x sin x cos x + 18 cos2 x − 1 + cos2 x + C1 = 14 x 2 + 12 x sin x cos x + 14 cos2 x + C where C = C1 − 18 .

√
x dx √
35. I = √ . Let u = x, so x = u 2 and dx = 2u du. Then
x −1
u (2u du) 2u 2 du 2 √ √
I = = = 2u + 2 + du = u 2 + 2u + 2 ln |u − 1| + C = x + 2 x + 2 ln x − 1 + C.
u−1 u−1 u−1
36. I = (x + 1) e2x dx. Let u = x + 1 and dv = e2x dx, so du = dx and v = 12 e2x . Then
I = uv − v du = 12 (x + 1) e2x − 12 e2x dx = 12 (x + 1) e2x − 14 e2x + C = 14 (2x + 1) e2x + C.
2 dx
37. I = x cos−1 2x dx. Let u = cos−1 2x and dv = x dx, so du = − and v = 12 x 2 .
1 − 4x 2
x 2 dx x 2 dx
Then I = uv − v du = 12 x 2 cos−1 2x − 12 (−2) . To evaluate J = ,
1 − 4x 2 1 − 4x 2

1 u 2 12 du 1 u 2 du
let u = 2x. Then J = = . Using Formula 50, we obtain
4 1 − u2 8 1 − u2
J = 18 − 12 u 1 − u 2 + 12 sin−1 u + K = − 18 x 1 − 4x 2 + 16
1 sin−1 2x + K . Thus,

I = 12 x 2 cos−1 2x − 18 x 1 − 4x 2 + 16 sin−1 2x + C.
4 e1/x 1 dx
38. I = dx. Let u = , so du = − 2 , x = 1 ⇒ u = 1, and x = 4 ⇒ u = 14 . Then
1 x2 x x
1/4 u 1/4
I =− 1 e du = −eu 1 = −e1/4 + e = e − e1/4 .
e x + e−x 1
39. e−x cosh x dx = e−x dx = 1 + e−2x dx = 12 x − 12 e−2x + C = 12 x − 14 e−2x + C
2 2
40. I = csc4 2x dx. Let u = 2x, so du = 2 dx. Then
I = 12 csc4 u du = 12 csc2 u csc2 u du = 12 1 + cot2 u csc2 u du

= 12 csc2 u + cot2 u csc2 u du = 12 − cot u − 13 cot3 u + C = − 12 cot 2x − 16 cot3 2x + C

dx 1 dx 1 du
41. I = = . Let u = x + 12 , so du = dx. Then I = . Using
4x 2 + 4x + 10 2 2 3 2
2 2
x + 12 + 2 u 2 + 32
Formula 41, we get
2 2 2
I = 12 ln u + u 2 + 32 + C1 = 12 ln x + 12 + x + 12 + 32 + C1

= 12 ln 2x + 1 + 4x 2 + 4x + 10 + C, where C = C1 − ln 2.
3/2
1 sin−1 x dx
42. I = dx. Let u = sin−1 x, so du = , x = 0 ⇒ u = 0, and x = 1 ⇒ u = π
2 . Then
0 1 − x2 1 − x2
π /2 √
π /2 3/2 5/2
I = 0 u du = 25 u 5/2 = 25 π
2 = 202 π 5/2 .
0
562 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

0 0
43. −∞ e x dx = lim a0 e x dx = lim e x a = lim 1 − ea = 1
a→−∞ a→−∞ a→−∞
∞ dx b b
44. = lim (x + 1)−3/2 dx = lim − √ 2 = lim − √
2
+2 =2
0 (x + 1) 3/ 2 b→∞ 0 b→∞ x +1 0 b→∞ b+1
∞ x dx 0 x dx ∞ x dx
45. = + . But neither integral on the right exists (see Exercise 7.6.17) and so the given
−∞ 1 + x 2 −∞ 1 + x 2 0 1 + x2
integral diverges.
3 dx b √ √ √ √
b
46. √ = lim (3 − x)−1/2 dx = lim (−1) (2) 3 − x 0 = lim −2 3 − b + 2 3 = 2 3
0 3 − x b→ 3 −
0 b→ 3 − b→ 3−

1 dx 0 1 b 1
47. √
3
= x −1/3 dx + x −1/3 dx = lim x −1/3 dx + lim x −1/3 dx
−8 x −8 0 b→0− −8 a→0+ a

= lim 3 x 2/3 b + lim 3 x 2/3 1 = lim 3 b2/3 − 3 · 4 + lim 3 − 3 a 2/3 = −6 + 32 = − 92

b→0− 2 −8 a→0+ 2 a b→0− 2 2 a→0+ 2 2
∞ dx b ln−4 x 1 b 1 1 1
48. = lim dx = lim − = lim − + =
e x ln4 x b→∞ e x b→∞ 3 (ln x)3 e b→∞ 3 (ln b)3 3 3
e dx e (ln x)−1/3 e
49. 1 / 3
= lim dx = lim 32 (ln x)2/3 = lim 32 (1) − 32 (ln a)2/3 = 32
1 x (ln x) a→1 a+ x a→1 + a a→1+
2 x dx b −1/2 b
50. = lim x 4 − x2 dx = lim − 12 (2) 4 − x 2 = lim − 4 − b2 + 2 = 2
0 4−x 2 −
b→2 0 b→2 − 0 b→2−
√ 2 √
51. Observe that if we write 3 as 3 , then 3 + x 2 has the form a 2 + u 2 with a = 3 and u = x. Now Formula 38

u 2 a4
states that u 2 a 2 + u 2 du = a + 2u 2 a2 + u2 − ln u + a 2 + u 2 + C, so in this case, we have
8 8
x 9
x 2 3 + x 2 dx = 3 + 2x 2 3 + x 2 − ln x + 3 + x 2 + C.
8 8
√ √
52. Let u = e x , so du = e x dx. Then the given integral can be written e x 5 + 2e x e x dx = u 5 + 2u du.
√ 2
Formula 27 states that u a + bu du = (3bu − 2a) (a + bu) 3/2 + C, so with a = 5 and b = 2, we have
15b2
√ 2
u 5 + 2u du = (6u − 10) (5 + 2u) 3/2 + C = 151 (3u − 5) (5 + 2u)3/2 + C. Finally, recalling the substitution
15 · 4
√ 1 3e x − 5 2e x + 5 3/2 + C.
u = e x , we find e2x 5 + 2e x dx = 15
dx du
53. Let u = x + 1, so du = dx. Then = . Use Formula 103 with u = x + 1 to obtain
(x + 1) ln (x + 1) u ln u
du dx
= ln |ln u| + C. Thus, = ln |ln (x + 1)| + C.
u ln u (x + 1) ln (x + 1)
54. Use Formula 104 with n = 3 to write (ln x)3 dx = x (ln x)3 − 3 (ln x)2 dx. Then using Formula 104 again with
n = 2, we obtain (ln x)3 dx = x (ln x)3 − 3 x (ln x)2 − 2 ln x dx . Using Formula 104 once again with n = 1 gives

(ln x)3 dx = x (ln x)3 − 3x (ln x)2 + 6 (x ln x − x) + C = x (ln x)3 − 3x (ln x)2 + 6x ln x − 6x + C.
55. Using Formula 85 with n = 4, we have
1 4−2
sec4 x dx = tan x sec2 x + sec2 x dx = 13 tan x sec2 x + 23 tan x + C.
4−1 4−1
56. Let u = 2 cos x, so du = −2 sin x dx. Then
tan x dx sin x dx 1 du du
√ = √ =− √ =− √ . Using Formula 30 with a = 1 and b = 1,
1 + 2 cos x cos x 1 + 2 cos x 2 1u 1 + u u 1+u
2
√ √
tan x dx 1+u−1 1 + 2 cos x − 1
we have √ = − ln √ + C = − ln √ + C.
1 + 2 cos x 1+u+1 1 + 2 cos x + 1
 Chapter 7 Review 563

57. Let u = e x and dv = f (x) dx, so du = e x dx and v = f (x). Thus,

e x f (x) dx + f (x) e x dx = e x f (x) dx + e x f (x) − f (x) e x dx + C = e x f (x) + C.

2 4 + x2
58. A = dx. Using Formula 40, we find y
1 x2
2
4 + x2 2
A= − + ln x + 4 + x 2
x
1 1
√ √ √ √
= − 28 + ln 2 + 8 − − 5 + ln 1 + 5

≈ 1.22 0 1 2 3 x

0 dx 1 dx
59. A = /
+ = 2 01 x −2/3 dx (by symmetry) y
−1 x 2 3 0 x 2/3
1
= 2 lim a1 x −2/3 dx = 2 lim 3x 1/3 2
a→0 + a→0 + a

= 2 lim 3 − 3a 1/3 = 6 1
a→0+

_2 _1 0 1 x

60. A = 0π sin2 x − sin3 x dx y

1
= 0π 12 (1 − cos 2x) − 1 − cos2 x sin x dx
1 x − 1 sin 2x + cos x − 1 cos3 x π
= 2 4 3 0
= π −1+ 1 − 1 − 13 π
= 2 − 3 = 16 (3π − 8)
4
2 3
0 ¹ ¹ x
2

61. 9x 2 + 4y 2 = 36 ⇒ y = ± 12 36 − 9x 2 , so y

2 2 3
36 − 9x 2
A=4 dx = 2 36 − 9x 2 dx. Let u = 3x, so
0 2 0
du = 3 dx, x = 0 ⇒ u = 0, and x = 2 ⇒ u = 6. Then
6
A = 23 06 36 − u 2 du = 23 12 u 36 − u 2 + 18 sin−1 16 u _2 0 2 x
0
= 23 18 sin−1 1 = 23 (18) π
2 = 6π

_3

62. a. b. Using Formula 50 with a = 4 and taking symmetry into account, we have
20
4 x 2 dx 4 x 2 dx b x 2 dx
=2 = 2 lim
−4 16 − x 2 0 16 − x 2 b→4− 0 16 − x 2
10 x 16 −1 x b
= 2 lim − 16 − x 2 + sin
b→4− 2 2 4 0
b b
0 = 2 lim − 16 − b2 + 8 sin−1 =2·8· π
2 = 8π
b→4− 2 4
-4 -2 0 2 4
564 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

2 1
63. a. b. 1 − cos = 2 sin2 . Since sin x < x for x ≥ 0, we have
3 x x
2 1 1 2 2
2 1 − cos = 2 sin2 ≤ 2 = 2.
x x x x
1 ∞ 2
c. Since dx converges ( p = 2 > 1), the Comparison Test implies
0 1 x2
that I converges.
-1
0 1 2 3 4 5

π /4
64. V = π ab y 2 dx = π 0 tan2 x dx y

π /4 π /4
=π 0 sec2 x − 1 dx = π (tan x − x)|0 1

=π 1− π π
4 = 4 (4 − π)

0 ¹ 1 x
4

65. V = 2π ab x y dx = 2π 1e x (x ln x) dx y
e
= 2π 1e x 2 ln x dx = 2π 19 x 3 (3 ln x − 1) 2
1
1 3 1 2
= 2π 9 e (2) − − 9 = 9 2e + 1π 3

0 1 2 e 3 x

66. V = 2π ab x y dx = 2π 01 x tan−1 x dx. Let u = tan−1 x and dv = x dx y

dx
⇒ du = 2 and v = 12 x 2 . Then 1
x +1
1 1 x 2 dx
V = 2π 1 x 2 tan−1 x − 12
2 0 0 x2 + 1

1 1 1
1 x 2 tan−1 x − 12
= 2π 2 1− 2 dx 0 1 x
0 0 x +1
1 1
= 2π 12 x 2 tan−1 x − 12 x + 12 tan−1 x = 2π 12 x 2 + 1 tan−1 x − 12 x
0 0
= 2π π 1
4 − 2 = 12 π (π − 2)

2
67. y = 12 x 2 ⇒ y = x, so ds = 1+ y = 1 + x 2 and
√ √ √
3 √
L = ab ds = 0 3 1 + x 2 dx = 1x
2 1 + x 2 + 12 ln x + 1 + x2 = 23 (2) + 12 ln 3+2
0
√ √
= 12 ln 3 + 2 + 3.

1 + 2 cos x 1+2 3
68. 3
√ ≤ 3
= 3 for x in [1, ∞). Now
x + x x x
∞ 3 b
b
dx = lim 1 3x −3 dx = lim − 32 x −2 = lim − 32 b−2 + 32 = 32 , and because this integral converges, so
1 x3 b→∞ b→∞ 1 b→∞
does the given integral.
 Chapter 7 Challenge Problems 565

69. Using Formula 96,

10
D = ab v (t) dt = 010 80te−0.2t dt = 80 0.104 (−0.2t − 1) e−0.2t = 080
.04 −3e
−2 + 1 ≈ 1187.99 ft.
0

12
70. Cav = 12 1− 0 012 2te−t/3 dt = 16 11/9 − 13 t − 1 e−t/3 = 32 −5e−4 + 1 ≈ 1.36 mg/mL.
0

Challenge Problems
√
n
n! [n (n − 1) (n − 2) · · · (3) (2) (1)]1/n n n−1 n−2 3 2 1 1/n
1. Let y = = = · · · . Then
n (n n )1/n n n n n n n
1 1 2 3 n−1 n 1 n k
ln y = ln + ln + ln + · · · + ln + ln = ln . The expression on the right-hand side is the
n n n n n n n k=1 n
Riemann sum of f (x) = ln x on (0, 1], so
1 n k 1 1
lim ln y = lim
n→∞ n→∞
ln
n k=1 n
= lim a ln x dx = lim+ [x ln x − x]a (by parts)
a→0+ a→0
ln a 1/a
= lim (−1 − a ln a + a) = −1 − lim = −1 − lim 2
(by l’Hôpital’s Rule)
a→0+ a→0+ 1/a a→0 + −1/a
= −1 + lim a = −1
a→0+
lim ln y
Therefore, lim y = lim eln y = en→∞ = e−1 = 1/e.
n→∞ n→∞

√ √ √ √
2. I = ln1 − x + 1 + x dx. Let u = ln 1 − x + 1 + x and dv = dx ⇒
√ √
1 1 1 1 1 1−x − 1+x
du = √ √ − √ + √ dx = √ √ dx
1−x + 1+x 2 1−x 2 1+x 2 1 − x2 1−x + 1+x
1 1− 1 − x2
=− dx
2 x 1 − x2
and v = x. Then
√ √ 1 1− 1 − x2
I = uv − v du = x ln 1−x + 1+x + dx
2 1 − x2
√ √ 1 1
= x ln 1−x + 1+x + − 1 dx
2 1 − x2
√ √
= x ln 1 − x + 1 + x + 12 sin−1 x − 12 x + C

1 ∞
3. a. lim x ln 1 + has the form 0 · ∞. Converting to the form and using l’Hôpital’s Rule, we have
x→0+ x ∞
1 −1/x 2
ln 1 +
1 x 1 + (1/x) x
lim x ln 1 + = lim = lim = lim = 0. Since f (0) = 0, we see that f is
x→0+ x x→0+ 1/x x→0+ −1/x 2 x→0+ x + 1
indeed continuous at 0. Also, f is continuous for x > 0, so f is continuous on [0, 1].
566 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

1 x +1
b. I = x ln 1 + dx = x ln dx = x [ln (x + 1) − ln x] dx = x ln (x + 1) dx − x ln x dx
x x
= I 1 − I2
dx
To evaluate I1 , let u = ln (x + 1) and dv = x dx, so du = and v = 12 x 2 − 1 . Then
x +1
1 x2 − 1
I1 = x ln (x + 1) dx = 12 x 2 − 1 ln (x + 1) − dx = 12 x 2 − 1 ln (x + 1) − 12 (x − 1) dx
2 x +1
= 12 x 2 − 1 ln (x + 1) − 14 x 2 + 12 x + C1

and I2 = x ln x dx = 12 x 2 ln x − 14 x 2 + C2 , using u = ln x and dv = dx.

Thus, I = 12 x 2 − 1 ln (x + 1) − 12 x 2 ln x + 12 x + C, and so
1 1 1 1
0 f (x) dx = lim+ a f (x) dx = lim+ 2 x 2 − 1 ln (x + 1) − 12 x 2 ln x + 12 x
a→0 a→0 a
1 − 1 a 2 − 1 ln (a + 1) − 1 a 2 ln a + 1 a 1 1 ln a
= lim 2 2 2 2 = − lim
a→0+ 2 2 a→0 1/a 2
+

1 1 1/a 1 1 −a 2 1
= − lim (using l’Hôpital’s Rule) = − lim =
2 2 a→0 −2/a 3
+ 2 2 a→0 + 2 2

n n n−1
4. a. In = a2 − x 2 dx. Let u = a 2 − x 2 and dv = dx, so du = −2nx a 2 − x 2 dx and v = x. Then
n n−1
In = uv − v du = x a 2 − x 2 + 2n x 2 a2 − x 2 dx
n n−1
= x a2 − x 2 + 2n a2 − a2 − x 2 a2 − x 2 dx
n n−1 n
= x a2 − x 2 + 2n a2 a2 − x 2 dx − a2 − x 2 dx
n
= x a2 − x 2 + 2na 2 In−1 − 2n In
n
(1 + 2n) In = x a 2 − x 2 + 2na 2 In−1
n
x a2 − x 2 2na 2
In = + I
2n + 1 2n + 1 n−1
1/2
1/2 x a2 − x 2 2 12 a 2 (1/2)−1
b. a 2 − x 2 dx = a2 − x 2 dx = + a2 − x 2 dx
2 12 + 1 2 12 + 1

x a2 − x 2 a2 dx x a2 − x 2 a2 x
= + = + sin−1 + C
2 2 a2 − x 2 2 2 a

⎛ ⎞
1 1 1 1⎜
⎜ 1 1 1⎟
⎟
5. lim + + ··· + = lim + +··· +
n→∞ 4n 2 − 1 4n 2 − 22 4n 2 − n 2 n→∞ n ⎝ 2 2 n 2⎠
4 − n1 4 − n2 4− n

1 n 1 1 dx x 1 1 π
= lim = = sin−1 = sin−1 =
n→∞ n 4 − x2 2 0 2 6
k=1 4 − (k/n)2 0
 Chapter 7 Challenge Problems 567

dx √ √
6. Let I = √ . Let u = sin−1
x = sin u ⇒ x = sin2 u, so dx = 2 sin u cos u du. Then
x⇒
1+ x x − x2
dx 2 sin u cos u du
I = √ √ √ =
1
1+ x x 1−x (1 + sin u) (sin u) 1 − sin2 u Ïx
du 1 1 − sin u 1 − sin u u
=2 =2 · du = 2 du
1 + sin u 1 + sin u 1 − sin u cos2 u Ï1-x
=2 sec2 u − sec u tan u du = 2 (tan u − sec u) + C
√ √
x 1 2 x −1
Referring to the figure, we see that I = 2 √ −√ +C = √ + C.
1−x 1−x 1−x
a cos bx a cos bx a |cos bx| a dx a π
7. 2
dx ≤ 2
dx = 2
dx ≤ = tan−1 x = tan−1 a <
0 1+x 0 1+x 0 1+x 0 1 + x2 0 2
2a x √x dx b x 3/2 dx
8. A = 2 √ = 2 lim . Let u = 2a − x, so du = −dx. Then
0 2a − x b→(2a)− 0 (2a − x)1/2
x 3/2 dx (2a − u)3/2 du
I = =− du. Next, let v = u 1/2 , so dv = 1/2 ⇔ du = 2v dv. Then
(2a − x)1/2 u 1/2 2u
3/2
2a − v 2 (2v) √ 2 3/2
I =− dv = −2 2a − v 2 dv
v
⎡ ⎤
v 3 4a 2 v
= −2 ⎣− 2v 2 − 10a 2a − v 2 + sin−1 √ ⎦ + C
8 8 2a
Therefore,
√ √ b
2a − x √ 2a − x
A = −4 lim − (4a − 2x − 10a) 2a − (2a − x) + 32 a 2 sin−1 √
b→2a − 8 2a 0
√ √ 2
2a − b √ 2a − b 3a π
= −4 lim (2b + 6a) 2a − (2a − b) + 32 a 2 sin−1 − · = 3πa 2
b→2a − 8 2a 2 2

9. Using the result from Exercise 4a, we have

n a
a n x a2 − x 2 2na 2 2na 2 2a 2 (n − 1)
In = a2 − x 2 dx = + In−1 = · In−2
0 2n + 1 2n + 1 2n + 1 2 (n − 1) + 1
0
2a 2 n 2a 2 (n − 1) 2a 2 (n − 2)
= · · In−3
2n + 1 2 (n − 1) + 1 2 (n − 2) + 1
..
.
2a 2 n 2a 2 (n − 1) 2a 2 (3) 2a 2 (2)
= · · ··· · · I1
2n + 1 2 (n − 1) + 1 2 (3) + 1 2 (2) + 1
2a 2 n 2a 2 (n − 1) 2a 2 (3) 2a 2 (2) 2a 2 · 1
= · · ··· · · · I0
2n + 1 2 (n − 1) + 1 2 (3) + 1 2 (2) + 1 2 (1) + 1
0
But I0 = 0a a 2 − x 2 dx = 0a dx = a, so

2a 2 n 2n 2a 2 (n − 1) 2 (n − 1) 2a 2 (3) 2 (3) 2a 2 (2) 2 (2) 2a 2 · 1 2 (1)

In = · · · · ··· · · · · · · ·a
2n + 1 2n 2 (n − 1) + 1 2 (n − 1) 2 (3) + 1 6 2 (2) + 1 4 2 (1) + 1 2
22n a 2n+1 (n!)2
=
(2n + 1)!
568 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

√ √
10. 2x 2 + 3x y + y 2 = 20 ⇒ y 2 + 3x y + 2 x 2 − 10 = 0 ⇒
√ √ √ √
− 3x ± 3x 2 − 8 x 2 − 10 − 3x ± 80 − 5x 2 − 3x + 5 16 − x 2
y= = = , −4 ≤ x ≤ 4. We seek the area
2 2 2
√ √ √ √
of the region bounded by the graphs of y1 = 12 − 3x + 5 16 − x 2 and y2 = 12 − 3x − 5 16 − x 2 for
−4 ≤ x ≤ 4. Thus,
√ √ √ √
A = −4 4 21 − 3x + 5 16 − x 2 − − 3x − 5 16 − x 2 dx
√ √ √
= −4 4 5 16 − x 2 dx = 2 5 04 16 − x 2 dx = 2 5 14 · π · 42 (using a geometric interpretation of the integral)
√
= 8 5π

dx x m+1
11. Write I = 01 x m (ln x)n dx. Now let u = (ln x)n and dv = x m dx, so du = n (ln x)n−1 · and v = . Then
x m +1
1
x m+1 n 1
I = uv|10 − 01 v du = lim (ln x)n − x m (ln x)n−1 dx. The first term is 0, by l’Hôpital’s Rule.
a→0+ m+1 m +1 0
a
Therefore,
n 1 (−1) n n−1 1 m (−1)2 n (n − 1) 1 m
I =− x m (ln x)n−1 dx = − x (ln x)n−2 dx = x (ln x)n−2 dx
m+1 0 m+1 m+1 0 (m + 1)2 0
(−1)n n! 1 m (−1)n n! 1 (−1)n n!
= ··· = n x dx = 1
x m+1 =
(m + 1) 0 (m + 1)n+ 0 (m + 1)n+1

∞ ln x dx 1 ln x dx ∞ ln x dx 1 1 du
12. I = = + = I1 + I2 . Put u = in I2 , so x = , dx = − 2 , x = 1 ⇒ u = 1, and
0 1 + x2 0 1 + x2 1 1 + x2 x u u
0 ln (1/u) du 1 − ln u 1 ln x dx
x → ∞ ⇒ u → 0. Then I2 = − 2 =− (−du) = − = −I1 . Therefore,
1 1 + (1/u)2 u 0 1 + u2 0 1 + x2
I = I1 − I1 = 0.

∞ ∞
13. a. −∞ f (x) dx ≤ −∞ | f (x)| dx. Since the integral on the right converges, the Comparison Test for Integrals implies
that the given integral exists.
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
b. −∞ f (x) g (x) dx ≤ −∞ | f (x) g (x)| dx = −∞ | f (x)| |g (x)| dx ≤ M −∞ | f (x)| dx and so, by the Comparison
Test for Integrals, the given integral converges.
1
c. Let f (x) = 2 and g (x) = sin x. Since |g (x)| ≤ 1 for all x and 0∞ f (x) dx
x +1
∞ dx b dx π
exists because 2
= lim = lim tan−1 b − 0 = , the result
0 x +1 b→∞ 0 x 2 + 1 b→∞ 2
∞ sin x sin x
of part b shows that dx exists. Since h (x) = 2 is odd, we see that
0 x2 + 1 x +1
∞ sin x dx 0 sin x dx ∞ sin x dx ∞ sin x dx ∞ sin x dx
2
= 2
+ 2
=− 2
+ = 0.
−∞ x + 1 −∞ x + 1 0 x +1 0 x +1 0 x2 + 1
 Chapter 7 Challenge Problems 569

14. 4x 2 + y 2 = 4. Differentiating implicitly with respect to y, 8x dx

dy + 2y = 0 ⇒ y

2 2 2
dx = − y , so ds = 1 + dx dy = 1 + y 2 dy and
dy 4x dy 16x

2 2 y2
S = 2 · 2π x ds = 4π x 1+ dy
0 0 16x 2 _1 1 x
0
= π 02 y + 16x dy = π 02
2 2 y 2 + 16 − 4y 2 dy = π 02
16 − 3y 2 dy
√ √ √
Let u = 3y, so du = 3 dy, y = 0 ⇒ u = 0, and y = 2 ⇒ u = 2 3. Then
√ √ _2
π 2 3 π u 16 −1 u 2 3
S=√ 16 − u 2 du = √ 16 − u 2 + sin
3 0 3 2 2 4 0
√ √ √
π 2 3 √ 3 π √ π 4 3π
=√ 16 − 12 + 8 sin−1 = √ 2 3+8 = 2π 1 +
3 2 2 3 3 9

π /2 sin x sin x
15. a. I1 = dx. Since lim = 1, I1 is a proper integral, and thus the integral exists.
0 x x→0+ x
∞ sin x b sin x 1 dx
b. I2 = dx = lim dx. Let u = and dv = sin x dx, so du = − 2 and v = − cos x. Then
π /2 x b→∞ π /2 x x x
cos x b b cos x cos b b cos x ∞ cos x
I2 = lim − − dx = lim − − dx =− dx. Now
b→∞ x π/2 π /2 x 2 b→∞ b π /2 x 2 −π / 2 x 2
cos x 1 ∞ dx ∞ cos x
2
≤ 2 and 2
converges, showing that dx converges. So I2 converges.
x x π /2 x −π /2 x 2
∞ sin x
c. Since I1 exists and I2 converges, dx = I1 + I2 converges.
0 x

√ du ∞ 1 ∞ sin u
16. Consider 0∞ sin x 2 dx. Let x 2 = u ⇒ x = u. Then dx = √ , so sin x 2 dx = √ du. Now
2 u 0 2 0 u
∞ sin u π /2 sin u ∞ sin u sin u cos u √
√ du = √ du + √ du = I1 + I2 . Now lim √ = lim 1 = lim 2 u cos u = 0,
u u π /2 u u −1/ 2
2u
u→0+ u→0 + u→0 +
0 0
∞ sin u b sin u 1 du
so I1 exists. Next, write I2 = √ du = lim √ du. Let U = √ and dV = sin u du, so dU = − 3/2
π /2 u b→∞ π /2 u u 2u
cos u b 1 b cos u 1 ∞ cos u cos b
and V = − cos u. Then I2 = lim
− √ − du = − du because lim √ = 0. But
b→∞ u π/2 2 π/2 u 3/2 2 π/2 u 3/2 b→∞ b
cos u |cos u| 1 ∞ sin u
since 3/2 = 3/2 ≤ 3/2 , the last integral on the right is absolutely convergent, and so √ du is convergent,
u u u 0 u
∞
showing that sin x 2 dx is as well.
0
∞
We can show that cos x 2 dx is convergent in a similar fashion.
0

17. a. If we put x 2 = u, then 2x dx = du and 0∞ 2x cos x 4 dx = 0∞ cos u 2 du. Using the result of Exercise 16, we see that
the given integral is convergent.
√ √
b. If we denote the integrand by f (x) = 2x cos x 4 , then f 4 nπ = ±2 4 nπ(n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .), which is unbounded.
570 Chapter 7 Techniques of Integration

18. a. Refer to the figure in the solution to Exercise 19. The slope of the curve at (x, y) is y = tan θ, and by the
402 − x 2 1600 − x 2
Pythagorean Theorem, we have tan θ = − =− . Thus, the equation y = f (x) satisfies
x x
dy 1600 − x 2
=− .
dx x
1600 − x 2 402 − x 2
b. y = − dx = − dx. Using Formula 48 with a = 40 and u = x, we find
x x
40 + 1600 − x 2
y = − 1600 − x 2 + 40 ln + C. When x = 40, y = 0, so 0 = −40 + 40 + C ⇔ C = 0. Thus,
x
1600 − x 2
40 +
y = − 1600 − x 2 + 40 ln , 0 < x ≤ 40.
x
19. When the boat is at the point (0, 100), we have y

40 + 1600 − x 2 P
100 − 1600 − x 2 = y = − 1600 − x 2 + 40 ln ⇒ y=f(x)
x
40 + 1600 − x 2 100 5 40 + 1600 − x 2
ln = = ⇒ = e5/2 ⇒
x 40 2 x
Ï40@-x@ 40
xe5/2 − 40 = 1600 − x 2 ⇒ (x, y)
2
1600 − x 2 = xe5/2 − 40 = e5 x 2 − 80e5/2 x + 1600 ⇒ ¬

0 40 x
e5 + 1 x 2 = 80e5/2 x ⇒ e5 + 1 x − 80e5/2 x = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or x ≈ 6.52.
Since x > 0, we have x ≈ 6.52. Using the result of Exercise 18, we find
40 dy 2 40 1600 − x 2 40 40
L≈ 1+ dx = 1+ 2
dx = dx = 40 ln x|40
6.52 = 40 (ln 40 − ln 6.52) ≈ 72.6 ft.
6.52 dx 6.52 x 6.52 x
 8 Differential Equations

8.1 Concept Questions

1. a. See page 676.
dy f (x) g (y)
b. Yes, because it has the form =− , which is a product of a function in x and a function in y.
dx F (x) G (y)

dy dy dy 1 y
2. a. x + y = ey ⇒ x = ey − y ⇒ = e − y , and so the equation is separable.
dx dx dx x
dy
b. This is not separable because it cannot be written in the form = f (x) g (y).
dx

3. See pages 678 and 679.

dy
4. a. = ky, y (0) = y0 . We have exponential growth if k > 0 and exponential decay if k < 0.
dx
dy
b. = k (y − ym ) where ym is the temperature of the surrounding medium and k is the constant of proportionality. Also
dt
y (0) = y0 , the initial temperature of the object.

8.1 Differential Equations: Separable Equations

1 3 6
1. The function y = + 2 is differentiable in any interval not containing x = 0. Also, y = − 3 . Now
2 x x
6 1 3
x y + 2y = x − 3 + 2 + 2 = 1, so the equation is satisfied and y is indeed a solution of the differential
x 2 x
equation.

2. y = Ce−2x + e x is differentiable on (−∞, ∞) and y = −2Ce−2x + e x , so

y + 2y = −2Ce−2x + e x + 2 Ce−2x + e x = 3e x and the given equation is satisfied. Thus, y is a solution of the
differential equation.

3. y = x 4 + 3x 3 is differentiable on (−∞, ∞) and y = 4x 3 + 9x 2 , so x y − 3y = x 4x 3 + 9x 2 − 3 x 4 + 3x 3 = x 4 and

the given equation is satisfied. Thus, y is a solution of the differential equation. Also, y (1) = 14 + 3 13 = 4, and so the
initial condition is also satisfied. y is thus a solution of the initial value problem.

4. y = sin x − cos x is differentiable on (−∞, ∞) and y = cos x + sin x, so

dy
cos x dx + y sin x = cos x (cos x + sin x) + (sin x − cos x) sin x = cos2 x + sin2 x = 1 and the given differential equation
is satisfied. Also, y (0) = sin 0 − cos 0 = −1, and so y is a solution of the initial value problem.
571
572 Chapter 8 Differential Equations

5. a. y = Cemx ⇒ y = mCemx . Since y is a solution of y = 3y, we b.

have mCemx = 3Cemx ⇔ m = 3. 1

c. y (0) = 2 ⇒ Ce0 = C = 2, so the solution is y = 2e3x . This is

among the family of solutions in part b. 0

-1

-2 -1 0 1

6. a. y = emx ⇒ y = memx ⇒ y = m 2 emx . Substituting into the equation y − y − 2y = 0 gives

m 2 emx − memx − 2emx = m 2 − m − 2 emx = 0.

b. m 2 − m − 2 = (m − 2) (m + 1) = 0 ⇔ m = −1 or m = 2.
c. y1 = e−x and y2 = e2x .
d. To verify directly that y1 is a solution, we find y1 = −e−x and y1 = e−x . Substituting into the equation
y − y − 2y = 0, we obtain e−x − −e−x − 2 e−x = 0 and the given differential equation is satisfied. Thus, y1 is a
solution. Similarly, we find that y2 = e2x is also a solution.

C x3 5 C 1 5
7. a. y = + and y (1) = ⇒ + = ⇔ 8. a. y 2 = e2x + C and y (0) = 1 ⇒ e0 + C = 1 + C = 1
x 4 4 1 4 4
⇔ C = 0, so the solution is y 2 = e2x .
1 x3
C = 1, so y = + .
x 4 b. 2
b.
2

0
0

-2 -2
-2 -1 0 1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

dy 2y dx dy
9. = is separable: = ⇒ ln |x| = 12 ln |y| − ln |C1 | ⇒ 12 ln |y| = ln |C1 x| ⇒ |y|1/2 = C1 x ⇒ y = C x 2 ,
dx x x 2y
where C = C12 .
dy x +1
10. = is separable: y 2 dy = (x + 1) dx ⇒ 13 y 3 = 12 x 2 + x + C.
dx y2
dy dy 3 3
11. = x 2 y is separable: = x 2 dx ⇒ ln |y| = 13 x 3 + C1 ⇒ |y| = e x /3 +C1 = C2 e x /3 where C2 = eC1 . Thus,
dx y
3
y = Ce x /3 , where C = ±C2 .
dy xy dy x dx dy 1
12. =− is separable: =− ⇒ =− 1− dx ⇒ ln |y| = −x + ln |x + 1| + C1 ⇒
dx x +1 y x +1 y x +1
y y y
ln = −x + C1 ⇒ = e−x+C1 = C2 e−x (where C2 = eC1 ) ⇒ = Ce−x (where C = ±C2 ). Thus,
x +1 x +1 x +1
y = C (x + 1) e−x .
 Section 8.1 Differential Equations: Separable Equations 573

dy 2y + 3 dy dx
13. = 2
is separable: = ⇒ 12 ln |2y + 3| = −1/x + C1 ⇒ ln |2y + 3| = −2/x + C2 (where
dx x 2y + 3 x2
C2 = 2C1 ) ⇒ |2y + 3| = e(−2/x)+C2 = C3 e−2/x (where C3 = eC2 ) ⇒ 2y + 3 = C4 e−2/x (where C4 = ±C3 ). Thus,
y = Ce−2/x − 32 , where C = 12 C4 .
dy ex
14. = e x−y = y is separable: e y dy = e x dx ⇒ e y = e x + C ⇔ y = ln e x + C .
dx e
dy
15. cos y dx = sec2 x is separable: cos y dy = sec2 x dx ⇒ sin y = tan x + C ⇔ y = sin−1 (tan x + C).
dr sin θ
16. (1 − cos θ) ddrθ = r sin θ is separable: = dθ ⇒ ln |r| = ln |1 − cos θ| + ln |C| ⇔
r 1 − cos θ
ln |r| = ln |C (1 − cos θ)| ⇔ r = C (1 − cos θ).
dy dy ln x 1 1 1 1
17. x dx = y 2 ln x is separable: = dx ⇒ − = (ln x)2 + C1 ⇒ − = (ln x)2 + C (where C = 2C1 ).
y2 x y 2 y 2
2
Thus, y = − .
(ln x)2 + C
dy
18. dy
dt = 1 + t + y + t y = (1 + t) + y (1 + t) = (1 + y) (1 + t) is separable: = (1 + t) dt ⇒
1+ y
2 2 2
ln |1 + y| = t + 12 t 2 + C1 ⇒ |1 + y| = et+ t /2 +C1 = C2 et+ t /2 (where C2 = eC1 ) ⇒ 1 + y = Cet+ t /2 (where
2
C = ±C2 ). Thus, y = Cet+ t /2 − 1.
dy dy
19. dx = 3x y − 2x = x (3y − 2) is separable: = x dx ⇒ 13 ln |3y − 2| = 12 x 2 + C1 ⇒ ln |3y − 2| = 32 x 2 + C2
3y − 2
2 2
(where C2 = 3C1 ) ⇒ |3y − 2| = C3 e3x /2 (where C3 = eC2 ) ⇒ 3y − 2 = C4 e3x /2 (where C4 = ±C3 ). Thus,
2
y = 23 + Ce3x /2 , where C = 13 C4 . Finally, y (0) = 1 ⇒ 23 + C = 1 ⇒ C = 13 . Therefore, the solution is
2
y = 23 + 13 e3x /2 .
dy
20. dx = xe−y is separable: e y dy = x dx ⇒ e y = 12 x 2 + C ⇒ y = ln 12 x 2 + C and y (0) = 1 ⇒ ln C = 1 ⇒ C = e.

Thus, the solution is y = ln 12 x 2 + e .

dy
21. dx = x 2 y −1/2 is separable: y 1/2 dy = x 2 dx ⇒ 23 y 3/2 = 13 x 3 + C and y (1) = 1 ⇒ 23 = 13 + C ⇒ C = 13 , so we
have 23 y 3/2 = 13 x 3 + 1 ⇒ y 3/2 = 12 x 3 + 1 .

dy y2 dx 1
22. = is separable: y −2 dy = ⇒ − = ln |x − 2| + C and y (3) = 1 ⇒ −1 = ln |1| + C ⇒ C = −1,
dx x −2 x −2 y
1 1
so − = ln |x − 2| − 1 ⇔ y = .
y 1 − ln |x − 2|
dy
23. = 3x 2 e−y is separable: e y dy = 3x 2 dx ⇒ e y = x 3 + C and y (0) = 1 ⇒ e = C, so e y = x 3 + e ⇔
dx
y = ln x 3 + e .

24. sin2 y dx + cos2 x dy = 0 is separable: csc2 y dy = 0 ⇒ tan x − cot y = C and y π

sec2 x dx + π
4 = 4 ⇒
tan π π
4 − cot 4 = C ⇒ C = 0, so cot y = tan x ⇔ y = cot
−1 (tan x).

dI dI dI
25. + 2I = 4 ⇒ = 4 − 2I = 2 (2 − I ) is separable: = 2 dt ⇒ − ln |2 − I | = 2t + C1 ⇒
dt dt 2− I
|2 − I | = C2 e−2t (where C2 = e−C1 ) ⇒ 2 − I = Ce−2t (where C = ±C2 ) ⇔ I = 2 − Ce−2t . Now I (0) = 0 ⇒
2 − C = 0 ⇒ C = 2, so I = 2 1 − e−2t .
574 Chapter 8 Differential Equations

du
26. cos θ dduθ = u tan θ is separable: = sec θ tan θ dθ ⇒ ln |u| = sec θ + C1 ⇒ |u| = C2 esec θ (where C2 = eC1 ) ⇒
u
u = Cesec θ (where C = ±C2 ) and u π
3 = 2 ⇒ 2 = Ce
sec(π/3) = Ce2 ⇒ C = 2e−2 , so u = 2esec θ−2 .

dy 3x 2
27. = ⇒ 2y dy = 3x 2 dx ⇒ y 2 = x 3 + C and y (1) = 3 ⇒ 9 = 1 + C ⇒ C = 8, so the required function is
dx 2y
f (x) = x 3 + 8.

dy 4x √
28. =− ⇒ 9y dy = − 4x dx ⇒ 92 y 2 + 2x 2 = C1 ⇒ 9y 2 + 4x 2 = C (where C = 2C1 ). If x = 2, then y = 2 3 5
dx 9y
√ 2
and 9 2 3 5 + 4 (4) = C ⇔ C = 36, so 9y 2 + 4x 2 = 36.

29. x y = c ⇒ x y + y = 0 ⇒ y = −y/x, so the family of orthogonal curves 4

dy 1 x
satisfies =− = ⇒ y dy = x dx ⇒ 12 y 2 − 12 x 2 = C1 ⇔
dx −y/x y 2
y 2 − x 2 = C, where C = 2C1 .
0

-2

-4
-4 -2 0 2 4

y2 3x 2 y 2 3y
30. y 2 = cx 3 ⇒ 2yy = 3cx 2 , but c = 3 , so y = · = . The 5
x 2y x 3 2x
dy 2x
family of orthogonal curves satisfies =− ⇒
dx 3y
3y dy + 2x dx = 0 ⇒ 32 y 2 + x 2 = C1 ⇔ 3y 2 + 2x 2 = C (where 0
C = 2C1 ).

-5
-4 -2 0 2 4

31. y = ce x ⇒ y = ce x , but c = ye−x , so y = ye−x e x = y. The family 2

dy 1
of orthogonal curves satisfies =− ⇒ y dy + dx = 0 ⇒
dx y
1 y 2 + x = C ⇒ y 2 + 2x = C (where C = 2C ).
2 1 1 0

-2
-2 -1 0 1 2
 Section 8.1 Differential Equations: Separable Equations 575

32. y = ln (cx) ⇒ y = 1/x. The family of orthogonal curves satisfies 2

dy
dx = −x ⇒ dy + x dx = 0 ⇒ y + 12 x 2 = C ⇔ y = − 12 x 2 + C.

-2
-2 -1 0 1 2

x
33. The slope of the tangent line to a curve in the family x 2 + ay 2 = C1 is given by 2x + 2ayy = 0 ⇔ y = − . The slope
ay
C y3 y3 1 y
of the tangent line to a curve in the family y 3 = C2 x is 3y 2 y = C2 ⇔ y = 22 . But C2 = , so y = · 2 = .
3y x x 3y 3x
If the two families are orthogonal, then the slope of a tangent to one of the curves found earlier is the negative reciprocal of
x 1 x 3x 1
the other; that is, − =− ⇔ = ⇔a = .
ay y/ (3x) ay y 3
34. a. Let y (t) denote the number of bacteria present in the culture at time t. Then we have dy
dt = ky, where k is the constant
of proportionality. Solving, we find y = y0 ekt . But y0 = 600, and so y = 600ekt . Next, y (3) = 10,000 ⇒

600e3k = 10,000 ⇒ e3k = 50 k 50 1/3 . Thus, y (t) = 600 50 t/3 .

3 ⇔e = 3 3
5/3
b. N (5) = 600 50
3 ≈ 65,248
t/3 t/3 3 ln 40
c. We solve 24,000 = 600 50
3 ⇒ 40 = 50
3 ⇒ 13 t ln 50
3 = ln 40 ⇒ t = ≈ 3.93 hours.
ln 50 3

35. Let y (t) denote the number of bacteria present in the culture at time t. Then we have dy
dt = ky, where k is the constant of
proportionality. Solving the equation, we find y (t) = y0 ekt . Using the conditions y (2) = 800 and y (4) = 3200, we obtain
⎫
y0 e2k = 800 ⎬ e4k 3200
⇒ 2k = ⇒ e2k = 4. Substituting this into the first equation gives 4y0 = 800 ⇔ y0 = 200, so
4k
y0 e = 3200 ⎭ e 800
there were 200 bacteria present initially.

36. Let y (t) denote the number of bacteria present in the culture at time t. Then we have dy
dt = ky, where k is the constant of
proportionality. Solving the equation, we have y = y0 ekt . Now the given condition says that y 12 = 32 y0 , so we have

3 y = y ek/2 ⇔ ek/2 = 3 ⇔ ek = 3 2 . Thus, y (t) = y 3 2t . To find the time it takes for the population to triple in
2 0 0 2 2 0 2
2t 2t ln 3
size, we solve y0 32 = 3y0 ⇔ 32 = 3 ⇔ 2t ln 32 = ln 3 ⇔ t = ≈ 1.35 hours.
2 ln 32

37. Let L (x) represent the proportion of incident light absorbed by a layer of material x inches thick. Then we have ddxL = kx,
where k is the constant of proportionality. Solving the equation, we have L = L 0 ekx . The given condition says that
2 2x
L 12 = 12 L 0 , so 12 L 0 = L 0 ek/2 ⇔ ek = 12 . Thus, L (x) = L 0 12 . To find the total amount of material it takes to
2x 2x
reduce the intensity to one-fourth of its initial value, we solve 14 L 0 = L 0 12 ⇔ 14 = 12 ⇔ x = 1. Thus, an

additional 12 inch of material is required.

576 Chapter 8 Differential Equations

38. a. Let A (t) denote the accumulated amount after t years. Then using the result of Example 9, we have
A (t) = A (0) ekt = Pekt = 10,000ekt (because P = 10,000). Also, k = 0.1, and we find A (t) = 10,000e0.1t . The
accumulated amount after 5 years is A (t) = 10,000e0.1(5) ≈ $16,487.21.
ln 2
b. We solve the equation 20,000 = 10,000e0.1t ⇔ e0.1t = 2 ⇔ 0.1t = ln 2 ⇔ t = ≈ 6.93 or approximately 7 years.
0.1

39. Let y (t) denote the amount of the first substance remaining after t hours. Then dy 2
dt = ky , where k is the constant of
dy 1
proportionality. Separating variables and integrating, we obtain = k dt ⇒ − = kt + C, where C is an
y2 y
1 1 1 1 1 4
arbitrary constant. y (0) = 50 ⇒ − = C, so = −kt + . Next, y (1) = 10 ⇒ = −k + ⇒k =− .
50 y 50 10 50 50
1 4 1 4t + 1 50
Thus, = t+ = ⇒y= . The amount of the first substance remaining after 2 hours is given by
y 50 50 50 4t + 1
50 50
y (2) = = g.
4 (2) + 1 9

40. Let y (t) denote the amount of phosphorus-32 present after t hours. Then dydt = ky, where k is the constant of
proportionality. Solving, we find y = Cekt , where C is an arbitrary constant. y (0) = 100 ⇒ 100 = Ce0 = C,
so y (t) = 100ekt . The half-life of phosphorus-32 is 14.3 days, so y (14.3) = 50 ⇔ 100e14.3k = 50 ⇔

e14.3k = 12 ⇔ ek = 1 1/14.3 . Thus, y (t) = 100ekt = 100 ek t = 100 1 t/14.3 . The amount left after
2 2
1 7.1/14.3
7.1 days is given by y (7.1) = 100 2 ≈ 70.9 g. The amount of phosphorus-32 is changing at the rate of
dy 1 1/14.3 y = − ln 2 y g/day on the tth day. So when t = 7.1, it is changing at a rate of approximately
dt = ky = ln 2 14.3
ln 2 (70.9) ≈ −3.44 g/day; that is, it is decaying at a rate of about 3.44 g per day.
− 14 .3

41. Let y (t) denote the amount of strontium-90 present after t years. Then dy
dt = ky, where k is the constant of proportionality.
kt
Solving, we find y = ye , where y (0) = y0 is the amount present initially. The half-life of strontium-90 is 28.9 years, so
1/28.9 t t/28.9
y (28.9) = 12 y0 ⇔ y0 ek(28.9) = 12 y0 ⇔ e28.9k = 12 ⇔ ek = 12 . Thus, y (t) = y0 ekt = y0 ek = y0 12 .
Suppose the safe level of y2 units occurs in year t2 and the level is four times the safe level in year t1 , with t1 < t2 . Then
⎫
t1 /28.9 ⎪
4y2 = y0 12 ⎬ (t2 /28.9)−(t1 /28.9)
we have t /28. 9 Dividing the second equation by the first gives 14 = 12 ⇔
y2 = y0 12
2 ⎪
⎭

t2 − t1 1 ln 1
ln 2 = ln 14 ⇔ t2 − t1 = 28.9 · 41 = 57.8 years. The required time is 57.8 years.
28.9 ln 2

42. Let y (t) denote the amount of carbon-14 present after t years. Then dy
dt = ky, where k is the constant of proportionality.
Solving, we find y = y0 e , where y (0) = y0 is the amount present initially. y (5730) = 12 y0 ⇔ y0 e5730k = 12 y0 ⇔
kt

1/5730 t/5730 T /5730

ek = 12 , so y (t) = y0 12 . Suppose that y (T ) = 0.2y0 . Then we have 0.2y0 = y0 12 ⇔

1 T /5730 = 0.2 ⇔ 1 T ln 1 = ln 0.2 ⇔ T = 5730 ln 0.2 ≈ 13,305 years. So the tree died about 13,305 years ago.
2 5730 2 ln 0.5
 Section 8.1 Differential Equations: Separable Equations 577

43. Let y (t) denote the amount of carbon-14 present t years after it first found its way into the system of “Pittsburgh Man.”
Then dy kt
dt = ky0 , where k is the constant of proportionality. Solving, we find y = y0 e , where y (0) = y0 is the
amount present initially. The half-life of carbon-14 in 5730 years, implying that y (5730) = 12 y0 ⇒ y0 e5730k = 12 y0

⇒ ek = 1 1/5730 , so y (t) = y ekt = y ek t = y 1 t/5730 . When “Pittsburgh Man” was discovered

2 0 0 0 2
T /5730
at time T , 100 − 82 = 18% of the carbon-14 remained, so y0 12 T ln 1 = ln 0.18 ⇔
= 0.18y0 ⇔ 5730 2
ln 0. 18
T = 5730 · ln 0.5 ≈ 14,176, so the bones are approximately 14,176 years old.

44. Let y (t) denote the temperature of the horseshoe t minutes after it was immersed in the water. Then by Newton’s Law
dy
of Cooling, we have dy dt = k (y − 30), where k is the constant of proportionality. We find = k dt ⇔
y − 30
ln |y − 30| = kt + C1 , where C1 is an arbitrary constant. Thus, y = 30 + Cekt (where C = ±eC1 ). Next, y (0) = 600
⇒ 30 + C = 600 ⇒ C = 570, so y (t) = 30 + 570ekt . Also, y (2) = 70 ⇒ 30 + 570e2k = 70 ⇒ 570e2k = 40 ⇔
4 1/2 t 4 t/2
ek = 57 , so y (t) = 30 + 570ekt = 30 + 570 ek = 30 + 570 57 . The temperature of the horseshoe 3 minutes

4 3/2
after its immersion is y (3) = 30 + 570 57 ≈ 41◦ C.

45. Let y (t) denote the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit t minutes after the cup of coffee is left on the counter. By Newton’s
dy
Law of Cooling, we have dy dt = k (y − 72), where k is the constant of proportionality. Thus, = k dt
y − 72
⇔ ln |y − 72| = kt + C1 ⇔ y = 72 + Cekt (where C = ±eC1 ). y (0) = 212 ⇒ 72 + C = 212 ⇒ C = 140,

so y (t) = 72 + 140ekt . Next, y (2) = 140, so 72 + 140e2k = 140 ⇒ 140e2k = 68 ⇒ ek = 17 1/2 , so

35
t t/2
y (t) = 72 + 140ekt = 72 + 140 ek = 72 + 140 17
35 . Suppose the temperature of the coffee is 110◦ F at time T .
T /2 T /2 T /2
Then y (T ) = 72 + 140 17
35 = 110 ⇔ 140 17
35 = 38 ⇔ 17
35
38 = 19 ⇔ T ln 17 = ln 19 ⇔
= 140 70 2 35 70
2 ln 19
70
T = ≈ 3.6 minutes.
ln 17
35

46. Let y (t) denote the temperature of the thermometer t minutes after it is taken to the patio. Then, by Newton’s Law, we have
dy dy
dt = k (y − y0 ), where y0 is the outdoor temperature and k is the constant of proportionality. We find y − y0
= k dt

⇒ ln |y − y0 | = kt + C1 ⇒ y = y0 + Cekt (where C = ±eC1 ). y (0) = 70 ⇒ y0 + C = 70 ⇒ C = 70 − y0 , so

⎫
y (1) 50 y (70 y ) e k = 50 ⎬
= ⇒ 0 + − 0 50 − y0
y (t) = y0 + (70 − y0 ) ekt . Next, The first equation gives ek = ,
y (2) = 40 ⇒ y0 + (70 − y0 ) e2k = 40 ⎭ 70 − y0

50 − y0 2
and substituting this into the second equation gives (70 − y0 ) = 40 − y0 ⇒ (50 − y0 )2 = (70 − y0 ) (40 − y0 )
70 − y0
⇒ 2500 − 100y0 + y02 = 2800 − 110y0 + y02 ⇒ 10y0 = 300 ⇒ y0 = 30. Thus, the outdoor temperature is 30◦ F.
578 Chapter 8 Differential Equations

47. Let v (t) denote the speed of the boat t seconds after the motor is cut off. By Newton’s Second Law of Motion,
F = ma = m dv
dt , where m is the mass of the boat. But F = −kv, where k is the (positive) constant of proportionality.
dv k
Thus, we have m dv dv k
dt = −kv ⇔ dt = − m v. Separating variables and integrating, we have = − dt ⇒
v m
kt
ln |v| = − + C1 ⇔ v (t) = Ce−kt/m (where C = ±eC1 ). v (0) = 12 ⇒ C = 12, so v (t) = 12e−kt/m . Next, noting
m
20 = 1 hour, we find v
that 20 seconds is equal to 3600 1 −k/(180m) = 8 ⇔ e−k/(180m) = 2 ⇒
180 180 = 8; that is, 12e 3
180 t 180t
e−k/m = 23 . Then v (t) = 12e−(k/m)t = 12 e−k/m = 12 23 1 h)
. Thus, the speed of the boat 2 minutes ( 30

1 = 12 2 180(1/30) = 12 2 6 ≈ 1.05 mi/h.

after the motor is cut off is v 30 3 3

dQ dQ
48. = k (80 − Q) ⇒ = k dt ⇒ − ln |80 − Q| = kt + C1 ⇒ ln |80 − Q| = −kt − C1 ⇒ 80 − Q = Ce−kt
dt 80 − Q
(where C = ±eC1 ) ⇒ Q (t) = 80 − Ce−kt . Now Q (0) = 0 ⇒ 80 − C = 0 ⇒ C = 80, so Q (t) = 80 1 − e−kt .

Also, Q (10) = 50 ⇒ 80 1 − e−10k = 50 ⇒ 1 − e−10k = 50 −10k = 3 ⇒ e−k = 3 1/10 . Therefore,

80 ⇒ e 8 8
t t/10
Q (t) = 80 1 − e−k = 80 1 − 38 . So upon completing the course, the speed of the average student is

20/10
Q (20) = 80 1 − 38 = 80 55
64 = 68.75; that is, approximately 69 words per minute.

dP dP 1
49. a. = kP + I ⇒ = dt ⇒ ln |k P + I | = t + C1 ⇒ ln |k P + I | = kt + C2 (where C2 = kC1 ) ⇒
dt kP + I k
k P + I = C3 ekt (where C3 = ±eC2 ) ⇒ P (t) = Cekt − I /k (where C = C3 /k). The condition P (0) = P0 gives
C − I /k = P0 ⇒ C = P0 + I /k, so P (t) = (P0 + I /k) ekt − I /k.
b. With P0 = 226.5, k = 0.008, and I = 0.5, we see that the U.S. population in 2010 will be
.5 e0.008(30) − 0.5 ≈ 304.9 million.
P (30) = 226.5 + 00.008 0.008

dy dy
50. = k (N − y) (M − y) ⇒ = k dt. Using partial fraction decomposition, or otherwise, we
dt (N − y) (M − y)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
find that = − . Thus, − dy = k dt
(N − y) (M − y) M−N N−y M−y M−N N−y M−y
1 1
⇒ − dy = (M − N ) k dt ⇒ − ln |N − y| + ln |M − y| = (M − N ) kt + C1 ⇒
N−y M−y
M−y M−y M−y
ln = (M − N ) kt + C1 ⇒ = C2 e(M−N )kt (where C2 = eC1 ) ⇒ = Ce(M−N )kt (where
N−y N−y N−y
M M−y M (M−N )kt
C = ±C2 ). The condition y (0) = 0 gives = C, so we have = e . Solving for y, we obtain
N N−y N
M N ek Mt − ek N t
y (t) = .
Mek Mt − N ek N t
 Section 8.1 Differential Equations: Separable Equations 579

d (mv) = m dv + v dm , so the given differential equation d (mv) = mg is equivalent to m dv + v dm = mg. Since

51. a. dt dt dt dt dt dt
dm = km, where k is the constant of proportionality, we obtain m dv + v (km) = mg ⇔ dv = g − kv as the required
dt dt dt
equation.
dv dv 1
b. = g − kv ⇒ = dt ⇒ − ln |g − kv| = t + C1 ⇒ ln |g − kv| = −kt + C2 (where C2 = −kC1 )
dt g − kv k
⇒ |g − kv| = C3 e−kt (where C3 = eC2 ) ⇔ g − kv = C4 e−kt (where C4 = ±C3 ). Solving for v, we find
g g g
v (t) = Ce−kt + (where C = −C4 /k). The condition v (0) = 0 gives C + = 0 ⇔ C = − , so
k k k
g −kt
v (t) = 1−e .
k
g g
c. lim v (t) = lim 1 − e−kt =
t→∞ t→∞ k k

dh B√ dh B√ dh B√ B √
52. a. =− 2gh ⇒ =− 2gh 1/2 ⇒ =− 2g dt ⇒ 2h 1/2 = − t 2g + C1 ⇒
dt A dt A h 1/2 A A
B √
h 1/2 = − t 2g + C2 (where C2 = 12 C1 ). The condition h (0) = H implies that C2 = H 1/2 , so
2A
B g √ √ B g 2
h 1/2 = − t + H and h (t) = H− t .
A 2 A 2
B g √ A 2H
b. We solve h (T ) = 0, obtaining T = H ⇔T = .
A 2 B g
1 , H = 16, and g = 32, we have T = 4
c. Substituting A = 4, B = 144
2 · 16
= 576 s or 9.6 minutes.
1 32
144

dP dP 100
53. a. = k P 1.01 ⇒ = k dt ⇒ − 0.01 = kt + C. b. If k = 0.1, then
dt P 1.01 P
1
Using the initial condition P (0) = 1, we have −100 = C, so P (t) = .
(1 − 0.001t)100
100 100 1
− 0.01 = kt − 100 ⇒ P 0.01 = = ⇔
P 100 − kt 1 − 0.01kt 1e+199
1
P (t) = .
(1 − 0.01kt)100
1
c. Observe that lim P (t) = lim = ∞. 5e+198
t→1000− t→1000− (1 − 0.001t)100
This differential equation is called the “doomsday equation"
because the population grows without bound after a finite period
of time. 0
0 500 1000

dT dT
54. = k T 4 − Tm4 = k T 2 + Tm2 T 2 − Tm2 ⇒ = k dt ⇒
dt T 2 + Tm2 T 2 − Tm2
1 1 1 1 T − Tm 1 T
− = k dt ⇒ ln − tan−1 = 2Tm2 kt + C1 ⇒
2Tm2 T 2 − Tm2 T 2 + Tm2 2Tm T + Tm Tm Tm
T − Tm T T + Tm T
ln − 2 tan−1 = 4Tm3 kt + C2 (where C2 = 2Tm C1 ) ⇒ ln + 2 tan−1 = −4Tm3 kt + C
T + Tm Tm T − Tm Tm
T + Tm T
(where C = −C2 ) ⇔ ln + 2 tan−1 = −4Tm3 kt + C (for T > Tm ).
T − Tm Tm
580 Chapter 8 Differential Equations

55. a. Let y (t) denote the concentration of the drug in the bloodstream. Then dy
dt = −ky, where k > 0 is the constant of
dy
proportionality. Solving the differential equation, we have = − k dt ⇒ ln |y| = −kt + C1 ⇒ |y| = C2 e−kt
y
(where C2 = eC1 ) ⇒ y = Ce−kt (where C = ±C2 ). Next, the condition y (0) = C0 gives C = C0 , so y (t) = C0 e−kt .
Therefore, the concentration at the end of T hours is y (T ) = C0 e−kT .
b. The concentration of the drug at time t = T is the sum of the residual amount from the first dose plus the
newly injected dose of C0 g/mL; that is, in this situation, y (T ) = C0 e−kt + C0 = C0 1 + e−kT .

Therefore, y (t) = C0 1 + e−kT e−kt for t > T , and so the concentration at the end of 2T hours is

y (2T ) = C0 1 + e−kT e−kT = C0 e−kT + e−2kT .

c. If this process were continued, then the concentration at the end of N T hours would be
y (N T ) = C0 e−kT + e−2kT + · · · + e−N kT .
d. The concentration of drug in the bloodstream in the long run would be
1 − e−N kT C0 e−kT
lim y (N T ) = lim C0 e−kT 1 + e−kT + · · · + e−(N −1)kT = lim C0 e−kT = g/mL.
N →∞ N →∞ N →∞ 1 − e−kT 1 − e−kT
dx
56. We have dx
dt = kx (N − x), where k is the constant of proportionality. Then = k dt ⇒
x (N − x)
1 1 1 1 1 x
+ dx = k dt ⇒ (ln |x| − ln |N − x|) = kt + C1 ⇒ ln = kt + C1
N x N −x N N N −x
x x
⇒ ln = k N t + C2 (where C2 = N C1 ) ⇒ = Cek N t (where C = eC2 ) ⇒
N −x N −x
C N ek N t
x = N Cek N t − C xek N t ⇒ 1 + Cek N t x = C N ek N t ⇒ x (t) = . Using the condition
1 + Cek N t
CN N0
x (0) = N0 gives = N0 ⇒ C N = N0 + C N0 ⇒ C (N − N0 ) = N0 ⇒ C = . Thus,
1+C N − N0
N0 N
CN N − N0 N
x (t) = = = .
C + e−k N t N0 −k N t N − N0
e−k N t
N − N0 + e 1+ N0

8000 8000
57. a. Using the result of Exercise 56 with N = 8000 and N0 = 400 gives x (t) = = .
1 + 8000400
− 400 e−8000kt 1 + 19e−8000kt
8000
The condition x (1) = 1200 gives = 1200 ⇒ 1 + 19e−8000k = 8000 20
1200 = 3 or e
−8000k = 1 · 17 = 17 .
19 3 57
1 + 19e−8000k
8000
Thus, x (t) = t , and the numbers contracting the flu after 2, 3, and 4 weeks are given by x (2) ≈ 2974,
1 + 19 17
57
x (3) ≈ 5319, and x (4) ≈ 6955.
b. Noting that 80% of 8000 is 6400, we solve the equation c. 10000
8000 t
t = 6400 for t, and find 1 + 19 17
57 = 8000 5
6400 = 4
17
1 + 19 57
5000
t 17 t = 1 ⇒ t ln 17
⇔ 19 17
57 = 14 ⇒ 57 76 57
1
= ln 76 ⇒
ln 76
t =− ≈ 3.6, so it takes approximately 3.6 weeks for 0
ln 17
57
0 2 4 6 8

80% of the student population to be infected.

 Section 8.2 Direction Fields and Euler’s Method 581

dx dx
58. a. = k (L − x) ⇒ = k dt ⇒ − ln |L − x| = kt + C1 ⇒ ln |L − x| = −kt − C1 ⇒ |L − x| = C2 e−kt
dt L−x
(where C2 = e−C1 ) ⇒ L − x = Ce−kt (where C = ±C2 ) ⇔ x (t) = L − Ce−kt . The condition x (0) = x0 gives
L − C = x0 ⇔ C = L − x0 , so x (t) = L − (L − x0 ) e−kt .

b. We are given that x0 = 0.4 and x (1) = 10. Using this c. Taking L = 100 and x0 = 0.4, we have
information, we find x (1) = L − (L − 0.4) e−k = 10 ⇔ 100 − 10 t
x (t) = 100 − (100 − 0.4) 100 − 0.4
L − 10
e−k = , so ≈ 100 − 99.6 (0.9036)t
L − 0.4
t L − 10 t
x (t) = L − (L − x0 ) e−k = L − (L − 0.4) . 100
L − 0.4
d. If x = 40, then we have 100 − 99.6 (0.9036)t = 40 ⇒
60 1 60 50
(0.9036)t = ⇔t = ln ≈ 4.9998. If
99.6 ln 0.9036 99.6
1 40
x = 60, then we have t = ln ≈ 8.9997. So, on 0
ln 0.9036 99.6
0 10 20 30
average, the haddock caught today are between 5 and 9 years old.
dy
59. False. Consider the first-order differential equation dx = 2x. Then f (x) = x 2 is a solution of the differential equation, but
dy
the function g (x) = 4 f (x) = 4x 2 is not a solution of the equation dx = 2x.

60. False. y = x 2 − y 2 = (x + y) (x − y) cannot be written in the form y = f (x) g (y).

61. True. y = x y + 2x − y − 2 = x (y + 2) − (y + 2) = (x − 1) (y + 2) is clearly separable.
cx x 1 − y2 y2 − 1
62. True. cx 2 + y 2 = 1 ⇒ 2cx + 2yy = 0 ⇒ y = − ⇒y =− · = . Next, x 2 + y 2 − ln y 2 = k ⇒
y y x2 xy
2y xy
2x + 2yy − = 0 ⇒ x y + y y2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ y = − 2 . Since the slopes of members of the first family of
y y −1
curves are negative reciprocals of the slopes of members of the second family, the families are mutually orthogonal.

8.2 Concept Questions

1. a. See page 691.
b. See page 692.

2. See pages 694–696.

8.2 Direction Fields and Euler’s Method

1. The answer is a. Note that y = 1 for all points lying on the x-axis and y = 0 for all points on the line y = 2.
2. The answer is c. Note that y = 1 for all points lying on the x-axis and y is positive and increasing in the first quadrant as x
and y increase.
3. The answer is b. Note that for each fixed y, the slope y increases as x increases, and for each fixed x, y increases as
y increases.
4. The answer is d. Note that for each fixed y, the slope y fluctuates between −1 and 1.
582 Chapter 8 Differential Equations

y y
5. 6. 8
2

6 (c)
1 (c)
(a)
(d)
4
(b)
_2 _1 0 1 2 3 x
(b) 2
_1 (a)

_2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x

_2

y y
7. 8. 3
2

(b) (a) 2
(c)
(c)
1
1
(b)
0
_2 _1 0 1 2 x _3 _2 _1 1 2 x

_1
_1
(a)
_2
_2
_3

y y
9. 10. (c)
4
(c)

1
2
(b)
(b)
1 x 1
1
(a) x
(a)

y y
11. 12.
(c) (b)

1 1
(c)
1 x 1 x
(b)
(a)
(a)
_2 _2
 Section 8.2 Direction Fields and Euler’s Method 583

y y
13. 14.
(c) 4 (c)

1 (b)
2
(a)
(b)
1 2 4x 1

1 x
_1 (a)

y y
15. (c)
16.

1 (b)
(b) 1 (c)
x
1 1 2 x
(a)
(a)
_1

17. y = f (x, y) = x + y, x0 = 0, y0 = 1, and b = 1.

a. n = 4 ⇒ h = 1 − 0 1 1 1 3
4 = 4 , so x0 = a = 0, x 1 = 4 , x 2 = 2 , x3 = 4 , and x 4 = 1 = b. Therefore, y0 = 1,
y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 1 + 14 (0 + 1) = 54 , y2 = y1 + h f (x1 , y1 ) = 54 + 14 14 + 54 = 13
8 ,

y3 = y2 + h f (x2 , y2 ) = 13 1 1 13 69 69 1 3 69 369
8 + 4 2 + 8 = 32 , and y4 = y3 + h f (x 3 , y3 ) = 32 + 4 4 + 32 = 128 . Thus,
y (1) ≈ 369
128 ≈ 2.88.
b. n = 6 ⇒ h = 16 , so x0 = a = 0, x1 = 16 , x2 = 13 , x3 = 12 , x4 = 23 , x5 = 56 , and x6 = 1 = b. Therefore,
y0 = 1, y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 1 + 16 (0 + 1) = 76 , y2 = y1 + h f (x1 , y1 ) = 76 + 16 16 + 76 = 25
18 ,

y3 = y2 + h f (x2 , y2 ) = 25 1 1 25 181 181 1 1 181 1321

18 + 6 3 + 18 = 108 , y4 = y3 + h f (x 3 , y3 ) = 108 + 6 2 + 108 = 648 ,

y5 = y4 + h f (x4 , y4 ) = 1321 1 2 1321 9679 9679 1 5 9679

648 + 6 3 + 648 = 3888 , and y6 = y5 + h f (x 5 , y5 ) = 3888 + 6 6 + 3888 ≈ 3.043.
Thus, y (1) ≈ 3.04.

18. y = f (x, y) = x − 2y, x0 = 0, y0 = 1, and b = 2.

a. n = 4 ⇒ h = 2 − 0 1 1 3
4 = 2 , so x 0 = a = 0, x1 = 2 , x 2 = 1, x 3 = 2 , and x 4 = 2 = b. Therefore, y0 = 1,
y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 1 + 12 (0 − 2 · 1) = 0, y2 = y1 + h f (x1 , y1 ) = 0 + 12 12 − 2 · 0 = 14 ,

y3 = y2 + h f (x2 , y2 ) = 14 + 12 1 − 2 · 14 = 12 , and y4 = y3 + h f (x3 , y3 ) = 12 + 12 32 − 2 · 12 = 34 = 0.75. Thus,

y (2) ≈ 0.75.
b. n = 6 ⇒ h = 2 − 0 1 1 2 4
6 = 3 , so x 0 = a = 0, x 1 = 3 , x2 = 3 , x 3 = 1, x4 = 3 , x 5 = 3 ,
5

and x6 = 2 = b. Therefore, y0 = 1, y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 1 + 13 (0 − 2 · 1) = 13 ,

y2 = y1 + h f (x1 , y1 ) = 13 + 13 13 − 2 · 13 = 29 , y3 = y2 + h f (x2 , y2 ) = 29 + 13 23 − 2 · 29 = 27
8,

8 + 1 1 − 2 · 8 = 35 , y = y + h f (x , y ) = 35 + 1 4 − 2 · 35 = 143 , and
y4 = y3 + h f (x3 , y3 ) = 27 3 27 81 5 4 4 4 81 3 3 81 243

y6 = y5 + h f (x5 , y5 ) = 143 1 5 143 548

243 + 3 3 − 2 · 243 = 729 ≈ 0.752. Thus, y (2) ≈ 0.75.
584 Chapter 8 Differential Equations

19. y = f (x, y) = 2x − y + 1, x0 = 0, y0 = 2, and b = 2.

a. n = 4 ⇒ h = 2 − 0
4 =
1 , so x = a = 0, x = 1 , x = 1, x = 3 , and
2 0 1 2 2 3 2
x4 = 2 = b. Therefore, y0 = 2, y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 2 + 12 (2 · 0 − 2 + 1) = 32 ,
y2 = y1 + h f (x1 , y1 ) = 32 + 12 2 · 12 − 32 + 1 = 74 , y3 = y2 + h f (x2 , y2 ) = 74 + 12 2 · 1 − 74 + 1 = 19
8 , and

y4 = y3 + h f (x3 , y3 ) = 19 1 3 19 51
8 + 2 2 · 2 − 8 + 1 = 16 = 3.1875. Thus, y (2) ≈ 3.19.

b. n = 6 ⇒ h = 2 − 0 1 1 2 4
6 = 3 , so x 0 = a = 0, x 1 = 3 , x2 = 3 , x 3 = 1, x4 = 3 , x 5 = 3 ,
5

and x6 = 2 = b. Therefore, y0 = 2, y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 2 + 13 (2 · 0 − 2 + 1) = 53 ,

y2 = y1 + h f (x1 , y1 ) = 53 + 13 2 · 13 − 53 + 1 = 53 , y3 = y2 + h f (x2 , y2 ) = 53 + 13 2 · 23 − 53 + 1 = 17
9,

y4 = y3 + h f (x3 , y3 ) = 17 1 17 61 61 1 4 61 221
9 + 3 2 · 1 − 9 + 1 = 27 , y5 = y4 + h f (x 4 , y4 ) = 27 + 3 2 · 3 − 27 + 1 = 81 ,

and y6 = y5 + h f (x5 , y5 ) = 221 1 5 221 793

81 + 3 2 · 3 − 81 + 1 = 243 ≈ 3.2634. Thus, y (2) ≈ 3.26.

20. y = f (x, y) = 2x y, x0 = 0, y0 = 1, and b = 0.5.

a. n = 4 ⇒ h = 0.54− 0 = 18 , so x0 = a = 0, x1 = 18 , x2 = 14 , x3 = 38 , and x4 = 12 = 0.5 = b. Therefore,
y0 = 1, y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 1 + 18 (2 · 0 · 1) = 1, y2 = y1 + h f (x1 , y1 ) = 1 + 18 2 · 18 · 1 = 33
32 ,

y3 = y2 + h f (x2 , y2 ) = 33 1 1 33 561 561 1 3 561

32 + 8 2 · 4 · 32 = 512 , and y4 = y3 + h f (x3 , y3 ) = 512 + 8 2 · 8 · 512 ≈ 1.1984.
Thus, y (0.5) ≈ 1.20.
b. n = 6 ⇒ h = 0.56− 0 = 12
1 , so x = a = 0, x = 1 , x = 1 , x = 1 , x = 1 , x = 5 , and x = 1 = 0.5 = b.
0 1 12 2 6 3 4 4 3 5 12 6 2
1 (2 · 0 · 1) = 1, y = y + h f (x , y ) = 1 + 1 2 · 1 · 1 = 73 ,
Therefore, y0 = 1, y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 1 + 12 2 1 1 1 12 12 72

y3 = y2 + h f (x2 , y2 ) = 73 1 1 73 2701 2701 1 1 2701

72 + 12 2 · 6 · 72 = 2592 , y4 = y3 + h f (x3 , y3 ) = 2592 + 12 2 · 4 · 2592 ≈ 1.0855,
1 2 · 1 · 1.0855 ≈ 1.1458, and
y5 = y4 + h f (x4 , y4 ) ≈ 1.0855 + 12 3
1 2 · 5 · 1.1458 ≈ 1.2253. Thus, y (0.5) ≈ 1.23.
y6 = y5 + h f (x5 , y5 ) ≈ 1.1458 + 12 12

21. y = f (x, y) = −2x y 2 , x0 = 0, y0 = 1, and b = 0.5.

a. n = 4 ⇒ h = 0.54− 0 = 18 , so x0 = a = 0, x1 = 18 , x2 = 14 , x3 = 38 , and
x4 = 12 = 0.5 = b. Therefore, y0 = 1, y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 1 + 18 −2 · 0 · 12 = 1,

y2 = y1 + h f (x1 , y1 ) = 1 + 18 −2 · 18 · 12 = 31 31 1 1 31 2 ≈ 0.9101, and

32 , y3 = y2 + h f (x2 , y2 ) = 32 − 8 2 · 4 · 32

y4 = y3 + h f (x3 , y3 ) ≈ 0.9101 − 18 2 · 38 · (0.9101)2 ≈ 0.8324. Thus, y (0.5) ≈ 0.83.

b. n = 6 ⇒ h = 0.56− 0 = 12
1 , so x = a = 0, x = 1 , x = 1 , x = 1 , x = 1 , x = 5 , and
0 1 12 2 6 3 4 4 3 5 12
x6 = 12 = 0.5 = b. Therefore, y0 = 1, y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 1 + 12
1 −2 · 0 · 12 = 1,

1 −2 · 1 · 12 = 71 , y = y + h f (x , y ) = 71 − 1 2 · 1 · 71 2 ≈ 0.9591,
y2 = y1 + h f (x1 , y1 ) = 1 + 12 12 72 3 2 2 2 72 12 6 72

1 2 · 1 · (0.9591)2 ≈ 0.9208,
y4 = y3 + h f (x3 , y3 ) ≈ 0.9591 − 12 4
1 2 · 1 · (0.9208)2 ≈ 0.8737, and
y5 = y4 + h f (x4 , y4 ) ≈ 0.9208 − 12 3
1 2 · 5 · (0.8737)2 ≈ 0.8207. Thus, y (0.5) ≈ 0.82.
y6 = y5 + h f (x5 , y5 ) ≈ 0.8737 − 12 12
 Section 8.2 Direction Fields and Euler’s Method 585

22. y = f (x, y) = 1 + x y 2 , x0 = 0, y0 = 1, and b = 0.8.

a. n = 4 ⇒ h = 0.84− 0 = 0.2, so x0 = a = 0, x1 = 0.2, x2 = 0.4, x3 = 0.6, and x4 = 0.8 = b. Therefore, y0 = 1,
y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 1 + 0.2 1 + 0 · 12 = 1.2, y2 = y1 + h f (x1 , y1 ) = 1.2 + 0.2 1 + 0.2 · (1.2)2 = 1.4576,

y3 = y2 + h f (x2 , y2 ) = 1.4576 + 0.2 1 + 0.4 · (1.4576)2 ≈ 1.8276, and

y4 = y3 + h f (x3 , y3 ) ≈ 1.8276 + 0.2 1 + 0.6 · (1.8276)2 ≈ 2.4284. Thus, y (0.8) ≈ 2.43.

b. n = 6 ⇒ h = 0.86− 0 = 15
2 , so x = a = 0, x = 2 , x = 4 , x = 2 , x = 8 , x = 2 , and
0 1 15 2 15 3 5 4 15 5 3
x6 = 45 = 0.8 = b. Therefore, y0 = 1, y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 1 + 15
2 1 + 0 · 12 = 17 ,
15

y2 = y1 + h f (x1 , y1 ) = 17 2 2 17 2
15 + 15 1 + 15 · 15 ≈ 1.2895,

2 1 + 4 · (1.2895)2 ≈ 1.4820,
y3 = y2 + h f (x2 , y2 ) ≈ 1.2895 + 15 15
2 1 + 2 · (1.4820)2 ≈ 1.7325,
y4 = y3 + h f (x3 , y3 ) ≈ 1.4820 + 15 5
2 1 + 8 · (1.7325)2 ≈ 2.0793, and
y5 = y4 + h f (x4 , y4 ) ≈ 1.7325 + 15 15
2 1 + 2 · (2.0793)2 ≈ 2.5969. Thus, y (0.8) ≈ 2.60.
y6 = y5 + h f (x5 , y5 ) ≈ 2.0793 + 15 3

√
23. y = f (x, y) = x + y, x0 = 1, y0 = 1, and b = 1.5.
a. n = 4 ⇒ h = 1.54− 1 = 0.125, so x0 = a = 1, x1 = 1.125, x2 = 1.25, x3 = 1.375, and
√
x4 = 1.5 = b. Therefore, y0 = 1, y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 1 + 0.125 1 + 1 ≈ 1.1768,
√
y2 = y1 + h f (x1 , y1 ) ≈ 1.1768 + 0.125 1.125 + 1.1768 ≈ 1.3664,
√
y3 = y2 + h f (x2 , y2 ) ≈ 1.3664 + 0.125 1.25 + 1.3664 ≈ 1.5686, and
√
y4 = y3 + h f (x3 , y3 ) ≈ 1.5686 + 0.125 1.375 + 1.5686 ≈ 1.7831. Thus, y (1.5) ≈ 1.78.
b. n = 6 ⇒ h = 1.56− 1 = 121 , so x = a = 1, x = 13 , x = 7 , x = 5 , x = 4 , x = 17 , and
0 1 12 2 6 3 4 4 3 5 12
1 √1 + 1 ≈ 1.1179,
x6 = 32 = 1.5 = b. Therefore, y0 = 1, y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 1 + 12
1
y2 = y1 + h f (x1 , y1 ) ≈ 1.1179 + 12 13 + 1.1179 ≈ 1.2415,
12
1
y3 = y2 + h f (x2 , y2 ) ≈ 1.2415 + 12 7 + 1.2415 ≈ 1.3708,
6
1
y4 = y3 + h f (x3 , y3 ) ≈ 1.3708 + 12 5 + 1.3708 ≈ 1.5057,
4
1
y5 = y4 + h f (x4 , y4 ) ≈ 1.5057 + 12 4 + 1.5057 ≈ 1.6461, and
3
1
y6 = y5 + h f (x5 , y5 ) ≈ 1.6461 + 12 17 + 1.6461 ≈ 1.7919. Thus, y (1.5) ≈ 1.79.
12

−1
24. y = f (x, y) = x 2 + y 2 , x0 = 0, y0 = 1, and b = 1.
a. n = 4 ⇒ h = 1 − 0
4 = 0.25, so x 0 = a = 0, x 1 = 0.25, x 2 = 0.5, x3 = 0.75, and
−1
x4 = 1 = b. Therefore, y0 = 1, y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 1 + 0.25 02 + 12 = 1.25,
−1
y2 = y1 + h f (x1 , y1 ) = 1.25 + 0.25 (0.25)2 + (1.25)2 ≈ 1.4038,
−1
y3 = y2 + h f (x2 , y2 ) ≈ 1.4038 + 0.25 (0.5)2 + (1.4038)2 ≈ 1.5164, and
−1
y4 = y3 + h f (x3 , y3 ) ≈ 1.5164 + 0.25 (0.75)2 + (1.5164)2 ≈ 1.6038. Thus, y (1) ≈ 1.60.
586 Chapter 8 Differential Equations

b. n = 6 ⇒ h = 1 − 0 1 1 1 1 2 5
6 = 6 , so x0 = a = 0, x 1 = 6 , x 2 = 3 , x 3 = 2 , x 4 = 3 , x5 = 6 , and x6 = 1 = b. Therefore, y0 = 1,
−1 −1
y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 1 + 16 02 + 12 = 76 , y2 = y1 + h f (x1 , y1 ) = 76 + 16 1 2+ 7 2 ≈ 1.2867,
6 6
−1
y3 = y2 + h f (x2 , y2 ) ≈ 1.2867 + 16 1 2 + (1.2867)2 ≈ 1.3810,
3
−1
y4 = y3 + h f (x3 , y3 ) ≈ 1.3810 + 16 1 2 + (1.3810)2 ≈ 1.4583,
2
−1
y5 = y4 + h f (x4 , y4 ) ≈ 1.4583 + 16 2 2 + (1.4583)2 ≈ 1.5231, and
3
−1
y6 = y5 + h f (x5 , y5 ) ≈ 1.5231 + 16 5 2 + (1.5231)2 ≈ 1.5784. Thus, y (1) ≈ 1.58.
6

25. y = f (x, y) = x/y, x0 = 0, y0 = 1, and b = 1.

a. n = 4 ⇒ h = 1 − 0
4 = 0.25, so x0 = a = 0, x 1 = 0.25, x2 = 0.5, x 3 = 0.75, and x 4 = 1 = b. Therefore,
y0 = 1, y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 1 + 0.25 · 01 = 1, y2 = y1 + h f (x1 , y1 ) = 1 + 0.25 · 0.125 = 1.0625,
.5 ≈ 1.1801, and y = y + h f (x , y ) ≈ 1.1801 + 0.25 · 0.75 ≈ 1.3390.
y3 = y2 + h f (x2 , y2 ) = 1.0625 + 0.25 · 1.00625 4 3 3 3 1.1801
Thus, y (1) ≈ 1.34.
b. n = 6 ⇒ h = 1 − 0 1 1 1 1
6 = 6 , so x 0 = a = 0, x 1 = 6 , x 2 = 3 , x 3 = 2 , x4 =
2 , x = 5 , and x = 1 = b.
3 5 6 6
Therefore, y0 = 1, y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 1 + 16 · 01 = 1, y2 = y1 + h f (x1 , y1 ) = 1 + 16 · 16 = 37
36 ,
37 1 1 36 1 1
y3 = y2 + h f (x2 , y2 ) = 36 + 6 · 3 · 37 ≈ 1.0818, y4 = y3 + h f (x3 , y3 ) ≈ 1.0818 + 6 · 2 · 1.0818 ≈ 1.1589,
y5 = y4 + h f (x4 , y4 ) ≈ 1.1589 + 16 · 3 · 1.21589 ≈ 1.2547, and y6 = y5 + h f (x5 , y5 ) ≈ 1.2547 + 16 · 6 · 1.52547 ≈ 1.3654.
Thus, y (1) ≈ 1.37.

√
26. y = f (x, y) = x 3 y, x0 = 0, y0 = 1, and b = 1.
a. n = 4 ⇒ h = 1 − 0 1 1 1 3
4 = 4 , so x0 = a = 0, x 1 = 4 , x 2 = 2 , x3 = 4 , and x 4 = 1 = b. Therefore, y0 = 1,
√ √
y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 1 + 14 0 · 3 1 = 1, y2 = y1 + h f (x1 , y1 ) = 1 + 14 14 3 1 = 17
16 ,
√
y3 = y2 + h f (x2 , y2 ) = 17 1
16 + 4
1
2
3 17
16 ≈ 1.1901, and y4 = y3 + h f (x3 , y3 ) ≈ 1.1901 + 14 34 3 1.1901 ≈ 1.3888.

Thus, y (1) ≈ 1.39.

b. n = 6 ⇒ h = 1 − 0 1 1 1 1 2 5
6 = 6 , so x 0 = a = 0, x 1 = 6 , x2 = 3 , x 3 = 2 , x 4 = 3 , x5 = 6 , and x 6 = 1 = b. Therefore,
√ √
y0 = 1, y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 1 + 16 0 · 3 1 = 1, y2 = y1 + h f (x1 , y1 ) = 1 + 16 16 3 1 = 37 36 ,
√
y3 = y2 + h f (x2 , y2 ) = 37 1
36 + 6
1
3
3 37
≈ 1.0838, y4 = y3 + h f (x3 , y3 ) ≈ 1.0838 + 16 12 3 1.0838 ≈ 1.1694,
36
√
y5 = y4 + h f (x4 , y4 ) ≈ 1.1694 + 16 23 3 1.1694 ≈ 1.2865, and
√
y6 = y5 + h f (x5 , y5 ) ≈ 1.2865 + 16 56 3 1.2865 ≈ 1.4376. Thus, y (1) ≈ 1.44.
 Section 8.2 Direction Fields and Euler’s Method 587

y dy x
27. a, c. b. =− ⇒ y dy = − x dx ⇒
dx y
(c)
√
1 y 2 + 1 x 2 = C. The condition y (2) = 2 3 gives
2 2
1
1 2 3 2 + 1 (2)2 = C ⇔ C = 8. Therefore, the
√
2 2
1 x
solution to the initial-value problem is
1 x 2 + 1 y 2 = 8 ⇔ x 2 + y 2 = 16.
2 2

y dy
28. a, c. b. = y + x y = (1 + x) y ⇒
dx
dy
= (1 + x) dx ⇒ ln |y| = x + 12 x 2 + C1 ⇒
1 (c) y
2
|y| = C2 e x+ x /2 (where C2 = eC1 ) ⇒
1 x
2
y = Ce x+ x /2 (where C = ±C2 ). The condition
2
y (0) = 1 gives Ce0 = C = 1, so y = e x+ x /2 .

29. a, b. If a = b = 1, then we have P = P (1 − ln P). 30. a, b. If a = 2 and b = 1, then we have P = P (2 − P).

P P
3
4

1 t
_1

c. The limit exists if c ≥ 0. If c = 0, then

t
lim P (t) = 0, and if c > 0, then lim P (t) = 2.
0 1 t→∞ t→∞

c. lim P (t) ≈ 2.72

t→∞

31. a. Here n = 10, t0 = 0, and b = 2, so h = 2 10 − 0 = 0.2 and f (t, v) = 32 − 1 v. t = 0, t = 0.2, t = 0.4, t = 0.6,
5 0 1 2 3
t4 = 0.8, t5 = 1, t6 = 1.2, t7 = 1.4, t8 = 1.6, t9 = 1.8, and t10 = 2. Thus,
v 0 = 30, v 1 = v 0 + h f (t0 , v 0 ) = 30 + 0.2 32 − 15 (30) = 35.2,

v 2 = v 1 + h f (t1 , v 1 ) = 35.2 + 0.2 32 − 15 (35.2) = 40.192,

v 3 = v 2 + h f (t2 , v 2 ) = 40.192 + 0.2 32 − 15 (40.192) ≈ 44.9843,

v 4 = v 3 + h f (t3 , v 3 ) ≈ 44.9843 + 0.2 32 − 15 (44.9843) ≈ 49.5849,

v 5 = v 4 + h f (t4 , v 4 ) ≈ 49.5849 + 0.2 32 − 15 (49.5849) ≈ 54.0015,

v 6 = v 5 + h f (t5 , v 5 ) ≈ 54.0015 + 0.2 32 − 15 (54.0015) ≈ 58.2414,

588 Chapter 8 Differential Equations

v 7 = v 6 + h f (t6 , v 6 ) ≈ 58.2414 + 0.2 32 − 15 (58.2414) ≈ 62.3117,

v 8 = v 7 + h f (t7 , v 7 ) ≈ 62.3117 + 0.2 32 − 15 (62.3117) ≈ 66.2192,

v 9 = v 8 + h f (t8 , v 8 ) ≈ 66.2192 + 0.2 32 − 15 (66.2192) ≈ 69.9704, and

v 10 = v 9 + h f (t9 , v 9 ) ≈ 69.9704 + 0.2 32 − 15 (69.9704) ≈ 73.5716.

Therefore, v (2) ≈ 73.6 and the velocity of the parachutist 2 seconds after deployment of her parachute is about 73.6 ft/s.
dv dv
b. = 32 − 15 v ⇒ = dt ⇒ −5 ln 32 − 15 v = t + C1 ⇒ ln 32 − 15 v = − 15 t + C2 (where
dt 32 − 1 v 5
C2 = − 15 C1 ) ⇒ 32 − 15 v = C3 e−t/5 (where C3 = ±eC2 ) ⇒ v (t) = 160 − Ce−t/5 (where C = 5C3 ). The initial
condition v (0) = 30 gives 160 − C = 30 ⇔ C = 130, so v (t) = 160 − 130e−t/5 . The velocity of the parachutist
2 seconds after deployment of her parachute is v (2) = 160 − 130e−2/5 ≈ 72.9 ft/s.

32. a, b. The differential equation is 50 ddtQ + 0.001

1 Q = 100 ⇔ d Q = 2 − 20Q. See graph below.
dt
c. Here n = 10, t0 = 0, and b = 0.1, so h = 0.110− 0 = 0.01. Also, f (t, Q) = 2 (1 − 10Q), t0 = 0, t1 = 0.01, t2 = 0.02,
t3 = 0.03, . . ., t10 = 0.1 = b. Thus, Q 0 = 0, Q 1 = Q 0 + h f (t0 , Q 0 ) = 0 + (0.01) (2) [1 − 10 (0)] = 0.02,
Q 2 = Q 1 + h f (t1 , Q 1 ) = 0.02 + 0.02 [1 − 10 (0.02)] = 0.036, Q

Q 3 = Q 2 + h f (t2 , Q 2 ) = 0.036 + 0.02 [1 − 10 (0.036)] = 0.0488,

Q 4 = Q 3 + h f (t3 , Q 3 ) = 0.0488 + 0.02 [1 − 10 (0.0488)] ≈ 0.0590,
Q 5 = Q 4 + h f (t4 , Q 4 ) = 0.0590 + 0.02 [1 − 10 (0.0590)] = 0.0672, 1
Q 6 = Q 5 + h f (t5 , Q 5 ) = 0.0672 + 0.02 [1 − 10 (0.0672)] ≈ 0.0738,
Q 7 = Q 6 + h f (t6 , Q 6 ) = 0.0738 + 0.02 [1 − 10 (0.0738)] ≈ 0.0790,
Q 8 = Q 7 + h f (t7 , Q 7 ) = 0.0790 + 0.02 [1 − 10 (0.0790)] = 0.0832,
Q 9 = Q 8 + h f (t8 , Q 8 ) = 0.0832 + 0.02 [1 − 10 (0.0832)] ≈ 0.0866, and
Q 10 = Q 9 + h f (t9 , Q 9 ) ≈ 0.0866 + 0.02 [1 − 10 (0.0866)] ≈ 0.0893. 1 t

Therefore, Q (0.1) ≈ 0.0893 and the charge 0.1 second after the switch is closed is about 0.09 coulomb.
d. The solution is Q (t) = 1 − e−2t .

33. False. This comprises only a subset of the direction field.

34. False. It is true only if the solution curves of the differential equation form a family of straight lines.

35. True. This follows because the slope y = f (y) is independent of x.

36. True. This follows because the slope y = f (x) is independent of y.

8.3 Concept Questions

1. a. k is the growth constant; L is the carrying capacity of the environment.
b. See page 702.
c. See page 706.
 Section 8.3 The Logistic Equation 589

L
2. a. Let us write c = − 1. Then
P0
d L d −1 −2 Lkce−kt
P (t) = =L 1 + ce−kt = −L 1 + ce−kt (−kc) e−kt = 2
. On the other
dt 1 + ce−kt dt 1 + ce−kt
⎛ ⎞
L
⎜ L − L 1 + ce−kt − 1
hand, k P 1 −
P
=
kL ⎜ 1 + ce−kt ⎟
⎟= kL
· =
k Lce−kt
.
L 1 + ce−kt ⎝ L ⎠ 1 + ce−kt L 1 + ce−kt 1 + ce−kt
2

b. See page 706.

8.3 The Logistic Equation

1. a. Comparing with Equation 2, we see that k = 0.02.
b. Comparing with Equation 2, we see that L = 1000.

1 P . Then, comparing with Equation 2, we find

2. We rewrite the equation as ddtP = 0.03P − 0.000006P 2 = 0.03P 1 − 5000
that a. k = 0.03 and b. L = 5000.

1 P = 0.5P 1 − 1 P . Then, comparing with Equation 2, we find that

3. We rewrite the equation as ddtP = P 0.5 − 1000 500
a. k = 0.5 and b. L = 500.

4. We rewrite the equation as 150,000 ddtP = 3P (2000 − P) ⇔

dP = 1 2000 1 1 P 1 − 1 P . Thus, a. k = 1 and b. L = 2000.
dt 50,000 P (2000 − P) = 50,000 P 1 − 2000 P = 25 2000 25

5. a. L = 100 6. a. L = 100

b. The constant solutions are P (t) = 0 and b. The constant solutions are P (t) = 0 and
P (t) = 100. P (t) = 100.
y y
c-e. c-e.
200 200

c.
c.
100 100
d.
d.

e.

e.
0
0 40 80 120 t 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 t

8000 4000 4000

7. P (t) = = = , so a. k = 0.02, b. L = 4000, and c. P (0) = 10.
2 + 798e−0.02t 1 + 399e−0.02t 4000
1 + 10 − 1 e−0.02t

100e0.2t 100 100

8. P (t) = 0.2t = = , so a. k = 0.2, b. L = 100, and c. P (0) = 5.
e + 19 1 + 19e−0.2t 1 + 100 −0.2t
5 −1 e
590 Chapter 8 Differential Equations

d P d k P2 2k P P 2P
9. a. P (t) = kP 1 − = kP − = kP − = kP 1−
dt L dt L L L
P 2P
= k2 P 1 − 1−
L L
Setting P (t) = 0 gives P = 0, P = 12 L, or P = L. Now recall that P (t) = 0 and P (t) = L are constant solutions of
the logistic differential equation, so only the point P = 12 L, which lies in the interval (0, L) along the P-axis, is of
interest in the case where 0 < P0 < L.
From the sign diagram, we see that P (t) > 0 for P ∈ 0, 12 L and
+++ 0 _ _ _ sign of P»»
P (t) < 0 for P ∈ 12 L, L . This shows that P (t) has a relative (and ( ) P
1
0 2
L L
therefore absolute) maximum if P = 12 L; that is, P (t) grows most rapidly

when P = 12 L.
L L L
b. To find the time when P = 12 L, we solve the equation = for t: 1 + − 1 e−kt = 2 ⇔
1+ L −kt 2 P0
P0 − 1 e

ln L
P0 − 1
−1
L L L
− 1 e−kt = 1 ⇔ e−kt = −1 ⇔ −kt = − ln −1 ⇔t = .
P0 P0 P0 k
1000
10. a. The number of children stricken by the flu after the first day is Q (1) = ≈ 11.06; that is, 11 children.
1 + 199e−0.8
1000
b. Q (10) = ≈ 937.42; that is, 937 children.
1 + 199e−8
1000
c. lim = 1000 children
t→∞ 1 + 199e−0.8t
98
11. a. The percentage at the beginning of 1990 is f (3) = ≈ 86.12%.
1 + 2.77e−3
b. We use Equation 8 with k = 1 and PL − 1 = 2.77, giving T = 1k ln PL − 1 = 11 ln 2.77 ≈ 1.02, so the percentage of
0 0
lay teachers was increasing most rapidly in the year 1970.
39.88
12. a. N (0) = = 2; that is, 2 million people were living with HIV at the beginning of 1985.
1 + 18.94e0
39.88
N (20) = ≈ 37.939; that is, approximately 37.94 million people were living with HIV at the
1 + 18.94e−(0.2957)(20)
beginning of 2005.
39.88
b. N (23) = ≈ 39.057; that is, approximately 39.06 million people were living with HIV at the
1 + 18.94e−(0.2957)(23)
beginning of 2008.

13. a. We are given that P0 = 10, L = 100, and P (30) = 34. The first conditions can be used to write
L 100 100 100
P (t) = = = . The condition P (30) = 34 gives = 34
L
1+ P −1 e −kt 100
1 + 10 − 1 e −kt 1 + 9e −kt 1 + 9e−30k
0
1/30 100
⇒ 1 + 9e−30k = 100 50
34 = 17 ⇒ e
−30k = 11 ⇒ e−k = 11
51 51 . Thus, P (t) = t/30
.
1 + 9 11
51
1
b. We solve the equation
100
= 80 ⇔ 9 11 t/30 = 1 ⇔ t = 30 ln 36 ≈ 70.09. Thus, it takes approximately
t/30 51 4
1 + 9 11 ln 11
51
51
70 days for the population to reach 80.
 Section 8.3 The Logistic Equation 591

14. a. Let h (t) denote the height of the plant t days after the beginning of the experiment. Using Equation 5 with L = 30 and
L 30 30
h (0) = h 0 = 5, h (t) = = = . The condition h (20) = 12 gives
L
1+ h −1 e −kt 30
1+ 5 −1 e −kt 1 + 5e−kt
0
30 3 1/20 , so h (t) =
= 12 ⇒ 5e−20k = 32 ⇒ e−k = 10
30
.
1 + 5e−20k 3 t/20
1 + 5 10
30
b. The height of the plant after 30 days is given by h (30) = 30/20
≈ 16.5 in.
3
1 + 5 10
30
c. We solve the equation = (0.8) (30) = 24 ⇔ 1 + 5 (0.3)t/20 = 54 ⇔ (0.3)t/20 = 0.05 ⇔
3 t/20
1 + 5 10
ln 0.05
t = 20 ≈ 49.76; that is, it took about 50 days.
ln 0.3

L L
15. The condition P (t1 ) = P1 gives = P1 ⇒ P1 + P1 − 1 e−kt1 = L ⇒
1+ L −kt1 P0
P0 − 1 e
L L − P1 (L − P1 ) P0
P1 − 1 e−kt1 = L − P1 ⇒ e−kt1 = = (1). The corresponding calculation using the
P0 P1 L − P0 (L − P0 ) P1
P 0

(L − P2 ) P0 e−kt1 (L − P1 ) P0 (L − P0 ) P2
condition P (t2 ) = P2 leads to e−kt2 = (2). Dividing (1) by (2) gives −kt = ·
(L − P0 ) P2 e 2 (L − P0 ) P1 (L − P2 ) P0
P (L − P1 ) P (L − P1 ) 1 P (L − P1 )
⇒ ek(t2 −t1 ) = 2 ⇒ k (t2 − t1 ) = ln 2 ⇔k = ln 2 .
P1 (L − P2 ) P1 (L − P2 ) t2 − t1 P1 (L − P2 )

16. We use the result of Exercise 15 with L = 600, t1 = 14, P1 = 76, t2 = 21, and P2 = 167 to find
1 167 (600 − 76)
k= ln ≈ 0.1397.
21 − 14 76 (600 − 167)

dP P
17. With k = 0.2, L = 800, and c = 30, the equation becomes = 0.2P 1 − − 30.
dt 800
a, c. P If the initial fish population is 100, then it will be gone after 5 weeks.
800
If it is 300, then it increases to 600 over time. If it is 700, then it
decreases to 600 over time.
600
b. The equilibrium solutions seem to be P (t) = 200 and P (t) = 600.
400 dP
To algebraically verify the results observed earlier, set =0⇔
dt
200 P 1 P 2 − 30 = 0 ⇔
0.2P 1 − − 30 = 0 ⇒ 0.2P − 4000
800
P 2 − 800P + 120,000 = 0 ⇔ (P − 200) (P − 600) = 0 ⇔
0
10 20 30 40 50 t
P (t) = 200 or P (t) = 600.
592 Chapter 8 Differential Equations

18. a. ddtP = c P ln PL = 0 ⇒ ln L = 0. The latter is true if L = 1 ⇔ P = L, so the equilibrium solution of the Gompertz
P P
differential equation is P (t) = L.
L <1⇒
b. i. If P0 > L, then for L < P < P0 we have P P

L < 0, and so P is a decreasing function.

P (t) = c P ln P
(i)
ii. If P0 = L, then P (t) = 0 for all values of t.
L
(ii)
iii. If 0 < P0 < L, then for P0 < P < L we have P (t) > 0, and so P is
an increasing function. (iii)

0 t

P
19. a. For L = 1000 and c = 0.02, the Gompertz differential a, c.
equation is ddtP = 0.02P ln 1000
P .
1000
b. The equilibrium solution is P (t) = 1000.

0 100 200 t

dP L ⇒ 1 L . Then du = − 1 d P, so we have − du
20. a. = c P ln P L
dP = c dt. Let u = ln P P = c dt ⇒
dt P ln P u
du
=− c dt ⇒ ln |u| = −ct + C1 ⇒ |u| = C2 e−ct (where C2 = eC1 ) ⇒ u = Ce−ct (where C = ±C2 ). Thus,
u
L = Ce−ct . At t = 0, ln L = C, so we have ln L = ln L e−ct ⇒ L = eln(L/P0 )e−ct ⇒ P (t) = Le− ln(L/P0 )e−ct .
ln P P0 P P0 P
−ct
b. lim P (t) = lim Le− ln(L/P0 )e = Le0 = L
t→∞ t→∞
L = c P (ln L − ln P) ⇒
c. P (t) = c P ln P
P (t) = c P (ln L − ln P) + P − PP = cP L − 1 = c2 P ln L ln L − 1 . Setting P (t) = 0 gives P = 0,
ln P P P
L = 0 ⇔ L = 1 ⇔ P = L, or ln L − 1 = 0 ⇔ ln L = 1 ⇔ L = e ⇔ P = L .
ln P P P P P e
Since P (t) = 0 and P (t) = L are equilibrium solutions of the differential
++ 0 _ _ _ _ sign of P»»
equation, we need only consider the case where 0 < P < L, and from the
( ) P
sign diagram, we see that P has a maximum at P = Le ; that is, P (t) is L
0 e
L

increasing most rapidly when P = Le .

−ct
d. Substituting the value of P found in part c into the expression for P found in part a, we have Le = Le− ln(L/P0 )e ⇒

−ct ln ln PL
e = eln(L/P0 )e ⇒ 1 = ln PL e−ct ⇒ ect = ln PL ⇒ ct = ln ln PL ⇒ t = 0
.
0 0 0 c
 Section 8.4 First-Order Linear Differential Equations 593

21. Let P (t) denote the population of goldfish t months after they were introduced into the
pond. The using the result of Exercise 20 with L = 200 and P (0) = P0 = 20, we have
−ct −ct −ct −c
P (t) = Le− ln(L/P0 )e = 200e− ln(200/20)e= 200e−(ln 10)e . The condition P (1) = 80 gives 200e−(ln 10)e = 80
−c
⇒ e(ln 10)e = 52 ⇒ e−c = ln 2.5 −(ln 10)[(ln 2.5)/(ln 10)]t . The number of goldfish in the pond after
ln 10 . Thus, P (t) = 200e
3
3 months is given by P (3) = 200e−(ln 10)[(ln 2.5)/(ln 10)] ≈ 173.

22. a. ddtP = (k cos t) P ⇒ dP =

P k cos t dt ⇒ b. With k = 0.2, we have P (t) = P0 e0.2 sin t .
ln P = k sin t + C1 (P > 0) ⇒ P = Cek sin t y
700
(where C = eC1 ). The condition P (0) = P0
600
implies that C = P0 , and so P (t) = P0 ek sin t .
500

c. P (t) oscillates between P0 e−0.2 and P0 e0.2 for 400

all values of t. 300

200
100

0 10 t

23. True. The equation is a logistic differential equation with carrying capacity L = 100. Since the initial population
P (0) = 150 > 100, we see that P (t) is decreasing and approaches P (t) = 100.
24. False. The equation is a logistic differential equation. Since P (0) = 0, we conclude that P (t) = 0 for all t ≥ 0.
25. True. The equation is a logistic differential equation with carrying capacity L = 50. Since P (0) = 10 lies strictly between
0 and 50, the graph of P does have an inflection point where P = 12 L = 25.
26. True. The equation is a logistic differential equation with L = 1000. The function P (t) = 1000 is a constant
solution of the equation. Since P (0) = 1000, the solution is P (t) = 1000 for all t ≥ 0 and so, in particular,
lim P (t) = lim 1000 = 1000.
t→∞ t→∞

8.4 Concept Questions

1. a. y + P (x) y = Q (x)
a (x) g (x) a1 (x) g (x)
b. Yes. Write it in the form y + 1 y= . Then P (x) = and Q (x) = .
a0 (x) a0 (x) a0 (x) a0 (x)
2. a. An integrating factor is a function which, when multiplied by both sides of a differential equation, makes that differential
equation more amenable to solution by integration.
b. See page 714.

8.4 First-Order Linear Differential Equations

1. No. The presence of the term y 2 makes the equation nonlinear.
2. Yes. It has the form (1) with P (x) = e x /x 2 and Q (x) = 4/x 2 .
3. No. The term cos y is nonlinear.
dx 3 tan y
4. Yes. It has the form + P (y) x = Q (y), where P (y) = 2 and Q (y) = 2 , and is thus linear in x.
dy y y
594 Chapter 8 Differential Equations

dy
5. dx d e2x y = e2x · e2x = e4x , ye2x =
+ 2y = e2x . Here P (x) = 2, so u (x) = e 2 dx = e2x , so dx e4x dx = 14 e4x + C,

and y = 14 e2x + Ce−2x .

dy dy
6. x dx + 3y = 2 ⇒ dx + 3x y = x2 . u (x) = e (3/x)dx = e3 ln x = x 3 , so dx
d x3 y = x3 2
x = 2x 2 ,

x3 y = 2x 2 dx = 23 x 3 + C, and y = 23 + C x −3 .

7. x y + y = x 3 ⇒ y + x1 y = x 2 . u (x) = e (1/x)dx = eln x = x, so dx

d (x y) = x x 2 = x 3 , x y = x 3 dx = 14 x 4 + C,

and y = 14 x 3 + Cx .
d (y sec x) = sec2 x,
8. y sin x + y cos x = 1 ⇒ y + y tan x = sec x. u (x) = e tan x dx = e− ln cos x = sec x, so dx
y sec x = sec2 x dx = tan x + C, and y = sin x + C cos x.
dy 2 1 d 1 1
9. − y = x 2 cos 3x. u (x) = e− (2/x)dx = e−2 ln x = 2 , so y = x 2 cos 3x = cos 3x,
dx x x dx x2 x2
1
y = cos 3x dx = 13 sin 3x + C, and y = 13 x 2 sin 3x + C x 2 .
x2
dy d (y sin x) = sin x cos x ⇒
10. dx + y cot x = cos x. u (x) = e cot x dx = eln sin x = sin x, so dx
y sin x = sin x cos x dx = 12 sin2 x + C, and y = 12 sin x + C csc x.
1 1 d 1 1
11. x y − y = 2x (ln x)2 ⇒ y − y = 2 (ln x)2 . u (x) = e− (1/x)dx = , so y = 2 (ln x)2 ⇒
x x dx x x
1 (ln x)2
y=2 dx = 23 (ln x)3 + C ⇒ y = 23 x (ln x)3 + C x.
x x
12. cos y − xe y dy = e y dx ⇒ dx
dy = e
−y cos y − x ⇒ dx + x = e−y cos y. This is a first-order linear differential equation
dy
d e y x = cos y ⇒ e y x =
in x with u (y) = e dy = e y , so dy cos y dy = sin y + C ⇒ x = e−y sin y + Ce−y .

dy dy 1 t
13. (t + 1) +y = t ⇒ + y = . u (t) = e [1/(t+1)]dt = eln(t+1) = t + 1, so
dt dt t +1 t +1
d t t2 C
(t + 1) y = (t + 1) · = t ⇒ (t + 1) y = t dt = 12 t 2 + C ⇒ y = + .
dt t +1 2 (t + 1) t + 1
1 1 −x
14. x y + (1 + x) y = e−x (1 + cos 2x) ⇒ y + 1 + y= e (1 + cos 2x). u (t) = e [1+(1/x)]dx = e x+ln x = xe x ,
x x
d 1 −x
so xe x y = xe x e (1 + cos 2x) = 1 + cos 2x ⇒ xe x y = (1 + cos 2x) dx = x + 12 sin 2x + C ⇒
dx x
1 −x Ce−x
y = e−x + e sin 2x + .
2x x
1
15. x y + (2x + 1) y = xe−2x ⇒ y + 2 + y = e−2x . u (x) = e [2+(1/x)]dx = e2x+ln x = xe2x , so
x
d x2 x Ce−2x
xe2x y = xe2x e−2x = x ⇒ xe2x y = x dx = + C ⇒ y = e −2 x + .
dx 2 2 x
dy y dx x + y3 dx 1 1 d 1 1 2
16. = ⇒ = ⇒ − x = y 2 . u (y) = e− (1/y)dy = e− ln y = , so x = y =y⇒
dx x + y3 dy y dy y y dy y y
1
x = y dy = 12 y 2 + C ⇒ x = 12 y 3 + C y.
y
dy d ye x = e x ⇒ ye x =
17. dx + y = 1. u (x) = e 1 dx = e x , so dx e x dx = e x + C and y = 1 + Ce−x . y (0) = −1 ⇒
1 + C = −1 ⇔ C = −2, so y = 1 − 2e−x .
 Section 8.4 First-Order Linear Differential Equations 595

3 1 d 1 1
18. x y − 3y = x 4 ⇒ y − y = x 3 . u (x) = e− (3/x)dx = e−3 ln x = 3 , so y = 3 x3 = 1 ⇒
x x dx x 3 x
y
= 1 dx = x + C ⇒ y = x 4 + C x 3 . y (1) = 5 ⇒ 1 + C = 5 ⇔ C = 4, so y = x 4 + 4x 3 .
x3
dy 2 d ye x 2 = xe x 2 ⇒ ye x 2 = 2 2 2
19. dx + 2x y = x. u (x) = e 2x dx = e x , so dx xe x dx = 12 e x + C ⇒ y = 12 + Ce−x .
2
y (0) = 1 ⇒ 12 + C = 1 ⇔ C = 12 , so y = 12 1 + e−x .

dr r dr 1 d
20. =θ− ⇒ + r = θ. u (θ) = e [1/(3θ)]d θ = e(ln θ)/3 = θ1/3 , so r θ1/3 = θ4/3 ⇒
dθ 3θ dθ 3θ dθ
C 4
rθ1/3 = θ4/3 dθ = 37 θ7/3 + C ⇒ r = 37 θ2 + 1/3 . r (1) = 1 ⇒ 37 + C = 1 ⇔ C = 4 , so r = 3 θ 2 +
7 7 .
θ 7θ1/3
1 ln x
21. x (x + 1) y + x y = ln x ⇒ y + y = . u (x) = e [1/(x+1)]dx = eln(x+1) = x + 1, so
x +1 x (x + 1)
d ln x ln x (ln x)2 C 1 C 1
(x + 1) y = ⇒ (x + 1) y = dx = 12 (ln x)2 + C ⇒ y = + . y (1) = ⇒ = ⇔
dx x x 2 (x + 1) x +1 2 2 2
(ln x)2 1 (ln x)2 + 2
C = 1, so y = + = .
2 (x + 1) x +1 2 (x + 1)

dy dy ex sin x x x x
22. 1 + e x + e x y = sin x ⇒ + y= . u (x) = e [e /(1+e )]dx = eln(1+e ) = 1 + e x , so
dx dx 1 + ex 1 + ex
d C − cos x 1 C −1 1
1 + e x y = sin x ⇒ 1 + e x y = sin x dx = − cos x + C ⇒ y = . y (0) = ⇒ = ⇔
dx 1 + ex 2 2 2
2 − cos x
C = 2, so y = .
1 + ex

dy dy
23. a. If n = 0, then we have dx + P (x) y = Q (x), which is evidently linear. If n = 1, then we have dx + P (x) y = Q (x) y
dy
⇔ dx + [P (x) − Q (x)] y = 0, which is also linear.
dv d dy dy dv/dx
b. Let v = y 1−n . Then = y 1−n = (1 − n) y −n ⇔ = . Substituting into the given
dx dx dx dx (1 − n) y −n
dv/dx dv
equation, we obtain + P (x) y = Q (x) y n ⇔ + (1 − n) P (x) y 1−n = (1 − n) Q (x) ⇔
(1 − n) y −n dx
dv
+ (1 − n) P (x) v = (1 − n) Q (x).
dx
1
24. y − y = x y 2 is a Bernoulli differential equation with n = 2. So, putting v = y 1−2 = and using the result of
y
dv dv d
Exercise 23, we obtain + (1 − 2) (−1) v = (1 − 2) x ⇒ + v = −x. u (x) = e dx = e x , so e x v = −xe x ⇒
dx dx dx
1 1
e x v = − xe x dx = − (x − 1) e x + C. v = 1 − x + Ce−x , so v = = 1 − x + Ce−x ⇒ y = .
y 1 − x + Ce−x
2 4
25. x 2 y − 2x y = 4y 3 ⇒ y − y = 2 y 3 is a Bernoulli differential equation with n = 3. So, putting
x x
1 dv 2 4
v = y 1−3 = 2 and using the result of Exercise 23, we obtain + (1 − 3) − v = (1 − 3) 2 ⇔
y dx x x
dv 4 8 d
+ v = − 2 . u (x) = e (4/x)dx = e4 ln x = x 4 , so x 4 v = −8x 2 ⇒ x 4 v = − 8x 2 dx = − 83 x 3 + C ⇒
dx x x dx
√ 2
1 8 C 3C − 8x 3 √ 1 3C − 8 1 9 − 8x 3 3x
v = 2 =− + 4 = . y (1) = 3 ⇒ = ⇒ C = 3, so = ⇒ y = .
y 3x x 3x 4 3 3 y2 3x 4 9 − 8x 3
596 Chapter 8 Differential Equations

dy
26. a. Let y = ev . Then v = ln y and dx = ev dx
dv . Substituting into the given equation, we obtain

ev dx
dv + P (x) ev = Q (x) ev v ⇒ dv − Q (x) v = −P (x), a linear differential equation.
dx
b. x y − 2x 2 y = y ln y ⇒ y − 2x y = xy ln y. Letting y = ev and using the result of part a with P (x) = −2x and
dv − 1 v = 2x. u (x) = e− (1/x)dx = 1 , so d v = 2 ⇒ v = 2 dx = 2x + C ⇒
Q (x) = 1x , we obtain dx x x dx x x
2
v = 2x 2 + C x. Thus, v = ln y = 2x 2 + C x ⇒ y = e2x +C x .

27. y = 1 + xy ⇔ y − 1x y = 1. u (x) = e −(1/x)dx = e− ln x = x1 , so dx

d 1y
x = 1x ⇒ 1x y = 1
x dx = ln x + C ⇒
y = x ln x + C x. y (1) = 1 ⇒ C = 1, so f (x) = x ln x + x.

28. a. Let y (t) denote the amount of salt in the tank at time t. Then
dy 1 1
dt = (rate of salt entering) − (rate of salt exiting) = 6 · 2 − 16 · y · 2 = 12 − 8 y, and the initial value problem is
dy 1
dt + 8 y = 12, y (0) = 4.

b. dy 1
dt + 8 y = 12. u (t) = e
(1/8)dt = et/8 , so d yet/8 = 12et/8 ⇒ yet/8 = 12 et/8 dt = 96et/8 + C and
dt
y = 96 + Ce −t/ 8 . y (0) = 4 ⇒ 96 + C = 4 ⇔ C = −92. Thus, y (t) = 96 − 92e−t/8 , and the amount after 5 minutes
is y (5) = 96 − 92e−5/8 ≈ 46.8 lb.
c. The amount of salt in the tank after a long time is given by lim y (t) = lim 96 − 92e−t/8 = 96 lb.
t→∞ t→∞

29. a. Let y (t) denote the amount of salt in the tank at time t. Then we have y (0) = 0 and dy 1
dt = 3 · 2 − 30 · y · 2 ⇒
dy y (1/15)dt = et/15 , so d
dt + 15 = 6. u (t) = e dt yet/15 = 6et/15 ⇒ yet/15 = 6et/15 dt = 90et/15 + C ⇒

y = 90 + Ce−t/15 . y (0) = 0 ⇒ 90 + C = 0 ⇒ C = −90, so y (t) = 90 1 − e−t/15 .

b. We solve the equation 90 1 − e−t/15 = 80 ⇔ 1 − e−t/15 = 89 ⇔ e−t/15 = 19 ⇔ t = −15 ln 19 ≈ 32.96,

approximately 33 minutes.

dy 3 y 3
30. a. Let y (t) denote the amount of salt in the tank at time t. Then = (2) − (3) = 3 − y⇒
dt 2 10 − t 10 − t
dy 3 1
+ y = 3 with y (0) = 2. u (t) = e [3/(10−t)]dt = e−3 ln|10−t| = for 0 ≤ t < 10. Thus,
dt 10 − t (10 − t)3
d y 3 y
= ⇒ = 3 (10 − t)−3 dt = 3 (−1) − 12 (10 − t)−2 + C ⇒
dt (10 − t)3 (10 − t)3 (10 − t)3

y = 32 (10 − t) + C (10 − t)3 . y (0) = 2 ⇒ 30

2 + 1000C = 2 ⇔ c.
13 , so y (t) = 3 (10 − t) − 13 (10 − t)3 .
C = − 1000 2 1000 6
b. y (10) = 32 (0) − 13
10 (0) = 0 lb 4
d. The amount of salt in the tank is greatest when
2
dy 3 39 2 2 3 1000
dt = − 2 + 1000 (10 − t) = 0 ⇔ (10 − t) = 2 · 39 ⇔
1/2 0
10 − t = 500
13 ⇒ t ≈ 3.8 minutes. The amount of salt in the 0 2 4 6 8 10

tank at that time is approximately y (3.8) ≈ 6.2 lb.

 Section 8.4 First-Order Linear Differential Equations 597

dy y 4y
31. a. Let y (t) denote the amount of salt in the tank at time t. Then = 2 · 32 − 1
·2 = 3−
dt 40 − 2 t 80 − t
dy 4 1
⇔ + y = 3 with y (0) = 0. u (t) = e [4/(80−t)]dt = e−4 ln(80−t) = , so
dt 80 − t (80 − t)4
d y 3 y 1
= ⇒ = 3 (80 − t)−4 dt = + C ⇔ y = (80 − t) + C (80 − t)4 .
dt (80 − t)4 (80 − t)4 (80 − t)4 (80 − t)3
1 (80 − t)4
y (0) = 0 ⇒ 80 + C (80)4 = 0 ⇔ C = − , so y (t) = 80 − t − .
512,000 512,000
(80 − 20)4
b. y (20) = 80 − 20 − ≈ 34.7 lb
512,000
c. The tank holds 20 gallons of brine at time t, satisfying the equation 40 − 12 t = 20 ⇔ t = 40 minutes. The amount of salt
(80 − 40)4
in the tank at that time is y (40) = 80 − 40 − = 35 lb.
512,000
dy (80 − t)3
d. The amount of salt is maximized when = −1 + = 0 ⇔ t ≈ 29.6 minutes, so the maximum amount of salt
dt 128,000
in the tank is about y (29.6) ≈ 37.8 lb.
⎫
4 ddtI + 20I = 24 ⎬ d I + 5I = 6, so u (t) = e 5 dt = e5t .
32. a. Here L = 4, R = 20, and E = 24, so Equation 8 gives dt
I (0) = 0 ⎭
d I e5t = 6e5t ⇒ I e5t =
Thus, dt 6e5t dt = 65 e5t + C ⇔ I = 65 + Ce−5t . I (0) = 0 ⇒ 65 + C = 0 ⇒ C = − 65 , so

I (t) = 65 1 − e−5t .

b. I (0.2) = 65 1 − e−5(0.2) ≈ 0.76 amp

c. The current after a long time is given by lim I (t) = lim 65 1 − e−5t = 65 = 1.2 amp.
t→∞ t→∞

33. Here E = 12, R = 10, C = 0.02, so we have 10 ddtQ + 0.102 Q = 12 ⇒ ddtQ + 5Q = 65 with Q (0) = 0.05.
d Qe5t
u (t) = e 5 dt = e5t , so dt = 65 e5t ⇒ Qe5t = 65 6 e5t + k ⇔ Q = 6 + ke−5t .
e5t dt = 25 25
6 + k = 1 ⇒ k = − 19 = −0.19, so Q (t) = 0.24 − 0.19e−5t . The current at time t is
Q (0) = 0.05 ⇒ 25 20 100
d 0.24 − 0.19e−5t = 0.95e−5t .
I (t) = Q (t) = dt

34. We have 10 ddtQ + 0.102 Q = 30e−2t + 10e−6t ⇔ ddtQ + 5Q = 3e−2t + e−6t . u (t) = e5t as in Exercise 33, so we have
d Qe5t = 3e3t + e−t ⇒ Qe5t = 3e3t + e−t dt = e3t − e−t + k ⇔ Q (t) = e−2t − e−6t + ke−5t . But Q (0) = 0
dt
⇒ 1 − 1 + k = 0 ⇒ k = 0, so Q (t) = e−2t − e−6t . To find the maximum value of Q, set Q (t) = −2e−2t + 6e−6t = 0
⇒ 2e−6t −e4t + 3 = 0 ⇒ t = 14 ln 3. Since Q 1 ln 3 = 4e−2t − 36e−6t
4 ≈ −4.6 < 0, we see that Q has a
t=(ln 3)/4

relative maximum at t = 14 ln 3 ≈ 0.27. Therefore, the maximum charge is Q 14 ln 3 = e−2t − e−6t ≈ 0.385 coulomb.

8 = 1 slugs, so the equation of motion is 1 dv = 8 − v ⇔ dv + 4v = 32. u (t) = e 4 dt = e4t , so

35. a. Here m = 32 4 4 dt dt
d ve4t = 32e4t ⇒ ve4t = 32e4t dt = 8e4t + C ⇔ v = 8 + Ce−4t . But v (0) = 0 ⇒ 8 + C = 0 ⇒ C = −8, so
dt

v (t) = 8 1 − e−4t .

b. v (1) = 8 1 − e−4 ≈ 7.85 ft/s

598 Chapter 8 Differential Equations

c. We solve the equation 8 1 − e−4t = 4 ⇔ 1 − e−4t = 12 ⇔ e−4t = 12 ⇔ t = − 14 ln 12 ≈ 0.17. Thus, it takes

approximately 0.17 s to reach 4 ft/s.

36. Here m = 192 dv dv

32 = 6 slugs, so the equation of motion is 6 dt = 192 − 12v ⇒ dt + 2v = 32 with v (0) = 112.
d ve2t
u (t) = e 2 dt = e2t , so dt = 32e2t ⇒ ve2t = 32e2t dt = 16e2t + C ⇔ v = 16 + Ce−2t .

v (0) = 112 ⇒ 16 + C = 112 ⇒ C = 96, so v (t) = 16 + 96e−2t . His position t seconds after the parachute is
deployed is x (t) = 16 + 96e−2t dt = 16t − 48e−2t + K . But x (0) = 0 ⇒ −48 + K = 0 ⇔ K = 48, so

x (t) = 16t − 48e−2t + 48. His limiting velocity is thus given by lim v (t) = lim
16 + 96e−2t = 16 ft/s.
t→∞ t→∞
37. Here m = 1000 125 125 dv dv 16
32 = 4 slugs, so the equation of motion is 4 dt = 1000 − 200 − 100v ⇔ dt + 5 v = 5 .
128

u (t) = e (16/5)dt = e16t/5 , so dt

d ve16t/5 = 128 e16t/5 ⇒ ve16t/5 = 128 e16t/5 dt = 8e16t/5 + C
5 5

⇒ v (t) = 8 + Ce−16t/5 . But v (0) = 0 ⇒ 8 + C = 0 ⇒ C = −8, so v (t) = 8 1 − e−16t/5 ⇒

5 e−16t/5 + k and x (0) = 0 ⇒ 8 5 + k = 0 ⇒ k = − 5 . Thus, x (t) = 8 t + 5 e−16t/5 − 5 . The
x (t) = 8 t + 16 16 2 16 2
5 e−16(4)/5 − 5 ≈ 29.5 ft. The limiting velocity of the
distance traveled by the boat after 4 seconds is |x (4)| = 8 4 + 16 2

boat is given by lim v (t) = lim 8 1 − e−16t/5 = 8 ft/s.

t→∞ t→∞
dv dv k
38. The equation of motion is m = −mg − kv ⇔ + v = −g. u (t) = e (k/m)dt = ekt/m , so
dt dt m
d kt/m kt/m kt/m −kt/m mg kt/m mg
ve = −ge ⇒ ve = −g e dt = − e +C ⇔v = − + Ce−kt/m . v (0) = v 0
dt k k
mg mg mg mg −kt/m
⇒− + C = v0 ⇒ C = v0 + , so v (t) = − + v0 + e . Its position at time t is
k k k k
mg m mg −kt/m m mg
x (t) = − t− v0 + e + D, where D is a constant. x (0) = 0 ⇒ − v0 + +D =0⇒
k k k k k
m mg mg m mg
D= v0 + , so x (t) = − t+ v0 + 1 − e−kt/m . The object attains its maximum height at time
k k k k k
mg mg −kT /m mg k mg
T where T satisfies v (T ) = 0 ⇔ − + v0 + e = 0 ⇔ e−kT /m = · = ⇔
k k k kv 0 + mg kv 0 + mg
kT mg m kv
− = ln ⇔ T = ln 1 + 0 . Therefore, using the notation exp (a) for ea , the maximum height is
m kv 0 + mg k mg
mg m kv 0 m mg k m kv
xmax = − · ln 1 + + v0 + 1 − exp − · ln 1 + 0
k k mg k k m k mg
m2 g kv m kv 0 + mg mg mv 0 m2 g kv
=− ln 1 + 0 + 1− = − 2 ln 1 + 0
k2 mg k k kv 0 + mg k k mg
dI dI R E
39. L + R I = E 0 cos ωt with I (0) = 0. We first rewrite the linear equation in standard form: + I = 0 cos ωt.
dt dt L L
(R/L)dt (R/L)t d (R/L)t E 0 (R/L)t (R/L)t E0 (R/L)t
u (t) = e =e , so Ie = e cos ωt ⇒ I e = e cos ωt dt. Using the
dt L L
⎡ ⎤
E 0 ⎢ e(R/L)t R ⎥
integration by parts formula or the table of integrals, we find I e(R/L)t = ⎣ cos ωt + ω sin ωt ⎦ + C
L R 2 + ω2 L
L
E0 E R E R
⇒I = (R cos ωt + Lω sin ωt) + Ce−(R/L)t . I (0) = 0 ⇒ 2 0 2 2 + C = 0 ⇔ C = − 2 0 2 2 , so
R2 + ω2 L 2 R +ω L R +ω L
E R Lω
I = 2 0 2 2 cos ωt + sin ωt − e−(R/L)t .
R +ω L R
 Chapter 8 Review 599

40. a. If market equilibrium prevails, then s (t) = d (t) ⇒ 22 + 2 p (t) + 3 p (t) = 40 − p (t) + 2 p (t) ⇔ p + 3 p = 18. An
d
integrating factor is u (t) = e 3 dt = e3t , so we have dt pe3t = 18e3t ⇒ pe3t = 18 e3t dt = 6e3t + C ⇒

p = 6 + Ce−3t . p (0) = 10 ⇒ 6 + C = 10 ⇒ C = 4, so p (t) = 6 + 4e−3t .

b. lim p (t) = lim 6 + 4e−3t = 6, so the limiting price is $6 per unit.
t→∞ t→∞
41. Let y = c1 y1 + c2 y2 . Then y = c1 y1 + c2 y2 . Substituting this into the left-hand side of the given equation
y + Py = c1 f + c2 g (1), we obtain c1 y1 + c2 y2 + P (c1 y1 + c2 y2 ) = c1 y1 + Py1 + c2 y2 + P y2 (2). But since y1
and y2 are solutions of y + Py = f and y + Py = g, we have y1 + Py1 = f and y2 + Py2 = g. In view of this, the
right-hand side of (2) becomes c1 f + c2 g, which is equal to the right-hand side of (1). This shows that y = c1 y1 + c2 y2 is
indeed a solution of (1).
2 ex 2 e−x
42. a. y + y= (1) and y + y = (2). Equations 1 and 2 are both first-order linear differential equations
x x x x
in standard form, and an integrating factor for both is u = e (2/x)dx = e2 ln x = x 2 . To solve (1), we write
x −1 x k
d 2 x 2 x
dx x y = xe ⇒ x y = xe dx = (x − 1) e + k1 ⇒ y =
x
2
e + 12 . To solve (2), we write
x x
x + 1 k
d 2
dx x y = xe
−x ⇒ x 2 y = xe−x dx = − (1 + x) e−x + k ⇒ y = −
2 e−x + 22 .
x2 x
ex e−x
b. Using the result of Exercise 41 with f (x) = , g (x) = , c1 = 2, and
x x
2 2e x 3e−x
c2 = −3, we see that the general solution of y + y = − is
x x x
x −1 x x + 1 −x C x −1 x x + 1 −x C
y = 2y1 − 3y2 = 2 e −3 − e + 2 =2 e +3 e + 2.
x2 x2 x x2 x2 x
dx ey cos y dx
43. True. The equation can be written as + 2x = , which has the form + P (y) x = Q (y) and is thus a
dy y y dy
first-order linear differential equation in x.
dy
44. True. The differential equation = x 2 is both a first-order linear differential equation and a separable equation.
dx
dy a (x) f (x) a (x)
45. True. Write the equation in the form + 1 = . Here P (x) = 1 .
dx a0 (x) a0 (x) a0 (x)
46. True: y1 is a solution of y + Py = 0, so we have y1 + Py1 = 0. Also, y2 is a solution of y + Py = f ,
so y2 + P y2 = f . So if y = cy1 + y2 , then y = cy1 + y2 , and substituting this into y + Py = f gives
cy1 + y2 + P (cy1 + y2 ) = c y1 + Py1 + y2 + Py2 = 0 + f = f , proving the result.

47. True. f (x) = y = 2e x − 12 (− sin x + cos x), so y − y = 2e x − 12 (− sin x + cos x) − 2e x − 12 (cos x + sin x) = sin x.

Chapter 8 Review

Concept Review
1. a. derivative; differential; unknown b. highest

2. a. open; equation b. curves; solution; integral curves

3. g (x) h (y); separable
600 Chapter 8 Differential Equations

4. a. y0 ekt b. > 0; < 0

5. a. tangent line b. slope; direction

dP P L
6. a. = kP 1 − b. P (t) =
dt L 1+ L −kt
P0 − 1 e
c. zero; increases; approaches; L; L; decreases; L
dy
7. a. + P (x) y = Q (x) b. u (x) = e P(x)dx
dx
8. standard; integrating factor; integrate

Review Exercises
1. y = C cos x + sin x ⇒ y = −C sin x + cos x. Substituting into the left-hand side of the differential equation gives
(cos x) y + (sin x) y = (cos x) (−C sin x + cos x) + (sin x) (C cos x + sin x)

= −C cos x sin x + cos2 x + C sin x cos x + sin2 x = 1

which is the right-hand side of the equation. Thus, y is a solution of the differential equation.
2. y = −2 + 3e3t ⇒ y = 9e3t . Substituting into the given equation, we have y − 3y = 9e3t − 3 −2 + 3e3t = 6, so the

differential equation is satisfied. Also, y (0) = −2 + 3e0 = 1 and so the given initial condition is also satisfied. Thus,
y = −2 + 3e3t is a solution of the initial value problem.
dy dy 1 1
3. = 2x y 2 ⇒ = 2x dx ⇒ − = x 2 + C ⇒ y = − 2
dx y2 y x +C
dy x
4. = 2 ⇒ y 2 dy = x dx ⇒ 13 y 3 = 12 x 2 + C1 or y 3 = 32 x 2 + C, where C = 3C1 .
dx y
dy 1 ex
5. = e y−x = e y e−x ⇒ e−y dy = e−x dx ⇒ −e−y = −e−x − C ⇒ e y = =
dx C + e−x 1 + Ce x
dy dy dx
6. x = y2 + 1 ⇒ 2
= ⇒ tan−1 y = ln |x| + C ⇒ y = tan (ln |x| + C)
dx y +1 x
dy dy 1 1
7. = x 2 y3 ⇒ = x 2 dx ⇒ − 2 = 13 x 3 + C. y (0) = 12 ⇒ −2 = C, so − 2 = 13 x 3 − 2 ⇒
dx y3 2y 2y
1 −2x 3 + 12 3
2
= − 23 x 3 + 4 = ⇒ y2 = .
y 3 12 − 2x 3
dy dy dy
8. + 3y = 6 ⇒ = 3 (2 − y) ⇒ = (−3) dx ⇒ ln |2 − y| = −3x + C1 ⇒ 2 − y = Ce−3x (where
dx dx y−2
C = ±eC1 ) ⇒ y = 2 − Ce−3x . Next, y (0) = 0 ⇒ 0 = 2 − C ⇒ C = 2, so y = 2 − 2e−3x = 2 1 − e−3x .
dy x
9. =− ⇒ x dx + y dy = 0 ⇒ 12 x 2 + 12 y 2 = C. Next, the condition y (0) = 2 implies that 0 + 12 22 = C ⇔
dx y
C = 2, so the solution is x 2 + y 2 = 4.
dy 1+x
10. = ⇒ e y dy = (1 + x) dx ⇒ e y = x + 12 x 2 + C. Next, the condition y (1) = 0 implies that
dx ey
1 + 12 + C = e0 = 1 ⇔ C = − 12 , so the solution is e y = x + 12 x 2 − 12 .
dy dy
11. = 4 y2 + 1 ⇒ = 4 dx ⇒ tan−1 y = 4x + C. Next, y π
4 = 1 ⇔ tan
−1 1 = 4 π + C ⇔ C = − 3π ,
4 4
dx y2 + 1
tan 4x − tan 34π 1 + tan 4x
so y = tan 4x − 34π = = .
1 + (tan 4x) tan 34π 1 − tan 4x
 Chapter 8 Review 601

1
12. y 2 = x + C ⇒ 2yy = 1 ⇒ y = . The orthogonal trajectories satisfy 4
2y
dy
the equation y = −2y if = (−2) dx ⇒ ln |y| = −2x + C1 ⇒ 2
y
y = Ce−2x (where C = ±eC1 ). 0

-2

-4
-4 -2 0 2 4

13. a. Let x (t) denote the number of bacteria at time t. Then we have dx
dt = kx and x (0) = 1000. The solution is
x (t) = 1000ekt . Next, x (3) = 4000 ⇒ 1000e3k = 4000 ⇒ ek = 41/3 , so x (t) = 1000 · 4t/3 .
b. x (6) = 1000 · 46/3 = 16,000
t 3 ln 400
c. We solve 1000 · 4t/3 = 400,000 ⇒ 4t/3 = 400 ⇒ ln 4 = ln 400 ⇒ t = ≈ 13 h.
3 ln 4

14. Let y (t) denote the amount of the radioactive substance present after t years. Then we have dy
dt = ky, where k is
the constant of proportionality. We find y = y0 ekt , where y0 = y (0) is the amount present initially. y (1) = 4
4
⇒ y0 ek = 4 (1) and y (6) = 1 ⇒ y0 e6k = 1 (2). From (1), we have ek = . Substituting this into (2) gives
y0
6 4 6 46
y0 e6k = y0 ek = y0 = 1 ⇒ 5 = 1 ⇒ y0 = 46/5 ≈ 5.28. Thus, the initial amount is approximately 5.28 g.
y0 y0
1/5 t t/5
Dividing (2) by (1), we obtain e5k = 14 ⇒ ek = 14 , so y (t) = y0 ekt = y0 ek = y0 14 . To find the half-life of

t/5 5 ln 12
the substance, we solve y0 14 = 12 y0 ⇒ 5t ln 14 = ln 12 ⇒ t = = 2.5 years.
ln 14

15. Let y (t) denote the amount of radium-226 in year t. Then y (t) = y0 ekt , where y0 is the initial amount and k is the decay
constant. Since the half-life of radium is 1602 years, we have y0 e1602k = 12 y0 ⇒ e1602k = 12 ⇒ 1602k = ln 12 = − ln 2 ⇒
ln 2 ≈ −0.000433.
k = − 1602

16. We use the continuous compounding formula A = Pert . Since P = 4.5, we have A = 4.5ert . Now the condition
A (5) = 8.2 implies 4.5e5r = 8.2 ⇒ e5r = 84..25 ⇒ 5r = ln 84..25 ⇒ r = 15 ln 84..25 ≈ 0.12, representing 12% per year.

17. We have A = Pert , where A is the price of the house at time t. With P = 300,000, r = 0.03, and t = 4, we find
A = 300,000e4(0.03) ≈ 338,249.06. Thus, the Brennans can expect to pay about $338,249.

18. Let y (t) denote the temperature of the thermometer t minutes after it has been taken into the room. Then
dy dy
= k (y − 70), where k is the constant of proportionality. We find = k dt ⇒ ln |y − 70| = kt + C1
dt y − 70
⇒ |y − 70| = C2 ekt (where C2 = eC1 ) ⇒ y = 70 + Cekt (where C = ±C2 ). Next, y (0) = 40 ⇔
70 + C = 40 ⇔ C = −30, so y (t) = 70 − 30ekt . y (1) = 52 ⇔ 70 − 30ek = 52 ⇔ ek = 18 3
30 = 5 , so
t t t t
y (t) = 70 − 30ekt = 70 − 30 ek = 70 − 30 35 . Setting y (t) = 64 gives 70 − 30 35 = 64 ⇒ 35 = 30
6 = 1 ⇒
5
ln 15
t ln 35 = ln 15 ⇒ t = ≈ 3.15. Thus, it takes approximately 3.15 minutes before the thermometer reads 64◦ F.
ln 35
602 Chapter 8 Differential Equations

dy
19. a. We have dy
dt = k (y − 70), where k is the constant of proportionality. = k dt ⇒ ln |y − 70| = kt + C1 ⇒
y − 70
|y − 70| = C2 ekt (where C2 = eC1 ) ⇒ y = 70 + Cekt (where C = ±C2 ). y (0) = 200 ⇒ 70 + C = 200 ⇔
1/5
C = 130, so y (t) = 70 + 130ekt . y (5) = 180 ⇒ 70 + 130e5k = 180 ⇒ e5k = 11 k 11
13 ⇔ e = 13 , so
t t/5
y (t) = 70 + 130ekt = 70 + 130 ek = 70 + 130 11
13 . The temperature of the coffee after 10 minutes is
10/5
y (10) = 70 + 130 11
13 ≈ 163◦ F.
5
b. We solve the equation 70 + 130 11
t/5
= 120 ⇒ 11 t/5 = 5 ⇒ t ln 11 = ln 5 ⇒ t = 5 ln 13 ≈ 28.6 minutes.
13 13 13 5 13 13
ln 11
13

dv
20. Let v (t) denote the speed of the motorboat t seconds after the motor is cut off. Then we have m = −kv, where m is
dt
dv k dv k k
the mass of the boat. =− v⇒ = − dt ⇒ ln |v| = − t + C1 ⇒ v (t) = Ce−(k/m)t (where
dt m v m m
C = ±eC1 ). Let us denote the initial velocity of the boat by v 0 . Then v (0) = Ce0 = C = v 0 , so v (t) = v 0 e−(k/m)t .
10 hours = 1 hours, we have v
Since 10 seconds is equal to 3600 360
1
360 = v 0 e(−k/m)(1/360) = 10 (1) and
10 v
1
v 180 = v 0 e(−k/m)(1/180) = 4 (2). From (1), we find e(−k/m)(1/360) = ⇒ e(k/m)(1/360) = 0 . Substituting this
v0 10
2 v0 2 4v 2
into (2) gives v 0 = 4e(k/m)(1/180) = 4 e(k/m)(1/360) =4 = 0 ⇒ v 0 = 25 mi/h.
10 100

dS dS 1
21. a. = rS + d ⇒ = dt ⇒ ln (r S + d) = t + C1 ⇒ ln (r S + d) = r t + rC1 ⇒ r S + d = Cert (where
dt rS + d r
1 1
C = erC1 ). Thus, S (t) = Cert − d . Next, S (0) = S0 ⇒ (C − d) = S0 ⇒ C = r S0 + d. Therefore,
r r
1
S (t) = (r S0 + d) ert − d .
r
b. Taking S0 = 10,000, r = 0.06, and d = 2000, we find
S (5) = 0.106 [(0.06) (10,000) + 2000] e(0.06)(5) − 2000 ≈ $25,160.55.

y y
22. 23. a. 2
2
(d)

1 1
(c)

(b)

_1 0 1x _1 0 1 2x

(a)
_1

b. y (1) ≈ 0.6
 Chapter 8 Review 603

24. Here n = 6, y (0) = 1, b = 0.6, and f (x, y) = y 2 − x, so h = 0.66− 0 = 0.1, x0 = 0, x1 = 0.1, x2 = 0.2,
x3 = 0.3, x4 = 0.4, x5 = 0.5, and x6 = 0.6 = b. Then y0 = 1, y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 1 + 0.1 12 − 0 = 1.1,

y2 = y1 + h f (x1 , y1 ) = 1.1 + 0.1 1.12 − 0.1 = 1.211, y3 = y2 + h f (x2 , y2 ) = 1.211 + 0.1 1.2112 − 0.2 ≈ 1.3377,

y4 = y3 + h f (x3 , y3 ) ≈ 1.3377 + 0.1 1.33772 − 0.3 ≈ 1.4866,

y5 = y4 + h f (x4 , y4 ) ≈ 1.4866 + 0.1 1.48662 − 0.4 ≈ 1.6676, and

y6 = y5 + h f (x5 , y5 ) ≈ 1.6676 + 0.1 1.66762 − 0.5 ≈ 1.8957. Thus, y (0.6) ≈ 1.896.

25. Here n = 5, y (0) = 1, b = 0.5, and f (x, y) = 2x 2 y, so h = 0.55− 0 = 0.1, x0 = 0, x1 = 0.1, x2 = 0.2,
x3 = 0.3, x4 = 0.4, and x5 = b = 0.5. Then y0 = 1, y1 = y0 + h f (x0 , y0 ) = 1 + 0.1 2 02 (1) = 1,

y2 = y1 + h f (x1 , y1 ) = 1 + 0.1 2 (0.1)2 (1) = 1.002, y3 = y2 + h f (x2 , y2 ) = 1.002 + 0.1 2 (0.2)2 (1.002) ≈ 1.0100,

y4 = y3 + h f (x3 , y3 ) ≈ 1.0100 + 0.1 2 (0.3)2 (1.0100) ≈ 1.0282, and

y5 = y4 + h f (x4 , y4 ) ≈ 1.0282 + 0.1 2 (0.4)2 (1.0282) ≈ 1.0611, so y (0.5) ≈ 1.061.

3000 3000 3000
26. f (t) = . f (0) = 300 ⇒ = 300 ⇒ 1 + B = 10 ⇒ B = 9, so f (t) = .
1 + Be−kt 1+ B 1 + 9e−kt
3000
Next, f (2) = 600 ⇒ = 600 ⇒ 1 + 9e−2k = 3000 600 = 5 ⇒ 9e
−2k = 4 ⇒ e−2k = 4
9
1 + 9e−2k
3000
⇒ e−k = 23 , so f (t) = t . The number of students who had heard about the policy after
1 + 9 23
3000
4 hours is f (4) = 4
= 1080. The rate at which the news was spreading after t hours was
1 + 9 23

27,000 ln 23 2 t
t −1 t −2 t 3
d
f (t) = 3000 dt 1 + 9 23 = −3000 1 + 9 23 (9) 23 ln 23 =− 2
. Thus, the rate at
t
1 + 9 23

27,000 ln 23 2 4
3
which the news was spreading after 4 hours was f (4) = − 2
≈ 280 students per hour.
4
1 + 9 23
2
27. x y + 2y = 4x 2 ⇒ y + 2x y = 4x. Here P (x) = x2 , so an integrating factor is u (x) = e (2/x)dx = e2 ln x = eln x = x 2 .
d x 2 y = 4x 3 ⇒ x 2 y =
Thus, we have dx 4x 3 dx = x 4 + C ⇒ y = x 2 + C/x 2 .
2 d ye x 2 = 3xe x 2 ⇒
28. y + 2x y = 3x. Here P (x) = 2x and an integrating factor is u (x) = e 2x dx = e x , so we have dx
2 2 2 2
ye x = 3 xe x dx = 32 e x + C ⇒ y = 32 + Ce−x .
dy d ye x = cos 2x ⇒
29. dx + y = e−x cos 2x. Here P (x) = 1 and an integrating factor is u (x) = e dx = e x , so we have dx
ye x = cos 2x dx = 12 sin 2x + C ⇒ y = 12 e−x sin 2x + Ce−x .
30. y dx dx 1 1 (1/y)dy = eln y = y, so we have
dy + x = 2y ⇒ dy + y x = 2. Here P (y) = y and an integrating factor is u (y) = e
d 2
dy (x y) = 2y ⇒ x y = 2y dy = y + C ⇒ x = y + (C/y).
dy
31. 3 dx − y = 0 ⇒ dy 1 1
y = 3 dx ⇒ ln |y| = 3 x + C1 ⇒ y = Ce
x/3 (where C = ±eC1 ). y (−1) = 2 ⇒ Ce−1/3 = 2 ⇒

C = 2e1/3 , so y = 2e1/3 e x/3 = 2e(x+1)/3 .

604 Chapter 8 Differential Equations

d ye−x = 3x 2 ⇒
32. y − y = 3x 2 e x . Here P (x) = −1, so an integrating factor is u (x) = e− dx = e−x , so we have dx
ye−x = 3x 2 dx = x 3 + C ⇒ y = x 3 e x + Ce x . y (0) = 0 ⇒ C = 0, and so y = x 3 e x .
33. x y − y = x 2 cos x ⇒ y − x1 y = x cos x. Here P (x) = − 1x , so an integrating factor is u (x) = e− (1/x)dx = e− ln x = x1 .
d
Thus, we have dx 1y
x cos x dx = sin x + C ⇒ y = x sin x + C x. y π
= cos x ⇒ 1x y = π π π
2 = 0 ⇒ 2 sin 2 + C 2 = 0
⇒π
2 (1 + C) = 0 ⇔ C = −1, so y = x sin x − x.
34. x y − y = x 2 e x ⇒ y − 1x y = xe x . Here P (x) = − x1 , so an integrating factor is u (x) = e− (1/x)dx = e− ln x = 1x , so
d
we have dx 1y = e x ⇒ 1x y = e x dx = e x + C ⇒ y = xe x + C x. y (1) = e ⇒ e + C = e ⇒ C = 0, so y = xe x .
x
35. a. Here L = 10,000, and so the population t years after the initial release of the 400 trout (P0 = 400) is
L 10,000 10,000 10,000
P (t) = = = . Now P (1) = 1000 ⇒ = 1000 ⇒
1 + L − 1 e−kt 1 + 10,000 − 1 e−kt 1 + 24e−kt 1 + 24e−k
P0 400
9 = 3 , so P (t) = 10,000 10,000
1 + 24e−k = 10 ⇒ e−k = 24 8 t = t.
1 + 24 e−k 1 + 24 38
10,000
b. P (6) = 6
≈ 9374 trout
1 + 24 38
10,000 t t 3 t = 1 ⇔
c. We solve t = 8000 ⇔ 1 + 24 38 = 10,000
8000 = 54 ⇔ 24 38 = 14 ⇔ 8 96
1 + 24 38
1
ln 96
t= ≈ 4.7 years.
ln 38
3y 3
36. Let y (t) denote the amount of salt in the tank at time t. Then we have dy
dt = 2 · 2 − = 4− y,
200 − t 200 − t
dy 3 3
y (0) = 20. Rewriting, we have + y = 4. Here P (t) = , so an integrating factor is
dt 200 − t 200 − t
−3 1 d 1
u (t) = e [3/(200−t)]dt = e−3 ln(200−t) = eln(200−t) = , so we have y = 4 (200 − t)−3 ⇒
(200 − t)3 dt (200 − t)3
1 1
3
y = 4 (200 − t)−3 dt ⇒ y = 2 (200 − t)−2 + C ⇒ y = 2 (200 − t) + C (200 − t)3 . Then
(200 − t) (200 − t)3
380 380
y (0) = 20 ⇒ 2 (200) + C (200)3 = 20 ⇒ C = − , so y (t) = 2 (200 − t) − (200 − t)3 . Thus, the amount of
2003 (200)3
380
salt in the tank after 20 minutes is y (20) = 2 (200 − 20) − (200 − 20)3 ≈ 83 lb.
2003
 Chapter 8 Challenge Problems 605

Challenge Problems

dv dv k dv k
1. The differential equation of motion is m = −kv. The equation is separable: =− v⇒ =− dt ⇒
dt dt m v m
k
ln |v| = − t + C1 ⇒ |v| = e−(k/m)t+C1 = C2 e−(k/m)t (where C2 = eC1 ) ⇒ v (t) = Ce−(k/m)t (where C = ±C2 ). At
m
ds
t = 0, when the boat crosses the finish line, its velocity is v 0 . Thus, v (0) = Ce0 = C = v 0 . So v = = v 0 e−(k/m)t
dt
mv mv
⇒ s (t) = v 0 e−(k/m)t dt = − 0 e−(k/m)t + C3 . The condition s (0) = 0 gives s (0) = − 0 + C3 = 0 ⇒
k k
mv 0 mv 0 −(k/m)t
C3 = , and so s (t) = 1−e . The distance covered by the boat before it comes to a stop is
k k
mv 0 mv 0
lim s (t) = lim 1 − e−(k/m)t = .
t→∞ t→∞ k k

dy y y dy du du
2. a. = f (1). Let u = . Then y = ux and = u + x . Substituting into (1) gives u + x = f (u) ⇔
dx x x dx dx dx
du du dx
x = f (u) − u. This equation is separable in u and x: = .
dx f (u) − u x
y
dy y−x −1 y y u−1
b. = = xy = f = f (u) where u = . Using the result of part a with f (u) = , we
dx y+x x + 1 x x u +1
du dx u+1 dx u du du dx
have u −1 − u
= ⇔ 2
du = − ⇔ 2
+ 2
+ =0⇔
x u +1 x u +1 u +1 x
u +1

1 ln u 2 + 1 + tan−1 u + ln |x| = C ⇔ ln y2 y
2 1 2
+ 1 + 2 tan−1 + ln x 2 = C (where C = 2C1 ) ⇔
x x

y2 y y
ln x 2 + 1 + 2 tan−1 = C ⇔ ln x 2 + y 2 + 2 tan−1 = C.
x2 x x

L L
3. a. P (t) = (1), P (1) = P1 ⇒ = P1 (2), and P (2) = P2 ⇒
1+ L −kt L −k
P0 − 1 e 1+ P0 − 1 e
L 1 L 1 1 1 1 1
= P2 (3). We can rewrite (2) as 1+ − 1 e−k = ⇔ + − e−k =
1+ L −2k L P0 P1 L P0 L P1
P0 − 1 e
1 1 −k 1 1 1 1 e−k P − P1 e−k
⇔ + e − e−k = ⇔ 1 − e−k = − = 0 (4). In a similar manner, we
L P0 L P1 L P1 P0 P0 P1
1 1 e−2k P − P2 e−2k
can rewrite (3) as 1 − e−2k = − = 0 (5).Using (4) and (5), we obtain
L P2 P0 P0 P2
P0 −P1 e−k
1 − e−k P0 P1 P P − P1 P2 e−k 1 − e−k 1 − e−k 1
2k
= − 2k
= 0 2 2k
. But 2k
= = , so we have
1−e − P0 −P2 e P0 P1 − P1 P2 e − 1−e − 1 − e−k 1 + e−k 1 + e−k
P0 P2
1 P0 P2 − P1 P2 e−k
= ⇔ P0 P2 − P1 P2 e−k + P0 P2 e−k − P1 P2 e−2k = P0 P1 − P1 P2 e−2k ⇔
1 + e−k P0 P1 − P1 P2 e−2k
P (P − P1 )
(P0 P2 − P1 P2 ) e−k = P0 P1 − P0 P2 ⇔ e−k = 0 2 (6) as was to be shown.
P2 (P1 − P0 )
606 Chapter 8 Differential Equations

1 P (P − P1 ) 1 P2 − P1
Finally, substituting (6) into (4), we find 1− 0 2 = −
L P2 (P1 − P0 ) P1 P2 (P1 − P0 )
P1 P2 − P0 P2 − P0 P2 + P0 P1
1 P1 P2 − P0 P2 − P1 P2 + P12
⇔ = ⇔
L P2 (P1 − P0 ) P1 P2 (P1 − P0 )
P P − 2P0 P2 + P0 P1 P1 P2 (P1 − P0 ) P (P P − 2P0 P2 + P1 P2 )
L= 1 2 · = 1 0 1 2 .
P2 (P1 − P0 ) P 2 − P0 P2
1 P − P0 P2 1
b. Taking P0 = 76.21, P1 = 151.33, and P2 = 281.42, we find
151.33 [(76.21) (151.33) − 2 (76.21) (281.42) + (151.33) (281.42)]
L= ≈ 1168.60 and
(151.33)2 − (76.21) (281.42)

(76.21) (281.42 − 151.33)

e−k = ≈ 0.46897 ⇒ c.
281.42 (151.33 − 76.21)
400
k ≈ − ln 0.46897 ≈ 0.7572. Therefore,
1168.60 1168.60 300
P (t) ≈ ≈ −0.7572t
.
1168.60
1 + 76.21 − 1 e −0. 7572 t 1 + 14.334e 200

d. The population of the United States in 2020 will be approximately 100

1168.60 0
P (2.4) ≈ ≈ 351.06 (million). 0 1 2 3
1 + 14.334e−0.7572(2.4)

4. x 2 + y 2 = 2ax. Differentiating with respect to x, we obtain 2x + 2yy = 2a, so 2x 2 + 2x yy = 2ax = x 2 + y 2 ⇔

y2 − x 2
2x yy = y 2 − x 2 ⇔ y = . The orthogonal trajectories of the family x 2 + y 2 = 2ax satisfy the equation
2x y
dy 2x y
= 2 . The last differential equation is homogeneous (see Exercise 2) as can be seen by rewriting it in the form
dx x − y2
y
dy 2 x 2u y du dx
= = = f (u), where u = . Using the result of Exercise 2, we have = ⇔
dx y 2 1 − u 2 x 2u − u x
1− x 1 − u2
u2 − 1 dx
du + = 0. Using partial fraction decomposition on the integrand of the first integral, we obtain
u3 + u x
du u du dx
− +2 + =0⇒ y
u 2
u +1 x
u2 + 1 x
− ln |u| + ln u 2 + 1 + ln |x| = ln |C| ⇔ ln = ln |C| ⇔
u

y2 x
+1 x
x2
ln y = ln |C| ⇒ x 2 + y 2 = C y, giving the desired equation
x

for the family of orthogonal trajectories.

 Chapter 8 Challenge Problems 607

dy
5. a. Since y1 and y2 are solutions of dx + P (x) y = Q (x), we have y1 + Py1 = Q and y2 + P y2 = Q. Thus,
(y2 − y1 ) + P (y2 − y1 ) = 0. Letting z = y2 − y1 , we have z + Pz = 0. An integrating factor of this differential
d ze P(x)dx = 0 ⇒ ze P(x)dx = C ⇒ z = Ce− P(x)dx ⇒
equation is u (x) = e P(x)dx , so dx

Q − y1 Q y
y2 = y1 + Ce− P(x)dx . But P = = − 1 , so, using exp (a) for ea ,
y1 y1 y1
Q (x) y (x) Q (x)
y2 = y1 + C exp − − 1 dx = y1 + C exp − dx eln y1 (x)
y1 (x) y1 (x) y1 (x)
Q (x) Q (x)
= y1 + C y1 exp − dx = y1 1 + C exp dx
y1 (x) y1 (x)
b. y + x y = x 2 + 1. Observe that y1 = x is a solution of the differential equation. Here P (x) = x and Q (x) = x 2 + 1.
Using the result of part a, we find
x2 + 1 1 2
y2 = x 1 + C exp − dx = x 1 + C exp − x+ dx = x 1 + Ce− x /2 −ln x
x x
1 −x 2 /2 2
= x 1+C e = x + Ce−x /2
x
2
c. Using the techniques of Section 8.4, we first find an integrating factor: u (x) = e P(x)dx = e x dx = e x /2 , so
2 2 2 2 x 2 /2 dx = xe x 2 /2 + C, and so
d
dx ye x /2 = x 2 + 1 e x /2 ⇒ ye x /2 = x 2 + 1 e x /2 dx = d
dx xe
2
y = x + Ce−x /2 , as obtained in part b.

dy 1 1 du
6. a. = P (x) y 2 + Q (x) y + R (x) (1). Let y = y1 + , where y1 is a solution of (1). Then y = y1 − 2 .
dx u u dx
Substituting this into (1) gives
1 du 1 2 1
y1 − 2 = P (x) y1 + + Q (x) y1 + + R (x)
u dx u u
2 1 1
= P (x) y12 + y1 + 2 + Q (x) y1 + + R (x)
u u u
2 1 1
= P (x) y12 + Q (x) y1 + R (x) + P (x) y1 + 2 P (x) + Q (x)
u u u
The expression inside the square brackets is equal to y1 because y1 is a solution of (1), so we have
1 du 1 1 1 du 1 1
y1 − 2 = y1 + 2P (x) y1 + Q (x) + 2 P (x) ⇒ − 2 = (2Py1 + Q) + 2 P ⇒
u dx u u u dx u u
du
+ (2Py1 + Q) u = −P.
dx
1 1 dy 2 1 1 2 2 1
b. y1 = ⇒ y1 = − 2 . Substituting into = y 2 − 2 (2), we obtain − 2 = − 2 = − 2 , showing that y1
x x dx x x x x x
2
is a solution of (2), as desired. Using the result of part a with P (x) = 1, Q (x) = 0, and R (x) = − 2 , and making the
x
1 1 du 1 du 2
substitution y = + , we obtain + 2·1· u = −1 ⇔ + u = −1, a first-order linear equation with
x u dx x dx x
integrating factor u (x) = e (2/x)dx = e2 ln x = x 2 . Thus, dx
d x 2 u = −x 2 ⇒ x 2 u = − x 2 dx = − 1 x 3 + C ⇒
3 1

x C C − x3 1 3x 2
u=− + 21 = (where C = 3C 1 ). Finally, y = + is the required general solution.
3 x 3x 2 x C − x3
608 Chapter 8 Differential Equations

7. We have the initial value problem ddtB = − ddtA − bB, A (0) = A0 . But A = A0 e−at and so ddtA = −a A0 e−at . Thus,
d B = a A e−at − bB ⇔ d B + bB = a A e−at . The last equation is linear with integrating factor u (t) = e b dt = ebt , so
dt 0 dt 0
−at
d
dt Bebt = a A0 e(b−a)t and Bebt = a A0 e(b−a)t dt = ba−
A0 (b−a)t
ae + C ⇒ B = a A0 be − a + Ce−bt . B (0) = 0 ⇒
a A0 a A0 e−at e−bt a A0
e−at − e−bt .
b − a + C = 0 ⇒ C = − b − a , so B (t) = a A0 b − a − a A0 b − a = b − a
1 x e x−t 1 x et−x
8. f (x) = dt − dt ⇒
2 0 t 2 0 t
d 1 x x e−t 1 x et 1 x e−t 1 e−x 1 x et 1 ex
f (x) = e dt − e−x dt = e x dt + e x · + e−x dt − e−x ·
dx 2 0 t 2 0 t 2 0 t 2 x 2 0 t 2 x
1 x x e−t 1 −x x et
= e dt + e dt ⇒
2 0 t 2 0 t
1 x e−t 1 e−x 1 x et 1 ex 1 x e−t 1 x et 1
f (x) = e x dt + e x · − e−x dt + e−x · = ex dt − e−x dt +
2 0 t 2 x 2 0 t 2 x 2 0 t 2 0 t x
1
= f (x) +
x
1
Thus, y − y = , as was to be shown.
x
 9 Infinite Series

9.1 Concept Questions

1. a. See page 730. Answers will vary. b. See page 732. Answers will vary.

c. See page 732. Answers will vary. d. See page 733. Answers will vary.

2. a. See page 739. Answers will vary. b. See page 738. Answers will vary.

9.1 Sequences
1+1 2+1 3+1 4 5 2
1. a1 = = 2, a2 = = 1, a3 = = , a4 = , a5 =
2 (1) − 1 2 (2) − 1 2 (3) − 1 5 7 3
(−1)2 2 (−1)3 22 4 (−1)4 23 16 16
2. a1 = = 1, a2 = = − , a3 = = 2, a4 = − , a5 =
1+1 2+1 3 3+1 5 3
3. a1 = sin π 3π
2 = 1, a2 = sin π = 0, a3 = sin 2 = −1, a4 = 0, a5 = 1
1 1·3 3 1·3·5 5 1·3·5·7 35 1·3·5·7·9 63
4. a1 = = 1, a2 = = , a3 = = , a4 = = ,a = =
1! 2! 2 3! 2 4! 8 5 5! 8
2 22 1 23 1 24 1 25 1
5. a1 = = 1, a2 = = , a3 = = ,a = = ,a = =
2! 4! 6 6! 90 4 8! 2520 5 10! 113,400
6. a1 = 2, a2 = 3a1 + 1 = 3 (2) + 1 = 7, a3 = 3 (7) + 1 = 22, a4 = 3 (22) + 1 = 67, a5 = 3 (67) + 1 = 202
n n+2
7. an = 8. an =
n+1 (n + 1)2
(−1)n
9. an = 10. an = (−1)n + 1
n!
n 1 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1)
11. an = = 12. an =
n (n + 1) n+1 2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · (2n)
2n 2 √
13. lim = lim =2 14. lim n + 1 = ∞, so the sequence diverges.
n→∞ n + 1 n→∞ 1 + 1 n→∞
n
15. a1 = 1 − 2 = −1, a2 = 1 + 2 (−1)2 = 3, a3 = −1, a4 = 3, a5 = −1, a6 = 3, . . .. The terms alternate between −1 and 3
and so the sequence is divergent.
(−1)n
16. lim 1 + 3/2 = 1 + 0 = 1
n→∞ n
3 1
n − 1 2n + 1 n 2 − 3n − 1 1− n − 2
n =1
17. lim − = lim = lim
n→∞ n n2 n→∞ n 2 n→∞ 1
n2 − 1 1 − 12
18. lim = lim n = 1
n→∞ 2n 2 + 1 n→∞ 2 + 1 2
n2

2
2n − 3n + 4 2 − n3 + 42
19. lim = lim n = 2
n→∞ 3n 2 + 1 n→∞ 3 + 1 3
n2
609
610 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

(−1)n (n + 2)
20. lim does not exist. When n is very large, the terms alternate between roughly − 13 and 13 , so the sequence
n→∞ 3n + 1
diverges.
2 + (−1)n
21. lim =0
n→∞ n

2n 2 + 1 2 + 12 √
n
22. lim = lim = 2
n→∞ n n→∞ 1
√
2n 2 n
23. lim √ = lim = ∞, so the sequence diverges.
n→∞ n + 1 n→∞
n 1+ 1
2 n
24. lim 1 + − e =1+0=1
n→∞

n 1/2 + n 1/3 n −1/2 n 1/2 + n 1/3 1 + 11/6

25. lim = lim = lim n =0
n→∞ n + 2n 2/3 n→∞ n −1/2 n + 2n 2/3 n→∞ n 1/2 + 2n 1/6
26. lim (cos nπ + 2) does not exist. The terms of the sequence a1 = 1, a2 = 3, a3 = 1, a4 = 3, . . . alternate between 1 and
n→∞
3, so the sequence diverges.
27. lim sin n2π does not exist. The terms of the sequence a1 = 1, a2 = 0, a3 = −1, a4 = 0, a5 = 1, a6 = 0, a7 = −1,
n→∞
a8 = 0, . . . do not approach a single number, so the sequence diverges.
nπ nπ π
28. lim sin = sin lim = sin lim = sin π
2 =1
n→∞ 2n + 1 n→∞ 2n + 1 n→∞ 2 + 1
n
√ √
sin n 1 sin n 1 1
29. lim √ = 0 by the Squeeze Theorem: − √ < √ < √ and lim ± √ = 0, so the sequence converges
n→∞ n n n n n→∞ n
to 0.
30. lim tan−1 n 2 = tan−1 lim n 2 = π lim n 2 = ∞.
2 since n→∞
n→∞ n→∞

31. lim tanh n = tanh lim n = 1 since lim n = ∞.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
ln n 2 ln x 2 ln x 1/x 4
32. lim √ = 0. By l’Hôpital’s Rule, lim √ = 2 lim 1/2 = 2 lim = lim 1/2 = 0.
n→∞ n x→∞ x x→∞ x x→∞ 1/ 2x 1/2 x→∞ x

2 n
2n 3 0
33. lim n = lim n = 1 =0
n→∞ 3 + 1 n→∞ 1
1+ 3
2 n+ 1 n
2n + 1 e e 0
34. lim = lim = =0
n→∞ en n→∞ 1 1
√ √ √ √
√ √ n+1− n n+1+ n 1
35. lim n + 1 − n = lim ·√ √ = lim √ √ =0
n→∞ n→∞ 1 n+1+ n n→∞ n + 1 + n

xp xp np
36. f (x) = x for p > 0. Using the result of Exercise 6.4.72, we see that lim x = 0, so lim n = 0.
e x→∞ e n→∞ e
2 1/x 1 1/(2u)
37. lim 1+ = lim 1+ (where u = 12 x) = 10 = 1
x→∞ x u→∞ u
(−2)n (−1)n (2) (2) (2) · · · (2) 2 2 2 2
38. lim = lim = lim (−1)n (2) ··· . Thus,
n→∞ n! n→∞ (n) (n − 1) (n − 2) · · · (1) n→∞ 2 3 n−1 n
(−2)n 4 (−2)n
0 < |an | = < . By the Squeeze Theorem, lim |an | = 0, and so lim = 0.
n! n n→∞ n→∞ n!
sin2 n 1 1 sin2 n
39. 0 < √ < √ . Because lim √ = 0, the Squeeze Theorem shows that lim √ = 0.
n n n→∞ n n→∞ n
 Section 9.1 Sequences 611

1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1) 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1) 1 3 5 2n − 1 3 n−1

40. = = ··· > . Since
n! 1 · 2 · 3 · · · · · (n) 1 2 3 n 2
n−1
lim 3 = ∞, we see that the sequence diverges.
n→∞ 2

n (n + 1)
1 2 3 n 1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n 2 1 1
41. lim an = lim + 2 + 2 + ··· + 2 = lim = lim = lim 1+
n→∞ n→∞ n 2 n n n n→∞ n2 n→∞ n2 n→∞ 2 n
1
=
2

1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n n n (n + 1) n −n 1 1 1
42. lim an = lim − = lim − = lim = − lim =−
n→∞ n→∞ n+2 2 n→∞ 2 (n + 2) 2 n→∞ 2 (n + 2) 2 n→∞ 2 2
1+
n

43. a. 1.0 44. a. 2

0.5 0

-1

0.0 -2
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25

b. The limit appears to be 1. b. The sequence appears to diverge.

n−1 1 − n1 c. lim (−1)n
2n + 1
does not exist because the
c. lim = lim =1 n→∞ n+3
n→∞ n + 2 n→∞ 1 + 2
n
{an } alternate between roughly 2 (for even n) and
−2 (for odd n) when n is large.

45. a. 46. a. 2
1.0

0.5 1

0.0
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25

b. The limit appears to be 0. b. The limit appears to be approximately 1.6.

c. Observe that an satisfies n+1 1 + n1

c. lim 2 tan−1 = 2 tan−1 lim
· (n−1)·(n) n→∞ n+3 n→∞ 1 + 3
0 < nnn! = 1 · 2n ·· 3n ·· ···
n · ··· · n · n
n

= n1 2 · · · n− 1 < 1 = 2 tan 1 = 2 · 4 = π
−1 π
2
n n n
1
Thus, because lim = 0, the Squeeze
n→∞ n
Theorem gives lim an = 0.
n→∞
612 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

47. a. 48. a. 0.5

1.0

0.0
0.5
-0.5

0.0 -1.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25

b. The limit appears to be 1. b. The limit appears to be approximately 0.14.

n
1 sin n1 sin x c. ln an = ln 1 − n2 = n ln 1 − n2 , so
c. lim n sin = lim 1
= lim =1
n→∞ n n→∞ x→0 x
n ln (1 − (2/n))
ln lim an = lim (ln an ) = lim
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ 1/n
2/n 2
1−(2/n) 2
= lim = lim = −2
n→∞ −1/n 2 n→∞ 2/n − 1
n
Thus, lim 1 − n2 = e−2 .
n→∞

9
1 − 1 − 1x
49. Put f (x) = . Then
1 − 1 − 1x
9 8
1 − 1 − 1x −9 1 − 1x 1
8
x2
lim f (x) = lim = lim (by l’Hôpital’s Rule) = lim 9 1 − x1 = 9, so by
x→∞ x→∞
1 − 1 − 1x x→∞ − 12 x→∞
x
9
1 − 1 − n1
Theorem 1 we have lim = 9.
x→∞
1 − 1 − n1

50. Write f (x) = x 1 − 7

1 − x1 . Then an = n 1 − 7
1 − n1 = f (n). Now by l’Hôpital’s Rule,
1/7 −6/7
1/7 1 − 1 − 1x − 17 1 − 1x 1
x2
lim f (x) = lim x 1 − 1 − 1x = lim 1
= lim
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞
x
x→∞ − 12
x
−6/7
= lim 17 1 − 1x = 17
x→∞

and so by Theorem 1, we have lim n 1 − 7

1 − n1 = 17 .
n→∞

3 d 6
51. Let f (x) = for x ≥ 1. Then f (x) = 3 (2x + 5)−1 = 3 (−1) (2x + 5)−2 (2) = − < 0, showing
2x + 5 dx (2x + 5)2
that f is decreasing. Thus, {an } is monotonically decreasing. It is bounded above by 37 and bounded below by 0.

2x d x (x + 1) − x 2
52. Let f (x) = for x ≥ 1. Then f (x) = 2 = 2· 2
= > 0, showing that f is
x +1 dx x + 1 (x + 1) (x + 1)2
increasing. Thus, {an } is monotonically increasing. It is bounded above by 2 and bounded below by 1.
1 1
53. f (x) = 3 − ⇒ f (x) = 2 > 0 for x > 1, showing that f is increasing on (1, ∞). Thus, {an } is monotonically
x x
increasing. It is bounded above by 3 and bounded below by 2.
 Section 9.1 Sequences 613

(−1)n
54. an = 2 + ⇒ a1 = 1, a2 = 52 , a3 = 53 , a4 = 94 , . . .. Evidently, the sequence is not monotonic. It is bounded above
n
by 52 and bounded below by 2.

sin n sin 1 sin 2 sin 3 sin 4

55. an = ⇒ a1 = ≈ 0.841, a2 = ≈ 0.455, a3 = ≈ 0.047, a4 = ≈ −0.189,
n 1 2 3 4
sin 5 sin 6
a5 = ≈ −0.192, a6 = ≈ −0.047, . . .. Evidently, the sequence is not monotonic. It is bounded above by 1 and
5 6
bounded below by −1.

1
56. Since f (x) = tan−1 x ⇒ f (x) = > 0 on (1, ∞), it follows that {an } = tan−1 n is monotonically increasing. It
1 + x2
is bounded above by π π
2 and bounded below by 4 .

x 2x (1) − x (ln 2) 2x 1 − x ln 2
57. f (x) = x ⇒ f (x) = = < 0 for 1 < x ln 2 ⇔ x > ln12 ≈ 1.44. This shows that f (and
2 x
(2 )2 2x
therefore {an }) is monotonically decreasing for n ≥ 2. It is bounded above by 12 and bounded below by 0.

ln x x (1/x) − ln x 1 − ln x
58. f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = 2
= < 0 for x > e. Thus, f is decreasing for x ≥ 3, showing that
x x x2
{an } is monotonically decreasing for n ≥ 3. It is bounded above by 12 , and in fact has an absolute maximum value of
approximately 0.37 at x = e. It is bounded below by 0.

59. a. A1 = 10,000 1 + 0.12 105 1 = 10,088, A ≈ 10,176, A ≈ 10,265, A ≈ 10,355, A ≈ 10,445, and A ≈ 10,537. As
2 3 4 5 6
the length of time that the principal is invested increases, the accumulated amounts increase.
105 n = ∞, so the sequence diverges.
b. lim 10,000 1 + 0.12
n→∞

60. a. a10 = 1 − (0.995)10 ≈ 0.0489, a100 ≈ 0.3942, a1000 ≈ 0.9933

b. lim an = lim 1 − (0.995)n = 1 − 0 = 1. If a large enough sample is taken, at least one defective microprocessor
n→∞ n→∞
will be found.

61. a. f (n) = 20,000 (1.01)n − 1 ⇒ f (24) = 20,000 (1.01)24 − 1 ≈ 5394.69. The amount of the annuity after
24 months is about $5394.69.
b. lim f (n) = lim 20,000 (1.01)n − 1 = ∞. As the term of the annuity increases, the accumulated amount grows
n→∞ n→∞
without bound.

r mt r mt r mt
62. a. lim Am = lim P 1 + = P lim 1 + . Let y = 1 + .
m→∞ m→∞ m m→∞ m m
r mt r
Then ln y = ln 1+ = mt ln 1 + , so using l’Hôpital’s Rule,
m m
r −r/m 2
ln 1 + rt
m 1 + (r/m)
ln lim y = lim (ln y) = lim = lim = lim r = rt. Therefore,
m→∞ m→∞ m→∞ 1 m→∞ 1 m→∞
1+
− 2 m
mt m t
ln lim y
lim y = e m→∞ = ert , and finally lim Am = Pert .
m→∞ m→∞
b. As the frequency at which interest is compounded increases without bound, the accumulated amount approaches Pert .
c. The accumulated amount under continuous compounding is A = 1000e0.1 · 3 ≈ $1349.86.
614 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

3x
63. Consider the continuous function f (x) = 1 + (2/x) . Then
ln f (x) = ln (1 + (2/x))3x = 3x ln (1 + (2/x)), so 400
ln lim f (x) = lim ln f (x) = lim 3x ln (1 + 2/x) 300
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞
2 −2/x 2 200
ln 1 +
x 1 + (2/x)
= 3 lim = 3 lim 100
x→∞ 1 x→∞ 1
− 2
x x 0
2 0 20 40 60 80 100
= 3 lim =6
x→∞ 1 + 2/x

ln lim f (x) 2 3n
Therefore, lim f (x) = e x→∞ = e6 ⇒ lim 1+ = e6 . This is confirmed by the graph of f .
x→∞ n→∞ n
√ √
64. a. a0 = 2, a1 = a0 = 2 = 21/2 , c.
√ 1/2 2
a2 = a1 = 21/2 = 21/2 , . . ., 2

√ n−1 1/2 n
an = an−1 = 21/2 = 21/2
1
n lim (1/2n )
b. lim an = lim 21/2 = 2n→∞ = 20 = 1
n→∞ n→∞

0
0 2 4 6 8 10

⎛ ⎞
1 A 1⎝ A ⎠ A
65. a. lim xn+1 = lim xn + ⇒ lim xn+1 = lim xn + ⇒ L = 12 L+ ⇒
n→∞ 2 n→∞ xn n→∞ 2 n→∞ lim xn L
n→∞
√
2L 2 = L 2 + A ⇒ L 2 = A ⇒ L = A
√
b. Pick x0 = 2 as the initial guess. Then x1 = 2.25, x2 ≈ 2.23611, and x3 ≈ 2.23607 ≈ x4 . Thus, 5 ≈ 2.2361.

66. a. If f (x) = x − g (x), then f (x) = 0 ⇒ x = g (x).

b. Suppose {xn } converges and has limit r. Then lim xn = r = lim xn+1 ⇒
n→∞ n→∞

lim x = lim g (xn ) = g lim xn = g (r ) = r, since g is continuous. Since the equation x = g (x) is obtained
n→∞ n+1 n→∞ n→∞
by rewriting f (x) = 0, we see that f (r ) = 0 as well, so r is a root of f (x) = 0.
c. We write f (x) = 3x 3 − 9x + 2 = 0 in the form x = 19 3x 3 + 2 and perform the iteration using the formula

xn+1 = 19 3xn3 + 2 with x0 = 0. Then x1 ≈ 0.22222, x2 ≈ 0.22588, x3 ≈ 0.22606, and x4 ≈ 0.22607. Thus, the
required root of f (x) = 0 is approximately 0.2261.

1/2
67. We rewrite the equation h 3 − 3h 2 + 83 = 0 in the form h 2 = 19 3h 3 + 8 ⇒ h = 13 3h 3 + 8 . Thus, we iterate using

the formula h n+1 = 13 3h 3n + 8 with h 0 = 1. Then h 1 ≈ 1.1055, h 2 ≈ 1.1573, h 3 ≈ 1.1856, h 4 ≈ 1.2018, h 5 ≈ 1.2114,
h 6 ≈ 1.2172, h 7 ≈ 1.2207, h 8 ≈ 1.2228, h 9 ≈ 1.2241, h 10 ≈ 1.2249, h 11 ≈ 1.2254, h 12 ≈ 1.2257, h 13 ≈ 1.2258,
h 14 ≈ 1.2259, and h 15 ≈ 1.2260 ≈ h 16 . Thus, h ≈ 1.226.
√ √ √ √ √ √ n n
68. a1 = 2 = 21/2 , a2 = 2a1 = 2 2 = 23/2 = 23/4 , a3 = 2a2 = 2 · 23/4 = 27/8 , . . ., an = 2(2 −1)/(2 ) . Thus,
n
lim an = lim 21−(1/2 ) = 21 = 2.
n→∞ n→∞
 Section 9.1 Sequences 615

√
69. lim an = L = lim an−1 since {an } is convergent, so L = lim an = lim 2 + an−1 = 2 + lim an−1 = 2+L
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
⇒ L 2 = 2 + L ⇒ L 2 − L − 2 = (L − 2) (L + 1) = 0, so L = 2 because the limit must be nonnegative. Therefore,
lim an = 2.
n→∞

70. Let ε > 0 be given. Then lim a2n = L, so there exists a positive integer N1 such that whenever 2n > N1 , it is true that
n→∞
|a2n − L| < ε. Next, lim a2n+1 = L, so there exists a positive integer N2 such that whenever 2n + 1 > N2 , it is true that
n→∞
N 1 N2 − 1
a2n+1 − L < ε. Pick N = max , . Then n > N ⇒ |an − L| < ε, and the result follows.
2 2

1 1 1 1 1
71. a. an+1 = 1 + 2 + 2 + · · · + 2 + 2
= an + > an for n ≥ 1, showing that {an } is increasing.
2 3 n (n + 1) (n + 1)2
1 1 1 1
b. If n ≥ 2, then 2 < = − , so
n n (n − 1) n−1 n
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
an = 1 + 2 + 2 + · · · + 2 < 1 + − + − + ··· + −
2 3 n 2−1 2 3−1 3 n−1 n
1 1 1 1 1
=1+ 1− + − +··· + −
2 2 3 n−1 n
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
=1+1+ − + + − + + ··· + − + −
2 2 3 3 n−1 n−1 n
1
= 2 − < 2 for n ≥ 2.
n
Thus, {an } is bounded above by 2.
c. Since {an } is increasing and bounded above, the Monotone Convergence Theorem for Sequences (Theorem 6) implies
that {an } converges.

1
72. a. an+1 = an + n+1 > an for n ≥ 1, so {an } is increasing.
2 +n
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
b. an = + + + ··· + n ≤ + 2 + 3 + ··· + n
2 + 1 22 + 2 23 + 3 2 +n 2 2 2 2
1 1− 1 n+1
2 2
= 12 + 1 2+ 1 3 + ··· + 1 n = (sum of a geometric series)
2 2 2
1 − 12
1
= 1 − n+1 < 1 for n ≥ 1.
2
Thus, {an } is bounded above by 1.
c. Since {an } is increasing and bounded above, the Monotone Convergence Theorem for Sequences (Theorem 6) implies
that {an } converges.

an−1
73. a. an = < an−1 for n ≥ 1, so {an } is decreasing. Now because all the terms are positive, {an } is bounded below
2 + an−1
by 0. By the Monotone Convergence Theorem for Sequences, the sequence converges.
lim a
an−1 n→∞ n−1 L
b. Suppose lim an = L. Then lim an−1 = L as well, so lim an = lim = =
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ 2 + an−1 lim 2 + an−1 2+L
n→∞
L
⇒ = L ⇒ L = 2L + L 2 ⇒ L (L + 1) = 0 ⇒ L = 0 or L = −1. Because {an } is bounded below by 0, we see
2+L
that L = 0; that is, lim an = 0.
n→∞
616 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

1 1 √ √ √
<a<n⇒ √
74. If n is sufficiently large, then n
< n a < n n. Let bn = n n = n 1/n and y = x 1/x . Then ln y = ln x 1/x
n n
1 /x ln x 1
⇒ ln lim y = lim (ln y) = lim ln x = lim . Using l’Hôpital’s Rule, we have ln lim y = lim =0
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ x x→∞ x→∞ x
⇒ lim y = 1 ⇒ lim x 1/x = 1, and so by Theorem 1, lim n 1/n = 1. This shows that lim bn = 1 and lim an = 1,
x→∞ x→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
1 1 √ √
where an = √ n
. By the Squeeze Theorem, a = lim √ ≤ lim n a ≤ lim n n = 1, and the result follows.
n n→∞ n n n→∞ n→∞
75. Let ε > 0 be given. Since lim f (x) = L, there exists a real number M such that whenever x > M, it is true that
x→∞
| f (x) − L| < ε. Let N be the smallest positive integer greater than M. Then if n > N , we have | f (x) − L| < ε. But
an = f (n), so n > N ⇒ |an − L| < ε, showing that lim an = L.
n→∞
76. Since lim |an | = 0, we have lim (− |an |) = (−1) lim |an | = 0. Since − |an | ≤ an ≤ |an |, the Squeeze Theorem
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
implies that lim an = 0.
n→∞
77. If |r | < 1, then lim r n = 0. If r = 1, then lim r n = lim 1 = 1. If r > 1, then lim r n = ∞. If r ≤ −1, let k = |r|,
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
so that k ≥ 1. Then lim r n = lim (−1)n k n diverges.
n→∞ n→∞
So r n converges for −1 < r ≤ 1 and diverges for all other values of r.
Fn+1 Fn + Fn−1 1 1
78. an = = =1+ =1+ . Since {an } is convergent, there exists a number L such that
Fn Fn Fn /Fn−1 an−1
1 1 √
lim an = L. In fact lim an = lim 1 + ⇒ L = 1 + ⇒ L 2 − L − 1 = 0 ⇒ L = 1 ±2 5 . Since an > 0 for
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ an−1 L
√
all n ≥ 1, we see that L = 1 +2 5 .
79. False. Take an = (−1)n and bn = (−1)n+1 . Then both {an } and {bn } diverge, but {an + bn } = {0} converges to 0.
80. False. Take an = (−1)n . Then {an } is divergent, but {|an |} = {1} converges to 1.
81. True. By Theorem 2, lim an bn = lim an lim bn = L · 0 = 0.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
82. False. Take an = 1/n and bn = 1/n 2 . Then both {an } and {bn } converge, but {an /bn } = {n} is divergent because
lim n = ∞.
n→∞
83. False. Take an = (−1)n and bn = 1. Then {an } is bounded since |an | ≤ 1 for all n and {bn } is convergent. But
{an bn } = (−1)n is divergent.
B an B
84. True. Since {an } is bounded, there exists a positive number B such that −B ≤ an ≤ B. Then − ≤ ≤ . Since
n n n
B B an
lim − = 0 = lim , the Squeeze Theorem implies that lim = 0.
n→∞ n n→∞ n n→∞ n
85. False. Let an = 1/n and bn = n. Then an bn = 1, so {an bn } converges to 1, but lim bn = lim n = ∞.
n→∞ n→∞
n n
86. False. Let an = (−1) . Then lim |an | = lim (−1) = lim 1 = 1, but {an } diverges.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

9.2 Concept Questions

1. a. A sequence {an } is an array of numbers a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . ., whereas a series is an expression of the form
∞ a = a + a +··· + a + ···.
n=1 n 1 2 n
∞
b. A sequence {an } is convergent if lim an = L for some number L, whereas a series n=1 an is convergent if
n→∞
lim Sn = S, where S is a number and {Sn } is the sequence of partial sums of the series—that is, Sn = nk=1 ak .
n→∞
 Section 9.2 Series 617

c. A sequence {an } is divergent if lim an does not exist, and a series ∞ a is divergent if lim S does not exist,
n→∞ n=1 n n→∞
n

where Sn = n
k=1 ak .
d. Refer to part b. L is the limit of the sequence {an }; S is the sum of the series ∞ a .
n=1 n
∞
2. a. n=1 an = 6 ⇒ n→∞
lim Sn = 6

b. ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ 1 11
n=1 an = a1 + n=2 an , so n=2 an = n=1 an − a1 = 6 − 2 = 2 .

9.2 Series
n
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1. Sn = − = 1− + − + ··· + − + − = 1− , so
k=2
k − 1 k 2 2 3 n−2 n−1 n−1 n n
∞
1 1 1
− = lim Sn = lim 1− = 1.
n − 1 n n→∞ n→∞ n
n=2
n
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2. Sn = − = − + − + − + ··· + − =− + , so
k=1
2k + 3 2k +1 5 3 7 5 9 7 2n + 3 2n + 1 3 2n + 3
∞
1 1 1 1 1
− = lim Sn = lim − + =− .
n=1
2n + 3 2n + 1 n→∞ n→∞ 3 2n + 3 3
n n
4 2 2
3. Sn = = −
k=1
(2k + 3) (2k + 5) k=1 2k + 3 2k + 5
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= − + − + ··· + − = −
5 7 7 9 2n + 3 2n + 5 5 2n + 5
∞
4 2 2 2
so = lim Sn = lim − = .
n=1
(2n + 3) (2n + 5) n→∞ n→∞ 5 2n + 5 5
n n
−8 −2 2
4. Sn = 2
= +
k=1
4k + 4k − 3 k=1 2k − 1 2k + 3
2 2 2 2 2 −2 2 2 2
= −2 + + − + + − + + ··· + + = −2 − +
5 3 7 5 9 2n − 1 2n + 3 3 2n + 3
∞
−8 2 2 8
so 2 + 4n − 3
= lim Sn = lim −2 − + =− .
4n n→∞ n→∞ 3 2n +3 3
n=1
n
1 1
5. Sn = −
k=2
ln k ln (k + 1)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= − + − +··· + − + − = −
ln 2 ln 3 ln 3 ln 4 ln (n − 1) ln n ln n ln (n + 1) ln 2 ln (n + 1)
∞
1 1 1 1 1 1
so lim Sn = lim − = and − = lim Sn = .
n→∞ n→∞ ln 2 ln (n + 1) ln 2 n=2
ln n ln (n + 1) n→∞ ln 2
n √ √ n
2 k+1− k √ √
6. Sn = √ √ ·√ √ = 2 k+1− k
k=1 k + 1 + k k+1− k k=1
√ √ √ √ √ √
=2 2−1 +2 3 − 2 + · · · + 2 n + 1 − n = 2 −1 + n + 1
∞
√ 2
so lim Sn = lim 2 −1 + n + 1 = ∞ and √ √ diverges.
n→∞ n→∞
n=1 n + 1 + n
618 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

8 16 32 ∞
2 n−1 4
7. 4 + + + + ··· = 4 = = 12
3 9 27 n=1
3 1 − 23

1 1 1 1 ∞
1 1 n−1 − 12 1
8. − + − + − ··· = − − = =−
2 4 8 16 n=1
2 2 1 − − 12 3

5
5 5 5 5 5 ∞ 1 n−1 3 5
9. − + − + ··· = − = =
3 9 27 81 3 n=1 3 1 − − 13 4

4 16 64 ∞
4 n−1 4
10. 1 + + + + ··· = is divergent because r = > 1.
3 9 27 n=1
3 3

√ √
∞
1 n 2 2 2 2 2−1 √ √ √
11. 2 −√ = = = √ · √ =2 2 2−1 =2 2− 2
n=0 2 1 − − √1 1 + √1 2+1 2−1
2 2

e
∞
en 1 ∞ e n 1 3 e
12. n+1
= = e =
n=1
3 3 n=1 3 31− 3 3 (3 − e)

∞ ∞
2 n 3
13. 2n 3−n+1 = 3 = =9
n=0 n=0
3 1 − 23

∞ ∞
3 n 3
14. (−1)n−1 3n 21−n = (−2) − diverges because |r | = > 1.
n=1 n=1
2 2

∞ ∞
1 2 3 n n n
15. + + + ··· = . Since lim an = lim = 1 = 0, diverges.
2 3 4 n + 1 n→∞ n→∞ n + 1 n + 1
n=1 n=1

3 9 27 ∞
3 n−1 3 3
16. 1 − + − + ··· = − is a divergent geometric series since |r| = − = > 1.
2 4 8 n=1
2 2 2

2n 2
17. Since lim = = 0, the series diverges.
n→∞ 3n + 1 3

n2 1
18. lim an = lim = = 0, so the series diverges.
n→∞ n→∞ 2n 2 + 1 2
∞
19. 2 (1.5)n is a divergent geometric series since r = 1.5 > 1.
n=1

∞
(−1)n 3n ∞
3 n 3 3
20. n− 1
= 2 − is a divergent geometric series since |r| = − = > 1.
n=0
2 n=0
2 2 2

∞
1 1 1
21. lim −n = = 0 and so diverges.
n→∞ 2 + 3 2 n=1
2 + 3−n

∞
n 1 1 n
22. lim an = lim = lim = √ = 0, so diverges.
n→∞ n→∞ 2n 2 + 1 n→∞ 2n 2 + 1
2 + 12 2 n=1
n
 Section 9.2 Series 619

23. a. S1 = 3, S2 = 4, S3 = 4.5, S4 = 4.8, S5 = 5, S6 ≈ 5.14, S7 ≈ 5.25, b.

S8 ≈ 5.33, S9 ≈ 5.4, . . ., S15 ≈ 5.6, . . ., S30 ≈ 5.8, . . ., S100 ≈ 5.9,
. . .. {Sn } seems to converge to 6. 8
n n 6
6 6 6
c. Sn = = −
k=1
k (k + 1) k=1 k k+1 4
1 1 1 1 1
=6 1− + − +··· + − 2
2 2 3 n n+1
1 0
=6 1− 0 5 10 15 20 25
n+1
∞
1 6
so lim Sn = 6 lim 1− = 6 and = 6.
n→∞ n→∞ n+1 n=1
n (n + 1)

24. a. S1 = √2 ≈ 1.4, S2 = √2 + √4 ≈ 3.2, b. 40

2 2 5

S3 = √2 + √4 + √6 ≈ 5.1, . . .. {Sn } seems to diverge to ∞. 30

2 5 10
2n 2 20
c. lim an = lim = lim = 2 = 0, so the series
n→∞ n→∞ n2 + 1 n→∞
1 + 12
n 10
is divergent.
0
0 5 10 15 20

2
25. a. S1 = 3, S2 = 3 + 3 78 = 5.625, S3 = 3 1 + 78 + 78 ≈ 7.922, b. 30

S4 ≈ 9.932, S5 ≈ 11.690, . . ., S10 ≈ 17.686, . . ., S15 ≈ 20.762, . . .,

20
S20 ≈ 22.239, . . ., S25 ≈ 23.148, . . ., S30 ≈ 23.563, . . .,
S35 ≈ 23.776, . . ., S40 ≈ 23.885, . . .. {Sn } seems to converge to 24.
10
7 n−1∞
3
c. This is a geometric series and 3 = = 24.
n=1
8 1 − 78 0
0 10 20 30 40

26. a. S1 = 5, S2 ≈ 1.67, S3 ≈ 3.889, S4 ≈ 2.407, S5 ≈ 3.395, . . ., b.

6
S10 ≈ 2.948, . . ., S15 ≈ 3.01, . . ., S20 ≈ 3.00. {Sn } seems to
converge to 3. 4
∞
2 n−1 5
c. 5 − = =3
3 2
n=1 1 − − 23

0
0 5 10 15 20

27. a. S1 ≈ 0.8415, S2 ≈ 0.0847, S3 ≈ 0.4968, S4 ≈ 0.2089, S5 ≈ 0.0765, b.

S6 ≈ −0.9152, S7 ≈ −1.869, S8 ≈ −0.9490, S9 ≈ −1.5789, 4

S10 ≈ −2.0852, . . .. {Sn } seems to diverge. 2

0
c. lim sin n 2 = 0, and so ∞ sin n 2 diverges.
n=1
n→∞
-2
-4
0 5 10 15 20
620 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

28. a. S1 ≈ 0.1667, S2 ≈ 0.3056, S3 ≈ 0.3935, S4 ≈ 0.4437, S5 ≈ 0.4708, b.

0.6
. . ., S8 ≈ 0.4962, S9 ≈ 0.4981, S10 ≈ 0.4990, . . .. {Sn } appears to
approach 12 . 0.4
∞ ∞ n ∞ n
1 1 1 1
c. n − 3n = − 0.2
n=1
2 n=1
2 n=1
3
1 1
1 0.0
= 2 − 3 1 = 0 2 4 6 8 10
1 − 12 1− 3 2
∞ ∞ 1 1
1 2 − 2
29. = is a telescoping series.
n=1
n (n + 2) n=1
n n+2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Sn = 1− + − + − +··· + − = 1+ − − , so
2 3 2 4 3 5 n n+2 2 2 n+1 n+2
∞
1 3 1 1 3 1 3
lim Sn = lim − − = and so = .
n→∞ n→∞ 2 2 n+1 n+2 4 n=1
n (n + 2) 4
∞ ∞ 1 1
1 2
30. 2−1
= − 2 is a telescoping series.
n=2
n n=2
n − 1 n+1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Sn = 1− + − + − +··· + − = 1+ − − , so
2 3 2 4 3 5 n−1 n+1 2 2 n n+1
∞
1 1 1 1 3 1 3
lim Sn = lim 1+ − − = and so 2
= .
n→∞ n→∞ 2 2 n n+1 4 4
n=2 n − 1
∞
2n ∞
2 n 1 5
31. n = = 2
=
n=0
5 n=0
5 1− 5 3
∞
3n+1 ∞
3 n 3 15
32. n = 3 = 3
=
n=0
5 n=0
5 1− 5 2
∞
(−3)n ∞
1 3 n 3 3
33. n+1
= − is a divergent geometric series with |r| = − = > 1.
n=0
2 n=0
2 2 2 2
∞ ∞
5 n 5
34. 2−n 5n+1 = 5 is a divergent geometric series with |r| = > 1.
n=1 n=1
2 2
∞
2n − 1 2 2n − 1
35. lim an = lim = = 0, and so diverges by the Divergence Test.
n→∞ n→∞ 3n + 1 3 3n + 1
n=1
1 1
2n 2 + n + 1 2+ n + 2
n = 2 = 0, so
∞
2n 2 + n + 1
36. lim an = lim = lim diverges.
n→∞ n→∞ 3n 2 + 2 n→∞ 3 + 2 3 3n 2 + 2
2 n=0 n
∞
37. 3 (1.01)n is a divergent geometric series because |r | = 1.01 > 1.
n=0
3n − 1 1 1 1 ∞ n
3 −1
38. lim an = lim = lim − n+1 = = 0, so diverges.
n→∞ n→∞ 3n+1 n→∞ 3 3 3 3n+1
n=1
1
∞
1 1 1 n
∞ ∞
1 ∞
1 n 2
39. n − n (n + 1) = − . Now = 1
= 1 and
n=1
2 n=1
2 n=1
n (n + 1) n=1
2 1 − 2
∞ ∞ ∞
1 1 1 1 1
= − = 1 by Example 9.2.1b, so n − = 1 − 1 = 0.
n=1
n (n + 1) n=1 n n+1 n=1
2 n (n + 1)
 Section 9.2 Series 621

2 − 23
∞
2n (−1)n−1 2n ∞
2 n 1 ∞ 2 n 1 2 92
40. + =3 − − =3· 3 2 − · =6+ =
n=1
3n−1 3n+1 n=1
3 3 n=1 3 1− 3 3 1 − −2 15 15
3
∞
2 2 2
41. lim an = lim = lim = 2 = 0, so diverges by the Divergence Test.
n→∞ n→∞ 1 + (0.2)n n→∞ 1 + 1 1 + (0.2)n
5n n=1
n n
k
42. Sn = ln = [ln k − ln (k + 1)] = (ln 1 − ln 2) + (ln 2 − ln 3) + · · · + [ln n − ln (n + 1)] = − ln (n + 1).
k=1
k+1 k=1
∞
n
lim Sn = lim [− ln (n + 1)] = −∞, so ln diverges.
n→∞ n→∞
n=1
n+1
n
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
43. Sn = cos − cos = cos 1 − cos + cos − cos + · · · + cos − cos
k=1
k k+1 2 2 3 n n+1
1
= cos 1 − cos
n+1
∞
1 1 1
lim Sn = lim cos 1 − cos = cos 1 − 1, so cos − cos = cos 1 − 1 ≈ −0.46.
n→∞ n→∞ n+1 n n+1
n=1
∞
n! n (n − 1) (n − 2) · · · (3) (2) (1) n n!
44. lim an = lim n = lim > lim = ∞, so n diverges.
n→∞ n→∞ 2 n→∞ 2 · 2 · 2 · ··· · 2 · 2 · 2 n→∞ 4 2
n=1
1 − 15
∞ ∞
1 n ∞
1 n 2 1 5
45. 2 (0.1)n + 3 (−1)n (0.2)n = 2 +3 − = 2 · 10 1 + 3 · = − =−
n=1 n=1
10 n=1
5 1 − 10 1 − − 15 9 2 18

∞
3 n e n+1 ∞
3 n e ∞ e n 1 e 1 π e
46. − + = − + = + · = + ≈ 10.16
n=0
π 3 n=0
π 3 n=0
3 1 − −π3 3 1 − 3e π+3 3−e

∞
2n + 3n ∞
1 n ∞
1 n 1 1 3 7
47. n = + = 1
+ 1
= +2=
n=0
6 n=0
3 n=0
2 1 − 1 − 2 2
3 2
2n − 5n 2 n 5 n ∞
2n − 5n
48. lim an = lim = lim − = −∞. diverges by the Divergence Test.
n→∞ n→∞ 3n n→∞ 3 3 n=1
3n
∞
π
49. lim an = lim tan−1 n = = 0, so by the Divergence Test, tan−1 n diverges.
n→∞ n→∞ 2 n=1
∞
50. lim an = lim sin2 n does not exist, so lim an = 0 and sin2 n diverges by the Divergence Test.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
n=1

1 sin n1 ∞
1
51. lim an = lim n sin = lim = 1 = 0, so n sin diverges by the Divergence Test.
n→∞ n→∞ n n→∞ 1 n=1
n
n
∞
sin n sin n
52. lim an = lim does not exist, so lim an = 0 and diverges by the Divergence Test.
n→∞ n→∞ 1 + e−n n→∞ 1 + e−n
n=1
∞
n n
53. lim an = lim = ∞ by l’Hôpital’s Rule, so diverges by the Divergence Test.
n→∞ n→∞ ln n ln n
n=2
2 n ∞
2 n
54. lim an = lim 1+ = e2 = 0, so 1+ diverges by the Divergence Test.
n→∞ n→∞ n n
n=1

4 1 1 2 4 1 4
55. 0.4 = 0.444 . . . = 1+ + + ··· = · 1
=
10 10 10 10 1 − 9
10
622 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

23 1 1 2 23 1 23
56. −0.23 = − 1+ + +··· =− · =−
100 100 100 100 1 − 1 99
100

213 213 213 1 1 2 213 1 404

57. 1.213 = 1 + + + ··· = 1 + 1+ + + ··· =1+ · =
1000 106 1000 103 103 1000 1 − 1 333
1000

3142 34 34 3142 34 1 1 2 3142 34 1

58. 3.14234 = + + 7 +··· = + 1+ + + ··· = + ·
1000 105 10 1000 105 100 100 1000 100,000 1 − 1
100
77,773
=
24,750
∞
59. (−x)n is a geometric series with a = 1 and r = −x and so it converges if |r| = |−x| < 1 ⇒ |x| < 1. In this case,
n=0
∞
1 1
(−x)n = = .
n=0
1 − (−x) 1+x

∞
60. (x − 2)n is a geometric series with a = 1 and r = x − 2 and so it converges if |r | = |x − 2| < 1 ⇔ 1 < x < 3. In this
n=0
∞
1 1
case, (x − 2)n = = .
n=0
1 − (x − 2) 3−x

∞ ∞
61. 2n (x − 1)n = [2 (x − 1)]n is a geometric series with a = 1 and r = 2 (x − 1). It converges if |r | = 2 |x − 1| < 1
n=1 n=1
∞
2 (x − 1) 2 (x − 1)
⇔ 12 < x < 32 , in which case 2n (x − 1)n = = .
n=1
1 − 2 (x − 1) 3 − 2x
n
∞
x 2n ∞
x2 x2 x2 √
62. n = is a geometric series with a = 1 and r = . It converges if |r| = < 1 ⇒ |x| < 3, in which
n=0
3 n=0
3 3 3
∞
x 2n 1 3
case n = = .
n=0
3 1− 3x 2
3 − x2

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
63. D = 2 + 2 2 +2 +2 +··· = 2 + 2 · =2+4=6m
2 2 2 2 2 2 1 − 12
2r 1+r
64. The distance traveled by the ball is D = 1 + 2r + 2r 2 + 2r 3 + · · · = 1 + 2r 1 + r + r 2 + · · · = 1 + = .
1−r 1−r
1+r
The ball travels a total distance of 2 meters, so = 2 ⇔ 1 + r = 2 − 2r ⇒ r = 13 . Thus, the coefficient of restitution
1−r
1 1/2 √
3 3
is = .
1 3
⎧ ⎫
2
1 1 5 2 1 5 4 1⎨ 5 2 5 2 ⎬ 1 1 6
65. p = + + + ··· = 1+ + + ··· = · =
6 6 6 6 6 6⎩ 6 6 ⎭ 6 1 − 25 11
36

66. The additional spending generated by the proposed tax cut will be
S = (0.91) (30) + (0.91)2 (30) + (0.91)3 (30) + · · · = 0.91 (30) 1 + 0.91 + (0.91)2 + (0.91)3 + · · ·
1
= 27.3 · ≈ 303 billion dollars
1 − 0.91
 Section 9.2 Series 623

r −1 r −2 r −n
67. a. V = P 1 + + P 1+ +··· + P 1 + + ···
12 ⎡ 12 12
⎤
2
r −1 ⎣ 1 1 r −1 1 P 12P
= P 1+ 1+ r + r + ···⎦ = P 1 + = r −1 = r
12 1 + 12 1 + 12 12 1 1 + 12
1− r
1 + 12
12 · 150,000
b. Here P = 150,000 and r = 0.09, so V = = 20,000,000. The required endowment is 20 million dollars.
0.09
2
68. a. R = Ce−kt + Ce−2kt + Ce−3kt + · · · = Ce−kt 1 + e−kt + e−2kt + · · · = Ce−kt 1 + e−kt + e−kt + ···

Ce−kt
=
1 − e−kt
Ce−kt C − Ce−kt + Ce−kt C C
b. C + R ≤ S ⇒ C + ≤ S ⇒ ≤S⇒ ≤ S ⇒ 1 − e−kt ≥ ⇒
1 − e−kt 1 − e−kt 1 − e−kt S
C S−C S−C S−C S 1 S
e−kt ≤ 1 − = . Thus, −kt ≤ ln ⇒ kt ≥ − ln = ln ⇒ t ≥ ln . Thus, the
S S S S S−C k S−C
1 S
minimum time between dosages should be ln hours.
k S−C
1 1 2
69. A = Pe−r + Pe−2r + Pe−3r + · · · = Pe−r 1 + e−r + e−2r + · · · = Pe−r 1 + + + ···
er er
P 1 P
= r · = r
e 1 − 1r e −1
e

70. Denote the squares by S1 , S2 , S3 , . . ., with S1 being the outermost one. Then the length of S1 is 2 with area 4; the length of
√ √ 2 √ √ 2 2
S2 is 2 with area 2 = 2; the length of S3 is √2 with area √2 = 1; the length of S4 is √1 with area √1 = 12 ;
2 2 2 2
4
. . .. The sum of the areas is thus S = 4 1 + 12 + 14 + 18 + · · · = = 8.
1 − 12

2 √
71. We have h 2 = 12 − 12 = 34 , so h = 23 . The area of the outermost triangle is
√ √ √ √
1 3 = 43 . Next, observe that r = 13 h = 13 3 = 63 , so the
1 = 2 (1) 2 2
h
√ 2
area of the largest circle is C1 = πr 2 = π 63 = 12 π . Therefore, the area of the
r
√
shaded region is A1 = 1 − C1 = 43 − 12 π . Now notice that the length of one
1
√ √
side of the second triangle is given by = 2r cos 30◦ = 2 63 2
3 = 1.
2
√
3 π 1 2
Repeating the process used earlier, we find the area of the next three shaded regions is A2 = − .
4 12 2
Continuing, we see that the required area is
⎧ ⎫
√ 2 √
3 π ⎨ 1 2 1 2 ⎬ 3 π 1
A = A1 + A 2 + A3 + · · · = − 1+ + ··· = −
4 12 ⎩ 2 2 ⎭ 4 12 2
1 − 12
√ √
3 3−π 4 3 3−π
= · =
12 3 9
∞ ∞
72. The assertion is false. Take an = 1 and bn = −1. Then both n=1 an and n=1 bn are divergent, but
∞ ∞ 0 is convergent.
n=1 (an + bn ) = n=1
624 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

∞ a is convergent, lim a = 0. Therefore, lim

73. Since n=1 n n (1/an ) = ±∞. Since lim (1/an ) = 0, the Divergence Test
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
∞
implies that n=1 (1/an ) is divergent.
74. Suppose on the contrary that ∞ n=1 (an + bn ) is convergent. Then
∞ ∞ [(a ∞ ∞ ∞
n=1 bn = n=1 n + bn ) − an ] = n=1 (an + bn ) − n=1 an is convergent by Theorem 4. But then n=1 bn is
convergent, a contradiction.
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
75. Suppose on the contrary that n=1 can is convergent. Then n=1 can = c n=1 an which shows that n=1 an is
convergent, a contradiction.
76. Suppose {an } converges. Then there exists a number L such that lim an = L. So the nth partial sum of
n→∞
∞ n
n=1 an+1 − an is Sn =
k=1 a k+ 1 − ak = (a2 − a 1 ) + (a3 − a2 ) + · · · + an+1 − an = −a1 + an+1 , and
∞
lim Sn = lim −a1 + an+1 = −a1 + L. Thus, n=1 an+1 − an converges.
n→∞ n→∞
Next, suppose ∞
n=1 an+1 − an converges. Then n→∞
lim an+1 − an = 0 ⇒ lim an+1 − lim an = 0 ⇒
n→∞ n→∞
lim a = lim an ⇒ {an } is convergent.
n→∞ n+1 n→∞
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
77. Observe that if n ≥ 2, then < 2 < ⇒ − < 2 < − ,
n (n + 1) n n (n − 1) n n+1 n n−1 n
n1 1 n 1 n 1 1
so − < 2
< − (1). But
k=2 k k + 1 k=2 k k=2 k − 1 k
n 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
− = − + − + ··· + − = − and
k=2 k k + 1 2 3 3 4 n n+1 2 n+1
n 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
− = 1− + − +··· + − =1− . Now, adding 1 to each of the inequalities in
k=2 k−1 k 2 2 3 n−1 n n
1 1 n 1 1 3 1 n 1 1
(1), we obtain +1− < 2
< 1+1− ⇒ − < 2
< 2− (2). The nth partial sum
2 n+1 k=1 k n 2 n + 1 k=1 k n
∞ 1 n 1 1
of 2
satisfies Sn+1 = 2
= Sn + > Sn and so {Sn } is increasing. Also, (1) shows that Sn < 2,
n=1 n k=1 k (n + 1)2
and so {Sn } is bounded above. Therefore, by the Monotone Convergence Theorem for Sequences, we see that {Sn }
1 3 1 1
converges; that is, ∞ n=1 2 converges. Finally, from (2), we have n→∞lim − ≤ lim Sn ≤ lim 2 − ⇒
n 2 n+1 n→∞ n→∞ n
3 1
≤ ∞ n=1 2 ≤ 2.
2 n
n 1 1 1 1
78. Here Sn = k
= + 2 + ··· + n . Since
k=1 2 + 1 2 + 1 2 +1 2 +1
1
Sn+1 = Sn + n+1 , we see that Sn+1 > Sn , and so {Sn } is increasing. Next,
2 +1
1 1− 1 n
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1
Sn = + 2 + +··· + n < + + 3 + ··· + n = = 1 − n < 1, showing
2 + 1 2 + 1 23 + 1 2 +1 2 22 2 2 1 − 12 2
that {Sn } is bounded above by 1. Since {Sn } is increasing and bounded above, the Monotone Convergence Theorem for
Sequences implies that {Sn } converges.
∞ ∞
79. False. Consider the harmonic series n=1 (1/n). Here n→∞
lim an = lim (1/n) = 0, but
n→∞ n=1 (1/n) is divergent. See
pages 752 and 753.
80. True. See Exercise 76.
81. False. If x = π
2 , then x is in [0, 2π] and
∞ sinn x = 1 + 12 + 13 + 14 + · · · which evidently diverges.
n=1
p
82. True. ∞ ar n = ar p + ar p+1 + ar p+2 + · · · = ar p 1 + r + r 2 + · · · = ar if |r| < 1.
n= p 1−r
 Section 9.3 The Integral Test 625

∞ n−1 . The sequence of partial sums is {S } = {1, 0, 1, 0, . . .} which is bounded above

83. False. Consider the series n=1 (−1) n
∞ n−1 diverges. See Example 6.
by 1, but n=1 (−1)

84. False. Take an = (−1)n−1 and bn = (−1)n . ∞

n=1 (an + bn ) =
∞
n=1 0 = 0, so
∞
n=1 (an + bn ) converges. But
∞ a = ∞ n−1 and ∞ b = ∞ n
n=1 n n=1 (−1) n=1 n n=1 (−1) both diverge.

9.3 Concept Questions

1 1 1 1 1
1. a. a1 = f (1) = 1, a2 = f (2) = 2 , b. Sn = 2 + 2 + 2 + · · · + 2
2 1 2 3 n
1 1 1 2 3 n
a3 = f (3) = 2 , . . ., an = f (n) = 2 ≤ 2+ f (x) dx + f (x) dx + · · · + f (x) dx
3 n 1 1 2 n−1
n n dx
y
∞ dx
=1+ f (x) dx = 1 + 2
<1+
1 1 x 1 x2
y=1/x@ ∞ dx b 1 b 1
c. = lim x −2 dx = lim − = lim − + 1 = 1,
1 1 x2 b→∞ 1 b→∞ x 1 b→∞ b
∞
1
so Sn ≤ 1 + 1 = 2. By the Monotone Convergence Theorem, 2
n=1
n
converges.
0 1 2 3 n x

1 1 1 1
2. a. a1 = f (1) = 1, a2 = f (2) = 12 , b. Sn−1 = + + + ··· +
1 2 3 n−1
a3 = f (3) = 13 , . . ., an = f (n) = n1 2 3 n
≥ f (x) dx + f (x) dx + · · · + f (x) dx
y 1
n
2
n dx
n−1

= f (x) dx =
y=1/x 1 1 x
∞ dx b1
1 c. = lim dx = lim [ln x]b1 = lim (ln b − ln 1) = ∞,
1 x b→∞ 1 x b→∞ b→∞
∞
1
so lim Sn = ∞ and diverges.
n→∞
n=1
n
0 1 2 3 n x

9.3 The Integral Test

∞
1 1
1. 4
. Let f (x) = 4 . Then f is nonnegative, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞).
n=1
n x
∞ dx b 1 b 1 1 1 ∞ dx
= lim x −4 dx = lim − = lim − 3 + = , so converges, and therefore the
1 x4 b→∞ 1 b→∞ 3x 3 1 b→∞ 3b 3 3 1 x4
series converges.
626 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

∞
3 3
2. . Let f (x) = . Then f is nonnegative, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞).
n=1
2n − 1 2x −1
∞ 3 dx b 3 dx 3 ∞ 3 dx
= lim = lim [ln (2b − 1)] = ∞. So is divergent, and thus the series is
1 2x − 1 b→∞ 1 2x − 1 b→∞ 2 1 2x − 1
divergent.
∞ e−n . Let f
3. n=1 (x) = e−x . Then f is nonnegative, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞).
∞
∞ −x b −x −b + 1 = 1 . Since ∞ e−n . Note that in
1 e dx = lim e dx = lim −e e−x dx converges, so does n=1
b→∞ 1 b→∞ e e
1
fact ∞ 1 n is a convergent geometric series and is equal to 1 · 1 1
n=1 e e 1 − (1/e) = e − 1 .
∞ ne−n . Let f
4. n=1 (x) = xe−x . Then f is nonnegative, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞).
b
∞ −x
1 xe dx = lim 1b xe−x dx = lim − (x + 1) e−x 1 = lim − (b + 1) e−b + 2e−1 = 2/e (using l’Hôpital’s
b→∞ b→∞ b→∞
Rule). Since 1∞ xe−x dx converges, so does the series.
∞
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
5. + + + + + ··· = 2+1
. Let f (x) = 2 . Then f is nonnegative, continuous, and decreasing on
2 5 10 17 26 n=1
n x +1
∞ dx b dx π
[1, ∞). I = = lim = lim tan−1 b − tan−1 1 = . Since I converges, so does the series.
1 x2 + 1 b→∞ 1 x 2 + 1 b→∞ 4
∞
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
6. + + + + +··· = + . Let f (x) = . Then f is nonnegative, continuous, and decreasing
3 7 11 15 19 3 n=1 3 + 4n 3 + 4x
∞ dx b dx 1
on [1, ∞). I = = lim = lim [ln (3 + 4b) − ln 7] = ∞. Since I is divergent, so is the series.
1 3 + 4x b→∞ 1 3 + 4x b→∞ 4
∞
n x
7. 3/2
. Let f (x) = 3/2
. Then f is nonnegative, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞).
2 x2 + 1
n=1 n + 1
∞ x dx b −3/2 −1/2 b 1 1 1
I = 3/2
= lim x x2 + 1 dx = lim − x2 + 1 = lim − +√ =√ .
1 x2 + 1 b→∞ 1 b→∞ 1 b→∞ b2 + 1 2 2
Since I is convergent, so is the series.
∞
1 1
8. √ . Let f (x) = √ . Then f is nonnegative, continuous, and decreasing on [2, ∞).
n=2 n ln n x ln x
∞ dx b dx √ b √ √
I = √ = lim √ = lim 2 ln x = lim 2 ln b − 2 ln 2 = ∞. Since I diverges, so does the
2 x ln x b→∞ 2 x ln x b→∞ 2 b→∞
series.
∞ ∞
1 1
9. 3
is convergent because p = 3 > 1. 10. 2/3
is divergent because p = 23 < 1.
n=1
n n=1
n
∞ ∞
1 1
11. is convergent because p = 1.01 > 1. 12. e is convergent because p = e > 1.
n=1 n 1.01 n=1
n
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
1 1
13. n −π = converges because p = π > 1. 14. n −0.98 = diverges because p = 0.98 < 1.
n=1 n=1
nπ n=1 n=1
n 0.98
∞
1 1
15. √ . Let f (x) = √ . Then f is nonnegative, continuous, and decreasing on [0, ∞).
n=0 n + 1 x +1
∞ dx b √ √
I = √ = lim (x + 1)−1/2 dx = lim 2 b + 1 − 2 2 = ∞. Since I diverges, so does the series.
0 x +1 b→∞ 0 b→∞
 Section 9.3 The Integral Test 627

∞
n x
16. . Let f (x) = . Then f is nonnegative, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞).
n=1 2n 2 + 1 2x 2 + 1
∞ x dx b −1/2 √
I = = lim x 2x 2 + 1 dx = lim 1 2b2 + 1 − 12 3 = ∞. Since I diverges, so does the
1 2x 2 + 1 b→∞ 1 b→∞ 2
series.
∞ ∞
1 1
17. √ = 3/2
is a p-series with p = 32 > 1 and is thus convergent.
n=1
n n n=1
n

∞ ∞
1
18. n −0.75 = 0.75
is a p-series with p = 0.75 < 1 and is thus divergent.
n=1 n=1
n

∞ ∞ ∞
1 2 1 1
19. √ + 2 = 3/ 2
+ 2 2
is the sum of a convergent p-series with p = 32 > 1 and a constant multiple of
n=1
n n n n=1
n n=1
n
another convergent p-series with p = 2 > 1, and is thus itself convergent.
∞
2 n 1 ∞
2 n ∞
1
20. + 3/2 = + 3/2
is the sum of two convergent series, the first being a geometric series with
n=1
3 n n=1
3 n=1
n
r = 23 < 1 and the second a p-series with p = 32 > 1. Thus, the series is convergent.

∞
ln n ln x
21. . Let f (x) = . Then f is nonnegative, continuous, and decreasing on [2, ∞). But
n=2
n x
∞ ln x b ln x
dx = lim dx = lim 1 (ln b)2 − 1 (ln 2)2 = ∞, so the series diverges.
2 x b→∞ 2 x b→∞ 2 2

∞ ∞ ln x
ln n ln x
22. 2
. Let f (x) = 2 . Then f is nonnegative, continuous, and decreasing on [2, ∞). We calculate I = dx
n=2
n x 2 x2
dx u du
using the substitution u = ln x ⇒ du = and x = eu . Then I = = ue−u du = − (1 + u) e−u + C (by parts).
x eu
b ln x 1 + ln x b 1 + ln b 1 + ln 2 1 + ln 2
Therefore, I = lim dx = lim − = lim − + = by l’Hôpital’s Rule.
b→∞ 2 x 2 b→∞ x 2 b→∞ b 2 2
Thus, the series converges.
∞
1 1
23. . Let f (x) = . Then f is nonnegative, continuous, and decreasing on [2, ∞).
n=2 n (ln n)2 x (ln x)2
∞ dx b dx 1 1 1
= lim = lim − + = , so the series converges.
2 x (ln x)2 b→∞ 2 x (ln x)2 b→∞ ln b ln 2 ln 2

∞
e1/n e1/x
24. 2
. Let f (x) = . Then f is nonnegative, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞).
n=1
n x2
∞ e1/x b e1/x
dx = lim dx = lim −e1/b + e = e − 1, so the series converges.
1 x2 b→∞ 1 x2 b→∞

∞
sin (1/n) sin (1/x)
25. 2
. Let f (x) = . Then f is nonnegative, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞).
n=1
n x2
∞ sin (1/x) b sin (1/x)
dx = lim dx = lim cos (1/b) − cos 1 = 1 − cos 1, so the series is convergent.
1 x2 b→∞ 1 x2 b→∞
628 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

∞
1 1
26. √ . Let f (x) = √ . Then f is nonnegative, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞).
n=1
n + 4 x +4
dx √ dx √
To find I = , let u = x + 4, so du = √ ⇒ dx = 2 x du = 2 (u − 4) du. Then
√
x +4 2 x
u−4 4 √ √
I =2 du = 2 1− du = 2 (u − 4 ln u) = 2 x + 4 − 4 ln x + 4 . Thus,
u u
∞ dx b dx √ √
√ = lim √ = lim 2 b + 8 − 8 ln b + 4 − 10 + 8 ln 5
1 x +4 b→∞ 1 x + 4 b→∞
⎧ ⎡ √ ⎤ ⎫
⎨ √ 4 ln b+4 ⎬
= lim 2 b 1 − ⎣ √ ⎦ + 8 ln 5 − 2 = ∞
b→∞ ⎩ b ⎭
∞
1
using l’Hôpital’s Rule on the expression within the brackets. Thus, √ diverges.
n=1
n +4
∞
1 ∞
1 ∞ − 12 1
2
27. = = + is a telescoping series:
n=1
4n 2 − 1 n=1 (2n + 1) (2n − 1) n=1 2n + 1 2n − 1
n − 12 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Sn = + 2 = − +1 + − + + − + +··· + − +
k=1
2k + 1 2k − 1 2 3 5 3 7 5 2n + 1 2n − 1
1 1 1
= 1− → as n → ∞
2 2n + 1 2
∞
1
and so 2−1
converges.
n=1
4n
∞
n x
n . Let f (x) = 2x . Then f is nonnegative, continuous, and decreasing on
28. [2, ∞). To
n=1
2
∞ 2 −x
find I = x2−x dx, let u = x and dv = 2−x dx ⇒ du = dx and v = − . Then
1 ln 2
x 1 x 1 1 1
I = − x + 2−x dx = − x − +C = − x+ + C, so
2 ln 2 ln 2 2 ln 2 2x (ln 2)2 ln 2 2x ln 2
∞ 1 1 1 1 1 1
x2−x dx = lim I = lim − b + b
+ 1+ = 1+ . Thus, the
1 b→∞ b→∞ ln 2 2 ln 2 ln 2 2 ln 2 ln 2 2 ln 2
series converges.
∞
tan−1 n tan−1 x
29. 2
. Let f (x) = 2 . Then f is nonnegative, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞).
n=1
n +1 x +1
∞ tan−1 x b tan−1 x 1 π 2 1 π 2 3π2
I = dx = lim dx = lim1 tan−1 b 2 − 1 tan−1 1 2 = − = ,
1 x2 + 1 b→∞ 1 x 2 + 1 b→∞ 2 2 2 2 2 4 32
showing that the series converges.
∞
1 1
30. lim an = lim = 1 = 0, so −n + 1 diverges by the Divergence Test.
n→∞ n→∞ e−n + 1 e
n=1
∞ ∞
1 1 1
31. 2 + 2n + 5
= 2 +4
. Let f (x) = 2+4
.
n=1
n n=1 (n + 1) (x + 1)
Then f is nonnegative, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞).
∞ dx b dx 1 b+1 1 1+1 1 π 1 π π
I = = lim = lim tan−1 − tan−1 = − = ,
1 (x + 1)2 + 4 b→∞ 1 (x + 1)2 + 4 b→∞ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 8
showing that the series converges.
 Section 9.3 The Integral Test 629

∞ ∞ ∞ 2 1
1 1 5 1 ∞ 2 1
32. 2 + 7n + 3
= = − 5 = − is a convergent
n=1
2n n=1
(2n + 1) (n + 3) n=1
2n + 1 n+3 5 n=1 2n + 1 n + 3
telescoping series.

∞
1 1
33. p . Let f (x) = . If p > 0, then f is nonnegative, continuous, and decreasing on [2, ∞).
n=2
n (ln n) x (ln x) p
∞ dx b dx (ln b)1− p (ln 2)1− p
I = p = lim p = lim − . If p > 1, then the integral converges to
2 x (ln x) b→∞ 2 x (ln x) b→∞ 1− p 1− p
(ln 2)1− p ∞ dx b dx
, and if p < 1, the integral diverges. If p = 1, = lim = lim [ln (ln b) − ln (ln 2)] = ∞.
p−1 2 x ln x b→∞ 2 x ln x b→∞
Thus, I converges if p > 1, as does the series.

∞
ln n ln n
34.
n p . If p < 0, then n→∞
lim an = lim
n→∞ n p
= ∞, and so the series is divergent. For p > 0, let
n=1
ln x
f (x) = . Then f is nonnegative, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞). Using the table of integrals, we find
xp
∞ ln x b ln x b1− p 1
p dx = lim p dx = lim −1 + (1 − p) ln b + for p = 1. If p > 1, then the
1 x b→∞ 1 x b→∞ (1 − p)2 (1 − p)2
integral converges, and if p = 1, then it diverges (see Exercise 21). If 0 ≤ p < 1, then the integral also diverges. Thus, the
integral is convergent only for p > 1, as is the series.

N
a 1 a 1 a 1 a 1 a 1 a 1
35. S N = − = − + − + − + ··· + − + −
n=1
n + 1 n + 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 N N + 1 N + 1 N +2
a a−1 a−1 a−1 1
= + + + ··· + −
2 3 4 N +1 N +2
a a−1 a−1 a−1 a−1 a−1 a−1 a−1 1
= + − + + − + + + +··· + −
2 1 1 2 2 3 4 N +1 N +2
N +1
3 1 1 1 1 3 1 1
= −a− + (a − 1) 1 + + + · · · + = −a− + (a − 1)
2 N +2 2 3 N +1 2 N +2 n=1
n

If a = 1, then lim S N = 12 . If a = 0, then lim S N diverges [ ∞

n=1 (1/n) is the harmonic series]. So the given series
N →∞ N →∞
converges only if a = 1.

1 1 1 1 n dx
36. a. From the figure we see that
+ + + ··· + ≤
2 3 4 n
= ln n, y
1 x
1 1 1 1 y=1/x
so Sn = 1 + + + + · · · + ≤ 1 + ln n.
2 3 4 n
1
b. S106 ≤ 1 + ln 106 = 1 + 6 ln 10 ≈ 14.82 < 15

0 1 2 3 x
630 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

37. a. From the figure, we see that y

n+1 dx 1 1
= ln (n + 1) ≤ 1 + + · · · + . Also, f (x) > 0 for y=1/x
1 x 2 n
1
x ≥ 1, so ln (n + 1) > ln n. Thus,
1 1
0 < ln (n + 1) − ln n ≤ 1 + + · · · + − ln n. Since
2 n
1 1
an = 1 + + · · · + − ln n, we see that {an } is bounded below by 0. 0 1 2 3 4 x
2 n
1 n+1 dx
b. From the figure, we see that < = ln (n + 1) − ln n. y
n+1 n x
Consider y=1/x
1 1 1
an+1 − an = 1 + +··· + + − ln (n + 1)
2 n n+1
1 1
− 1+ + · · · + − ln n 1
2 n n+1

1 0 1 n n+1 x
= − [ln (n + 1) − ln n] < 0
n+1
using the result of part a. Thus, an+1 < an , showing that {an } is
decreasing.
c. Since {an } is decreasing and bounded below, the Monotone Convergence Theorem implies that {an } is convergent.
∞ ∞
1
38. ζ (x) = n −x = for real x. This is a p-series which converges for p = x > 1. Therefore, the domain of ζ is
n=1 n=1
nx
(1, ∞).

39. a. From the first figure, we see that Rn = an+1 + an+2 + · · · ≤ n∞ f (x) dx. From the second figure,
∞
we see that Rn = an+1 + an+2 + · · · ≥ n+ 1 f (x) dx. Combining these two inequalities gives
∞ ∞
n+1 f (x) dx ≤ Rn ≤ n f (x) dx.
y y

y=f(x) y=f(x)

an+1 an+1
an+2 an+2

0 n n+1 x 0 n n+1 x

b. If we replace Rn by S − Sn in the chain of inequalities obtained in part (a), we get

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
n+1 f (x) dx ≤ S − Sn ≤ n f (x) dx, from which the desired result Sn + n+1 f (x) dx ≤ S ≤ Sn + n f (x) dx
follows.

1 b
40. a. Here f (x) = 2 , so n+ ∞
f (x) dx = lim b
x −2 dx = lim − 1 = lim − +
1 1
=
1
.
1 n+ 1 x n+1 b→∞ b n+1 n+1
x b→∞ b→∞
∞ 1
In a similar manner, we find that n f (x) dx = . Using the result of Exercise 39b, we have
n
1 ∞ 1 1
Sn + = ≤ Sn + .
n + 1 n=1 n 2 n
 Section 9.3 The Integral Test 631

1 ∞ 1
b. Put n = 1 in the chain of inequalities obtained in part a to obtain S1 + ≤ ≤ S1 + 1. Since S1 = 1, we have
2 n=1 n 2
1 ∞ 1 3 ∞ 1
1+ ≤ 2
≤ 1+1⇒ ≤ ≤ 2.
2 n=1 n 2 n=1 n 2
∞
c. Put n = 100 in the result of Exercise 39a to find 100 ∞
f (x) dx ≤ R100 ≤ 100 1 ≤ R
f (x) dx ⇒ 101 1
100 ≤ 100 .
∞ 1 π2
d. Using a CAS, we find that 2
= .
n=1 n 6
∞
2 2
41. 2
. Let f (x) = 2 . Then f is positive, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞), so
n=1
n x
∞ ∞ ∞ 2 b
2 2 2 2 1
E 40 = 2
− S40 = 2
≤ 2
dx = lim 2x −2 dx = lim − + = = 0.05.
n=1
n n=41
n 40 x b→∞ 40 b→∞ b 40 20
∞
1 1
42. 5/2
. Let f (x) = 5/2 . Then f is positive, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞), so
n=1
n x
∞ dx b 2 2 2
E 20 ≤ /
= lim x −5/2 dx = lim − 3/2 + = ≈ 0.007.
20 x 5 2 b→∞ 20 b→∞ 3b 3 (20)3/2 3 (20)3/2
∞
1 1
43. 2+1
. Let f (x) = 2 . Then f is positive, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞), so
n=1
n x +1
∞ dx dx b π
E 50 ≤ = lim = lim tan−1 b − tan−1 50 = − tan−1 50 ≈ 0.02.
50 x 2 + 1 b→∞ 50 1 + x 2 b→∞ 2
∞
2 2
44. ne−n . Let f (x) = xe−x . Then f is positive, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞), so
n=1
∞ 2
∞ 2 2
E3 ≤ xe−x dx = lim xe−x dx = lim − 12 e−b + 12 e−9 = 12 e−9 ≈ 0.000062.
3 b→∞ 3 b→∞
∞
1 1
45. 2
. Let f (x) = 2 . Then f is positive, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞), so
n=1
n x
∞ dx b 1 1 1
Rn ≤ = lim x −2 dx = lim − + = ≤ 0.005 ⇒ n ≥ 200.
n x2 b→∞ n b→∞ b n n
∞
1 1
46. 3
. Let f (x) = 3 . Then f is positive, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞), so
n=1
n x
∞ dx b 1 1 1
Rn ≤ = lim x −3 dx = lim − + 2 = ≤ 0.005 ⇔ n ≥ 10.
n x3 b→∞ n b→∞ 2b 2 2n 2n 2
∞
tan−1 n tan−1 x
47. . Let f (x) = . Then f is positive, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞), so
n=1
1 + n2 1 + x2
∞ tan−1 x b tan−1 x
2 2 1 π 2
Rn ≤ dx = lim 12 tan−1 b − 12 tan−1 n
dx = lim = −
n 1 + x2
b→∞ n 1 + x 2 b→∞ 2 2
1 2 2 π2
tan−1 n ≤ 0.005 ⇒ tan−1 n ≥ − 0.01 ⇒ tan−1 n ≥ 1.56761. Thus, we must take n ≥ tan 1.56761 ≈ 314.
2 4
∞
1 1
48. 2
. Let f (x) = . Then f is positive, continuous, and decreasing on [2, ∞), so
n=2 n (ln n) x (ln x)2
∞ dx b dx 1 1 1 1
Rn ≤ = lim = lim − + = ≤ 0.005 ⇔ ln n ≥ = 200 ⇒ n > e200 .
n x (ln x)2 b→∞ n x (ln x)2 b→∞ ln b ln n ln n 0.005
632 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

∞
1 1
49. 4
. Let f (x) = 4 . Then f is positive, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞), so
n=1
n x
∞ dx b 1 1 1 1
Rn ≤ = lim x −4 dx = lim − + 3 = ≤ 0.0005 ⇔ n 3 ≥ ⇔ n > 8.75, so we take
n x4 b→∞ n b→∞ 3b3 3n 3n 3 0.0015
∞ 9
1 1 1 1 1
9 terms: 4
≈ 4
= 1 + 4 + 4 + · · · + 4 ≈ 1.082.
n=1
n n=1
n 2 3 9

∞
1 1
50. 9/2
. Let f (x) = 9/2 . Then f is positive, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞), so
n=1 n x
∞ dx b 2 2 2
Rn ≤ /
= lim x −9/2 dx = lim − 7/2 + 7/2 = ≤ 0.0005 ⇒ n ≥ 6.13, so we take 7 terms:
n x 9 2 b→∞ n b→∞ 7b 7n 7n 7/2
∞ 7
1 1 1 1 1
9/2
≈ 9/2
= 1 + 9/2 + 9/2 + · · · + 9/2 ≈ 1.054.
n=1
n n=1
n 2 3 7

1 1 (n + 2) − n 1
51. a. − = = , proving the result.
2n (n + 1) 2 (n + 1) (n + 2) 2n (n + 1) (n + 2) n (n + 1) (n + 2)
n
1 1 n 1 1
b. Sn = = −
k=1
k (k + 1) (k + 2) 2 k=1
k (k + 1) (k + 1) (k + 2)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= − + − + ··· + −
2 1·2 2·3 2·3 3·4 n (n + 1) (n + 1) (n + 2)
1 1 1
= −
2 2 (n + 1) (n + 2)
1 1 1 1
Thus, lim Sn = lim − = .
n→∞ n→∞ 2 2 (n + 1) (n + 2) 4

∞
1 ∞
1 ∞
n2 − 1 ∞
1
52. a. 1 + − 3 2
=1+ 3 2
= 3
n=2
(n − 1) n (n + 1) n=2
n n − 1 n=2
n n − 1 n=1
n

∞
1 2 1 2 n2 − 1 − n2 n2 − 2
b. . Since − = = > 0 for n ≥ 2, we
n=2
n3 n2 − 1 n5 n3 n2 − 1 n5 n2 − 1 n5 n2 − 1
∞
2 2
consider 5
. Let f (x) = 5 . Then f is positive, continuous, and decreasing on [2, ∞), so
n=2
n x
∞ 2 dx b 1 1 1
Rn ≤ = lim 2 x −5 dx = lim − 4 + 4 = ≤ 0.00005 ⇒ n ≥ 10. Using the result of
n x5 b→∞ n b→∞ 2b 2n 2n 4
Exercise 39,
∞ ∞ ∞ 10
1 1 1 1 1
3
= 1 + − 3 2
≈ 1 + − 3 2−1
n=1
n n=2
(n − 1) n (n + 1) n=2
n n −1 4 n=2
n n

1 1 1 1
≈1+ − 3 2 + 3 2 + ··· + 3 ≈ 1.20213
4 2 2 −1 3 3 −1 10 102 − 1
 Section 9.4 The Comparison Tests 633

∞
1 1
53.
n (ln n) [ln (ln n)] p . Let f (x) = x (ln x) [ln (ln x)] p . Then f is positive, continuous, and decreasing on [3, ∞), so if
n=3
∞ dx b dx
p = 1, then = lim = lim (ln ln ln b − ln ln ln 3) = ∞. If p = 1, then
3 x (ln x) [ln (ln x)] b→∞ 3 x (ln x) [ln (ln x)] b→∞
b
∞ dx ∞ dx [ln (ln x)]1− p
I = p = lim = lim
3 x (ln x) [ln (ln x)] b→∞ 3 x (ln x) [ln (ln x)] p b→∞ 1− p
3
[ln (ln b)]1− p [ln (ln 3)]1− p
= lim −
b→∞ 1− p 1− p
[ln (ln 3)]1− p
If p < 1, then 1 − p > 0 and I diverges. If p > 1, then 1 − p < 0, so I = , so by the Integral Test,
p−1
∞
1
converges if p > 1 and diverges if p ≤ 1.
n=3
n (ln n) [ln (ln n)] p

54. a. f (x) = e−x is positive, continuous, and decreasing on [0, ∞), so

∞ −x
0 e dx = lim 0b e−x dx = lim −e−b + 1 = 1, so the Integral Test shows that ∞ n=0 e
−n is convergent.
b→∞ b→∞
∞ ∞
1 n 1 ∞
1 e
b. e−n = is a geometric series with a = 1 and r = , so e−n = 1
= .
n=0 n=0
e e n=0 1− e e − 1
∞ ∞
e
c. The sum of the series e−n is ≈ 1.582, and this is not equal to e−x dx = 1.
n=0
e − 1 0

55. True. See Figure 1 on page 757.

56. True. 1∞ f (x) dx = 1N f (x) dx + N∞ f (x) dx = ∞ ⇒ ∞

n=1 an =
∞
n=1 f (n) diverges.
∞ ∞
1 1 1
57. True. = − is a convergent telescoping series (see Example 1). By the Integral Test,
n=1
n (n + 1) n=1
n n + 1
∞ dx
is convergent.
1 x (x + 1)
∞ ∞ ∞
1 1 1
58. False. The series is a convergent series with positive terms, but = is the divergent harmonic series.
n=1
n2 n=1
n2 n=1
n

9.4 Concept Questions

1. a. See pages 762 and 765.
b. We use the Comparison Test if a test series bn can be found such that either an ≤ bn where bn is convergent, or
an ≥ bn where bn is divergent. The Limit Comparison Test may be used if we can find a test series such that
lim (an /bn ) = L.
n→∞
∞ ∞
2 1 2 1
2. a. No conclusion can be drawn. Consider 2
and 2
. Here an = 2 > 2 = bn for n ≥ 1, and both series
n=1
n n=1
n n n
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
1 1 1 1 1
converge. Next, consider and 2
. Here an = ≥ 2
= bn for n ≥ 1. Then bn converges, but
n=1
n n=1
n n n n=1 n=1
n
diverges.
634 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

∞ ∞ ∞
1 1 1 1
b. No conclusion can be drawn. Consider and . Here an = ≤ = bn for n ≥ 1, and bn diverges but
n=1
n2 n=1
n n2 n n=1
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
1 1 1 1 1
an converges. Next, consider and . Here an = ≤ = bn , but diverges.
n=1 n=1
2n n=1
n 2n n n=1
2n
3. Since bn + cn ≤ an and cn is positive for n ≥ 1, we have bn ≤ an . So if an converges, then bn converges. Next,
cn ≤ an since bn is positive, so if an converges, then cn converges.
4. If both bn and cn are convergent, then an must be convergent, contradicting the assumption that an is divergent.
So (bn + cn ) must be divergent. Since bn and cn are positive, we see that at least one of bn and cn is divergent.

9.4 The Comparison Tests

∞ ∞
1 1 1 1
1. 2
< 2
for n ≥ 1. Since 2
converges, so does 2
.
2n + 1 n n=1
n n=1
2n + 1
∞ ∞
1 1 1 1
2. < for n ≥ 1. Since converges, so does .
n 2 + 2n n2 n=1 n 2
n=1 n 2 + 2n

∞ ∞
1 1 1 1
3. > for n ≥ 3. Since diverges, so does .
n−2 n n=3
n n=3
n − 2
∞ ∞
1 1 1 1
4. > 2/3 for n ≥ 2. Since diverges, so does .
n 2/3 − 1 n n=2
n 2/3
n=2
n 2/3 − 1

∞ ∞
1 1 1 1 1
5. > √ = for n ≥ 2. Since diverges, so does .
n2 − 1 n2 n n=2
n n=2 n2 − 1
∞ ∞
1 1 1 1 1
6. < √ = 3/2 for n ≥ 1. Since converges, so does .
n3 + 1 n3 n n=1
n 3/2 n=0 n3 + 1
2n 2n 2 n ∞
2 n ∞
2n
7. < n = for n ≥ 0. Since converges, so does n + 1.
3n + 1 3 3 n=0
3 n=0
3

3n 3n 3 n ∞
3 n ∞
3n
8. > = for n ≥ 3. Since diverges, so does .
2n − 4 2n 2 n=3
2 n=3
2n − 4
∞ ∞
ln n 1 1 ln n
9. > for n ≥ 3. Since diverges, so does .
n n n=2
n n=2
n

cos2 n 1 ∞
1 ∞
cos2 n
10. ≤ for n ≥ 1. Since converges, so does .
n2 n2 n=1
n2 n=1
n2
∞ ∞
2 + sin n 3 1 3 2 + sin n
11. n < n = n−1 for n ≥ 1. Since n is convergent, so is .
3 3 3 n=1
3 n=1
3n

1 1 ∞
1 n ∞
1
12. n ≤ n for n ≥ 2. Since is convergent, so is n.
n 2 n=1
2 n=1
n
n
n n 1 an 2 n2 ∞
1
13. If n is large, then an = 2 behaves like 2 = = bn . lim = lim n + 1 = lim 2 = 1 > 0, so
n +1 n n n→∞ bn n→∞ 1 n→∞ n + 1 n
n=2
n
∞
n
diverges ⇒ 2
diverges.
n=2
n +1
 Section 9.4 The Comparison Tests 635

1
√ √
1 1 an n+2 n
14. If n is large, then an = √ behaves like √ = bn . lim = lim = lim √ = 1 > 0, so
n+2 n n→∞ bn n→∞ 1 n→∞ n + 2
√
n
∞ ∞ ∞
1 1 1
√ = 1/ 2
diverges ⇒ √ diverges.
n=1
n n=1 n n=1
n+2

n n 1
15. If n is large, then an = behaves like √ = 3/2 = bn .
n5 − 1 n 5 n
n
an n5 − 1 n 5/2 1 ∞
1 ∞
n
lim = lim = lim = lim = 1 > 0, so converges ⇒
n→∞ bn n→∞ 1 n→∞ n5 − 1 n→∞
1 − 1/n 5 n=2
n 3/2 n=2 n5 − 1
n 3/2
converges.

2n + 1 2n 2 1
16. If n is large, then an = behaves like = , so take bn = .
3n 2 − n + 1 3n 2 3n n
2n + 1
an 3n 2−n+1 2n 2 + n 2 ∞
1 ∞
2n + 1
lim = lim = lim = > 0, so diverges ⇒ diverges.
n→∞ bn n→∞ 1 2
n→∞ 3n − n + 1 3 n 3n 2−n+1
n=1 n=1
n

3n 2 + 1 3n 2 3 1
17. If n is large, then an =5
behaves like = , so take bn = 3 .
2n + n + 2 2n 5 2n 3 n
3n 2 + 1
an 5 3n 5 + n 3 3 ∞
1 ∞
3n 2 + 1
lim = lim 2n + n + 2 = lim = > 0, so converges ⇒ converges.
n→∞ bn n→∞ 1 n→∞ 2n 5 + n + 2 2 n3 2n 5 + n + 2
n=1 n=1
n3

n2 + 1
2 2 ∞
n +1 n 1 an n 2 (n + 3) 1
18. If n is large, then an = 2 behaves like 3 = = bn . lim = lim = 1 > 0, so diverges
n (n + 3) n n n→∞ bn n→∞ 1 n
n=1
n
∞
n2 + 1
⇒ 2
diverges.
n=1
n (n + 3)

1 1 1
19. If n is large, then an = behaves like √ = 3/2 = bn .
n3 − n − 1 n 3 n
1
an n3 − n − 1 n 3/2 1 ∞
1
lim = lim = lim = lim = 1 > 0, so converges ⇒
n→∞ bn n→∞ 1 n→∞ n3 − n − 1 n→∞
1 − 12 − 13 n=2
n 3/2
n n
n 3/2
∞
1
converges.
n=2 n3 − n − 1

1
1 1 an n 2n ∞
1
20. If n is large, then an = n behaves like bn = n . lim = lim 2 − 3 = lim n = 1 > 0, so n
2 −3 2 n→∞ bn n→∞ 1 n→∞ 2 − 3 2
n=1
2n
∞
1
converges ⇒ n converges.
n=2
2 −3
636 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

n
n n an 2n −1 2n ∞
n
21. If n is large, then an = n behaves like bn = n . lim = lim n = lim n = 1 > 0, so n
2 −1 2 n→∞ bn n→∞ n→∞ 2 − 1
n=1
2
2n
∞
n
converges (see Exercise 9.3.28) ⇒ n converges.
n=1
2 −1
ln n
ln n ln n an n 3−1 n3
22. If n is large, then an = 3 behaves like bn = 3 . lim = lim = lim 3 = 1 > 0. Since
n −1 n n→∞ bn n→∞ ln n n→∞ n −1
n3
∞ ∞
ln n n 1 ln
3
< 3 = 2, bn converges by the Comparison Test, so the Limit Comparison Test implies that 3−1
n n n n=2 n=2
n
converges.
∞ ∞
1 1 an sin (1/n) 1 1
23. If n is large, then an = sin behaves like bn = . lim = lim = 1 > 0, so diverges ⇒ sin
n n n→∞ bn n→∞ 1/n n=1
n n=1
n
also diverges by the Limit Comparison Test.
∞ ∞
1 1 an tan (1/n) 1 1
24. If n is large, then an = tan behaves like bn = . lim = lim = 1 > 0, so diverges ⇒ tan
n n n→∞ bn n→∞ 1/n n=1
n n=1
n
also diverges by the Limit Comparison Test.
∞
n+1 n+1 n 1 1
25. 2+1
. If n is large, then an = 2+1
behaves like 2
= 2 , so we take bn = 2 .
n=1 (n + 2) 2n (n + 2) 2n n 2n 2n n
n+1
an (n + 2) 2n 2 + 1 n3 + n2 1 ∞
1 ∞
n+1
lim = = lim = > 0, so converges ⇒
n→∞ bn 1 n→∞ (n + 2) 2n 2 + 1 2 2 + 2) 2n 2 + 1
n=1 (n
n=1
n
n2
converges.
∞ ∞
n n 1 1 n
26. < √ = 3/2 for n ≥ 1. converges, so converges.
n5 + n n5 n n=1
n 3/2 n=1 n5 + n
∞ ∞
n−1 n 1 1 n−1
27. < = for n ≥ 1. converges, so converges.
n3 + 2 n3 n2 n=1 n 2
n=1 n 3+2

∞ ∞
n+1 n+n 1 1 n+1
28. 3
< 3
= 2 for n ≥ 1. 2
converges, so 3+1
converges.
2n + 1 2n n n=1
n n=1
2n
2n−1
29. lim an = lim = ∞. In fact, using l’Hôpital’s Rule,
n→∞ n→∞ n 2 + n
2 x−1 2x−1 ln 2 2x−1 (ln 2)2 ∞
2n−1
lim = lim = lim = ∞. By the Divergence Test, diverges.
x→∞ x 2 + x x→∞ 2x + 1 x→∞ 2 n2 + n
n=1
∞ ∞
1 1 1 1 1
30. > √ = . Since is divergent, so is .
n+ n2 − 1 n+ n 2 2n n=1
2n 2
n=1 n + n − 1
sin2 n 1 1 ∞
1 ∞
sin2 n
31. √ < √ = 3/2 for n ≥ 1. Since 3/2
is convergent, so is √ .
n n+1 n n n n=1
n n=1 n n + 1
tan−1 n π/2 π ∞
π ∞
tan−1 n
32. 3
< 3 = 3 for n ≥ 1. Since 3
converges, so does .
n +1 n 2n n=1
2n n=1
n3 + 1
∞ ∞
1 1 1 1
33. ln n < n for n ≥ 1, so > . Since diverges, so does .
ln n n n=1
n n=2
ln n
 Section 9.4 The Comparison Tests 637

∞ ∞
ln n ln n ln n ln n ln n
34. > = for n ≥ 2. Since diverges (see Exercise 9.3.21), so does .
n+2 n+n 2n n=2
n n=1
n +2

∞
1 1 1 1 1
35. = < = n−1 for n ≥ 3. Since n−1
is a convergent geometric
n! n (n − 1) (n − 2) · · · (3) (2) (1) 2 · 2 · ··· · 2 2 n=0
2
n−1
∞
1
series, converges.
n=0
n!

n2 n2 n n 4n ∞
n
36. = < < n−2 = n for n ≥ 4. Since 4 n
n! n (n − 1) (n − 2) · · · (3) (2) (1) (n − 1) (n − 2) · · · (3) (2) (1) 2 2 n=1
2
∞
n2
converges by the Integral Test, so does .
n=1
n!

∞ ∞
n! n · (n − 1) · · · · · 3 · 2 · 1 2 1 2 2 n!
37. an = n = ≤ (1) (1) (1) · · · = 2 . Since converges, so does .
n n · n · ··· · n · n · n n n n n=1
n 2
n=1
nn

∞ ∞
1 1 2 2 2 1
38. an = = = < 2 . Since converges, so does .
1 + 2 + 3 +··· + n n (n + 1) n (n + 1) n 2 1 2 3 + ··· + n
n=1 n n=1
+ +
2
√ √ √ ∞ ∞ √
n + ln n n+ n 1 1 n + ln n
39. an = ≤ = for n ≥ 1. Since is convergent, so is .
2n 2 + 3 2n 2 n 3/2 n=1
n 3/2
n=1
2n 2+3

√ ∞ √
2n 2 + n 2n 2 + n 2 3n 2 3 3 ∞
2n 2 + n
40. an = ≤ √ =√ = 3/2 for n ≥ 1. Since is convergent, so is .
3n 7 + ln n 3n 7 3n 7/2 n n=1
n 3/2 n=1 3n 7 + ln n
∞ ∞ ∞
41. Tn − Rn = (T − Un ) − (S − Sn ) = bk − ak = (bk − ak ). Since ak ≤ bk for each positive integer k
k=n+1 k=n+1 k=n+1
∞ ∞ ∞
and an and bn are convergent, we see that (bk − ak ) is convergent with a nonnegative sum. Thus,
n=1 n=1 k=n+1
Tn − Rn ≥ 0 ⇒ Tn ≥ Rn .
∞
1 1 1 1 1
42. 3 + 2n
. Since an = 3 < 3 for n ≥ 1, we can take bn = 3 . Let f (x) = 3 .
n=1
n n + 2n n n x
Then f is positive, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞). Using Theorem 2 in Section 9.3, we have
∞ dx b 1 1 1
Tn ≤ = lim x −3 dx = lim − + 2 = ≤ 0.005 ⇒ n ≥ 10. Using the result of Exercise 41,
n x3 b→∞ n b→∞ 2b 2 2n 2n 2
∞ 10
1 1 1 1 1 1
R10 ≤ T10 , so 3 + 2n
≈ 3 + 2n
= 3 + 3 + 3 +··· + 3 ≈ 0.48.
n=1
n n=1
n 1 + 2 · 1 2 + 2 · 2 3 + 2 · 3 10 + 2 · 10
∞
sin n + 2 sin n + 2 3 3 3
43. 4
. Since an = 4
< 4 , we can take bn = 4 . Let f (x) = 4 . Then
n=1
n n n n x
f is positive, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞). Using Theorem 2 in Section 9.3, we have
∞ 3 dx b 1 1 1
Tn ≤ = lim 3x −4 dx = lim − 3 + 3 = 3 ≤ 0.005 ⇔ n ≥ 5.8, so we take 6 terms of the series.
n x4 b→∞ n b→∞ b n n
∞ 6
sin n + 2 sin n + 2 sin 1 + 2 sin 2 + 2 sin 3 + 3 sin 6 + 6
4
≈ 4
= 4
+ 4
+ 4
+ ··· + ≈ 3.06.
n=1
n n=1
n 1 2 3 64
638 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

∞
1 1 1 1 1
44.
3n + 1 . Since an = 3n + 1 < 3n , we can take bn = 3n . Let f (x) = 3x . Then
n=1
f is positive, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞), so using Theorem 2 in Section 9.3, we
∞ dx b 1 1 1
have Tn ≤ x = lim 3−x dx = lim − b + = ≤ 0.005
n 3 b→∞ n b→∞ 3 ln 3 3n ln 3 3n ln 3
1 ln (0.005 ln 3)
⇔ 3n ≥ ⇔n ≥ − ≈ 4.74, so we need 5 terms:
0.005 ln 3 ln 3
∞ 5
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3n + 1
≈
3n + 1 = 31 + 1 + 32 + 1 + 33 + 1 + 34 + 1 + 35 + 1 ≈ 0.40.
n=1 n=1

∞
tan−1 n tan−1 n π/2 π π π
45. n . Since an = n < n = n+1 , we can take bn = n+1 . Let f (x) = x+1 .
n=1
2 2 2 2 2 2
Then f is positive, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞), so using Theorem 2 in Section 9.3, we have
∞ π dx b 1 1 π
Tn ≤ = lim π 2−x−1 dx = π lim − b+1 + ≤ 0.005 ⇒ n+1 ≤ 0.005
n 2x+1 b→∞ n b→∞ 2 ln 2 2n+1 ln 2 2 ln 2
n+ 1 π π
⇒2 ≥ ⇒ (n + 1) ln 2 ≥ ln ⇒ n ≥ 8.8, so we need 9 terms of the series:
0.005 ln 2 0.005 ln 2
9
∞
tan−1 n tan−1 n tan−1 1 tan−1 2 tan−1 9
n ≈ n = + + · · · + ≈ 0.99.
n=1
2 n=1
2 21 22 29

46. Since an > 0 for n = 1, 2, 3, . . ., we have 0 < an /n < an for all n. Since an converges, so does (an /n), by the
Comparison Test.

47. Since bn converges, lim bn = 0. Therefore there exists a positive integer N such that n ≥ N ⇒ bn < 1. So for n ≥ N ,
n→∞
we have an bn < an . Since an is convergent, so is an bn by the Comparison Test.

48. Since lim cn = 0, there exists a positive integer N such that n ≥ N ⇒ cn < L, where L is a positive number. Therefore,
n→∞
an cn < Lan for n ≥ N , and since an is convergent, the Comparison Test shows that an cn is convergent.

49. If an = 0 for all positive integers, then an2 = 0 = 0, and so the series converges. If an > 0, then using the result
of Exercise 47, we see that an2 converges. However, the converse is false. For example, take an = 1/n. Then
an2 = 1/n 2 is convergent, but an = (1/n) is divergent.

∞ ∞ ∞
1 1 1 1 1 1
50. = · . Let an = p and cn = . Then both an and cn are positive for n ≥ 2. p is a
n=2
n p ln n n=2
n p ln n n ln n n=2
n
∞
1 1
convergent p-series if p > 1. Also, lim cn = lim = 0. Therefore, the result of Exercise 48 shows that p
n→∞ n→∞ ln n n ln n
n=2
is convergent if p > 1.

51. a. Since an > 0 and bn > 0, we see that an /bn > 0 for all n. Also, since lim (an /bn ) = 0, there exists a positive integer
n→∞
N such that n ≥ N ⇒ an /bn < 1. Thus, an < bn for n ≥ N . Since bn is convergent, so is an , by the Comparison
Test.
ln n 1 an ln n 1/n 2
b. Let an = 2 and bn = 3/2 . Then by l’Hôpital’s Rule, lim = lim 1/2 = lim 1 = lim 1/2 = 0.
n n n→∞ bn n→∞ n n→∞ n −1/2 n→∞ n
2
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
1 ln n
Furthermore, bn = is convergent. So the result of part a shows that an = is convergent.
n=1 n=1
n 3/2 n=1 n=1
n2
 Section 9.5 Alternating Series 639

1 1 an 1/n 2 1
52. Let an = and bn = . Then an > 0 and bn > 0 for all n. lim = lim = lim = 0, but
n2 n n→∞ bn n→∞ 1/n n→∞ n
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
1 1
an = 2
is convergent, while bn = is divergent.
n=1 n=1
n n=1 n=1
n
bn sin an
53. a. Since an is convergent, lim an = 0. Let bn = sin an . Then lim = lim = 1 = ∞, so by the Limit
n→∞ n→∞ an n→∞ an
Comparison Test, sin an converges.
b. Yes. Let an = nπ. Then an = nπ evidently diverges, but sin an = sin nπ = 0 is convergent.
1
54. a. Let f (x) = √ . Then f is positive, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞), so
x (x + 1) (x + 2)
∞ ∞
dx 1
√ converges or diverges in accordance with the series √ . Now
1 x (x + 1) (x + 2) n=1
n (n + 1) (n + 2)
∞ ∞
1 1 1 1 1
√ < √ = 3/2 , and since 3/ 2
converges, so do √ and
n (n + 1) (n + 2) n·n·n n n=1
n n=1
n (n + 1) (n + 2)
∞ dx
√ .
1 x (x + 1) (x + 2)
1 ∞ dx
b. Let f (x) = √ . Then f is positive, continuous, and decreasing on [1, ∞), so √ converges or
x (x + 1) 1 x (x + 1)
∞ √ 1
1 n(n+1) n 1
diverges in accordance with the series √ . Now lim 1
= lim = lim = 1.
n=1
n (n + 1) n→∞
n
n→∞ n2 + n n→∞
1 + n1
∞ ∞ ∞
1 1 dx
The Limit Comparison Test implies that √ diverges because diverges, so √ diverges.
n=1
n (n + 1) n=1
n 1 x (x + 1)
55. False. Let an = 1/n 3 and bn = 1/n 2 . Then 0 < an < bn , but both an and bn converge.
56. False. Let an = 1/n 2 and bn = 1/n. Then 0 < an < bn and bn diverges, but an converges.

57. False. Let an = bn = 1/n. Then an bn = 1/n 2 converges, but an and bn both diverge.

58. True. 0 < an < an2 + bn2 and 0 < bn < an2 + bn2 . Since an2 + bn2 converges, so do an and bn .

9.5 Concept Questions

∞ ∞
1. a. An alternating series is one of the form (−1)n−1 an or (−1)n an . An example of an alternating series is
n=1 n=1
∞
(−1)n
.
n=1
n
∞
1
b. If an+1 ≤ an for all n and lim an = 0, then the series (−1)n an converges. Since an = is decreasing and
n→∞
n=1
n

1 ∞
(−1)n
lim an = lim = 0, the Alternating Series Test implies that converges.
n→∞ n→∞ n n
n=1
c. |Rn | ≤ an+1
640 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

9.5 Alternating Series

∞
(−1)n−1 1 1 1 1
1. is an alternating series with an = . Since an+1 = = < = an and
n=1
n + 2 n + 2 (n + 1) + 2 n + 3 n + 2
1
lim an = lim = 0, the AST implies that the given series converges.
n→∞ n→∞ n + 2

∞
(−1)n n n (−1)n n
2. is an alternating series with an = , but lim does not exist (the terms are close to ± 13 for
n=1
3n − 1 3n − 1 n→∞ 3n − 1
large n, depending on the parity of n). Thus, the series diverges by the Divergence Test.

∞
(−1)n+1 1 1 1 1
3. 2
is an alternating series with an = 2 . Since an+1 = 2
< 2 = an and lim 2 = 0, the AST
n n (n + 1) n n→∞ n
n=1
implies that the given series converges.

∞
(−1)n−1 n 2 (−1)n−1 n 2
4. is an alternating series, but lim does not exist (the terms are close to ± 12 for large n,
n=1
2n 2 − 1 n→∞ 2n 2 − 1

depending on the parity of n). Thus, the series diverges by the Divergence Test.

∞
(−1)n−1 1 1 1 1
5. √ is an alternating series with an = √ . Since an+1 = √ < √ = an and lim √ = 0, the AST
n n n + 1 n n→∞ n
n=1
implies that the given series converges.

∞
(−1)n+1 n n (−1)n+1 n (−1)n+1
6. is an alternating series with an = , but lim = lim does not exist
n2 + 1 n2 + 1 n→∞ n2 + 1 n→∞
n=1 1 + 1/n 2
(the terms are close to ±1 for large n, depending on the parity of n). Thus, the series diverges by the Divergence Test.

√ √ √
∞
(−1)n−1 n + 1 n+1 x +1
7. is an alternating series with an = . Consider f (x) = . Then f is positive and
n=2
n−1 n−1 x −1

(x − 1) 12 (x + 1)−1/2 − (x + 1)1/2 x +3
continuous for x ≥ 2 and f (x) = =− √ < 0 for x ≥ 2, showing
(x − 1)2 2 (x − 1)2 x + 1
√ (1/n) + 1/n 2
n+1
that f (and therefore {an }) is decreasing. Also, lim = lim = 0, so the AST implies that the
n→∞ n − 1 n→∞ 1 − (1/n)
given series converges.

∞
(−1)n−1 1 1 1 1
8. is an alternating series with an = . Since an+1 = < = an and lim = 0, the AST
n=2
ln n ln n ln (n + 1) ln n n→∞ ln n
implies that the given series converges.

∞
(−1)n n n (−1)n n
9. is an alternating series with an = , but lim does not exist because, using l’Hôpital’s Rule,
ln n ln n n→∞ ln n
n=2
x 1
lim = lim = lim x = ∞. Thus, the series diverges by the Divergence Test.
x→∞ ln x x→∞ 1/x x→∞
 Section 9.5 Alternating Series 641

∞
(−1)n ln (n + 1) ln (n + 1) ln (x + 1)
10. is an alternating series with an = . Consider f (x) = . Then f is positive and
n=1
n + 2 n + 2 x +2
x +2
− ln (x + 1)
continuous for x ≥ 1 and f (x) = x + 1 < 0 for sufficiently large x, since as x → ∞, the first term in
(x + 2)2
the numerator approaches 2 but the second grows without bound. Therefore, {an } is ultimately decreasing. Also,
1
ln (x + 1) x + 1 = 0 by l’Hôpital’s Rule. Therefore, the AST implies that the given series converges.
lim = lim
x→∞ x + 2 x→∞ 1
∞
(−1)n n n x
11. n is an alternating series with an = n . Consider f (x) = x . Then f is positive and continuous for
n=1
2 2 2
2x − x 2x ln 2 1
x ≥ 1 and f (x) = < 0 for x > , implying that {an } is decreasing for n ≥ 2. Furthermore,
22x ln 2
x 1
lim = lim x = 0 by l’Hôpital’s Rule. Therefore, the AST implies that the given series converges.
x→∞ 2x x→∞ 2 ln 2

∞
(−1)n−1 1 1 en 1
12. −n is an alternating series with an = −n , but because lim = lim = ∞, an = −n does not
ne ne n→∞ ne−n n→∞ n ne
n=1
approach 0, and thus the given series diverges by the Divergence Test .

en+1
∞
(−1)n+1 en en an+1 π n+2 = e
n+1 π n+1 e
13.
π n+1
is an alternating series with an =
π n+1
. Since
a
=
e n
π n+ 2
·
e n = π <1⇒
n=0 n
π n+1
en 1 e n
an+1 < an , and furthermore lim an = lim n+1 = lim = 0, so the given series converges by the AST.
n→∞ n→∞ π π n→∞ π
∞
cos nπ ∞
(−1)n ∞
(−1)n−1
14. = =− is convergent (see Example 1).
n=1
n n=1
n n=1
n

∞
1 (2n − 1) π ∞
(−1)n−1
15. √ sin = √ is convergent (see Exercise 5).
n=1
n 2 n=1
n

∞ ∞
(2n − 1) π
16. ln n sin = (−1)n−1 ln n is an alternating series, but lim (−1)n−1 ln n = 0 so the given series diverges
2 n→∞
n=2 n=2
by the Divergence Test.
⎧ ⎫
∞ sin n π
1 1 1 ⎨ 1 ⎬
17. 2 = − + − · · · is an alternating series. Since is decreasing
3 13 + 1 33 + 1 53 + 1 ⎩ ⎭
n=1 n + 1 (2k + 1)3 + 1
1
and lim = 0, the AST implies that the given series converges.
k→∞
(2k + 1)3 + 1

∞
18. (−1)n cos π lim (−1)n cos π
n . n→∞ lim cos π
n does not exist because n→∞ n = 1, so the series diverges by the Divergence Test.
n=1

∞ sin π
19. (−1)n n sin π π
n . Since lim n sin n = lim π · π
n = π, we see that lim (−1)n n sin π
n does not exist, so the
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
n=1 n
series diverges by the Divergence Test.
642 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

(n + 1)!
n
∞
(−1)n n! n! a (n + 1)n+1 (n + 1)! nn n
20. n is an alternating series with an = n . n+1 = = · = <1⇒
n n an n! (n + 1)n+ 1 n! n+1
n=1
nn
n! n (n − 1) (n − 2) · · · (3) (2) (1) 1
an+1 < an and furthermore lim = lim ≤ lim = 0, so the AST implies that the
n→∞ n n n→∞ n · n · n · ··· · n · n · n n→∞ n
given series converges.

∞
(−1)n ln n ln n ln x
21. n is an alternating series with an = n . Consider f (x) = x ⇒
n=2
e e e
e x (1/x) − e x ln x 1 − x ln x
f (x) = = < 0 if x ≥ 2, so f is decreasing on [2, ∞), implying that {an } is decreasing for
e2 x xe x
ln n 1/n 1
n ≥ 2. Also, lim n = lim n = lim = 0 by l’Hôpital’s Rule. Therefore, by the AST, the given series
n→∞ e n→∞ e n→∞ nen
converges.

√ √ √
∞
(−1)n−1 ln n ln n ln x
22. is an alternating series with an = . Consider f (x) = ⇒
n=2
n n x

x 12 (ln x)−1/2 (1/x) − (ln x)1/2 1 − 2 ln x

f (x) = = √ < 0 for x ≥ 2, so f is decreasing on [2, ∞), showing that {an }
x2 2x 2 ln x
√ 1 (ln x)−1/2 (1/x)
ln n (ln x)1/2 1
is decreasing for n ≥ 2. Next, lim = 0 since lim = lim 2 = lim √ =0
n→∞ n x→∞ x n→∞ 1 x→∞ 2x ln x
using l’Hôpital’s Rule. Therefore, by the AST, the given series converges.

√ √
∞
(−1)n 1 an+1 n+ n+1
23. √ √ is an alternating series with a n = √ √ . Since = √ √ < 1 for n ≥ 1, we
n=1 n + n + 1 n+ n+1 an n+1+ n+2
1
see that an+1 < an for n ≥ 1, and so {an } is decreasing for n ≥ 1. Also, lim an = lim √ √ = 0, so the AST
n→∞ n→∞ n + n + 1
implies that the given series converges.

∞
(−1)n−1 1 √ ln x
24. √
n
is an alternating series with an = √
n
. Consider y = f (x) = x x = x 1/x , so ln y = . Then,
n=1
n n x
ln x 1/x √
x
using l’Hôpital’s Rule, ln lim y = lim ln y = lim = lim = 0 ⇒ lim x = 1, showing that
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ x x→∞ 1 x→∞
1 (−1)n−1
lim an = lim √ = 1. Therefore, lim √ does not exist, and the given series diverges by the Divergence Test.
n→∞ n→∞ n n n→∞ n
n

∞
(−1)n 1
25. lim an = lim (ln n)− p = ∞ and so the given
p is an alternating series with an = (ln n) p . If p < 0, then n→∞
n=2
(ln n) n→∞
∞
series diverges. If p = 0, then the series becomes (−1)n , which evidently diverges. If p > 0, then {an } = 1/ (ln n) p
n=1
is decreasing and lim 1/ (ln n) p = 0, so by the AST, the given series converges. Thus, the series converges for p > 0
n→∞
and diverges for p ≤ 0.
 Section 9.5 Alternating Series 643

∞
(ln n) p (ln n) p
26. (−1)n−1 is an alternating series with an = . If p < 0, then {an } is eventually decreasing and
n=2
n n
(ln n) p
lim = 0, so the series converges by the AST.
n→∞ n
1
If p = 0, then an = and the series converges by the AST (see Example 1).
n
(ln x) p x p (ln x) p−1 (1/x) − (ln x) p (ln x) p−1 ( p − ln x)
If p > 0, consider f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = 2
= < 0 for x > e p ,
x x x2
(ln x) p
so f (and therefore {an }) is eventually decreasing. To show that lim = 0, use l’Hôpital’s Rule p + 1 times
x→∞ x
(rounding down). For example, if p = 2.2, we have
1 1
2.2 (ln x)1.2 2.2 · 1.2 (ln x)0.2
(ln x)2.2 x 2.2 (ln x)1.2 x
lim = lim = lim = lim
x→∞ x x→∞ 1 x→∞ x x→∞ 1
1
2.2 · 1.2 · 0.2 (ln x)−0.8
2.2 · 1.2 (ln x)0.2 x
= lim = lim =0
x→∞ x x→∞ 1
Thus, the given series converges for all real values of p by the AST.

∞
(−1)n−1 1 1
27. 2
is an alternating series with an = 2 . |Rn | ≤ an+1 = < 0.0005 ⇒
n=1
n +1 n +1 (n + 1)2 + 1
1 √
(n + 1)2 + 1 > = 2000 ⇒ n > 1999 − 1 ≈ 43.7, so 44 terms of the series are needed.
0.0005

∞
(−1)n−1 1 1 √ 1
28. √ is an alternating series with an = √ . |Rn | ≤ an+1 = √ ≤ 0.0005 ⇒ n + 1 ≥ = 2000 ⇒
n=1
n n n + 1 0.0005
n ≥ 3,999,999, so 3,999,999 terms of the series are needed.

∞
(−2)n+3 ∞
(−1)n 2n+3 2n+3 2n+4
29. = is an alternating series with an = . |Rn | ≤ an+1 = ≤ 0.0005. By trial
n=0
(n + 1)! n=0
(n + 1)! (n + 1)! (n + 2)!
and error, we find that the smallest positive integer satisfying the inequality is 10, so 10 terms are required.

∞
(−1)n−1 1 1
30. is an alternating series with an = . |Rn | ≤ an+1 = ≤ 0.0005. By trial and error, we
n=2
n ln n n ln n (n + 1) ln (n + 1)
find that the smallest positive integer satisfying the inequality is 342, so we need 342 terms.

∞
(−1)n 1 1 1
31. 3
is an alternating series with an = 3 . |Rn | = an+1 = 3
≤ 0.005 ⇒ (n + 1)3 ≥ ⇒ n ≥ 4.85, so
n=1 n n (n + 1) 0.005
5
∞
(−1)n (−1)n 1 1 1 1
we need 5 terms: 3
≈ 3
= −1 + 3 − 3 + 3 − 3 ≈ −0.90.
n=1
n n=1
n 2 3 4 5

∞
(−1)n 1 1
32. is an alternating series with an = . |Rn | ≤ an+1 = ≤ 0.005. By trial and
n=0
(2n)! (2n)! (2n + 2)!
error, we find that the smallest positive integer satisfying the inequality is n = 2, so we use 3 terms:
2
∞
(−1)n (−1)n 1 1
≈ =1− + ≈ 0.54.
n=0
(2n)! n=0
(2n)! 2! 4!
644 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

∞
(−1)n−1 (n + 1) n+1 n+2
33. n is an alternating series with an = n .
|Rn | ≤ an+1 = n+1 ≤ 0.005. By trial
n=1
2 2 2
and error, we find that the smallest positive integer satisfying the inequality is 11, so we use 11 terms:
11
∞
(−1)n−1 (n + 1) (−1)n−1 (n + 1) 3 4 5 6 12
n ≈ n = 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + 5 − · · · + 11 ≈ 0.56.
n=1
2 n=1
2 2 2 2 2 2

∞
(−1)n−1 1 1
34. n is an alternating series with an = n · 2n .
|Rn | ≤ an+1 = ≤ 0.005.
n=1
n · 2 (n + 1) 2n+1
By trial and error, we find that the smallest integer satisfying the inequality is 5, so
5
∞
(−1)n−1 (−1)n−1 1 1 1 1 1
n · 2n ≈
n · 2n = 2 − 2 · 22 + 3 · 23 − 4 · 24 + 5 · 25 ≈ 0.41.
n=1 n=1

35. The series is given by

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
− + − + − + ··· + n − n + ···
2 3 4 9 8 27 2 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ··· + n +··· − + + + ··· + n + ···
2 4 8 2 3 9 27 3
∞ ∞ 1 1
1 1 1 1
= n − n = 2
1
− 3 1 = 1− =
n=1
2 n=1
3 1− 2 1− 3 2 2
The AST is not applicable because the condition an+1 ≤ an is not satisfied.

1 1 1 1 1
36. 1 − + − + ··· + − + ···
4 3 16 2n − 1 (2n)2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1+ + + ··· + + ··· − + + + ··· + 2 + ···
3 5 2n − 1 4 16 36 4n
∞ ∞
1 1
= − 2
n=1
2n − 1 n=1
4n
The first series diverges by comparison with the harmonic series, so the given series diverges as well. The AST is not
applicable because the condition an+1 ≤ an is not satisfied.

√
37. a. No. Consider an = (−1)n / n = bn . Then an and bn are convergent, but an bn = 1/n is divergent.
b. No. Consider an = 1/n = bn . Then an and bn are both divergent, but an bn = 1/n 2 is convergent.

∞
(−1)n 1 1
38. s is an alternating series with an = s . For convergence, s must approach 0; that is, s must be positive. The
n=1
n n n
condition s > 0 also implies that {an } is decreasing, so by the AST, the series converges if s > 0.

∞
(−1)n (2n + 1) 2n + 1 2x + 1
39. a. is an alternating series with an = . Let f (x) = . Then
n=1
n (n + 1) n (n + 1) x (x + 1)
x (x + 1) (2) − (2x + 1) (2x + 1) 2x 2 + 2x + 1
f (x) = =− < 0 for x ≥ 1 and lim f (x) = 0, showing that
x 2 (x + 1)2 x 2 (x + 1)2 x→∞
an ≥ an+1 for n ≥ 1 and lim an = 0. Thus, by the AST, the given series converges.
n→∞
 Section 9.5 Alternating Series 645

2n + 1 1 1
b. We use partial fraction decomposition to write = + , so the N th partial sum of the series is
n (n + 1) n n+1
N N
(−1)n (2n + 1) 1 1
SN = = (−1)n +
n=1
n (n + 1) n=1
n n+1
1 1
= (−1) 1 + 12 + (−1)2 12 + 13 + (−1)3 13 + 14 + · · · + (−1) N +
N N +1
(−1) N (−1) N
= −1 − 12 − 12 + 13 − 13 − · · · + = −1 +
N +1 N +1
(−1) N ∞
(−1)n (2n + 1)
Since lim S N = lim −1 + = −1, we see that = −1.
n→∞ n→∞ N +1 n=1
n (n + 1)
∞
(−1)n 1 1 1 1
40. a. is an alternating series with an = . Since an = > and lim an = lim = 0, the AST
n=0
n! n! n! (n + 1)! n→∞ n→∞ n!
implies that the series converges.
∞
(−1)n p
b. To show that S = is irrational, suppose to the contrary that it is rational. Then S = where p and q are
n=0
n! q
N N
(−1)n p (−1)n 1
positive integers. Using Theorem 2, we see that S − = − ≤ . Let us choose
n=0
n! q n=0
n! (N + 1)!
N
N!p (−1)n N ! 1
N > q and multiply both sides of the inequality by N !, giving − ≤
q n=0
n! N +1
Observe that because N > q, the expression on the left-hand side is a nonnegative integer, whereas the number on
N
N!p (−1)n N !
the right-hand side is smaller than 1. The inequality can be satisfied only if − = 0, so
q n=0
n!
N
p (−1)n p
= for every N > q. But S = is a constant, whereas the expression on the right-hand side varies with
q n=0
n! q
∞
(−1)n
N . This is a contradiction, and therefore is irrational.
n=0
n!
41. True. Suppose on the contrary that an converges. Since 0 ≤ (−1)n−1 an + an ≤ 2an , the Comparison Test
implies that (−1)n−1 an + an is convergent. Writing (−1)n−1 an = (−1)n−1 an + an − an , we have

(−1)n−1 an = (−1)n−1 an + an − an . Since both series on the right are convergent, so is the alternating
series—a contradiction. ⎧
⎨ −1/n 2 if n is odd
42. False. Consider the alternating series an where an = . Then lim an = 0, but an is divergent.
⎩ 1/n if n is even n→∞

∞
(−1)n−1 1 ∞
1 1
43. False. Consider S = , with an = . Then S1 = a2n−1 = a1 + a3 + a5 + · · · = 1 + + + · · · and
n=1
n n n=1
3 5
∞
1 1 1
S2 = a2n = + + + · · · both diverge, but S = S1 − S2 converges.
n=1
2 4 6
∞ ∞
44. False. Let an = 1 for n ≥ 1. Then an+1 ≤ an , but an = 1 diverges.
n=1 n=1
646 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

9.6 Concept Questions

1. a. See page 775. Answers will vary. b. See page 776. Answers will vary.

2. a. See pages 777 and 779. b. Answers will vary. c. Answers will vary.

9.6 Absolute Convergence: The Ratio and Root Tests

∞
(−1)n−1 ∞
(−1)n−1 ∞
1 ∞
1
1. √ is a convergent alternating series. (See Exercise 9.5.5.) √ = √ = is a
n=1
n n=1
n n=1
n n=1
n /2
1

divergent p-series with p = 12 < 1. Therefore, the given series is conditionally convergent.
∞
(−1)n ∞ (−1)n ∞
1 ∞
1
2. √ . √ = √ = 3/2
is a convergent p-series with p = 32 > 1, so the series is absolutely
n=1
n n n=1
n n n=1
n n n=1
n
convergent.
∞
(−2)n−1 ∞
(−1)n−1 2n−1 2x−1 2x−1 ln 2 2x−1 (ln 2)2
3. = . Since lim = lim = lim = ∞, we see that
n=1
n2 n=1
n2 x→∞ x 2 x→∞ 2x x→∞ 2
lim an = 0, so the series diverges by the Divergence Test.
n→∞
∞
(−2)n (−1)n 2n
4. . We use the Ratio Test on an = , obtaining
n=1
n! n!

an+1 2n+1 n! 2
lim = lim · = lim = 0, so the series converges absolutely.
n→∞ an n→∞ (n + 1)! 2n n→∞ n + 1

∞
(−1)n+1 ∞
(−1)n+1 ∞
1
5. is a convergent alternating series. = is divergent by the Integral Test. Therefore,
n=1
n + 1 n=1
n + 1 n=1
n + 1
the given series is conditionally convergent.
∞
(−1)n n n
6. 2
is a convergent alternating series since {an } is decreasing and lim an = lim 2 = 0. But
n +1 n→∞ n→∞ n +1
n=1
∞
(−1)n n ∞
n ∞
1
2 +1
= 2+1
is divergent by the Integral Test or the Limit Comparison Test using as the test series.
n=1
n n=1
n n=1
n
Therefore, the given series is conditionally convergent.
∞
(−1)n n 2 (−1)n n 2 (−1)n
7. 2
. lim 2
= lim does not exist (the terms are close to ±1 for large values of
n + 3 n→∞ n + 3 n→∞ 1 + 3/n 2
n=1
n, depending on the parity of n) and so the nth term of the series does not approach 0. Thus, the series diverges by the
Divergence Test.
∞
(−1)n−1 n (−1)n−1 n (−1)n−1
8. . Since lim = lim does not exist, the series diverges by the Divergence Test.
2n 2 + 1 n→∞ 2n 2 + 1 n→∞
n=1 2 + 12
n
∞
(−1)n 1 1
9. is a convergent alternating series since {an } = is decreasing and lim = 0. But
n=2
n ln n n ln n n→∞ n ln n
∞
(−1)n ∞
1
= can be shown to diverge using the Integral Test, so the given series is conditionally convergent.
n=2
n ln n n=2
n ln n
 Section 9.6 Absolute Convergence: The Ratio and Root Tests 647

∞
(−1)n 1 1
10. √ is a convergent alternating series since {an } = √ is decreasing and lim √ = 0, but
n→∞ n
n=3 n ln n n ln n ln n
∞
(−1)n ∞
1
√ = √ is divergent by the Integral Test, so the given series is conditionally convergent.
n=3 n ln n n=3 n ln n
∞
n! n! an+1 (n + 1)! en n+1
11. n . Using the Ratio Test with an = n , we have lim = lim n+1
· = lim = ∞, so the
n=1
e e n→∞ an n→∞ e n! n→∞ e

series diverges.
∞ ∞
cos (n + 1) cos (n + 1) 1 1 1
12. √ . Observe that √ ≤ √ = 3/2 . Since 3/2
is a convergent p-series with p = 32 > 1,
n=1
n n n n n n n n=1
n
we conclude by the Comparison Test that the given series is absolutely convergent.
∞
1 1
13. (−1)n−1 sin is a convergent alternating series since {an } = sin is decreasing for n ≥ 1 and lim an = 0. But
n=1
n n n→∞
∞ ∞ ∞
1 1 1
consider (−1)n−1 sin = sin = sin . This series is divergent (see Exercise 9.4.23), so the given series
n=1
n n=1
n n=1
n
is conditionally convergent.
∞
(−1)n−1 tan−1 n tan−1 n
14. is a convergent alternating series since {an } = is decreasing for n ≥ 1 and lim an = 0.
n=1
n2 n2 n→∞

∞
(−1)n−1 tan−1 n ∞
tan−1 n tan−1 n π ∞
π ∞
Consider = . Since 0 ≤ ≤ and is convergent, so is |an |.
n=1 n2 n=1 n2 n2 2n 2 n=1 2n
2
n=1
Therefore, the given series is absolutely convergent.
∞
2n an+1 2(n+1) n!n 2n
15. . We use the Ratio Test: lim = lim · = lim = 0, so the series
n!n n→∞ an n→∞ (n + 1)! (n + 1) 2n n→∞ (n + 1)2
n=1
converges.
∞
(−5)n−1
16. . We use the Ratio Test:
n=1
n 2 · 3n

an+1 5n n 2 · 3n 5 n 2 5
lim = lim 2
· n−1 = lim = > 1, so the series diverges.
n→∞ an n→∞ (n + 1) · 3n+1 5 n→∞ 3 n+1 3
∞
(−2)n n
17. . We use the Ratio Test:
n=1 (n
+ 1) 3n−1

an+1 2n+1 (n + 1) (n + 1) 3n−1 2 n 2 + 2n + 1 2

lim = lim · = lim = < 1, so the series converges
n→∞ an n→∞ (n + 2) 3n 2n n n→∞ 3 n 2 + 2n 3
absolutely.
∞
(−1)n+1 ln n ∞
(−1)n+1 ln n ∞
ln n ln n ln n ∞
ln n
18. 2+1
. Consider 2+1
= 2+1
. Since 2 +1
≤ 2
and 2
converges (see
n=2 n n=2 n n=2 n n n n=2 n
Exercise 9.3.22), the Comparison Test implies that the given series converges absolutely.
∞
(−1)n ln n ∞
(−1)n ln n ∞
ln n ln n n ∞
n
19. n . Consider n = n . Since n < n and n converges (see Exercise 9.3.28), the
n=2
2 n=2
2 n=2
2 2 2 n=2
2
Comparison Test implies that the given series converges absolutely.
∞
cos nπ ∞
(−1)n an+1 n! 1
20. = . We use the Ratio Test: lim = lim = lim = 0, so the series
n! n! n→∞ an n→∞ (n + 1)! n→∞ n + 1
n=0 n=0
converges absolutely.
648 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

∞ sin n4π sin n4π 1 ∞

1
21. 2
. |an | = 2
≤ 2
, and since 2
converges (see Exercise 9.3.33), the given series
n=2 n (ln n) n (ln n) n (ln n) n=1 n (ln n)
converges absolutely.
∞
(−1)n−1 n 5 an+1 (n + 1)5 en 1 n+1 5 1
22. . We use the Ratio Test: lim = lim · 5 = lim = < 1, so the
n=1
en n→∞ an n→∞ en+1 n e n→∞ n e
series converges absolutely.
∞
(−1)n+1 n n
23. . The Ratio Test gives
n=1
n!

an+1 (n + 1)n+1 n! n+1 n 1 n

lim = lim · n = lim = lim 1 + = e > 1, so the series diverges.
n→∞ an n→∞ (n + 1)! n n→∞ n n→∞ n
∞
ln n n √ ln n n 1/n ln n
24. . We use the Root Test: lim n |an | = lim = lim = 0, so the series converges
n=2
n n→∞ n→∞ n n→∞ n

absolutely.
1/n
∞
(−1)n √
n 1 1
25. n . We use the Root Test: lim |a n | = lim n = lim = 0, so the series converges
n=2
(ln n) n→∞ n→∞ (ln n) n→∞ ln n
absolutely.
∞
n n √ n n 1/n n 1
26. . We use the Root Test: lim n |an | = lim = lim = < 1, so the series
2n + 1 n→∞ n→∞ 2n + 1 n→∞ 2n + 1 2
n=1
converges.
∞
1 1 1
27. (−1)n tan is a convergent alternating series because tan is decreasing for n ≥ 1 and lim tan = 0. Next,
n=1
n n n→∞ n
∞ ∞
1 1
observe that (−1)n tan = tan is divergent by the Limit Comparison Test (use 1/n). Thus, the given series
n=1
n n=1
n
is conditionally convergent.
∞
π π π π
28. (−1)n n sin . Consider lim x sin . Putting u = ⇔ x = , so u → 0 as x → ∞, we see that
n=1
n x→∞ x x u
π π sin u π
lim x sin = lim = π = 0, showing that lim (−1)n n sin = 0, so the series diverges by the Divergence
x→∞ x u→0 u n→∞ n
Test.
∞
(−n)n
29. . We use the Root Test:
−1 n n
n=1 (n + 1) tan
1/n
√
n nn n 1 2
lim |an | = lim n = lim = < 1, so the series converges
n→∞ n→∞ (n + 1) tan−1 n n→∞ n+1 tan−1 n π
absolutely.
∞ √
√ n √ n 1/n √
30. n
n − 1 . We use the Root Test: lim n |an | = lim n
n−1 = lim n
n − 1 = 0. (Use l’Hôpital’s
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
n=2
√
n
Rule to show that lim n = 1.) Thus, the series converges absolutely.
n→∞
∞
3 · 5 · 7 · · · · · (2n + 1)
31. (−1)n−1 . We use the Ratio Test:
n=1
1 · 4 · 7 · · · · · (3n − 2)
an+1 3 · 5 · 7 · · · · · (2n + 1) (2n + 3) 1 · 4 · 7 · · · · · (3n − 2) 2n + 3 2
lim = lim · = lim = < 1. Thus, the
n→∞ an n→∞ 1 · 4 · 7 · · · · · (3n − 2) (3n + 1) 3 · 5 · 7 · · · · · (2n + 1) n→∞ 3n + 1 3
series converges absolutely.
 Section 9.6 Absolute Convergence: The Ratio and Root Tests 649

2n
32. lim (−1)n . We use the Ratio Test:
n→∞ 3 · 5 · 7 · · · · · (2n + 1)
an+1 2n+1 3 · 5 · 7 · · · · · (2n + 1) 2
lim = lim · = lim = 0. Thus, the series
n→∞ an n→∞ 3 · 5 · 7 · · · · · (2n + 1) (2n + 3) 2n n→∞ 2n + 3

converges absolutely.
∞
4 · 7 · 10 · · · · · (3n + 1)
33. . We use the Ratio Test:
n=1
4n (n + 1)!
an+1 4 · 7 · 10 · · · · · (3n + 1) (3n + 4) 4n (n + 1)! 1 3n + 4 3
lim = lim n+ 1
· = lim = < 1.
n→∞ an n→∞ 4 (n + 2)! 4 · 7 · 10 · · · · · (3n + 1) n→∞ 4 n+2 4
Thus, the series converges.
∞
(n!)2 an+1 [(n + 1)!]2 (3n)! (n + 1)2
34. . We use the Ratio Test: lim = lim · = lim = 0.
n=1
(3n)! n→∞ an n→∞ (3n + 3)! (n!)2 n→∞ (3n + 1) (3n + 2) (3n + 3)

Thus, the series converges absolutely.

xn
∞
35. lim
n→∞ n
n=1
an+1 x n+1 n n
a. We use the Ratio Test: lim = lim · = lim |x| = |x|. If |x| > 1, then the series
n→∞ an n→∞ n + 1 x n n→∞ n + 1

diverges, and if −1 < x < 1, then it converges absolutely.

∞
(−1)n
b. If x = −1, then the series becomes , which converges conditionally, and if x = 1, then the series becomes
n=1
n
∞
1
, which diverges.
n=1
n
1
∞ p
1 an+1 (n + 1) p n
36. Consider the p-series p . We find that for p = 0, lim = lim = lim = 1, so the
n n→∞ an n→∞ 1 n→∞ n + 1
n=1
np
Ratio Test is inconclusive. The case p = 0 is trivial: 1 evidently diverges.
∞
1 n 1 1 p/n 1 p/x
37. Consider the p-series p . We find that n→∞
lim = lim . If f (x) = , then l’Hôpital’s Rule
n=1
n np n→∞ n x

1 p/x 1 p/x − p ln x 1 1 p/x

gives ln lim = lim ln = lim = − p lim = 0. Therefore, lim = 1,
x→∞ x x→∞ x x→∞ x x→∞ x x→∞ x

1 p/n
showing that lim = 1. Thus, the Root Test is inconclusive.
n→∞ n

38. a. Suppose that an is absolutely convergent. Then lim |an | = 0. Therefore, there exists a positive integer N such that
n→∞
n ≥ N ⇒ 0 ≤ |an | < 1. So 0 ≤ an < |an | for n ≥ N , and the Comparison Test shows that an2 converges.
2

∞
(−1)n ∞ 2 ∞
(−1)n 2 ∞
1 ∞ ∞
1
b. For the series , an = = 2
is convergent, but |an | = is divergent.
n=1
n n=1 n=1
n n=1
n n=1 n=1
n

39. Let an be a divergent series. Suppose, on the contrary, that |an | converges. Then by Theorem 17, an converges, a
contradiction. So |an | must diverge, as asserted.
40. Suppose an converges absolutely. Then − |an | and |an | are both convergent, and since − |an | ≤ an ≤ |an |, the
Comparison Test implies that − |an | ≤ an ≤ |an |, which in turn implies that an ≤ |an |.
650 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

41. If a and b are two real numbers, then (a + b)2 = a 2 + 2ab + b2 ≥ 0 ⇒ 2ab ≥ − a 2 + b2 and

(a − b)2 = a 2 − 2ab + b2 ≥ 0 ⇒ 2ab ≤ a 2 + b2 . Combining these inequalities gives − a 2 + b2 ≤ 2ab ≤ a 2 + b2 ⇒

|2ab| = 2 |a| |b| ≤ a 2 + b2 . Using this result, we have |an bn | ≤ 12 |an |2 + |bn |2 . Since |an |2 and |bn |2 are

both convergent, so is 1 |a |2 + |b |2 . By the Comparison Test, |an bn | is convergent and an bn is absolutely

2 n n
convergent.
∞
2n n!
42. Consider .
n=1
nn

an+1 2n+1 (n + 1)! n n n n n + 1 −n 1 n −1

lim = lim · n = lim 2 = 2 lim = 2 lim 1+
n→∞ an n→∞ (n + 1)n+1 2 n! n→∞ n+1 n→∞ n n→∞ n
2
= < 1,
e
2n n!
so the series converges by the Ratio Test. Therefore, lim = 0, which is the desired result.
n→∞ n n
∞
an+1 (n + 1) pn+1 n+1
43. a. npn . We find lim = lim = lim p = p. Since 0 < p < 1, the series
n=1
n→∞ an n→∞ npn n→∞ n
converges.
n
b. The nth partial sum of the series is kpk = Sn = p + 2 p2 + 3 p3 + · · · + npn ⇔
k=1
pSn = p2 + 2 p3 + · · · + (n − 1) pn + npn+1 , so (1 − p) Sn = p + p2 + p3 + · · · + pn − npn+1 and
n n
p
lim (1 − p) Sn = lim pk − npn+1 . Now lim pk = , a geometric series with 0 < p < 1, and
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ 1− p
k=1 k=1
lim npn+1 = 0. To verify the latter, note that because 0 < p < 1, it follows that k = 1/ p > 1. Therefore,
n→∞
1 1 x 1 x 1 1
lim x p x+1 = p lim x p x = lim x = lim = lim = 0 by l’Hôpital’s Rule.
x→∞ x→∞ K x→∞ K K x→∞ K x K x→∞ K x ln K
n
p
Therefore, lim (1 − p) Sn = (1 − p) lim Sn = lim pk − lim npn+1 ⇒ (1 − p) S = ⇔
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ p−1
k=1
p
S= .
(1 − p)2
∞ n
44. The average number is given by n 12 . Using the result of Exercise 43 with p = 12 , we find
n=1
∞ 1
n 1 n = p
= 2 = 2.
2
n=1 (1 − p)2 p=1/2 1 − 12
2

N
45. Let Sn = an − an−1 . Then {S N } is increasing since each term is nonnegative. Now an − an−1 ≤ |an | + an−1 ⇒
n=2
N N N N N −1 ∞ ∞
an − an−1 ≤ |an | + an−1 = |an | + |an | ≤ 2 |an |, which is finite because |an | converges.
n=2 n=2 n=2 n=2 n=1 n=1 n=1
We have shown that {S N } is increasing and bounded above, so by the Monotone Convergence Theorem, lim Sn exists;
n→∞
∞
that is, an − an−1 converges.
n=2
 Section 9.7 Power Series 651

N N N ∞
46. Observe that − |an | ≤ an ≤ |an | for each n ≥ 1, so − |an | ≤ an ≤ |an |. Since |an | converges,
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1
N ∞ N N N
we have lim |an | = |an |. Therefore, − lim |an | ≤ lim an ≤ lim |an | ⇒
n→∞ N →∞ N →∞ N →∞
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
− |an | ≤ an ≤ |an | ⇒ an ≤ |an |.
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1

47. True. Since |an + bn | ≤ |an | + |bn |, and |an | and |bn | are convergent, the Comparison Test implies that |an + bn |
is also convergent. But this is the same as saying that (an + bn ) is absolutely convergent.

(−1)n ∞
(−1)n 2 ∞
1
48. False. Consider the series √ . This series converges by the AST, but √ = is the divergent
n n=1
n n=1
n
harmonic series.

49. True. Since |an | ≤ an2 + bn2 and |bn | ≤ an2 + bn2 , the convergence of ∞
n=1 an2 + bn2 implies that ∞ |a | and
n=1 n
∞ |b | are convergent. Thus, ∞ a and ∞ b are absolutely convergent.
n=1 n n=1 n n=1 n

1
50. True. Since an converges absolutely, lim |an | = 0. This implies that lim = ∞, so the nth term of the series
n→∞ n→∞ |an |
∞
1
does not approach 0 as n tends to infinity. By the Divergence Theorem, the series diverges.
|a
n=1 n
|

9.7 Concept Questions

1. a. See page 785. b. See page 785.

2. a. See page 787. b. See page 787.

c. We use the Ratio Test or the Root Test to determine the number R such that |x − c| ≤ R. R is the radius of convergence.
If R = ∞, the interval of convergence is (−∞, ∞). If R = 0, the interval of convergence degenerates to a point {c}. If
0 < R < ∞, substitute c − R and c + R for x to determine the convergence of the power series at the left and right
endpoints, respectively. The interval of convergence has one of the following forms: (c − R, c + R), [c − R, c + R),
(c − R, c + R], or [c − R, c + R].

3. The interval of convergence is at least (−2, 2), and 32 lies in that interval. Therefore, the given series converges.

∞
4. an (x − 2)n is centered at 2. Since the series is known to diverge at x = 0, we know that the radius of convergence
n=0
∞
R must satisfy R ≤ 2. Thus, the interval of convergence is as subset of (0, 4]. Therefore, an 5n diverges, and no
n=0
∞ ∞
conclusion can be drawn concerning an 2n because an (x − 2)n may or may not converge at x = 4.
n=0 n=0
652 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

9.7 Power Series

x n+1
xn u n+1 n+1
1. Let u = . Then lim = lim n +n 2 = lim |x| = |x|, so the radius of convergence is 1.
n+1 n→∞ u n n→∞ x n→∞ n+2
n+1
∞
(−1)n ∞
1
The series converges for −1 < x < 1. At x = −1 the series is , which converges, and at x = 1 it is ,
n=0
n + 1 n=0
n + 1
which diverges. Thus, the interval of convergence is [−1, 1).

u n+1 (−1)n (n + 1) x n+1 n+1

2. Let u n = (−1)n−1 nx n . Then lim = lim n− 1
= lim |x| = |x|,
n→∞ un n→∞ (−1) nx n n→∞ n
so the radius of convergence is 1 and the series converges for −1 < x < 1. At x = −1 the series is
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
(−1)n−1 n (−1)n = (−1)2n−1 n, which diverges, and at x = 1 it is (−1)n−1 n (1)n = (−1)n−1 n, which
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1
diverges. Thus, the interval of convergence is (−1, 1).

x n+1
√ √
xn u n+1 n+1 n
3. Let u n = √ . Then lim = lim = lim √ |x| = |x|, so the radius of convergence is 1
n n→∞ u n n→∞ xn n→∞ n+1
√
n
∞
(−1)n ∞
1
and the series converges for −1 < x < 1. At x = −1 the series is √ , which converges, and at x = 1 it is √ ,
n=1
n n=1
n
which diverges. Thus, the interval of convergence is [−1, 1).

x n+1
xn 2
u n+1 (n + 1)2 n
4. Let u n = 2 . Then lim = lim = lim |x| = |x|, so the radius of convergence is 1
n n→∞ un n→∞ xn n→∞ n+1
n 2
∞
(−1)n ∞
1
and the series converges for −1 < x < 1. At x = −1 the series is 2
, which converges, and at x = 1 it is ,
n=1
n n=1
n2
which also converges. Thus, the interval of convergence is [−1, 1].

(2x)n u n+1 (2x)n+1 n! 2

5. Let u n = . Then lim = lim · = lim |x| = 0 for any real x, so the radius of
n! n→∞ u n n→∞ (n + 1)! (2x)n n→∞ n + 1

convergence is infinite and the interval of convergence is (−∞, ∞).

(−1)n x n u n+1 (−1)n+1 x n+1 n · 3n 1 n 1

6. Let u n = . Then lim = lim · = lim |x| = |x| < 1 ⇔
n·3 n n→∞ u n n→∞ (n + 1) 3n+ 1 (−1)n x n n→∞ 3 n+1 3
∞
(−1)n (−3)n ∞
1
|x| < 3, so R = 3 and the the series converges for −3 < x < 3. At x = −3 the series is n = , which
n=1
n · 3 n=1
n
∞
(−1)n 3n ∞
(−1)n
diverges, and at x = 3 it is n = , which converges. Thus, the interval of convergence is (−3, 3].
n=1
n·3 n=1
n

u n+1 (n + 1)n+1 x n+1 1 n

7. Let u n = (nx)n = n n x n . Then lim = lim = lim 1 + (n + 1) |x| = ∞ for x = 0,
n→∞ u n n→∞ nn x n n→∞ n
so the radius of convergence is 0 and the series converges only at x = 0.
 Section 9.7 Power Series 653

n!x n u n+1 (n + 1)!x n+1 (2n)! |x|

8. Let u n = . Then lim = lim · n = lim = 0 for any real x, so the radius
(2n)! n→∞ u n n→∞ (2n + 2)! n!x n→∞ 2 (2n + 1)
of convergence is ∞ and the interval of convergence is (−∞, ∞).

xn u n+1 x n+1 ln n ln n
9. Let u n = . Then lim = lim · = lim · |x| = |x|, so the radius of convergence
ln n n→∞ u n n→∞ ln (n + 1) x n n→∞ ln (n + 1)
∞
(−1)n
is R = 1 and the series converges for −1 < x < 1. At x = −1 the series is , which converges, and at x = 1 it is
n=2
ln n
∞
1
, which diverges. Thus, the interval of convergence is [−1, 1).
n=2
ln n

u n+1 [ln (n + 1)]n+1 x n+1 [ln (n + 1)]n+1

10. Let u n = (x ln n)n = (ln n)n x n . Then lim = lim = lim |x| = ∞
n→∞ u n n→∞ (ln n)n x n n→∞ (ln n)n
for x = 0, so R = 0 and the series converges only at x = 0.

en x n u n+1 en+1 x n+1 n n

11. Let u n = . Then lim = lim · n n = lim e |x| = e |x|, so the radius of
n n→∞ u n u→∞ n+1 e x n→∞ n + 1

1 1 1 1 (−1)n
convergence is and the series converges for − < x < . At x = − , the series is , which converges, and at
e e e e n
1 1 1 1
x= it is , which diverges. Thus, the interval of convergence is − , .
e n e e

(−1)n n!x n u n+1 (−1)n+1 (n + 1)!x n+1 2n n+1

12. Let u n = . Then lim = lim · = lim |x| = ∞
2n n→∞ u n n→∞ 2n+1 (−1)n n!x n n→∞ 2
for x = 0, so R = 0 and the series converges only at x = 0.

(−1)n (x − 3)n
13. Let u n = √ . Then
n
√
u n+1 (−1)n+1 (x − 3)n+1 n n
lim = lim √ · n = lim |x − 3| = |x − 3|, so the radius of
n→∞ u n n→∞ n+1 (−1) (x − 3)n n→∞ n+1
∞
(−1)n (−1)n ∞
1
convergence is 1 and the series converges on (2, 4). At x = 2 the series is √ = √ , which diverges,
n=1
n n=1
n
∞
(−1)n
and at x = 4 it is √ , which converges. Thus, the interval of convergence is (2, 4].
n=1
n

√
√ u n+1 n + 1 (2x + 3)n+1 n+1
14. Let u n = n (2x + 3)n . Then lim = lim √ = lim |2x + 3| = |2x + 3|. Now
n→∞ u n n→∞ n (2x + 3)n n→∞ n

|2x + 3| < 1 ⇔ 2 x + 32 < 1 ⇔ x + 32 < 12 , so R = 12 and the series converges on (−2, −1). At x = −2 the series is
∞ ∞
√ √
n (−1)n , which diverges, and at x = −1 it is n, which also diverges. Thus, the interval of convergence is
n=1 n=1
(−2, −1).
654 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

(−1)n−1 (x − 2)n
15. Let u n = . Then
n · 3n
u n+1 (−1)n (x − 2)n+1 n · 3n 1 n
lim = lim 1
· = lim |x − 2| = 13 |x − 2| < 1
n→∞ u n n→∞ (n + 1) 3n+ (−1) 1 (x − 2)n
n− n→∞ 3 n+1
⇔ |x − 2| < 3, so the radius of convergence is 3 and the series converges on (−1, 5). At x = −1 the series is
∞
(−1)n−1 (−3)n ∞
(−1)2n−1 ∞
(−1)n−1 3n ∞
(−1)n−1
= , which diverges, and at x = 5 it is = , which
n=1
n · 3n n=1
n n=1
n · 3n n=1
n
converges. Thus, the interval of convergence is (−1, 5].

n (2x + 1)n
16. Let u n = . Then
2n
u n+1 (n + 1) (2x + 1)n+1 2n 1 n+1
lim = lim · = lim |2x + 1| = 12 |2x + 1| = x + 12 , so
n→∞ u n n→∞ 2n+ 1 n (2x + 1)n n→∞ 2 n
∞
n (−2)n ∞
R = 1 and the series converges on − 32 , 12 . At x = − 32 the series is n = (−1)n n, which diverges, and at
n=1
2 n=1
∞ n 2n ∞
x = 12 it is = n, which also diverges. Thus, the interval of convergence is − 32 , 12 .
n=1
2n n=1

(−1)n n (x − 1)n
17. Let u n = . Then
n2 + 1
u n+1 (−1)n+1 (n + 1) (x − 1)n+1 n2 + 1 n+1 n2 + 1
lim = lim · = lim |x − 1|
n→∞ u n n→∞ (n + 1)2 + 1 (−1) n (x − 1)n
n n→∞ n n 2 + 2n + 2

= |x − 1|
∞
(−1)n n (−1)n ∞
n
so R = 1 and the series converges on (0, 2). At x = 0 the series is 2
= 2
, which diverges, and
n=0
n +1 n=0
n +1
∞
(−1)n n
at x = 2 it is , which converges. Thus, the interval of convergence is (0, 2].
n=0
n2 + 1

n (x + 2)n
18. Let u n = . Then
n 2 + 1 2n

u n+1 (n + 1) (x + 2)n+1 n 2 + 1 2n n+1 n2 + 1 1 |x + 2|

lim = lim · lim
n = n→∞ |x + 2| =
n→∞ u n n→∞ 2
(n + 1) + 1 2 n+ 1 n (x + 2) n n 2 + 2n + 2 2 2

< 1 ⇔ |x + 2| < 2
∞
n (−2)n ∞
(−1)n n
so R = 2 and the series converges on (−4, 0). At x = −4 the series is = , which converges,
n=0
n 2 + 1 2n n=0
n2 + 1
∞
n (2)n ∞
n
and at x = 0 it is = , which diverges. Thus, the interval of convergence is [−4, 0).
n=0
n 2 + 1 2n n=0
n 2+1

(−1)n (x + 2)2n+1
19. Let u n = . Then
(2n + 1)!
u n+1 (−1)n+1 (x + 2)2n+3 (2n + 1)! |x + 2|2
lim = lim · = lim = 0 for any real x, so
n→∞ u n n→∞ (2n + 3)! (−1)n (x + 2)2n+1 n→∞ (2n + 2) (2n + 3)

R = ∞ and the interval of convergence is (−∞, ∞).

 Section 9.7 Power Series 655

(−1)n (3x + 2)2n

20. Let u n = . Then
(2n)!
u n+1 (−1)n+1 (3x + 2)2n+2 (2n)! |3x + 2|2
lim = lim · = lim = 0 for any real x, so
n→∞ u n n→∞ (2n + 2)! (−1)n (3x + 2)2n n→∞ (2n + 1) (2n + 2)

R = ∞ and the interval of convergence is (−∞, ∞).

2n (x + 2)n
21. Let u n = . Then
nn
u n+1 2n+1 (x + 2)n+1 nn 2 n n
lim = lim · = lim |x + 2| = 0 for any real x since
n→∞ u n n→∞ (n + 1)n+1 2 (x + 2)n
n n→∞ n + 1 n+1

n n n + 1 −n 1 n −1 1
lim = lim = lim 1+ = . Thus, R = ∞ and the interval of convergence is
n→∞ n + 1 n→∞ n n→∞ n e
(−∞, ∞).

(3x − 1)n
22. Let u n = . Then
n3 + n
u n+1 (3x − 1)n+1 n3 + n n3 + n
lim = lim · n = lim |3x − 1| = 3 x − 13
n→∞ u n n→∞ (n + 1)3 + (n + 1) (3x − 1) n→∞ n 3 + 3n 2 + 4n + 2

< 1 ⇔ x − 13 < 13
∞
(−1)n
so R = 13 and the series converges on 0, 23 . At x = 0 the series is 3+n
, which converges, and at x = 23 it is
n=1
n
∞
1
, which also converges. Thus, the interval of convergence is 0, 23 .
n=1
n3 + n

(−1)n (3x + 5)n

23. Let u n = . Then
n ln n
u n+1 (−1)n+1 (3x + 5)n+1 n ln n n ln n
lim = lim · = lim |3x + 5| = 3 x + 53
n→∞ u n n→∞ (n + 1) ln (n + 1) (−1)n (3x + 5)n n→∞ n + 1 ln (n + 1)

< 1 ⇔ x + 53 < 13
∞
(−1)n (−1)n ∞
1
so R = 13 and the series converges on −2, − 43 . At x = −2 the series is = , which diverges
n=2
n ln n n=2
n ln n
∞
(−1)n (1)n ∞
(−1)n
(see Exercise 9.3.33), and at x = − 43 it is = , which converges by the AST. Thus, the interval of
n=2
n ln n n=2
n ln n

convergence is −2, − 43 .

(−1)n (x + 2)n
24. Let u n = . Then
(ln n)n
n
u n+1 (−1)n+1 (x + 2)n+1 (ln n)n 1 ln n
lim = lim · = lim |x + 2| = 0 for any
n→∞ u n n→∞ [ln (n + 1)]n+1 (−1)n (x + 2)n n→∞ ln (n + 1) ln (n + 1)
real x, so R = ∞ and the interval of convergence is (−∞, ∞).
656 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

xn
25. Let u n = . Then
n (ln n)2
2
u n+1 x n+1 n (ln n)2 n ln n
lim = lim · = lim |x| = |x|, so R = 1 and the
n→∞ u n n→∞ (n + 1) [ln (n + 1)]2 xn n→∞ n + 1 ln (n + 1)
∞
(−1)n ∞
1
series converges on (−1, 1). At x = −1 the series is 2
, which converges, and at x = 1 it is 2
, which
n=2 n (ln n) n=2 n (ln n)
also converges (see Exercise 9.3.33). Thus, the interval of convergence is [−1, 1].

n n (3x + 5)n
26. Let u n = . Then
(2n)!
u n+1 (n + 1)n+1 (3x + 5)n+1 (2n)! 1 1 n+1 n
lim = lim · n = lim |3x + 5|
n→∞ u n n→∞ (2n + 2)! n (3x + 5)n n→∞ 2 2n + 1 n
1
= (0) (e) |3x + 5| = 0
2
for any real x, so R = ∞ and the interval of convergence is (−∞, ∞).

2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · 2n
27. Let u n = x 2n+1 . Then
3 · 5 · 7 · · · · · (2n + 1)
u n+1 2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · (2n) (2n + 2) x 2n+3 3 · 5 · 7 · · · · · (2n + 1) 2n + 2
lim = lim · = lim |x|2 = x 2 , so
n→∞ u n n→∞ 3 · 5 · 7 · · · · · (2n + 1) (2n + 3) 2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · (2n) x 2n+1 n→∞ 2n + 3
∞
2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · 2n
R = 1 and the series converges on (−1, 1). At x = −1 the series is (−1)2n+1 . Now
n=1
3 · 5 · 7 · · · · · (2n + 1)
2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · 2n 4 6 2n 1 2 2 1
an = − = −2 · · · · · · · · <− <− =− = bn where
3 · 5 · 7 · · · · · (2n + 1) 3 5 2n − 1 2n + 1 2n + 1 2n + 2 n+1
∞ ∞ ∞
2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · (2n)
bn diverges to −∞, so an also diverges. At x = 1, the series is , which diverges. Thus,
n=1 n=1 n=1
3 · 5 · 7 · · · · · (2n + 1)
the interval of convergence is (−1, 1).

(−1)n n! (x − 1)n
28. Let u n = . Then
1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1)

u n+1 (−1)n+1 (n + 1)! (x − 1)n+1 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1) n+1

lim = lim · = lim |x − 1| = 12 |x − 1|
n→∞ u n n→∞ 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1) (2n + 1) (−1)n n! (x − 1)n n→∞ 2n + 1

< 1 ⇔ |x − 1| < 2

so R = 2 and the series converges on (−1, 3). At x = −1 the series is

∞
(−1)n n! (−2)n ∞
2n n! 2n n! 2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · (2n)
= . Since an = = ,
n=1
1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1) n=1
1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1) 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1) 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1)

(−1)n n! 2n 2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · (2n)
lim an = 0 and the series diverges. At x = 3, an = = (−1)n and
n→∞ 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1) 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1)

∞
lim an does not exist, showing that an diverges. Thus, the interval of convergence is (−1, 3).
n→∞
n=1
 Section 9.7 Power Series 657

(−1)n 2n n!x n
29. Let u n = . Then
5 · 8 · 11 · · · · · (3n + 2)

u n+1 (−1)n+1 2n+1 (n + 1)!x n+1 5 · 8 · 11 · · · · · (3n + 2) n+1

lim = lim · = lim 2 |x| = 23 |x|
n→∞ un n→∞ 5 · 8 · 11 · · · · · (3n + 2) (3n + 5) (−1)n 2n n!x n n→∞ 3n + 5

< 1 ⇔ |x| < 32

so R = 32 and the series converges on − 32 , 32 . At x = − 32 the series is

n
∞ (−1)n 2n n! − 32 ∞
3n n!
= . Since
n=1
5 · 8 · 11 · · · · · (3n + 2) n=1 5 · 8 · 11 · · · · · (3n + 2)

3n n! 3 · 6 · 9 · · · · · (3n) 6 9 3n 1 3 3
an = = = 3 · · · ··· · · > >
5 · 8 · 11 · · · · · (3n + 2) 5 · 8 · 11 · · · · · (3n + 2) 5 8 3n − 1 3n + 2 3n + 2 3n + 3
∞
1
= = bn where bn diverges,
n+1 n=1

∞
a 3n+1 (n + 1)! 5 · 8 · 11 · · · · · (3n + 2) 3 (n + 1)
an diverges also. At x = 32 , n+1 = · n n! = , so
n=1
an 5 · 8 · 11 · · · · · (3n + 2) (3n + 5) 3 3n + 5

3n n! 3 · 6 · 9 · · · · · (3n)
an+1 < an for n ≥ 1. Also, lim an = lim = lim = 0, showing that
n→∞ n→∞ 5 · 8 · 11 · · · · · (3n + 2) n→∞ 5 · 8 · 11 · · · · · (3n + 2)

∞
an converges. Thus, the interval of convergence is − 32 , 32 .
n=1

(−1)n 2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · 2n (x − π)n
30. Let u n = . Then
n!
u n+1 2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · [2 (n + 1)] (x − π)n+1 n!
lim = lim · = lim 2 |x − π| = 2 |x − π|
n→∞ u n n→∞ (n + 1)! 2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · 2n (x − π)n n→∞

< 1 ⇔ |x − π| < 12

so R = 12 and the series converges on π − 12 , π + 12 . At x = π − 12 the series is

n
∞ (−1)n 2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · 2n − 1 ∞ ∞ ∞
2 2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · 2n 2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · 2n
= = = 1, which diverges, and at
n=1
n! n=1
2n n! n=1
2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · 2n n=1

∞ (−1)n 2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · 2n 1 n ∞
2
x = π + 12 it is = (−1)n , which also diverges. Thus, the interval of convergence is
n=1
n! n=1

π − 12 , π + 12 .
658 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

n
1
31. a. Rn (x) = f (x) − Sn (x) = − xk c.
1 − x k=0 5
1 1 − x n+1 x n+1
= − = 0
1−x 1−x 1−x
x n+1
b. lim Rn (x) = lim = 0 for x ∈ (−1, 1). If |x| > 1, -5
n→∞ n→∞ 1 − x
the limit does not exist.
-10
-2 -1 0 1 2

(−1)n x 2n u n+1 (−1)n+1 x 2n+2 22n (n!)2 1 x2

32. a. Let u n = . Then lim = lim · n = lim = 0, so the
22n (n!)2 n→∞ u n n→∞ 22n+2 [(n + 1)!]2 (−1) x 2 n n→∞ 4 (n + 1)2

interval of convergence (and hence the domain) of J0 is (−∞, ∞).

b.
1.0 2

1
0.5
0
0.0
-1

-0.5 -2
-10 -5 0 5 10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8

(−1)n x 2n+1
33. Let u n = . Then
n! (n + 1)!22n+1
u n+1 (−1)n+1 x 2n+3 n! (n + 1)!22n+1 x2
lim = lim 2n+3
· n 2n+ 1
= lim = 0, so the interval of
n→∞ u n n→∞ (n + 1)! (n + 2)!2 (−1) x n→∞ 4 (n + 1) (n + 2)

convergence of J is (−∞, ∞), and this is also its domain.

∞
u n+1 a n+1 (x − c)n+1 1
34. a n (x − c)n . lim = lim n n = lim |a| |x − c| < 1 ⇒ |x − c| < for a = 0. The
n=0
n→∞ un n→∞ a (x − c) n→∞ |a|
1 1 1
radius of convergence of the series is and its interval of convergence is c − ,c + . The case a = 0 is trivial.
|a| |a| |a|

u n+1 an+1 x n+1 an+1 an

35. Let u n = an x n . Then lim = lim = lim |x| < 1 ⇒ |x| < lim .
n→∞ u n n→∞ an x n n→∞ an n→∞ an+1

an
Since the radius of convergence of an x n is R, we have R = lim . Now let u n = an x 2n . Then
n→∞ an+1

u n+1 an+1 x 2n+2 an+1 2 an

lim = lim 2n
= lim x < 1 ⇒ x 2 < lim = R ⇒ |x| < R 1/2 , so the radius of
n→∞ u n n→∞ an x n→∞ an n→∞ an+1
√
convergence of an x 2n is R.

u n+1 an+1 x n+1 an+1 an 1

36. Let u n = an x n . Then lim = lim = lim |x| < 1 ⇒ |x| < lim = , so the
n→∞ un n→∞ an x n n→∞ an n→∞ an+1 L

radius of convergence is 1/L.

 Section 9.7 Power Series 659

√ √
37. Let u n = an x n . Then lim n
|an x n | = |x| lim n |an | = L |x| < 1 ⇒ |x| < 1/L, so the radius of convergence of
n→∞ n→∞

an x n is 1/L.

2
∞
(x − 2)n u n+1 (x − 2)n+1 n 2 3n 1 n
38. f (x) = 2 n
. lim = lim 2
· lim
n = n→∞ |x − 2| = 13 |x − 2| < 1
n=1 n 3 n→∞ u n n→∞ (n + 1) 3n+ 1 (x − 2) 3 n+1

∞
(−3)n ∞
(−1)n
⇒ |x − 2| < 3, so the series converges on (−1, 5). At x = −1 the series is 2 n
= 2
,
n=1 n 3 n=1 n

∞
3n ∞
1
which converges, and at x = 5 it is 2 3n
= 2
, which also converges. Therefore,
n=1
n n=1
n

∞
n (x − 2)n−1 ∞
(x − 2)n−1
the interval of convergence is [−1, 5]. f (x) = = and
n=1
n 2 3n n=1
n3n

u n+1 (x − 2)n n3n 1 n

lim = lim · = lim |x − 2| = 13 |x − 2| < 1 ⇒ |x − 2| < 3 ⇒ f
n→∞ u n n→∞ (n + 1) 3n+1 (x − 2)n−1 n→∞ 3 n+1
∞
n (−3)n−1 ∞
(−1)n−1
converges on (−1, 5). At x = −1 the series is f (−1) = 2 n
= , which converges, and at x = 5
n=1
n 3 n=1
3n

∞
n3n−1 ∞
1
it is f (5) = 2 n
= , which diverges. The interval of convergence is thus [−1, 5).
n=1
n 3 n=1
3n

∞
xn ∞
nx n−1 ∞ n−1
x
39. f (x) = 2
⇒ f (x) = 2
= and
n=1
n n=1
n n=1
n

u n+1 xn n n
lim = lim · = lim |x| = |x|, so f converges on (−1, 1). If
n→∞ u n n→∞ n + 1 x n−1 n→∞ n + 1
∞
(−1)n−1 ∞
1
x = −1 the series is f (−1) = , which converges, and at x = 1 it is f (1) = ,
n=1
n n=1
n
∞
(n − 1) x n−2
which diverges. Thus, f has interval of convergence [−1, 1). f (x) = and
n=2
n

u n+1 nx n−1 n n2
lim = lim · n− 2
= lim 2
|x| = |x|, so f converges on (−1, 1). At x = −1
n→∞ u n n→∞ n + 1 (n − 1) x n→∞ n − 1

∞
(n − 1) (−1)n−2 n−1 (n − 1) (−1)n−2
we have f (−1) = , and since lim = 1, lim does not exist, and
n=2
n n→∞ n n→∞ n
∞
n−1
the Divergence Test shows that f (−1) is divergent. Similarly, f (1) = is divergent, so the interval of
n=2
n

convergence of f is (−1, 1). It is easy to see that the interval of convergence of f is [−1, 1].
660 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

∞ sin n 3 x sin n 3 x ∞ ∞
1 1 1 1
40. . Since − 2 ≤ ≤ and both − 2 and
converge, the Comparison
n=1 n2 n n2 n 2
n=1 n
n=1
2
n
⎡ ⎤
3
∞
d ⎣ sin n x ⎦ ∞
Test implies that the given series converges for all real values of x. 2
= n cos n 3 x . Since
n=1
dx n n=1

lim n cos n 3 x = 0, the Divergence Theorem shows that this series is divergent. This does not contradict Theorem 2
n→∞
because the given series is not a power series.

∞
d ∞ n ∞ ∞
1
41. Consider x n for |x| < 1. Differentiating the geometric series gives x = nx n−1 , but xn = , so
n=0
dx n=0 n=1 n=0
1 − x
∞
d 1 1
nx n−1 = = for |x| < 1.
n=1
dx 1−x (1 − x)2

∞
1
42. a. From the result of Exercise 41, we have nx n−1 = for |x| < 1. Multiplying both sides of the equation by x
n=1 (1 − x)2
∞ ∞
x
gives x nx n−1 = nx n = .
n=1 n=1 (1 − x)2
1
∞
1 n ∞
n 2
b. Replacing x by 12 gives n = n = 2
= 2.
2 2
n=1 n=1 1 − 12

∞ ∞
43. Suppose an (x − c)n is absolutely convergent at c + R. If x = c + R, then the series becomes an R n . Since, by
n=0 n=0
∞
assumption, the series is absolutely convergent at x = c + R, the series |an | R n is convergent. But if x = c − R, then
n=0
∞ ∞
the series becomes an (−R)n = (−1)n an R n , and this series must be convergent. This contradicts the fact that the
n=0 n=0
series is not convergent at x = c − R. Thus, the series must be conditionally convergent at c + R.

∞
44. Suppose the interval of convergence of an (x − c)n is (c − R, c + R) where R > 0 and, without loss of generality, that
n=0
∞
the series is absolutely convergent at c − R. At x = c − R, the series becomes (−1)n an R n . Since this series converges
n=0
∞ ∞ ∞
absolutely at c − R, the series (−1)n an R n = |an | R n converges. Next, at c + R the series becomes an R n ,
n=0 n=0 n=0
and so this series must converge at c + R; that is, the series converges absolutely at the other endpoint.

∞
1
45. a. We begin by observing that = x n for |x| < 1. Replacing x by t 2 gives
1−x n=0
∞ n ∞
1 2
= t = t 2n = 1 + t 2 + t 4 + t 6 + · · · + t 2n + · · · for t 2 < 1 or |t| < 1.
1 − t2 n=0 n=0
 Section 9.7 Power Series 661

b. Integrating both sides of the equation with respect to t gives

x
x dt x ∞ x ∞
t 2n+1
tanh−1 x = = t 2n dt = 1 + t 2 + t 4 + · · · + t 2n + · · · dt =
0 1 − t2 0 n=0 0 n=0
2n + 1
0
x
t3 t5 t 2n+1 ∞
x 2n+1
= t+ + + ··· + + ··· =
3 5 2n + 1 n=0
2n + 1
0
u n+1 x 2n+3 2n + 1 2n + 1
Next, lim = lim · = lim x 2 = x 2 , so the radius of convergence is 1.
n→∞ u n n→∞ 2n + 3 x 2n+1 n→∞ 2n + 3
n
∞ (−1)n+1 1
xn ∞ ∞
(−0.2)n 5
∞
(−1)n+1
46. ln (1 − x) = − , so ln 1.2 = ln (1 − (−0.2)) = − = = .
n=1
n n=1
n n=1
n n=1
n5n
1
Using Theorem 9.5.2, |Rn | ≤ an+1 < 0.000005 ⇒ < 0.000005. By trial and
(n + 1) 5n+1
error, we see that n = 6 is the smallest integer satisfying the inequality, so we use 6 terms:
6
(−1)n+1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ln 1.2 ≈ n = − 2
+ 3
− 4
+ 5
− = 0.18232.
n=1
n5 5 2 · 5 3 · 5 4 · 5 5 · 5 6 · 56
∞
x 2n+1
47. tan−1 x = (−1)n . Observe that tan π √1
6 = 3 , so
n=0
2n + 1
2n+1
∞ √1 ∞
π = tan−1 3 1
√1 (−1)n (−1)n
6 3
=
2n + 1
= √ 2n+1 . By
n=0 n=0 (2n + 1) 3
1
Theorem 9.5.2, |Rn | ≤ an+1 < 0.000005 ⇒ √ 2n+3 < 0.000005. By trial and
(2n + 3) 3
error, we find n = 8 to be the smallest integer satisfying the inequality, so we use 9 terms:
⎡ ⎤
8
1 ⎢ 1 1 1 1 1 ⎥
π≈6 (−1)n √ 2n+1 ≈ 6 ⎣ √ − √ 3 + √ 5 − √ 7 +··· + √ 17 ⎦ ≈ 3.14159.
n=0 (2n + 1) 3 3 3 3 5 3 7 3 17 3
∞
xn x2 xn kv 0
48. a. Use the result of Example 8: ln (1 − x) = − =− x+ + ··· + + ··· and put x = − . Then
n=1
n 2 n mg sin α
mv 0 m2 g kv 0
D= − 2 (sin α) ln 1 +
k k mg sin α
mv 0 m2 g −kv 0 1 kv 0 2 1 kv 0 3 1 kv 0 4
= − 2 (sin α) (−1) + − + + ···
k k mg sin α 2 mg sin α 3 mg sin α 4 mg sin α

mv 0 mv 0 v 02 kv 03 k 2 v 04
= − + − + − ···
k k 2g sin α 3mg2 sin2 α 4m 2 g 3 sin3 α
v 02 kv 03 k 2 v 04
= − + −···
2g sin α 3mg 2 sin2 α 4m 2 g3 sin3 α
v 02
b. In the absence of air resistance, k = 0, so D = .
2g sin α
49. True. Since the power series converges for x = 3, we know that it converges on (−R, R) where R ≥ 3. Since x = −2 lies
in this interval, the series converges there.
50. True. By Theorem 2, f (x) = an x n−1 also has interval of convergence (−1, 1), implying that f is differentiable (and
thus continuous) on that interval.
662 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

51. True. Put z = x − 3. Then an (x − 3)n = an z n . Since an x n has interval of convergence [−2, 2), an (x − 3)n
has interval of convergence defined by −2 ≤ x − 3 < 2 ⇔ 1 ≤ x < 5, that is, [1, 5).

∞
xn
52. False. Consider the series . The series has radius of convergence R = 2 and interval of convergence (−2, 2), but for
n=0
2n
∞
an ∞
1 ∞
1 u n+1 (2x)n 1
the series n = n xn = n , we have lim = lim = lim < 1 ⇒ |x| > 12 ⇒
x 2 (2x) n→∞ u n n→∞ (2x)n+1 n→∞ 2 |x|
n=0 n=0 n=0

x < − 12 or x > 12 ; in other words, the series converges on −∞, − 12 ∪ 12 , ∞ .

9.8 Concept Questions

1. a. See pages 794 and 795.
b. A Maclaurin series is centered at 0. Thus, a Maclaurin series is a special case of a Taylor series.

(−1)4
2. a. f (n) (c) = n!an b. f (5) (1) = 5!a5 = 5! · = 4! = 24
4+1

3. a. See page 798. b. See page 798. c. See page 799.

4. a. It is not defined.
b. Derivatives of f above a certain order fail to exist. For example, if f (x) = (1 + x)5/3 , then f (x) = 53 (1 + x)2/3 and
f (x) = 10 −1/3 . So f (−1) = 0, but f (n) (−1) fails to exist for n ≥ 2.
9 (1 + x)
c. The results of parts a and b show that the convergence of the binomial series at an endpoint depends on k, and so in
general, we can assert only that the series converges for |x| < 1.

9.8 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

1. f (x) = e2x , f (x) = 2e2x , f (x) = 4e2x , f (x) = 8e2x , . . ., f (n) (x) = 2n e2x ,. . .
f (0) = 1, f (0) = 2, f (0) = 22 , f (x) = 23 , . . ., f (n) (0) = 2n , ...
∞
f (n) (0) n 2n x n
∞
22 23 2n n
The required Maclaurin series is x = = 1 + 2x + x 2 + x 3 + · · · + x + ···.
n=0
n! n=0
n! 2! 3! n!

u n+1 2n+1 x n+1 n! 2

lim = lim · n n = lim |x| = 0, so R = ∞.
n→∞ u n n→∞ (n + 1)! 2 x n→∞ n + 1

2. f (x) = e−3x , f (x) = −3e−3x , f (x) = (−3)2 e−3x , . . ., f (n) (x) = (−3)n e−3x , . . .
f (0) = 1, f (0) = −3, f (0) = (−3)2 , . . ., f (n) (0) = (−3)n , ...
∞
f (n) (0) n ∞
(−1)n 3n n 32 33 (−1)n 3n n
The required Maclaurin series is x = x = 1 − 3x + x 2 − x 3 + · · · + x +···.
n=0
n! n=0
n! 2! 3! n!

u n+1 (−1)n+1 3n+1 x n+1 n! 3

lim = · = lim |x| = 0, so R = ∞.
n→∞ un (n + 1)! (−1)n 3n x n n→∞ n + 1
 Section 9.8 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 663

3. f (x) = e x , f (x) = e x , f (x) = e x , . . ., f (n) (x) = e x , . . .

f (2) = e2 , f (2) = e2 , f (2) = e2 , . . ., f (n) (2) = e2 , . . .
The required Taylor series is
∞
f (n) (2) ∞ 2
e 1 1
(x − 2)n = (x − 2)n = e2 1 + (x − 2) + (x − 2)2 + · · · + (x − 2)n + · · · .
n=0
n! n=0
n! 2! n!

u n+1 e2 (x − 2)n+1 n! 1
lim = lim · 2 = lim |x − 2| = 0, so R = ∞.
n→∞ u n n→∞ (n + 1)! e (x − 2)n n→∞ n + 1

4. f (x) = e−2x , f (x) = −2e−2x , f (x) = (−2)2 e−2x , . . ., f (n) (x) = (−2)n e−2x , . . .
f (3) = e−6 , f (3) = −2e−6 , f (3) = (−2)2 e−6 , . . ., f (n) (3) = (−2)n e−6 , . . .
The required Taylor series is
∞
f (n) (3) ∞
(−2)n e−6
(x − 3)n = (x − 3)n
n=0
n! n=0
n!

(−2)2 (−1)n 2n
= e−6 1 − 2 (x − 3) + (x − 3)2 + · · · + (x − 3)n + · · ·
2! n!

u n+1 (−2)n+1 e−6 (x − 3)n+1 n! 2

lim = lim · = lim |x − 3| = 0, so R = ∞.
n→∞ u n n→∞ (n + 1)! (−2)n e−6 (x − 3)n n→∞ n + 1

5. f (x) = sin 2x, f (x) = 2 cos 2x, f (x) = (−1)1 22 sin 2x, f (x) = (−1)1 23 cos 2x, f (4) (x) = (−1)2 24 sin 2x, . . .
f (0) = 0, f (0) = 2, f (0) = 0, f (0) = −23 , f (4) (0) = 0, ...
∞
f (n) (0) 23 25 (−1)k 22k+1
The required Maclaurin series is x n = 2x − x3 + x5 − · · · + x 2k+1 + · · · .
n=0
n! 3! 5! (2k + 1)!
Note that we have changed the index variable to k, where n = 2k + 1.
u k+1 (−1)k+1 22k+3 x 2k+3 (2k + 1)! 4
lim = lim · k 2 k+ 1
= lim |x|2 = 0, so R = ∞.
k→∞ u k k→∞ (2k + 3)! (−1) (2) x 2k+ 1 k→∞ (2k + 2) (2k + 3)

6. f (x) = sin x, f (x) = cos x, f (x) = − sin x, f (x) = − cos x, f (4) (x) = sin x, . . .
√ √ √ √ √
π = 2, f π = 2, f π = − 2, f π = − 2, f (4) π 2
f 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 = 2 , ...
The required Taylor series is
√ √ √ √ √
∞ f (n) π4 π n 2 2 π 1 2 π 2 1 2 π 3 1 2 π 4
x− = + x− − x− − x− + x− − ···
n=0
n! 4 2 2 4 2! 2 4 3! 2 4 4! 2 4
√ √ ∞
2 2 (−1)n(n+1)/2 n+1
= + x−π 4
2 2 n=0 (n + 1)!
n+2
u n+1 (−1)(n+1)(n+2)/2 x − π
4 (n + 1)! 1 π
lim = lim · n+1
= lim x− = 0, so
n→∞ u n n→∞ (n + 2)! (−1)n(n+1)/2 x − π n→∞ n+2 4
4
R = ∞.
664 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

7. f (x) = cos x, f (x) = − sin x, f (x) = − cos x, f (x) = sin x, f (4) (x) = cos x, ...
√ √ √
f −π
6 = 3
2 , f −π 1
6 = 2, f −π
6 = − 3
2 , f −π 1
6 = −2, f
(4) − π = 3 , . . .
6 2
The required Taylor series is
√ √ √
∞ f (n) − π
6 π n 3 1 π 1 3 π 2 1 1 π 3 1 3 π 4
x+ = + x+ − x+ − x+ + x+ − ···
n=0
n! 6 2 2 6 2! 2 6 3! 2 6 4! 2 6
√ ∞
3 (−1)n π 2n 1 ∞ (−1)n π 2n+1
= x+ + x+
2 n=0 (2n)! 6 2 n=0 (2n + 1)! 6
First consider the series with even powers:
2n+2 2
u n+1 (−1)n+1 x + π6 (2n)! x+π 6
lim = lim · 2n
= lim = 0, so R = ∞. We can
n→∞ u n n→∞ (2n + 2)! (−1)n x + π n→∞ (2n + 1) (2n + 2)
6
similarly show that R = ∞ for the second series, so R = ∞ for the Taylor series as a whole.
1 1 2 3·2 (−1)n n!
8. f (x) = , f (x) = − 2 , f (x) = 3 , f (x) = − 4
, . . ., f (n) (x) = , ...
x x x x x n+1
f (−1) = −1, f (−1) = −1, f (−1) = −2, f (n)
(−1) = −3 · 2, . . ., f (−1) = −n!, ...
∞
f (n) (−1) ∞
−n! ∞
The required Taylor series is (x + 1)n = (x + 1)n = − (x + 1)n .
n=0
n! n=0
n! n=0
u n+1 (x + 1)n+1
lim = lim = |x + 1|, so R = 1.
n→∞ un n→∞ (x + 1)n

1 1 2 (−1)n−1 (n − 1)!
9. f (x) = ln x, f (x) = , f (x) = − 2 , f (x) = 3 , . . ., f (n) (x) = , ...
x x x xn
1 1 2 (−1)n−1 (n − 1)!
f (2) = ln 2, f (2) = , f (2) = − 2 , f (2) = 3 , . . ., f (n) (2) = , ...
2 2 2 2n
The required Taylor series is
∞
f (n) (2) ∞
(−1)n−1 (n − 1)! ∞
(−1)n−1
(x − 2)n = ln 2 + n (x − 2)n = ln 2 +
n (x − 2)n .
n=0
n! n=1
n!2 n=1
n2

u n+1 (−1)n (x − 2)n+1 n2n 1 n

lim = lim n+ 1
· n− 1 n
= lim |x − 2| = 12 |x − 2| < 1 or
n→∞ un n→∞ (n + 1) 2 (−1) (x − 2) n→∞ 2 n+1
|x − 2| < 2, so R = 2.

10. f (x) = sinh x, f (x) = cosh x, f (x) = sinh x, f (x) = cosh x, . . .

f (0) = 0, f (0) = 1, f (0) = 0, f (0) = 1, ...
∞
f (n) (0) 1 3 1 ∞
x 2n+1
The required Maclaurin series is xn = x + x + x5 + · · · = . The Ratio Test shows that
n=0
n! 3! 5! n=0
(2n + 1)!
R = ∞.
1 1 1 1 1 1 ∞ x −1 n
11. f (x) = = = = · = −
1+x 2 + (x − 1) 2 1 + x− 1 2 1 − − x−1 2 n=0 2
2 2
∞
(−1)n
= n+1
(x − 1)n
n=0
2
|x − 1|
The series converges for < 1 or |x − 1| < 2, so R = 2.
2
∞
1 1 −1
12. f (x) = = = =− (x + 2)n . The series converges if |x + 2| < 1, so R = 1.
1+x −1 + (x + 2) 1 − (x + 2) n=0
 Section 9.8 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 665

∞
1 1 −1 −1
13. f (x) = = = = =− [−2 (x − 1)]n
1 − 2x 1 − 2 (x − 1) − 2 1 + 2 (x − 1) 1 − [−2 (x − 1)] n=0
∞ ∞
=− (−2)n (x − 1)n = (−1)n+1 2n (x − 1)n
n=0 n=0
The series converges for 2 |x − 1| < 1 ⇔ |x − 1| < 12 , so R = 12 .
1 1 1 1 1 1 ∞ 3 n
14. f (x) = = = = · = − (x − 2)
1 + 3x 1 + 3 (x − 2) + 6 7 + 3 (x − 2) 7 1 − − 3 (x − 2) 7 n=0 7
7
1 ∞ 3 n
= (−1)n (x − 2)n
7 n=0 7

The series converges for 37 |x − 2| < 1 ⇔ |x − 2| < 73 , so R = 73 .

x2 1 ∞ n ∞
15. f (x) = 2 = −x 2 = −x 2 x 2 = − x 2n+2 . The series converges for x 2 < 1 or |x| < 1, so
x −1 1 − x2 n=0 n=0
R = 1.
1 1 1 1 1 1 ∞ x 2 n 1 ∞ (−1)n 2n ∞
(−1)n 2n
16. f (x) = 2
= · 2
= · = − = n x = x . The
4+x 4 1+ x 4 1− − x 2 4 n=0 2 4 n=0 4 n=0
4n+1
2 2
x
series converges if < 1 or |x| < 2, so R = 2.
2
∞
(−x)n ∞
(−1)n x n+1
17. f (x) = xe−x = x = with R = ∞.
n=0
n! n=0
n!
∞
[2 (x + 1)]n ∞
2n
18. f (x) = e2x = e[2(x+1)−2] = e−2 e2(x+1) = = (x + 1)n with R = ∞.
n=0
e2 n! n=0
e2 n!
∞
(−1)n x 2n ∞
(−1)n x 2n+2
19. f (x) = x 2 cos x = x 2 = with R = ∞.
n=0
(2n)! n=0
(2n)!
∞
(−1)n (3x)2n ∞
(−1)n 32n x 2n+1
20. f (x) = x cos 3x = x = with R = ∞.
n=0
(2n)! n=0
(2n)!

1 1 ∞ (−1)n (2x)2n ∞
(−1)n 22n−1 x 2n
21. f (x) = cos2 x = 12 (1 + cos 2x) = 12 + 12 cos 2x = + = 1+ with R = ∞.
2 2 n=0 (2n)! n=1
(2n)!

1 1 ∞ (−1)n (2x)2n ∞
(−1)n−1 22n−1 x 2n
22. f (x) = sin2 x = 12 (1 − cos 2x) = 12 − 12 cos 2x = − = with R = ∞.
2 2 n=0 (2n)! n=1
(2n)!
√
23. f (x) = sin x = sin x − π π π π π π 1 π 3 π
3 + 3 = sin x − 3 cos 3 + cos x − 3 sin 3 = 2 sin x − 3 + 2 cos x − 3
π 2n+1 √ ∞ 2n
1 ∞ (−1)n x − 3 3 (−1)n x − π3
= + with R = ∞.
2 n=0 (2n + 1)! 2 n=0 (2n)!
√
24. f (x) = cos x = cos x − π π π π π π 3 π 1 π
6 + 6 = cos x − 6 cos 6 − sin x − 6 sin 6 = 2 cos x − 6 − 2 sin x − 6
√ ∞ 2n π 2n+1
3 (−1)n x − π6 1 ∞ (−1)n x − 6
= − with R = ∞.
2 n=0 (2n)! 2 n=0 (2n + 1)!

√ √ ∞
(2n)!x 2n+1 ∞
(2n)!x 3/2 x 2n
25. f (x) = x sin−1 x = x 2 2
= with R = 1.
n n
n=0 (2 n!) (2n + 1) n=0 (2 n!) (2n + 1)
∞
x 2n+1 ∞
x 2n+1 ∞
(−1)n x 2n+3
26. f (x) = 1 + x 2 tan−1 x = 1 + x 2 (−1)n = (−1)n + with R = 1.
n=0
2n + 1 n=0 2n + 1 n=0 2n + 1
666 Chapter 9 Infinite Series
n
∞ x2 ∞
x 2n
27. f (x) = ln 1 + x 2 = (−1)n−1 = (−1)n−1 with R = 1.
n=1
n n=1
n

1+x ∞
xn ∞
(−x)n
28. f (x) = ln = ln (1 + x) − ln (1 − x) = (−1)n−1 − (−1)n−1
1−x n=1
n n=1
n
∞
xn ∞ n
x ∞
x 2n+1
= (−1)n−1 + =2 with R = 1. Note that the even terms cancel out.
n=1
n n=1
n n=0
2n + 1

1 (−2) (−3) 2 (−2) (−2 − 1) · · · (−2 − n + 1) n

29. f (x) = = (1 + x)−2 = 1 − 2x + x + ··· + x + ···
(1 + x)2 2! n!
∞
(−1)n · 2 · 3 · 4 · · · · · (n + 1) x n ∞
= = (−1)n (n + 1) x n with R = 1.
n=0
n! n=0

1 1 −1 1 1 −1 1 − 2 ··· 1 − n + 1
√ 1/ 3 1 3 3 2 3 3 3 3
3
30. f (x) = 1 + x = (1 + x) = 1 + 3x + x + ··· + xn + · · ·
2! n!
∞
(−1)n−1 · 2 · 5 · 8 · · · · · (3n − 4) n
= 1 + 13 x + x with R = 1.
n=2
n!3n

1/2
31. f (x) = 1 − x 2 = 1 + −x 2
1 1 −1 1 1 −1 1 − 2 ··· 1 − n + 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 n
= 1 + 12 −x 2 + −x 2 + · · · + −x 2 +···
2! n!
∞
1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 3) 2n
= 1 − 12 x 2 − x with R = 1.
n=2
n!2n

1 1 1 x −1/3
32. f (x) = √3
= = 1+
8+x 2 3 1 + x8 2 8
⎡ ⎤
1⎣ 1 x − 13 − 13 − 1 x 2 − 13 − 13 − 1 − 13 − 2 · · · − 13 − n + 1 x n
= 1− + + ··· + + ···⎦
2 3 8 2! 8 n! 8

1 1 ∞ (−1)n · 1 · 4 · 7 · · · · · (3n − 2) n
= + x with R = 8.
2 2 n=1 n!24n

3 3 −1 3 3 −1 3 − 2 ··· 3 − n + 1
5 5 5 5 5 5
33. f (x) = (1 − x)3/5 = [1 + (−x)]3/5 = 1 + 35 (−x) + x2 + · · · + xn + · · ·
2! n!
∞
2 · 7 · 12 · · · · · (5n − 8) n
= 1 − 35 x − 3 x with R = 1.
n=2
n!5n

∞ ∞
x
34. f (x) = = x (1 + x)−2 = x (−1)n (n + 1) x n (see Exercise 1) = (−1)n (n + 1) x n+1 with R = 1.
(1 + x)2 n=0 n=0

35. f (x) = tan x, f (x) = sec2 x, and f (x) = 2 sec2 x tan x, so f π

4 = 1, f
π
4 = 2, and f π
4 = 4. Thus,
π + f π 2 π 2 + ···.
f (x) = f 4 4 x−π 1
4 + 2! f
π
4 x−π
4 + ··· = 1 + 2 x − π
4 +2 x − 4
 Section 9.8 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 667

1
36. f (x) = sec x = 1 + 12 x 2 + 24
5 x4 + · · ·
cos x
1 1 − 12 x 2 + 24
1 x4 1
=
1 − 12 x 2 + 24
1 x4 − · · · 1 − 12 x 2 + 24
1 x4
1 x2 − 1 x4
= 1 + 12 x 2 + 24
5 x4 + · · · 2 24
1 x2 − 1 x4 + · · ·
by the long division at right. 2 4
5 x4 − · · ·
24

1 x √ √
37. f (x) = sin−1 x, f (x) = , and f (x) = 3/2
, so f 1
2 = π
6, f
1
2 = 2 3 3 , and f 1
2 = 493.
1 − x2 1 − x2
2 √ √
Thus, f (x) = f 1 + f 1 x − 12 + 2!
1 f 1 x − 12 + ··· = π 2 3 x − 1 + 2 3 x − 1 2 + ···.
2 2 2 6 + 3 2 9 2

1 2x
38. f (x) = tan−1 x, f (x) = 2
, and f (x) = − 2
, so f (1) = π 1 1
4 , f (1) = 2 , and f (1) = − 2 . Thus,
1+x 1 + x2
1 f (1) (x − 1)2 + · · · = π + 1 (x − 1) − 1 (x − 1)2 + · · · .
f (x) = f (1) + f (1) (x − 1) + 2! 4 2 4

x2 x3
39. f (x) = e−x sin x = 1 − x + + ··· x− + ···
2 6

x3 x4 x3 x5
= x− + ··· + −x 2 + + ··· + − + ··· = x − x 2 + 13 x 3 − · · ·
6 6 2 12

40. f (x) = e x tan x = 1 + x + 12 x 2 + · · · x + 13 x 3 + 15 x 5 + · · · (See Example 12)

= x + 13 x 3 + · · · + x 2 + 13 x 4 + · · · + 12 x 3 + 16 x 5 + · · · = x + x 2 + 56 x 3 + · · ·

1 1 −1 1 1 −1 1 − 2 ··· 1 − n + 1
√ 3 3 3 3 3 3
41. a. f (x) = 3
1 + x = (1 + x)1/3 = 1 + 13 x + x2 + · · · + xn + · · ·
2! n!
∞
2 · 5 · 8 · · · · · (3n − 4) n
= 1 + 13 x + (−1)n−1 x with R = 1.
n=2
n!3n

b. P1 (x) = 1, P2 (x) = 1 + 13 x, c.
2
P3 (x) = 1 + 13 x − 19 x 2

-2 -1 0 1 2

1 1 x −1/2
42. a. f (x) = √ = 1+ −
9−x 3 9
⎡ ⎤
1⎣ 1 x − 12 − 12 − 1 x 2 − 12 − 12 − 1 − 12 − 2 · · · − 12 − n + 1 x n
= 1+ − − + − + ··· + − +···⎦
3 2 9 2! 9 n! 9

1 1 ∞ 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1) n
= + x with R = 9.
3 3 n=1 n!18n
668 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

b. P1 (x) = 13 , P2 (x) = 13 + 54
1 x, c.
1.0
P3 (x) = 13 + 54
1 x + 1 x2
648

0.5

0.0
-10 -5 0 5 10

n 2 3 4
2
∞ −x 2 −x 2 −x 2 −x 2 −x 2 x4 x6 x8
43. e−x = = 1+ + + + + · · · = 1 − x2 + − + − ···,
n=0
n! 1 2! 3! 4! 2 6 24
2
so e−0.01 = e−(0.1) ≈ 1 − (0.1)2 + 12 (0.1)4 − 16 (0.1)6 ≈ 1 − 0.01 + 0.00005 = 0.99005. Since
a4 = 16 (0.1)6 ≈ 1.7 × 10−7 < 0.000005, the approximation is accurate to 5 decimal places.

x2 x4 x6 π rad, so cos 3◦ = 1 − 1 π 2 + 1 π 4 − · · · ≈ 1 − 0.0013708 ≈ 0.99863.

44. cos x = 1 − + − + · · · . 3◦ = 60 2 60 24 60
2! 4! 6!
(π/60)4
Since ≈ 3.13 × 10−7 < 5 × 10−6 , the approximation is accurate to 5 decimal places.
4!
1 1 ∞ n ∞
dx ∞ ∞
x 3n+1
45. 3
= 3
= −x 3 = (−1)n x 3n , so = (−1)n x 3n dx = (−1)n + C.
1+x 1 − −x n=0 n=0
1 + x3 n=0 n=0
3n + 1
n
√ ∞ −x 1/2 ∞
(−1)n x n/2 √ ∞
(−1)n x n/2 ∞
2 (−1)n x (n+2)/2
46. e− x = = , so e− x dx = dx = + C.
n=0
n! n=0
n! n=0
n! n=0
n! (n + 2)
2n+1
∞ (−1)n x 2 ∞
(−1)n x 4n+2 ∞
(−1)n x 4n+3
47. sin x 2 = , so sin x 2 dx = dx = + C.
n=0
(2n + 1)! n=0
(2n + 1)! n=0
(2n + 1)! (4n + 3)
∞
(−1)n x 2n+1 ∞
(−1)n x 2n+2 ∞
(−1)n x 2n+3
48. x tan−1 x = x , so x tan−1 x dx = dx = + C.
n=0
2n + 1 n=0
2n + 1 n=0
(2n + 1) (2n + 3)

ln (1 + x) 1 ∞ (−1)n−1 x n ln (1 + x) ∞
(−1)n−1 x n−1 ∞
(−1)n−1 x n
49. = , so dx = dx = + C.
x x n=1 n x n=1
n n=1
n2

sin x 1 ∞ (−1)n x 2n+1 sin x ∞

(−1)n x 2n ∞
(−1)n x 2n+1
50. = , so dx = dx = 2
+ C.
x x n=0 (2n + 1)! x n=0
(2n + 1)! n=0 (2n)! (2n + 1)
2
51. 01 e−x dx = 01 1 − x 2 + 12 x 4 − 16 x 6 + 24
1 x 8 − 1 x 10 + 1 x 12 − 1 x 14 + · · · dx
120 720 5040
1
= x − 13 x 3 + 10
1 x 5 − 1 x 7 + 1 x 9 − 1 x 11 + 1 x 13 −
42 216 1320 9360
1 15
75,600 x + · · · 0
= 1 − 13 + 10
1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + 1 −
42 216 1320 9360
1
75,600 + · · ·
2
Because 75,1600 ≈ 1.3 × 10−5 < 0.00005, we need only the first 7 terms: 01 e−x dx ≈ 1 − 13 + · · · + 9360
1 ≈ 0.7468.

1/2 2 −x 2 1/2 1/2

52. 0 x e dx = 0 x 2 1 − x 2 + 12 x 4 − 16 x 6 + · · · dx = 0 x 2 − x 4 + 12 x 6 − 16 x 8 + · · · dx

1 x3 − 1 x5 + 1 x7 − 1 x9 + · · · 1/2 1 1 1 1
= 3 5 14 54 = − + − + ···
0 3 · 23 5 · 25 14 · 27 54 · 29
1 1/2 2 1 − 1 + 1 ≈ 0.0360.
Because ≈ 3.6 × 10−5 < 0.00005, we need only the first 3 terms: 0 x 2 e−x dx ≈ 24 160 1792
54 · 29
 Section 9.8 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 669

1/2 1/2 1/2 1 1 1

53. 0 cos x 2 dx = 0 1 − 12 x 4 + 24
1 x 8 − · · · dx = x − 1 x 5 + 1 x 9 − · · ·
10 216 = − + −···.
0 2 10 · 25 216 · 29
1 1/2
Because ≈ 9 × 10−6 < 0.00005, we need only 2 terms: 0 cos x 2 dx ≈ 12 − 320
1 ≈ 0.4969.
216 · 29
1
54. 01 sin x 2 dx = 01 x 2 − 16 x 6 + 120
1 x 10 − 1 x 14 + · · · dx =
5040
1 x 3 − 1 x 7 + 1 x 11 −
3 42 1320
1 15
75,600 x + · · · 0
= 13 − 42
1 + 1 −
1320
1
75,600 + · · ·
Because 60,1480 ≈ 1.7 × 10−5 < 0.00005, we need only 3 terms: 01 sin x 2 dx ≈ 13 − 42
1 + 1 ≈ 0.3103.
1320
1/2 1/2 1 x 12 − · · · dx = 1/2 x − 1 x 7 + 1 x 13 − · · · dx
55. 0 x cos x 3 dx = 0 x 1 − 12 x 6 + 24 0 2 24
1
1 x 2 − 1 x 8 + 1 x 14 − · · · 1/2
1 1
= 2 16 336 − =+ − ···
2 · 22 16 · 28
0 336 · 214
1 1/2 1 1
Because 14
< 0.00005, we need only 2 terms: 0 x cos x 3 dx ≈ − ≈ 0.1248.
336 · 2 8 16 · 28

1/2 1/2 x9 x 15 1 x 4 − 1 x 10 + 1 x 16 − · · · 1/2

56. 0 tan−1 x 3 dx = 0 x3 − + − ··· dx = 4 30 80
3 5 0
1 1 1
= − + − ···
4 · 24 30 · 210 80 · 216
1 1/2 1
Because ≈ 3.3 × 10−5 < 0.00005, we need only 1 term: 0 tan−1 x 3 dx ≈ ≈ 0.0156.
30 · 210 4 · 24
∞
(−1)n−1 ∞
xn ∞
(−1)n−1
57. . Because ln (1 + x) = (−1)n−1 , we see that = ln 2.
n=1
n n=1
n n=1
n
n
∞ −1
∞
(−1)n ∞ n
x 2 1
58. n . Because e x = , we see that the series is equal to = e−1/2 = √ .
n=0
n!2 n=0
n! n=0
n! e
∞
π 2n ∞
(−1)n x 2n ∞
π 2n
59. (−1)n . Because cos x = , we see that (−1)n = cos π = −1.
n=0
(2n)! n=0
(2n)! n=0
(2n)!
∞
(−1)n π 2n+1 ∞
(−1)n x 2n+1
60. 2n+ 1
. Because sin x = , we see that the series is equal to
n=0 (2n
+ 1)!2 n=0
(2n + 1)!
∞ (−1)n π 2n+1
2 = sin π
2 = 1.
n=0
(2n + 1)!
∞
(−1)n−1 ∞
(−1)n−1 x n
61. . Because ln (1 + x) = , we see that the series is equal to
n=1
n2n n=1
n

∞ (−1)n−1 1 n
2
= ln 32 = ln 3 − ln 2.
n=1
n
∞
(−1)n ∞
(−1)n x 2n+1 ∞
(−1)n
62. . Because tan−1 x = , we see that = tan−1 1 = π
4.
n=0
2n + 1 n=0
2n + 1 n=0
2n + 1

1 x3 + 1 x5 − 1 x7 + · · · − x + 1 x3
sin x − x + 16 x 3 x − 3! 5! 7! 6 1 x2 x4 1 1
63. lim = lim = lim − + −··· = =
x→0 x5 x→0 x5 x→0 5! 7! 9! 5! 120

1 x 4 + 1 x 8 − 1 x 12 + · · · − 1 + 1 x 4
cos x 2 − 1 + 12 x 4 1 − 2! 4! 6! 2 1 x4 1 1
64. lim = lim = lim − + ··· = =
x→0 x8 x→0 x8 x→0 4! 6! 4! 24
670 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

tan x − x − 13 x 3 x + 13 x 3 + 15
2 x 5 + 101 x 7 + · · · − x − 1 x 3
1260 3 2 101x 2 2
65. lim = lim = lim + + ··· =
x→0 x5 x→0 x5 x→0 15 1260 15

ln x ln ((x − 1) + 1) (x − 1) − 12 (x − 1)2 + 13 (x − 1)3 − 14 (x − 1)4 + · · ·

66. lim = lim = lim
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x −1 x→1 x −1
x − 1 (x − 1)2
= lim 1− + − ··· =1
x→1 2 3

1 −1/2
67. a. = 1 + −u 2
1 − u2
− 12 − 12 − 1 2 − 12 − 12 − 1 − 12 − 2 · · · − 12 − n + 1 n
= 1 − 12 −u 2 + −u 2 + · · · + −u 2 + ···
2! n!
1·3 4 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1) 2n
= 1 + 12 u 2 + u + · · · + u + · · ·
2!22 n!2n
x dt x 1 · 3 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1) 2n
b. = 1 + 12 t 2 + t4 + · · · + t + · · · dt
0 1 − t2 0 2!2 2 n!2n
1 3 1·3 5 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1) 2n+1 x
= t+ t + t + · · · + t
2·3 2!22 · 5 n!2n (2n + 1) 0
1 3 1·3 5 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1) 2n+1
=x+ x + x + ··· + x +···
2·3 2·4·5 n!2n (2n + 1)
∞
(2n)!
= x 2n+1 with R = 1.
n 2
n=0 (n!2 ) (2n + 1)
1 1 −1 1 1 −1 1 −2
3 1/3 3 3 3 3 3
68. a. f (x) = 1 + x2 = 1 + x2 = 1 + 13 x 2 + x4 + x6 + · · ·
2! 3!
1 1 −1 1 −2
3 3 1·2·5 3 400
b. f (6) (0) = 3
· 6! = · 6! =
3! 3 · 3! 9
a 1 1 1 a a 2 a 3
69. Since x > a > 0, we see that 0 < < 1, so we can write = = 1+ + + + ···
x x −a x 1 − (a/x) x x x x
1 1 1 a a 2 a 3
and = = 1− + − + · · · . Thus,
x +a x 1 − (−a/x) x x x x
qQ 1 1 2 qQ 1 a a2 1 a a2 2
F = + − = + 2 + 3 + ··· + − 2 + 3 − ··· −
4πε0 a x −a x +a x 4πε0 a x x x x x x x

qQ a a3 a5
= 3
+ 5 + 7 + ···
2πε0 x x x
aq Q
If x is large, then we can approximate F by the first term: F ≈ .
2πε0 x 3
2πd
70. a. Since lim tanh x = 1, we see that if d is large (as is the case in deep water), then tanh is close to 1, so
x→∞ L
gL 1/2 gL
v≈ = .
2π 2π
x3 2x 5 2πd 2πd
b. Recall that tanh x = x − + − · · · , so if x is small, then tanh x ≈ x ⇒ tanh ≈ if d is small, so
3 15 L L
gL 2πd 1/2 gL 2πd √
v= tanh ≈ · = gd.
2π L 2π L
 Section 9.8 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 671

x x a 2 −1/2 1 a 2 − 12 − 12 − 1 a 4
71. = = 1+ = 1− + + ···,
x 2 + a2 x 2 x 2! x
x 1 + (a/x)2
x 1 a2 3 a4 1 a2 3 a4
so 1 − = 1− 1− + − ··· = − + · · · and
x 2 + a2 2 x2 8 x4 2 x2 8 x4

2Gm M x 2Gm M 1 a2 3 a4 1 a2
F= 1− = − + · · · . If x is large, then the terms beyond can be
a2 x 2 + a2 a2 2 x2 8 x4 2 x2
2Gm M 1 a 2 Gm M
neglected and F ≈ 2
· 2
= .
a 2x x2

1/2 1/2
72. F = 2πσ h + R 2 + a 2 − (R + h)2 + a 2 ⇔
1/2 1/2
F a2 a2
= h + R2 1 + 2 − (R + h)2 1 +
2πσ R (R + h)2
1/2 1/2
a2 a2
= h+ R 1+ − (R + h) 1 +
R2 (R + h)2
⎡ ⎤ ⎧ ⎫
1 1 −1 2 ⎨ 1 1 −1 2 ⎬
1 a2 2 2 a2 1 a2 2 2 a2
= h + R ⎣1 + + + · · · ⎦ − (R + h) 1 + + +···
2 R 2 2! R2 ⎩ 2 (R + h)2 2! (R + h)2 ⎭
If R is large in comparison to a and h, we may neglect the terms beyond the second within each pair of brackets, so
F 1 a2 1 a2 1 1 1 1 a2 h a2h
≈h+R+ − (R + h) − = a2 − = · ≈ (since R + h ≈ R) and
2πσ 2 R 2 R+h 2 R R+h 2 R (R + h) 2R 2
a2h πa 2 hσ M
F ≈ 2πσ · 2
= 2
= 2 , where M = πa 2 hσ is the mass of the cylinder.
2R R R

73. Using the power series expression of sin−1 x in Table 1, we find

h h 1 h 3 1·3 h 5 1 h3 1 · 3 h5
r 2 sin−1 = r2 + + + ··· = rh + + + · · · ≈ r h if r is large
r r 2·3 r 2·4·5 r 2·3 r 2 · 4 · 5 r3
compared to h (or, equivalently, if h is small compared to r). In this case,
1/2
h 2 h 2
h r 2 − h 2 = hr 1− = hr 1 + −
r r
⎧ ⎫
⎨ 1 1 −1 2 ⎬
1 h 2 2 2 h 2
= hr 1 + − + − + ···
⎩ 2 r 2! r ⎭

1 h3 1 h5 1 h3
= hr − − − · · · ≈ hr −
2 r 8 r3 2 r
Therefore, if h is small compared to r, then
1 πr 2 − r 2 sin−1 h − h 1 h3 πr 2 1 h3
V =L 2 r 2 − h 2 ≈ L 12 πr 2 − r h − hr − =L − 2r h + .
r 2 r 2 2 r
672 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

x2 x3 x4
74. a. Replacing x by −x in Formula 5, we obtain ln (1 − x) = −x − − − − · · · for −1 < x < 1.
2 3 4
x3 x5 x7
Subtracting this equation from Formula 5 gives ln (1 + x) − ln (1 − x) = 2 x + + + + · · · or
3 5 7

1+x x3 x5 x7
ln =2 x+ + + +··· for −1 < x < 1.
1−x 3 5 7
1+x p−1
b. Let p = ⇔ (1 − x) p = 1 + x ⇔ x (1 + p) = p − 1 ⇔ x = .
1−x p+1
2−1 1
c. Let p = 2. Then x = = . Then using the result from part a,
2+1 3
⎡ 3 5 7 9 ⎤
1 1 1 1
⎢ 3 3 3 3 ⎥
ln 2 = 2 ⎣ 13 + + + + + · · · ⎦ ≈ 0.6931.
3 5 7 9

75. f (0) = 0. Using the definition of the derivative and l’Hôpital’s Rule,
2
f (h) − f (0) e−1/ h 1/ h h
f (0) = lim = lim = lim = lim = 0. Similarly, we can show that
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 e1/ h 2 h→0 2e1/ h 2
f (0) = f (0) = · · · = 0, so the Maclaurin series for f is 0 + 0x + 0x 2 + · · · = 0, which cannot represent because f is
not identically 0.

76. a. f (x) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 + 1 ⇒ f (x) = 6x 2 + 6x ⇒ f (x) = 12x + 6 ⇒ f (x) = 12 ⇒ f (n) (x) = 0 for n ≥ 4.

f (1) = 6, f (1) = 12, f (1) = 18, f (1) = 12, and f (n) (1) = 0 for n ≥ 4. Thus, the Maclaurin series for f at
x = 1 is
f (1) f (1) 18 12
f (1) + f (1) (x − 1) + (x − 1)2 + (x − 1)3 = 6 + 12 (x − 1) + (x − 1)2 + (x − 1)3
2! 3! 2! 3!
= 6 + 12 (x − 1) + 9 (x − 1)2 + 2 (x − 1)3
b. Expanding the series obtained in part a, we have 6+12x −12+9x 2 −18x +9+2x 3 −6x 2 +6x −2 = 2x 3 +3x 2 +1 = f (x).
c. The Taylor series for a polynomial function is equal to the function. This is true in general because
f (n+1) (c)
Rn (x) = (x − c)n+1 = 0.
(n + 1)!

n
n (n − 1) · · · (n − k + 1) k
77. If n is a positive integer, then (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x . Since every term in the finite sum is
k=2
k!
positive, we have (1 + x)n > 1 + nx. If n is a positive noninteger, then letting p = [n], where [ ] denotes the greatest
integer function, we have
n (n − 1) 2
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x +···
2!
n (n − 1) · · · (n − p + 1) p n (n − 1) · · · (n − p) p+1 n (n − 1) · · · (n − p) (n − p − 1) p+2
+ x + x − x + ···
p! ( p + 1)! ( p + 2)!
Now the first p + 1 terms are positive, and so are each of the bracketed terms, because the series is alternating after the first
p + 1 terms and the magnitudes of the terms are decreasing. Therefore, (1 + x)n > 1 + nx.
 Section 9.8 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 673

∞
k n k (k − 1) 2 k (k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1) n
78. a. f (x) = x = 1 + kx + x + ··· + x + ···
n=0
n 2! n!
k (k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1) n−1
⇒ f (x) = k + k (k − 1) x + · · · + x + ··· ⇒
(n − 1)!
k (k − 1) k (k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1) n
f (x) (1 + x) = k + kx + x + x2 + · · · + x + x n+1 + · · · . Also,
1! (n − 1)!
k 2 (k − 1) 2 k 2 (k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1) n
k f (x) = k + k 2 x + x + ··· + x + · · · , so f (x) (1 + x) − k f (x) = 0 upon
2! n!
combining like terms.
f (x) (1 + x)k f (x) − f (x) k (1 + x)k−1 (1 + x) f (x) − k f (x)
b. g (x) = ⇒ g (x) = =− = 0 by the result of
(1 + x)k (1 + x)2k (1 + x)k+1
part a.
c. From part b, we have g (x) = 0 and so g (x) = c, a constant; that is, f (x) = c (1 + x)k . Since
f (0) = 1 + 0 + 0 + · · · = 1, we have f (0) = c = 1, and finally f (x) = (1 + x)k .
79. True. Let Pn (x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + ak x k + · · · + a1 x + a0 be a polynomial of
(k)
degree n. Then Pn (0) = k!ak for k = 0, 1, 2, . . ., n. Thus, the Maclaurin series for P is
n
∞
f (n) (0) n f (k) (0) k
x = x = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n = Pn (x).
n=0
n! k=0
k!
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
80. True. f (−x) = an (−x)n = (−1)n an x n . Since f is odd, f (−x) = − f (x) and (−1)n an x n + an x n = 0
n=0 n=0 n=0 n=0
∞ ∞
for all x, so (−1)n an + an x n = 0 for all x ⇒ 2a2n x 2n = 0 for all x. This is true provided a2n = 0 for all n.
n=0 n=0
81. False. f (x) = x 5/3 ⇒ f (x) = 53 x 2/3 ⇒ f (x) = 10
9 x
−1/3 . Since f (0) is undefined, f does not have a Maclaurin

series.
82. False. f (x) = (1 − x)7 ⇒ f (x) = −7 (1 − x)6 ⇒ f (x) = 7 · 6 (1 − x)5 , . . ., f (7) (x) = −7!, so
∞
f (n) (1) f (1) f (n) (1) 7!
f (x) = = f (1) + f (1) (x − 1) + (x − 1)2 + · · · + (x − 1)n + · · · = − (x − 1)7
n=0
n! 2! n! 7!

= (1 − x)7 = (x − 1)7 .
k ∞ ∞
x x k k x n k k−n n
83. True. f (x) = (2 + x)k = 2 1 + = 2k 1 + = 2k = 2 x .
2 2 n=0
n 2 n=0
n
∞
k n k k (k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1) k
84. True. (1 + x)k = x , where = for n ≥ 1. If k is a positive integer, then = 1,
n=0
n n n! 0
k
k k n
= 0 for n > k, so (1 + x)k = x , a polynomial of degree k.
n n=0
n
674 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

9.9 Concept Questions

1. See page 809.

2. Denote the Taylor polynomials in parts a, b, and c by T1 , T2 , and T3 respectively.

a. T1 (1) = a1 = 23 , whereas T2 (1) = T3 (1) = 0. Since g (1) > 0, we see that T1 is the Taylor polynomial of g with
g (1) = 23 .
b. T2 (1) = 2a2 = 18 > 0 whereas T3 (1) = 2a2 = − 14 < 0. Since h (1) > 0 (the graph of h is concave upward), we see
that T2 is the Taylor polynomial of h.
c. The analysis of part b implies that T3 is the Taylor polynomial of f , the graph of which is concave downward at x = 1.

3. See Theorem 1 on page 811.

4. See Theorem 2 on page 816.

9.9 Approximation by Taylor Polynomials

1. f (x) = e−x . Using Table 1 in Section 9.8, we find 2. f (x) = sin x. Using Table 1 in Section 9.8, we find
P1 (x) = 1 − x, P2 (x) = 1 − x + 12 x 2 , and P1 (x) = x, P2 (x) = x, P3 (x) = x − 16 x 3 , and

P3 (x) = 1 − x + 12 x 2 − 16 x 3 . P4 (x) = x − 16 x 3 .

40 2

20 1

0
0
-1
-20
-2
-10 -5 0 5 10 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

3. f (x) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 + x + 1 ⇒ f (x) = 6x 2 + 6x + 1 ⇒ f (x) = 12x + 6 ⇒ f (x) = 12 ⇒ f (4) (x) = 0, so

f (1) = 7, f (1) = 13, f (1) = 18, and f (1) = 12. Thus,
f (1) f (1) f (4) (1)
P4 (x) = f (1) + f (1) (x − 1) + (x − 1)2 + (x − 1)3 + (x − 1)4
2! 3! 4!
18 12
= 7 + 13 (x − 1) + (x − 1)2 + (x − 1)3 = 7 + 13 (x − 1) + 9 (x − 1)2 + 2 (x − 1)3
2! 3!
f (5) (z)
and R4 (x) = (x − 1)5 = 0.
5!
4. f (x) = x 4 + 3x 3 + 2x + 3 ⇒ f (x) = 4x 3 + 9x 2 + 2 ⇒ f (x) = 12x 2 + 18x ⇒ f (x) = 24x + 18 ⇒ f (4) (x) = 24
⇒ f (5) (x) = 0, so f (−1) = −1, f (−1) = 7, f (−1) = −6, f (−1) = −6, and f (4) (−1) = 24. Thus,
f (−1) f (−1) f (4) (−1)
P4 (x) = f (−1) + f (−1) (x + 1) + (x + 1)2 + (x + 1)3 + (x + 1)4
2! 3! 4!
6 6 24
= −1 + 7 (x + 1) − (x + 1)2 − (x + 1)3 + (x + 1)4
2! 3! 4!
= −1 + 7 (x + 1) − 3 (x + 1)2 − (x + 1)3 + (x + 1)4
f (5) (z)
and R4 (x) = (x + 1)5 = 0.
5!
 Section 9.9 Approximation by Taylor Polynomials 675

5. f (x) = sin x ⇒ f (x) = cos x ⇒ f (x) = − sin x ⇒ f (x) = − cos x ⇒ f (4) (x) = sin x, so f π
2 = 1, f
π = 0,
2
f π = −1, and f π = 0. Thus,
2 2
f π f π
2 3
P3 (x) = f π
2 + f
π
2 x−π
2 +
2 x−π
2 + 2 x−π
2
2! 3!
1 2 2
=1+0− x−π2 + 0 = 1 − 12 x − π
2
2!
f (4) (z) 4 sin z 4
and R3 (x) = x−π 2 = x−π 2 where z lies between x and π
2.
4! 24

√
6. f (x) = cos x ⇒ f (x) = − sin x ⇒ f (x) = − cos x ⇒ f (x) = sin x ⇒ f (4) (x) = cos x, so f π 3
6 = 2 ,
√ √
f π = −1, f π = − 3, f π = 1 , and f (4) π = 3 . Thus,
6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2
f π f π
2 3
P3 (x) = f π
6 + f 6
π x−π
6 +
6 x−π 6 + 6 x−π 6
2! 3!
√ √
= 23 − 12 x − π 3 π 2+ 1 x−π 3
6 − 4 x− 6 12 6
f (4) (z) 4 cos z 4
and R3 (x) = x−π 6 = x−π6 where z lies between x and π
6.
4! 24

7. f (x) = tan x ⇒ f (x) = sec2 x ⇒ f (x) = 2 sec2 x tan x ⇒ f (x) = 2 sec2 x 2 tan2 x + sec2 x , so f π
4 = 1,
f π
π = 2, and f π = 4. Thus, P (x) = f π +f π 2 2
f 4 4 2 4 4 x−π
4 +
4 x−π
4 = 1+2 x − π π
4 +2 x − 4
2!
f (z) sec2 z 2 tan2 z + sec2 z
3 3
and R2 (x) = x−π
4 = x−π
4 where z lies between x and π
4.
3! 3

√ 1 1 3
8. f (x) = x ⇒ f (x) = 12 x −1/2 = √ ⇒ f (x) = − 14 x −3/2 = − 3/2 ⇒ f (x) =
2 x 4x 8x 5/2
15
⇒ f (4) (x) = − , so f (4) = 2, f (4) = 14 , f (4) = − 32 1 , and f (4) = 3 . Thus,
256
16x 7/2
f (4) f (4)
P3 (x) = f (4) + f (4) (x − 4) + (x − 4)2 + (x − 4)3 = 2 + 14 (x − 4) − 641 (x − 4)2 + 1 (x − 4)3 and
512
2! 3!
(4 )
f (z) 15 5
R3 (x) = (x − 4)4 = − (x − 4)4 = − (x − 4)4 where z lies between x and 4.
4! 4!16z 7/2 128z 7/2

√ 1 2 10
9. f (x) = 3
x ⇒ f (x) = 13 x −2/3 = 2/3 ⇒ f (x) = − 29 x −5/3 = − 5/3 ⇒ f (x) = 10 27 x −8/3 = ⇒
3x 9x 27x 8/3
80
f (4) (x) = − 1 , f (−8) = 1 , and f (−8) = 5 . Thus,
, so f (−8) = −2, f (−8) = 12 144 3456
81x 11/3
f (−8) f (−8)
P3 (x) = f (−8) + f (−8) (x + 8) + (x + 8)2 + (x + 8)3
2! 3!
1 (x + 8) + 1 (x + 8)2 + 5 3
= −2 + 12 288 20,736 (x + 8)
f (4) (z) 80 10
and R3 (x) = (x + 8)4 = − /
(x + 8)4 = − (x + 8)4 where z lies between x and −8.
4 4!81z 11 3 243z 11/3
676 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

1 1 2 6 24 120
10. f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = − 2 ⇒ f (x) = 3 ⇒ f (x) = − 4 ⇒ f (4) (x) = 5 ⇒ f (5) (x) = − 6
x x x x x x
(6) 720 (4)
⇒ f (x) = 7 , so f (−1) = −1, f (−1) = −1, f (−1) = −2, f (−1) = −6, f (−1) = −24, and
x
( 5) f (−1) f (−1)
f (−1) = −120. Thus, P5 (x) = f (−1) + f (−1) (x + 1) + (x + 1)2 + (x + 1)3 +
2! 3!
f (4) (−1) f (5) (−1)
(x + 1)4 + (x + 1)5 = −1 − (x + 1) − (x + 1)2 − (x + 1)3 − (x + 1)4 − (x + 1)5 and
4! 5!
f (6) (z) 720 6
6 = (x + 1) where z lies between x and −1.
R5 (x) = (x + 1)6 = (x + 1)
6! 6!z 7 z7

1 2x 2 3x 2 − 1
11. f (x) = tan−1 x ⇒ f (x) = 2
⇒ f (x) = − 2
⇒ f (x) = 3
, so f (1) = π 1
4 , f (1) = 2 ,
1+x 1 + x2 1 + x2
f (1)
and f (1) = − 12 . Thus, P2 (x) = f (1) + f (1) (x − 1) + (x − 1)2 = π 1 1 2
4 + 2 (x − 1) − 4 (x − 1) and
2!
f (z) 3z 2 − 1
R2 (x) = (x − 1)3 = 3
(x − 1)3 where z lies between x and 1.
3! 3 1 + z2

1 1 2 6
12. f (x) = ln x ⇒ f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = − 2 ⇒ f (x) = ⇒ f (4) (x) = − 4 ,
x x x3 x
so f (4) = ln 4, f (4) = 14 , f (4) = − 16
1 , and f 1 . Thus,
(4) = 32
f (4) f (4)
P3 (x) = f (4) + f (4) (x − 4) + (x − 4)2 + (x − 4)2 = ln 4 + 14 (x − 4) − 32
1 (x − 4)2 + 1 (x − 4)3
192
2! 3!
f (4) (z) 6 (x − 4) 4
and R3 (x) = (x − 4)4 = − 4 (x − 4)4 = − where z lies between x and 4.
4! 4!z 4z 4

13. f (x) = xe x ⇒ f (x) = (x + 1) e x ⇒ f (x) = (x + 2) e x ⇒ f (x) = (x + 3) e x ⇒

f (4) (x) = (x + 4) e x , so f (−1) = −e−1 , f (−1) = 0, f (−1) = e−1 , and f (−1) = 2e−1 . Thus,
f (−1) f (−1) 1 1 1
P3 (x) = f (−1) + f (−1) (x + 1) + (x + 1)2 + (x + 1)3 = − + (x + 1)2 + (x + 1)3 and
2! 3! e 2e 3e
f (4) (z) (z + 4) e z
R3 (x) = (x + 1)4 = (x + 1)4 where z lies between x and −1.
4! 24

14. f (x) = e x sin x ⇒ f (x) = e x (sin x + cos x) ⇒ f (x) = 2e x cos x ⇒ f (x) = 2e x (cos x − sin x),
f (0) 2
so f (0) = 0, f (0) = 1, and f (0) = 2. Thus, P2 (x) = f (0) + f (0) x + x = x + x 2 and
2!
f (3) (z) 3 ez (cos z − sin z) 3
R2 (x) = x = x where z lies between 0 and x.
3! 3

15. f (x) = e x cos 2x ⇒ f (x) = e x (cos 2x − 2 sin 2x) ⇒ f (x) = −e x (4 sin 2x + 3 cos 2x)
⇒ f (x) = e x (2 sin 2x − 11 cos 2x), so f π
6 = 12 eπ/6 ,
√
π = 1 − 3 eπ/6 , and f π = − 3 + 2√3 eπ /6 . Thus,
f 6 2 6 2
f π √ √
2 π /6 x − π 2
P2 (x) = f π
6 +f
π
6 x−π
6 +
6 x−π
6 = 12 eπ/6 + 12 − 3 eπ/6 x − π 3
6 − 4 + 3 e 6
2!
f (z) π 3 e z (2 sin 2z − 11 cos 2z) 3
and R2 (x) = x− 6 = x−π
6 where z lies between π
6 and x.
3! 6
 Section 9.9 Approximation by Taylor Polynomials 677

16. f (x) = ln sin x ⇒ f (x) = cot x ⇒ f (x) = − csc2 x ⇒ f (x) = 2 csc2 x cot x ⇒
f (4) (x) = −2 csc2 x csc2 x + 2 cot2 x , so f π π = √3, f π = −4, and f π = 8√3. Thus,
6 = − ln 2, f 6 6 6
f π f π
2 3
P3 (x) = f π
6 + f
π
6 x−π
6 +
6 x−π
6 + 6 x−π
6
2! 3!
√ √
= − ln 2 + 3 x−π π 2+4 3 x−π 3
6 −2 x − 6 3 6

f (4) (z) csc2 z csc2 z + 2 cot2 z

π 4 4
and R3 (x) = x− 6 =− x−π
6 where z lies between x and π
6.
4! 12

17. f (x) = x 4 − 1 ⇒ f (x) = 4x 3 ⇒ f (x) = 12x 2 ⇒ f (x) = 24x, so f (1) = 0, f (1) = 4, and
f (1)
f (1) = 12. Thus, P2 (x) = f (1) + f (1) (x − 1) + (x − 1)2 = 4 (x − 1) + 6 (x − 1)2 and
2!
f (z) 24z
R2 (x) = (x − 1)3 = (x − 1)3 = 4z (x − 1)3 . Since z ≤ 1.2, we have |R2 (z)| ≤ 4 (1.2) (1.2 − 1)3 ≈ 0.0384.
3! 6

18. f (x) = sin x ⇒ f (x) = cos x ⇒ f (x) = − sin x ⇒ f (x) = − cos x ⇒ f (4) (x) = sin x ⇒ f (5) (x) = cos x
√ √
⇒ f (6) (x) = − sin x, so f π6 = 1, f π = 3, f
2 6 2
π = −1, f
6 2
π = − 3 , f (4) π
6 2 6 = 12 , and
√ √ √ √
π π π 2 π 3 π 4 5
f (5) 3 1 3
6 = 2 . Thus, P5 (x) = 2 + 2 x − 6 − 4 x − 6
1 3 1
− 12 x − 6 + 48 x − 6 + 2403 x − π
6 ,
f (6) (z) 6 sin z 6
R5 (x) = x−π 6 = − x−π 6 , and
6! 720
sin z 6 |sin z| 6 sin π
3 π − π 6 ≈ 0.000025.
|R5 (x)| = − x−π
6 = x−π
6 ≤
720 720 720 3 6

19. f (x) = cos x ⇒ f (x) = − sin x ⇒ f (x) = − cos x ⇒ f (x) = sin x ⇒ f (4) (x) = cos x
√ √ √ √
⇒ f (5) (x) = − sin x, so f π 2
4 = 2 , f
π = − 2, f
4 2
π = − 2, f
4 2
π =
4
2
2 , and
√ √ √ √ √ √
2 3 π 4
f (4) π
4 = 2
2 . Thus, P (x) = 2 − 2
4 2 2
π 2 π 2
x − 4 − 4 x − 4 + 12 x − 4 + π 2
48 x − 4 ,
f (5) (z) 5 sin z 5
R4 (x) = x−π 4 = − x −π
4 , and
5! 120
sin z 5 |sin z| 5 sin π
2 π 5 ≈ 0.0025.
|R4 (x)| = − x−π
4 = x−π
4 ≤
120 120 120 4

20. f (x) = x 1/3 ⇒ f (x) = 13 x −2/3 ⇒ f (x) = − 29 x −5/3 ⇒ f (x) = 10 27 x

−8/3 ⇒

f (4) (x) = − 80 −11/3 , so f (1) = 1, f (1) = 1 , f (1) = − 2 , and f (1) = 10 . Thus,

81 x 3 9 27
f (1) f (1)
P3 (x) = f (1) + f (1) (x − 1) + (x − 1)2 + (x − 1)3 = 1 + 13 (x − 1) − 19 (x − 1)2 + 81
5 (x − 1)3 ,
2! 3!
f (4) (z) 80z −11/3 10 (0.8)−11/3
R3 (x) = (x − 1)4 = − (x − 1)4 , and |R3 (x)| ≤ (−0.2)4 ≈ 0.00015.
4! 81 · 4! 243

21. f (x) = e2x ⇒ f (x) = 2e2x ⇒ f (x) = 4e2x ⇒ f (x) = 8e2x ⇒ f (4) (x) = 16e2x ⇒
f (5) (x) = 32e2x , so f (1) = e2 , f (1) = 2e2 , f (1) = 4e2 , f (1) = 8e2 , and f (4) (1) = 16e2 . Thus,
f (5) (z) 32e2z
P4 (x) = e2 + 2e2 (x − 1) + 2e2 (x − 1)2 + 43 e2 (x − 1)3 + 23 e2 (x − 1)4 , R4 (x) = (x − 1)5 = (x − 1)5 ,
5! 5!
32e2(1.1)
and |R4 (x)| ≤ (0.1)5 ≈ 0.000024.
5!
678 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

2 2 2 2
22. f (x) = e−x ⇒ f (x) = −2xe−x ⇒ f (x) = 2e−x 2x 2 − 1 ⇒ f (x) = 4x 3 − 2x 2 e−x , so f (0) = 1,
2
f (z) 3 2z 3 − 2z 2 e−z
f (0) = 0, and f (0) = −2. Thus, P2 (x) = 1 − x 2 , R2 (x) = x = x 3 , and
3! 3
2 (0.1) 3 − 2 (0.1)2 e−0.001
|R2 (x)| ≤ (0.1)3 ≈ 0.0002.
3
23. f (x) = x 1/2 ⇒ f (x) = 12 x −1/2 ⇒ f (x) = − 14 x −3/2 ⇒ f (x) = 38 x −5/2 ⇒ f (4) (x) = − 15
16 x
−7/2 , so f (9) = 3,

f (9) = 16 , f (9) = − 108

1 , and f (3) = 1 . Thus, P (x) = 3 + 1 (x − 9) − 1 (x − 9)2 + 1 (x − 9)3 ,
648 3 6 216 3888
(4
f (z)) 15 5 1
R3 (x) = (x − 9)4 = − (x − 9)4 , and |R3 (x)| ≤ · (1)4 ≈ 0.000027.
4! 16 · 4!z 7/2 128 87/2
1 1 2 3·2 4·3·2
24. f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = − 2 ⇒ f (x) = 3 ⇒ f (x) = − 4 ⇒ f (4) (x) = ⇒
x x x x x5
5! 6!
f (5) (x) = − 6 ⇒ f (6) (x) = 7 , so f (1) = 1, f (1) = −1, f (1) = 2, f (1) = −3!, f (4) (1) = 4!,
x x
and f (5) (1) = −5!. Thus, P5 (x) = 1 − (x − 1) + (x − 1)2 − (x − 1)3 + (x − 1)4 − (x − 1)5 , so
f (6) (z) (x − 1)6 (0.1)6
|R5 (x)| = (x − 1)6 = ≤ ≈ 2.09 × 10−6 .
6! z7 (0.9)7

25. f (x) = tan x ⇒ f (x) = sec2 x ⇒ f (x) = 2 sec2 x tan x ⇒ f (x) = 2 sec2 x 2 tan2 x + sec2 x ⇒

f (4) (x) = 8 sec2 x tan x 2 sec2 x + tan2 x , so f (0) = 0, f (0) = 1, f (0) = 0, and f (0) = 2. Thus,

f (4) (z) 4 sec2 z tan z 2 sec2 z + tan2 z 10 π

4
1 3
P3 (x) = x + 3 x , R3 (x) = x = x 4 , and |R3 (x)| ≤ 4 ≈ 1.268.
4! 3 3

26. f (x) = sec x ⇒ f (x) = sec x tan x ⇒ f (x) = sec x sec2 x + tan2 x ⇒ f (x) = sec x tan x 5 sec2 x + tan2 x , so

f (z) 3 sec z tan z 5 sec2 z + tan2 z

f (0) = 1, f (0) = 0, and f (0) = 1. Thus, P2 (x) = 1 + 12 x 2 , R2 (x) = x = x 3,
3! 3!
3
and |R2 (x)| ≤ 79 π
6 ≈ 0.1116.
1 1 2 3!
27. f (x) = ln (x + 1) ⇒ f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = − ⇒ f (x) = ⇒ f (4) (x) = − , so
x +1 (x + 1)2 (x + 1)3 (x + 1)4
f (3) = ln 4, f (3) = 14 , f (3) = − 16
1 , and f 1 . Thus, P (x) = ln 4 + 1 (x − 3) − 1 (x − 3)2 + 1 (x − 3)3 ,
(3) = 32 3 4 32 192
f (4) (z) 6 (x − 3)4 6 (1)4
R3 (x) = (x − 3)4 = − 4
, and |R3 (x)| ≤ 4 ≈ 0.0031.
4! 4! (z + 1) 3 4!

28. f (x) = cosh x ⇒ f (x) = sinh x ⇒ f (x) = cosh x ⇒ f (x) = sinh x ⇒ f (4) (x) = cosh x ⇒ f (5) (x) = sinh x
⇒ f (6) (x) = cosh x, so f (0) = 1, f (0) = 0, f (0) = 1, f (0) = 0, f (4) (0) = 1, and f (5) (0) = 0. Thus,
f (6) (z) cosh z 6 cosh z 6 e + e−1
P5 (x) = 1 + 12 x 2 + 24
1 x 4, R =
5 x6 = x , and |R5 (x)| = x ≤ (1)6 ≈ 0.0021432.
6! 6! 6! 2 · 720

f (n+1) (z) n+1 ez

29. Take f (x) = e x with c = 0. Then f (x) = f (x) = · · · = f (n) (x) = e x , so Rn (x) = x = x n+1
(n + 1)! (n + 1)!
e z |x|n+1 30.2 (0.2)n+1
where z lies between 0 and 0.2. Thus, |Rn (x)| = < ≈ 0.000083 < 0.0001 if n = 3, so
(n + 1)! (n + 1)!
x2 x3
e0.2 ≈ P3 (0.2) = 1 + x + + ≈ 1.2213.
2 3!
x=0.2
 Section 9.9 Approximation by Taylor Polynomials 679

f (n+1) (z) n+1 ez

30. Take f (x) = e x with c = 0. Then f (x) = f (x) = · · · = f (n) (x) = e x , so Rn (x) = x = x n+1
(n + 1)! (n + 1)!
e z |x|n+1 e0 (0.5)n+1
where z lies between − 12 and 0. Thus, |Rn (x)| = < ≈ 0.000022 < 0.0002 if n = 5, so
(n + 1)! (n + 1)!
x2 x3 x4 x5
e−1/2 ≈ P5 − 12 = 1 + x + + + +
2 3! 4! 5!
x=−1/2
2 3 4 1 − 1 5 ≈ 0.6065
= 1 − 12 + 12 − 12 + 16 − 12 + 24
1 −1
2 + 120 2
√
31. Take f (x) = x with c = 9. Then f (x) = 12 x −1/2 ⇒ f (x) = − 14 x −3/2 ⇒ f (x) = 38 x −5/2 , so f (9) = 3,
1 . Thus, P (x) = f (9) + f (9) (x − 9) + f (9) (x − 9)2 = 3 + 1 (x − 9) − 1 (x − 9)2 ,
f (9) = 16 , and f (9) = − 108 2 6 216
2!
√ 1 0. 01 (0.01)2 −7
and so 9.01 ≈ P1 (9.01) = 3 + 6 (0.01) ≈ 3 + 6 ≈ 3.00167 with error less than 216 ≈ 4.6 × 10 < 0.00005.
√
32. Take f (x) = 3
x with c = −8. Then f (x) = 13 x −2/3 , f (x) = − 29 x −5/3 , and

−8/3 . We consider R (x) = f (z) (x + 8)3 = 10 (x + 8)3

f (x) = 10
27 x 2 · where z lies
3! 27z 8/3 3!
10 (0.2)3
between −8 and x. |R2 (x)| ≤ · ≈ 0.0000019 < 0.000005, so we can use
27 · 88/3 6
f (−8) 1 (x + 8) + 1 (x + 8)2 , so
P2 (x) = f (−8) + f (−8) (x + 8) + (x + 8)2 = −2 + 12 288
2!
√ 1 1
3
−8.2 ≈ P2 (−8.2) = −2 + 12 (−0.2) + 288 (−0.2)2 ≈ −2.01653.

1 1 2
33. Take f (x) = with c = −2. Then f (x) = − 2 , f (x) = 3 , and
x x x
6 f (z) 6
f (x) = − 4 . We consider R2 (x) = (x + 2)3 = − 4 (x + 2)3 where z is
x 3! 3!z
1
between −2 and x. Then |R2 (x)| ≤ 4 (0.1)3 ≈ 0.00006 < 0.0005, so we may use
2
f (−2)
P2 (x) = f (−2) + f (−2) (x + 2) + (x + 2)2 = − 12 − 14 (x + 2) − 18 (x + 2)2 , giving
2!
− 21.1 = f (−2.1) ≈ P2 (−2.1) = − 12 − 14 (−0.1) − 18 (−0.1)2 ≈ −0.476.
1 1 2 3!
34. Take f (x) = ln x with c = 1. Then f (x) = , f (x) = − 2 , f (x) = 3 , f (4) (x) = − 4 , . . .,
x x x x
(n − 1)! f (n+1) (c) (−1)n n! (x − 1)n+1
f (n) (x) = (−1)n−1 n . Now Rn (x) = (x − c)n+1 = n (x − 1)n+1 = (−1)n · ,
x (n + 1)! (n + 1)!c n+1
(0.2)n+1
so |Rn (x)| ≤ = 0.000064 < 0.0001 if n = 4, so we use
n+1
f (1) f (1) f (4) (1)
P4 (x) = f (1) + f (1) (x − 1) + (x − 1)2 + (x − 1)3 + (x − 1)4
2! 3! 4!
= 0 + (x − 1) − 12 (x − 1)2 + 13 (x − 1)3 − 14 (x − 1)4 ,
and ln 1.2 ≈ P4 (1.2) = 0.2 − 12 (0.2)2 + 13 (0.2)3 − 14 (0.2)4 ≈ 0.1823.

35. Take f (x) = sin x with c = 0. Then f (x) = cos x, f (x) = − sin x, f (x) = − cos x, f (4) (x) = sin x, . . .. We
f (4) (z) 4 sin z 4 (0.1)4
consider R3 (x) = x = x . Observe that |R3 (x)| ≤ ≈ 4.2 × 10−6 < 0.00001, so we can use
4! 4! 4!
f (0) 2 f (0) 3 x3 (0.1)3
P3 (x) = f (0) + f (0) x + x + x =x− , giving sin 0.1 ≈ P3 (0.1) = 0.1 − ≈ 0.09983.
2! 3! 3! 3!
680 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

36. Take f (x) = cos x with c = 0. Then f (x) = − sin x, f (x) = − cos x, f (x) = sin x,
f (5) (x) |x|5 (0.5)5
f (4) (x) = cos x, . . .. Now |R4 (x)| ≤ ≤ ≈ 2.60 × 10−4 < 0.0005, so
5! 120
x2 x4 (0.5)2 (0.5)4
cos 0.5 ≈ P4 (0.5) = 1 − + =1− + ≈ 0.8776.
2! 4! 2! 4!
x=0.5
37. Take f (x) = cos x with c = 30◦ = π ◦ π π 8π
6 , noting that 32 = 6 + 90 = 45 . f (x) = − sin x, f (x) = − cos x,
f (z) 3
f (x) = sin x, f (4) (x) = cos x, f (5) (x) = − sin x, . . .. Now R2 (x) = x−π 6 , where z lies
3!
f (z) 3 π 3 ≈ 7.1 × 10−6 < 0.0001, so we may
between x and π
6 . Observe that |R2 (x)| = x−π 6 ≤ 16 90
3!
π √ √
use P2 (x) = f π π x−π + f 6 x−π
2
= 23 − 12 x − π − 43 x − π
2
6 + f 6 6 2 6 6 6 , giving
√ √
π ≈ P 8π = 3 − 1 π − 3 π 2 ≈ 0.8480.
cos 32◦ = cos 845 2 45 2 2 90 4 90

38. Take f (x) = sin x with c = 60◦ = π ◦ π π

3 , noting that 69 = 3 + 20 = 60 .
23π

f (x) = cos x, f (x) = − sin x, f (x) = − cos x, f (4) (x) = sin x, . . .. Observe that
f (4) (z) 4 |sin z| 4 1 π 4 ≈ 2.5 × 10−5 < 0.0001, so we may use
|R3 (x)| = x−π
3 = x−π
3 < 24 20
4! 4!
f π √ √
2 π 2 − 1 x − π 3 , giving
P3 (x) = f π
3 + f
π
3 x−π
3 +
3 x−π
3 = 23 + 12 x − π 3
3 − 4 x− 3 2 · 3! 3
2!
√ √
sin 69◦ = sin 23π 23π π − 3 π 2 − 0.5 π 3 ≈ 0.9336.
= 23 + 12 20
60 ≈ P3 60 4 20 6 20

39. f (x) = e−x ⇒ f (x) = −e−x ⇒ f (x) = e−x ⇒ · · · ⇒ f (n+1) (x) = (−1)n+1 e−x , so
f (n+1) (z) n+1 (−1)n+1 e−z n+1
Rn (x) = x = x where z lies between 0 and x. Now let K be any positive number.
(n + 1)! (n + 1)!
e K |x|n+1 e K |x|n+1 |x|n+1
Then if |x| ≤ K , we have e−x ≤ e K , so |Rn (x)| ≤ and lim = e K lim =0⇒
(n + 1)! n→∞ (n + 1)! n→∞ (n + 1)!
n
xk
lim Rn (x) = 0, and so e−x = lim (−1)k .
n→∞ n→∞
k=0
k!

40. f (x) = cos x ⇒ f (x) = − sin x ⇒ f (x) = − cos x ⇒ f (x) = sin x ⇒ f (4) (x) = cos x
f (n+1) (z) n+1
⇒ · · · . Rn (x) = x , where f (n+1) (z) is one of {± cos z, ± sin z}. In any case,
(n + 1)!
f (n+1) (z) |x|n+1 |x|n+1
0 < |Rn (x)| = |x|n+1 ≤ because |cos u| ≤ 1 and |sin u| ≤ 1. But lim = 0, so
(n + 1)! (n + 1)! n→∞ (n + 1)!
∞
x 2n
lim Rn (x) = 0, showing that cos x = (−1)n .
n→∞
n=0
(2n)!

41. f (x) = sin x ⇒ f (x) = cos x ⇒ f (x) = − sin x ⇒ f (x) = − cos x ⇒ f (4) (x) = sin x ⇒
f (n+1) (z) n+1
· · · . Rn (x) = x−π
4 , where f (n+1) (z) is one of {± cos z, ± sin z}. In any case,
(n + 1)!
f (n+1) (z) x−π
n+1
x−π
n+1
n+1
0 < |Rn (x)| = x−π
4≤ 4 because |cos u| ≤ 1 and |sin u| ≤ 1. But lim 4 = 0,
(n + 1)! (n + 1)! n→∞ (n + 1)!
√ ∞ n
2 x−π
so lim Rn (x) = 0, showing that sin x = (−1)n(n−1)/2 4 .
n→∞ 2 n=0 n!
 Section 9.9 Approximation by Taylor Polynomials 681

42. f (x) = sinh x ⇒ f (x) = cosh x ⇒ f (x) = sinh x ⇒ · · · . If k is a positive number and |x| ≤ k, then f (n+1) (x) ≤ M

M |x|n+1
for |x| ≤ k, where M is the larger of |sinh x| and |cosh x| for |x| ≤ k. Thus, |Rn (x)| ≤ for |x| ≤ k. Since
(n + 1)!
M |x|n+1 |x|n+1 ∞
x 2n+1
lim = M lim = 0, we see that lim Rn (x) = 0, and so sinh x = .
n→∞ (n + 1)! n→∞ (n + 1)! n→∞ (2n + 1)!
n=0
43. f (x) = cosh x ⇒ f (x) = sinh x ⇒ f (x) = cosh x ⇒ · · · . If k is any positive number and |x| ≤ k, then
M |x|n+1
f (n+1) (x) ≤ M for |x| ≤ k, where M is the larger of |sinh x| and |cosh x| for |x| ≤ k. Thus, |Rn (x)| ≤ for
(n + 1)!
M |x|n+1 |x|n+1 ∞
x 2n
|x| ≤ k. Since lim = M lim = 0, we see that lim Rn (x) = 0, and so cosh x = .
n→∞ (n + 1)! n→∞ (n + 1)! n→∞ (2n)!
n=0
f (n+1) (z) n+1
44. f (x) = sin x ⇒ Rn (x) = x−π
6 , where f (n+1) (z) = ± cos z or ± sin z. So f (n+1) (z) ≤ 1, so
(n + 1)!

f (n+1) (z) f (n+1) (x) π n+1 x−π

n+1
|Rn (x)| = x−π
n+1
= x − π n+1 ≤ x − 6 . Since lim 6 = 0, we
(n + 1)! 6 (n + 1)! 6 (n + 1)! n→∞ (n + 1)!

have lim Rn (x) = 0, so the function has the given power series representation.
n→∞
45. The percentage of the nonfarm workforce in the service industries x decades from now is given by P (x) = 6e1/(2t+1) dt.
1 1 1 1 du
Let u = , so that 2t + 1 = and t = − 1 . Therefore, dt = − 2 , so we have
2t + 1 u 2 u 2u
du 1 u2 u3 u4 1 1 1 u u2
P (x) = 6 eu ≈ −3 1+u+ + + du = −3 + + + + du
−2u 2 u2 2 6 24 u 2 u 2 6 24

1 x x2 x3
= −3 − + ln x + + + +C
x 2 12 72
1 1 1 1
Therefore, P (x) ≈ −3 − (2x + 1) + ln + + 2
+ + C. Using
2x + 1 2 (2x + 1) 12 (2x + 1) 72 (2x + 1)3
the condition P (0) = 30, we find P (0) = −3 −1 + ln 1 + 12 + 12
1 + 1 + C = 30 ⇒ C ≈ 28.79, so
72
1 1 1 1
P (x) ≈ −3 − (2x + 1) + ln + + + + 28.79. Two decades from
2x + 1 2 (2x + 1) 12 (2x + 1)2 72 (2x + 1)3
now, the percentage of nonfarm workers will be P (2) ≈ −3 −5 + ln 15 + 10
1 + 1 + 1
300 9000 + 28.79 ≈ 48.31, or
approximately 48%.
46. The average concentration of carbon monoxide between t = 0 and t = 2 is
2/3 2/3
A = 12 02 0.01 0.2t 2 + 4t + 64 dt = 0.005 02 0.2t 2 + 4t + 64 dt. To obtain a
2/3
second Taylor polynomial of the integrand at t = 0, we compute f (t) = 0.2t 2 + 4t + 64
−1/3 −1/3
⇒ f (t) = 23 0.2t 2 + 4t + 64 (0.4t + 4) = 83 (0.1t + 1) 0.2t 2 + 4t + 64 ⇒
−1/3 −4/3
f (t) = 83 (0.1) 0.2t 2 + 4t + 64 + 83 (0.1t + 1) − 13 0.2t 2 + 4t + 64 (0.4t + 4). Thus,

f (0) = 642/3 = 16, f (0) = 83 (64)−1/3 = 23 , and f (0) = 83 (0.1) (64)−1/3 + 83 − 13 (64)−4/3 (4) ≈ 0.05278.

Therefore, P2 (t) = 16 + 23 t + 0.05278

2 t 2 ≈ 16 + 0.66667t + 0.02639t 2 , so
2
A ≈ 0.005 02 16 + 0.66667t + 0.02639t 2 dt = 0.005 16t + 0.66667
2 t 2 + 0.02639
3 ≈ 0.167, or approximately
0
0.17 parts per million.
682 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

47. We are given that y = P1 (x) = f (c) + f (c) (x − c) is the first-order Taylor polynomial of f at c. Now an equation of
the tangent line passing through (c, f (c)) with slope f (c) is y − f (c) = f (c) (x − c) or y = f (c) + f (c) (x − c).
Comparing y = P1 (x) with this equation gives the desired result.
f (c) f (n) (c)
48. Pn (x) = f (c) + f (c) (x − c) + (x − c)2 + · · · + (x − c)n
2! n!
f (n) (c)
Pn (x) = f (c) + f (c) (x − c) + · · · + (x − c)n−1
(n − 1)!
f (n) (c)
Pn (x) = f (c) + · · · + (x − c)n−2
(n − 2)!
..
.
(n)
Pn (x) = f (n) (c)
(n)
Thus, Pn (c) = f (c), Pn (c) = f (c), . . ., Pn (c) = f (n) (c).
1 1 2
49. Let f (x) = ln (1 + x) ⇒ f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = − ⇒ f (x) = . By Taylor’s Theorem with
1+x (1 + x)2 (1 + x)3
f (z) 2 x2
c = 0, ln (1 + x) = f (0) + f (0) x + R1 (x), where R1 (x) = x =− , where 0 < z < x; that is,
2! 2 (1 + z)
x2 x2 f (0) 2
ln (1 + x) = x − < x, since > 0. Next, ln (1 + x) = f (0) + f (0) x + x + R2 (x), where
2 (1 + z) 2 (1 + z) 2!
f (z) 3 x3 x3
R2 (x) = x = 3
, where 0 < z < x; that is, ln (1 + x) = x − 12 x 2 + > x − 12 x 2 , since
3! 3 1+z 3 1 + (1 + z)3

x3
> 0. This shows that x − 12 x 2 < ln (1 + x) < x.
3 (1 + z)3
50. By Taylor’s Theorem with f (x) = sin x ⇒ f (x) = cos x ⇒ f (x) = − sin x, we find that
f (z) 2
f (c + h) = f (c) + f (c) h + h , where z lies between c and c + h. This can be written as
2
h 2 h2 h2
sin (c + h) = sin c + h cos c − sin z, and so |sin (c + h) − (sin c + h cos c)| = |sin z| ≤ .
2 2 2
51. True. Suppose f (x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , n = 0. Then f (0) = a0 . Also,
f (x) = nan x n−1 + (n − 1) an−1 x n−2 + · · · + a1 ⇒ f (0) = a1 , f (x) = n (n − 1) an x n−2 + · · · + 2a2 ⇒
f (0) = 2a2 . Continuing, we have f (0) = 3!a3 , . . ., f (n) (0) = n!an , so the Maclaurin polynomial of degree n for f is
f (0) 2 f (n) (0) n
Pn (x) = f (0) + f (0) x + x + ··· + x = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n = f (x).
2! n!
f (n+1) (z) n+1 ez
52. False. f (x) = Pn (x) + Rn (x), where Rn (x) = x = x n+1 = 0 for any x = 0. Therefore,
(n + 1)! (n + 1)!
e0.1 = Pn (0.1).
x2 xn
53. True. e x = 1 + x + + ··· + + · · · . If x > 0, then e x > 1 + x because all terms of the series are positive. If x = 0,
2 n!
x2
then e0 = 1 and the inequality holds. If x < 0, then the series is an alternating series with e x − 1 − x < , which is
2
positive.
n (n − 1) 2
54. True. The Binomial Theorem implies (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + · · · + x n , which is the same as the nth-degree
2!
f (0) 2 f (n) (0) n
Maclaurin polynomial for f : Pn (x) = f (0) + f (0) x + x + ··· + x = 1 + nx + · · · + x n .
2! n!
 Chapter 9 Review 683

Chapter 9 Review

Concept Review
1. a. function; integers; nth term b. converge c. for every; positive integer; n > N

2. a. cL; L + M; L M; L/M; M = 0 b. lim cn

n→∞

3. a. partial sums {Sn } b. geometric; 1; 1

4. a. 0; diverges b. c A + B
∞
1
5. a. convergent; divergent b.
n p ; p > 1; p ≤ 1
n=1
6. a. converges; an ≥ bn b. a positive number; converge (diverge); diverge (converge)

7. a. an alternating; ≤; 0 b. an+1

8. a. |an | b. conditionally; absolutely c. absolutely

d. converges; diverges; inconclusive (e) converges; diverges; inconclusive

∞
9. a. an (x − c)n b. x = c; x
n=0
∞
f (n) (c) f (n+1) (z)
10. a. (x − c)n b. partial sum c. c; I ; x and c; (x − c)n+1
n=0
n! (n + 1)!
d. Taylor series

Review Exercises
n 1 1
1. lim = lim =
n→∞ 3n − 2 n→∞ 3 − 2 3
n
1 1
n+1 n + n2
2. lim = lim =0
n→∞ 2n 2 n→∞ 2
3. lim 2 + 3 (0.9)n = lim 2 + 3 lim (0.9)n = 2 + 3 (0) = 2
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
4. The sequence diverges because the terms grow without bound in absolute value and alternate in sign.
n x x 1
5. an = . Consider f (x) = for x ≥ 2. Using l’Hôpital’s Rule, lim = lim 1 = lim x = ∞, showing that
ln n ln x x→∞ ln x x→∞ x→∞
x
n
lim diverges.
n→∞ ln n
2x
ln x 2 + 1 ln x 2 + 1 2 +1 2x
6. Consider f (x) = . Using l’Hôpital’s Rule, lim = lim x = lim 2 = 0, so
x x→∞ x x→∞ 1 x→∞ x + 1

ln n 2 + 1
lim = 0.
n→∞ n
cos n 1 1 cos n
7. Since 0 < ≤ and lim = 0, the Squeeze Theorem implies that lim = 0.
n n n→∞ n n→∞ n
684 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

n
8. Let x = . Then n = 3x. Also, x → ∞ as n → ∞. Thus,
3
3 2n 3 2(3x) 1 x 6 1 x 6
lim 1 + = lim 1 + = lim 1+ = lim 1 + = e6 , so
n→∞ n x→∞ 3x x→∞ x x→∞ x
3 2n
lim 1+ = e6 .
n→∞ n
∞
2 n 1
9. The series is a geometric series with a = 1 and r = 23 , so = 2
= 3.
n=0
3 1 − 3
∞
1 1 ∞
1 n 1 ∞ 1 n 1 1 1 3 1 7
10. n − 4n+1 = − = 1
− · 1
= − =
n=0
3 n=0
3 4 n=0
4 1− 3 4 1− 4 2 3 6
∞
1 1 ∞ 1 1
11. = − (use partial fraction decomposition). Thus,
n=1
n (n + 3) 3 n=1
n n + 3
N
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
SN = = 1− + − + − + − + ··· + −
n=1
n (n + 3) 3 4 2 5 3 6 4 7 N N +3
1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1+ + − − −
3 2 3 N +1 N +2 N +3
∞
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11
so = lim S N = lim 1+ + − − − = 1+ + = .
n=1
n (n + 3) N →∞ N →∞ 3 2 3 N + 1 N + 2 N +3 3 2 3 18
3
∞
3 n 1 ∞
3 n ∞
1 1 5 3 1
12. − = − − = −1= −1=
n=1
5 n (n + 1) n=1
5 n=1
n n+1 1 − 35 2 2
∞ ∞
n n 1 1 n
13. Here an = ≤ = . Since converges, the Comparison Test implies that also
2n 3 + 1 2n 3 2n 2 n=1
2n 2
n=1
2n 3+1

converges.
n3 + 1 n3 + 1 1
14. Here an = , and since lim an = lim = = 0, the Divergence Test implies that the given series
2n 3 − 1 n→∞ n→∞ 2n 3 − 1 2
diverges.
u n+1 (n + 1)3 2n n+1 3 1 1
15. lim = lim · = lim = < 1 and so the given series converges by the Ratio
n→∞ u n n→∞ 2n+1 n 3 n→∞ n 2 2
Test.
1 1 1
16. This is an alternating series with an = √ 3
. Since an+1 = √3
< √3
= an , we see that f is
n+1 (n + 1) + 1 n+1
1
decreasing. Furthermore, lim √ = 0, showing that an+1 < an for n ≥ 1 and lim an = 0. Thus, the given series
x→∞ 3 x + 1 n→∞
converges by the AST.
∞
1 1 1
17. Since ≤ 3/2 and 3/2
converges, the given series converges by the Comparison Test.
3
n +n n n=1
n
∞ ∞
sin n 1 1 1 sin n
18. 2
≤ 2
< 2
. Since 2
converges, so does .
n +1 n +1 n n=1
n n=1
n2 + 1
∞
n + cos n n+1 2n 2n 2 2
19. ≤ < < = for n ≥ 1. Since converges, the given series converges absolutely
n3 + 1 n3 + 1 n3 + 1 n3 n2 n=1
n 2

(and thus converges).

 Chapter 9 Review 685

∞
(−1)n ln n ln n ln x x (1/x) − ln x 1 − ln x
20. is an alternating series with an = . Consider f (x) = ⇒ f (x) = 2
= <0
n=2
n n x x x2
ln x
for x ≥ 3, so f is decreasing on [3, ∞). Furthermore, lim = 0, showing that an+1 ≤ an for n ≥ 3 and lim an = 0.
x→∞ x n→∞
Therefore, the given series converges by the AST.
3 x 3 3 x x
3x 2 2 2 ln 32
21. Consider f (x) = x = . Using l’Hôpital’s Rule, lim = lim = ∞. This shows that the nth
x2 x x→∞ x x→∞ 1
(−1)n 3n
term of the series, , does not approach 0. Therefore, the series diverges by the Divergence Test.
n2n
√
n n
en e
22. We use the Root Test: lim |an | = lim = lim = 0, showing that the given series converges.
n→∞ n→∞ (n + 1)2n n→∞ (n + 1)2

1
23. Here an = is positive and {an } is decreasing for n ≥ 2. Since
n (ln n)2
∞ dx b dx 1 b 1 1 1
= lim = lim − = lim − + = , the Integral Test shows that the
2 x (ln x)2 b→∞ 2 x (ln x)2 b→∞ ln x 2 b→∞ ln b ln 2 ln 2
given series converges.
tan−1 n 1 an tan−1 n 1 π
24. Let an = and take bn = . Since lim = lim · n = lim tan−1 n = > 0 and
n2 + 1 n n→∞ bn n→∞ n 2 + 1 n→∞ 2
1 + 12
n
∞
1
diverges, the Limit Comparison Test implies that the given series diverges.
n=1
n

an+1 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1) (2n + 1) 2 · 5 · 8 · · · · · (3n − 1) 2n + 1 2

25. Since lim = lim · = lim = < 1, the Ratio
n→∞ an n→∞ 2 · 5 · 8 · · · · · (3n − 1) (3n + 2) 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1) n→∞ 3n + 2 3
Test shows that the given series converges.
an+1 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1) (2n + 1) n!3n 1 2n + 1 2
26. Since lim = lim n+ 1
· = lim = < 1, the
n→∞ an n→∞ (n + 1)!3 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 1) n→∞ 3 n+1 3
Ratio Test implies that the given series converges.
∞
(−1)n−1 ∞
1 ∞
1 1
27. = diverges by the Limit Comparison Test using as the test series. But an =
n=1
2n + 1 n=1
2n + 1 n=1
n 2n + 1
satisfies an+1 < an and lim an = 0, so the given alternating series converges by the AST. Thus, the given series converges
n→∞
conditionally.
1 1 ∞
(−1)n
28. Here an = satisfies an+1 < an for n ≥ 2 and lim = 0, so by the AST , converges.
n ln n n→∞ n ln n n ln n
n=2
∞ dx b dx ∞
1
= lim = lim ln (ln x)|b2 = lim (ln ln b − ln ln 2) = ∞, so by the Integral Test,
2 x ln x b→∞ 2 x ln x b→∞ b→∞
n=2
n ln n
diverges. We conclude that the given series converges conditionally.
1/n
∞
(−1)n 1 √
n 1 1
29. We use the Root Test on n/ 2
= lim n/2
: lim |an | = lim n/2
= lim √ = 0, so
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
n=2 (ln n) (ln n) (ln n) ln n
the given series converges absolutely.
π
(−1)n tan−1 n
∞ ∞
tan−1 n tan−1 n 2 = π and
∞
1
30. Consider 2 +1
= 2 +1
. Since 2+1
< 2 2 2
converges, the given series
n=1
n n=1
n n n 2n n=1
n
converges absolutely.
686 Chapter 9 Infinite Series
√ √ √
∞
(−1)n n n x
31. is an alternating series with an = . Consider f (x) = for x ≥ 1.
n=1
2n + 1 2n + 1 2x + 1

(2x + 1) 12 x −1/2 − x 1/2 (2) 1 − 2x

f (x) = = √ < 0 if x > 12 , showing that {an } is decreasing. Furthermore,
(2x + 1)2 2 x (2x + 1)2
√
n 1 √
lim = lim √ √ = 0, so the given series is convergent by the AST. Next, take b = 1/ n. Then
n→∞ 2n + 1 n→∞ 2 n + 1/ n
√ ∞ ∞
an n √ n 1 1
lim = lim · n = lim = . Since √ diverges, so does an . Therefore, the given series
n→∞ bn n→∞ 2n + 1 n→∞ 2n + 1 2 n
n=1 n=1
is conditionally convergent.
1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n + 1)
32. Here u n = (−1)n , so
2 · 5 · 8 · · · · · (3n + 2)
u n+1 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n + 1) (2n + 3) 2 · 5 · 8 · · · · · (3n + 2) 2n + 3 2
lim = lim · = lim = < 1. Thus, the
n→∞ u n n→∞ 2 · 5 · 8 · · · · · (3n + 2) (3n + 5) 1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n + 1) n→∞ 3n + 5 3
given series converges absolutely.
13 617 617
33. 1.3617 = 1.3617617617617 . . . = 1.3 + 0.0617 + 0.0000617 + · · · = + + 7
10 104 10
13 617 1 1 13 617 1 1 2
= + 1 + 3 + 6 + ··· = + 1+ 3 + + ···
10 104 10 10 10 104 10 103
13 617 1 13 617 1000 6802
= + · = + · =
10 10,000 1 − 1 10 10,000 999 4995
1000

1 1 1 1/3
34. Here an = 3 . Now |Rn | ≤ an+1 and so < 0.0005 ⇔ n > − 1 ≈ 11.6, so we take n = 12, that is,
n (n + 1)3 0.0005
∞
(−1)n−1 1 1 1 1
we add 12 terms: 3
≈ 1 − 3 + 3 − 3 + · · · − 3 ≈ 0.901.
n=1
n 2 3 4 12

35. False. If lim an = 0, the series diverges by the Divergence Test.

n→∞

1 1
36. False. Take an = 2 and bn = . Then bn diverges, but an converges.
n n
37. True. Suppose, on the contrary, that |an | converges. Then by Theorem 9.5.2, an also converges—a contradiction.

38. True. {Sn } is monotonically increasing because an ≥ 0 for every n. If lim Sn is finite, then {Sn } is bounded above, and by
n→∞
the Monotone Convergence Theorem, an converges—a contradiction. Therefore, an diverges.

39. It converges for all values of x such that x = kπ (k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .).

u n+1 (n + 1) x n+1 n+1

40. Consider nx n . Since lim = lim = lim |x| = |x|, we see that the radius of
n→∞ u n n→∞ nx n n→∞ n
convergence of the power series is 1, so the series converges for |x| < 1. Thus, if |x| < 1, then the nth term of the series
approaches 0 as n tends to ∞. In other words, lim nx n = 0.
n→∞

41. If an is convergent, then {Sn } is convergent and hence the {Sn } are bounded for n ≥ 1.
On the other hand, assume that the {Sn } are bounded for n ≥ 1. Then since an > 0, {Sn } is monotonically increasing, and
so by the Monotone Convergence Theorem, an converges.

42. Suppose on the contrary that can converges. Then can = c an where an is convergent, a contradiction.
 Chapter 9 Review 687

u n+1 (−1)n+1 x n+1 n+1 n+1

43. We find lim = lim · n n = lim |x| = |x|, so R = 1 and the series
n→∞ un n→∞ n+2 (−1) x n→∞ n+2
∞
(−1)n (−1)n ∞
1
converges for −1 < x < 1. If x = −1, then we have = , a divergent series. If x = 1, then the
n=0
n + 1 n=0
n + 1
∞
(−1)n
series becomes , a convergent alternating series. So the interval of convergence is (−1, 1].
n=0
n+1

u n+1 (n + 1)2 (x − 2)n+1 2n (n + 1)2

44. We find lim = lim · n = lim |x − 2| = 12 |x − 2| < 1 or
n→∞ u n n→∞ 2n+1 n 2 (x − 2) n→∞ 2n 2
∞
n 2 (−2)n ∞
|x − 2| < 2, so R = 2 and the series converges for 0 < x < 4. If x = 0, the series is n = (−1)n n 2 , which
n=1
2 n=1
n 2 2n
∞
diverges, and at x = 4, it is , which also diverges. So the interval of convergence is (0, 4).
n=1
2n

u n+1 (−2x)n+1 n2 + 1 n2 + 1
45. We find lim = lim 2
· n = lim 2 2
|x| = 2 |x|, so R = 12 and the series
n→∞ un n→∞ (n + 1) + 1 (−2x) n→∞ n + 2n + 2
∞
1 ∞
(−1)n
converges on − 12 , 12 . At x = − 12 , the series is , which converges. If x = 1 , the series is
2 , which
n=0
n2 + 1 n=0
n2 + 1

also converges. Thus, the interval of convergence is − 12 , 12 .

√
n n (x + 2)n |x + 2|
46. We use the Root Test: lim |an | = lim = lim = 0, so R = ∞ and the interval of convergence is
n→∞ n→∞ nn n→∞ n
(−∞, ∞).
2
u n+1 x n+1 n (ln n)2 n ln n
47. We find lim = lim · = lim |x| = |x|, so R = 1 and
n→∞ u n n→∞ (n + 1) [ln (n + 1)]2 xn n→∞ n + 1 ln (n + 1)
∞
(−1)n ∞
1
the series converges on (−1, 1). If x = −1, the series is , which converges, and if x = 1, it is ,
n=2 n (ln n)2 n=2 n (ln n)
2

which converges by the Integral Test. Thus, the interval of convergence is [−1, 1].
48. We find
u n+1 (−1)n+1 (n + 1)! (x − 1)n+1 2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · (2n) n+1
lim = lim · = lim |x − 1| = 12 |x − 1| < 1
n→∞ u n n→∞ 2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · (2n) (2n + 2) (−1)n n! (x − 1)n n→∞ 2n + 2
∞
n!2n ∞
or |x − 1| < 2, so R = 2 and the series converges on (−1, 3). If x = −1, the series is = 1, which
n=1
2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · 2n n=1
∞
(−1)n n!2n ∞
diverges, and if x = 3, it is = (−1)n , which also diverges. Thus, the interval of convergence is
n=1
2 · 4 · 6 · · · · · 2n n=1
(−1, 3).
x3 x3 ∞ ∞
49. = = x3 (−x)n = (−1)n x n+3
1+x 1 − (−x) n=0 n=0
n
2
∞ −x 2 ∞
(−1)n x 2n+1
50. xe−x = x =
n=0
n! n=0
n!
2n
∞ (−1)n x 2 ∞
x 4n
51. cos x 2 = = (−1)n
n=0
(2n)! n=0
(2n)!
688 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

x−3 n
x −3 ∞
3
∞
(−1)n−1 (x − 3)n
52. ln x = ln (3 + (x − 3)) = ln 3 1 + = ln 3 + (−1)n−1 = ln 3 +
3 n=1
n n=1
n3n

1 1 −1 1 1 −1 1 − 2 ··· 1 − n + 1
1/2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 n
53. 1 + x2 = 1 + x2 2
= 1 + 2x + x2 + ··· + x2 + ···
2! n!
∞
1 · 3 · 5 · · · · · (2n − 3) 2n
= 1 + 12 x 2 + (−1)n−1 x
n=2
n!2n

54. cos x = cos π

6 + x− 6
π = cos π cos x − π − sin π sin x − π
6 6 6 6
√ ∞ π 2n ∞ π 2n+1
3 x− 6 1 x− 6
= (−1)n − (−1)n
2 n=0 2n! 2 n=0 (2n + 1)!

u n+1 (2n + 2)!x n+1 (n!)2 (2n + 2) (2n + 1)

55. lim = lim 2
· n = lim |x| = 4 |x| < 1 ⇔ |x| < 14 , so R = 14 .
n→∞ u n n→∞ [(n + 1)!] (2n)!x n→∞ (n + 1)2
1 n
u n+1 (n + 1)n+1 (x − 1)n+1 (2n)! (n + 1) n+n |x − 1|
56. lim = lim · n n = lim = 0, so R = ∞.
n→∞ u n n→∞ (2n + 2)! n (x − 1) n→∞ (2n + 2) (2n + 1)

e−x 1 x2 x3 (−1)n n
57. dx = 1−x + − + ··· + x + · · · dx
x 2 2! 3! n!

1 x x2 (−1)n n−1 ∞
xn
= −1+ − + ··· + x + · · · dx = ln |x| + (−1)n +C
x 2! 3! n! n=1
n!n

ex − 1 1 x2 x3 xn x x2 x n−1
58. dx = 1+x + + + ··· + + · · · − 1 dx = 1+ + + ··· + + ··· dx
x x 2! 3! n! 2! 3! n!
x2 x3 xn ∞
xn
=x+ + + ··· + + ··· + C = +C
2!2 3!3 n!n n=1
n!n
⎡ ⎤
1 1 −1
0.2 0.2 2 2 2 0.2
59. 1 − x 2 dx = ⎣1 + 1 −x 2 + −x 2 + · · · ⎦ dx = 1 − 12 x 2 − 18 x 4 − · · · dx
2 2!
0 0 0
0.1
= x − 16 x 3 − 40
1 x5 − · · · ≈ 0.199
0
0.1 0.1
√ 2 √ 4 √ 6 0.1
√ x x x x x2 x3
60. cos x dx = 1− + − + · · · dx = 1− + − + ··· dx
0 0 2! 4! 6! 0 2 24 720
0.1
= x − 14 x 2 + 72
1 x3 − 1 x4 + · · ·
2880 ≈ 0.098
0
x2 x3 (0.25)2 (0.25)3 (0.25)4
61. f (x) = e x = 1 + x + + + · · · , so f (−0.25) = e−0.25 = 1 − 0.25 + − + − · · · ≈ 0.779.
2! 3! 2 6 24
x3 x5 x7 π
62. f (x) = sin x = x − + − + · · · and 2◦ = radians, so
3! 5! 7! 90
π 1 π 3 1 π 5
sin 2◦ = − + − · · · ≈ 0.0349066 − 0.0000071 ≈ 0.0349.
90 6 90 120 90
63. f (x) = x 1/2 ⇒ f (x) = 12 x −1/2 ⇒ f (x) = − 14 x −3/2 ⇒ f (x) = 38 x −5/2 ⇒ f (4) (x) = − 15 16 x
−7/2 , so

f (1) = 1, f (1) = 12 , f (1) = − 14 , and f (1) = 38 . Thus, P3 (x) = 1 + 12 (x − 1) − 18 (x − 1)2 + 16 1 (x − 1)3 and

f (4) (z) − 15 x −7/2 −5 (x − 1)4

R3 (x) = (x − 1)4 = 16 (x − 1)4 = , where z lies between x and 1.
4! 4! 128z 7/2
 Chapter 9 Review 689

64. f (x) = cos x ⇒ f (x) = − sin x ⇒ f (x) = − cos x ⇒ f (x) = sin x ⇒ f (4) (x) = cos x, so f π 1
3 = 2,
√ √ √ √
f π = − 3, f π = − 1 , and f π = 3 . Thus, P (x) = 1 − 3 x − π − 1 x − π 2 + 3 x − π 3 and
3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 2 3 4 3 12 3
f ) (z)
(4
4 cos z 4
R3 (x) = x−π
3 = x−π π
3 , where z lies between x and 3 .
4! 24
65. f (x) = csc x ⇒ f (x) = − csc x cot x ⇒ f (x) = csc x cot2 x + csc3 x ⇒ f (x) = − csc x cot x cot2 x + 5 csc2 x ,
2
so f π
2 = 1, f π
2 = 0, and f π
2 = 1. Thus, P2 (x) = 1 + 12 x − π
2 and

f (z) csc z cot z cot2 z + 5 csc2 z

3 3
R2 (x) = x−π
2 = − x−π
2 , where z lies between x and π
2.
3! 6
√
66. f (x) = ln cos x ⇒ f (x) = − tan x ⇒ f (x) = − sec2 x ⇒ f (x) = −2 sec2 x tan x, so f π 3
6 = ln 2 ,
√ √ √
π 2
f 6 = − 33 , and f π 4 3 3 π
6 = − 3 . Thus, P2 (x) = ln 2 − 3 x − 6 + 3 x − 6
2 π and
f (z) 2
sec z tan z
3 3
R2 (x) = x−π 6 =− x−π π
6 , where z lies between x and 6 .
3! 3
√ √ 2 √ 2 √ √ √ 2 √ √
67. 0 ≤ an − bn = an − 2 an bn + bn = an − 2 an bn + bn ⇒ an bn ≤ 12 (an + bn ). Using this
∞ a and ∞ b are convergent (so that 1 ∞
inequality, we see that if n=1 n n=1 n 2 n=1 (an + bn ) is convergent), then by the
∞
Comparison Test, so is n=1 an bn .
1 1 1 1 1 1
68. We write the series in the form S = √ −√ + √ −√ +···+ √ −√ +···
2−1 2+1 3−1 3+1 n−1 n+1
1 1 2 2 2
for n ≥ 2. The nth term an = √ −√ = √ √ = > for n ≥ 2, showing that the series
n−1 n+1 n−1 n+1 n−1 n
diverges (by comparison to the divergent harmonic series).
−3/2
μ I R2 μ0 I R 2 1 μ0 I R 2 R 2
69. B = 0 · 3/2
= · 3/2
= 1+
2 R2 + y2 2 2y 3 y
y 2 1 + (R/y)2
⎡ ⎤
3 3
μ0 I R 2 ⎣ 3 R 2 −2 −2 − 1 R 4
= 1− + − ···⎦
2y 3 2 y 2! y
If y is large compared to R, then all subsequent terms within the square brackets are small compared to the first term, and so
μ0 I R 2
B≈ .
2y 3
−1/2
1 2λL λL 1 λL L 2
70. E = · = · 1/2
= 2
1+
4πε0 y y 2 + L 2 2πε0 y 2πε0y y
y 2 1 + (L/y)2
⎡ ⎤
λL ⎣ 1 L 2 − 12 − 12 − 1 L 4
= 1− + + ···⎦
2πε0 y 2 2 y 2! y
If y is large compared to L, then all subsequent terms within the square brackets are small compared to the first term, and so
1 2λL
E≈ · 2 .
4πε0 y
690 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

Challenge Problems
1 1 1 1 1 1 n
1. xn = + + ··· + < + + ··· + = = z n and
n2 + 1 n2 + 2 n2 + n n2 + 1 n2 + 1 n2 + 1 n2 + 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 n
xn = + + ··· + > + + ··· + = = yn .
n2 + 1 n2 + 2 n2 + n n2 + n n2 + n n2 + n n2 + n
n 1
That is, yn < xn < z n . Now since lim yn = lim = lim = 1 and
n→∞ n→∞ n2 + n n→∞
1 + n1
n 1
lim z n = lim = lim = 1, the Squeeze Theorem implies that lim xn = 1.
n→∞ n→∞ n2 + 1 n→∞ n→∞
1 + 12
n
x 2n − 1
2. f (x) = lim
n→∞ x 2n + 1
x 2n − 1
a. If |x| < 1, then lim x 2n = 0 and so lim = −1; b.
n→∞ n→∞ x 2n + 1 y

x 2n − 1 0 1
if |x| = 1, then lim 2n = lim = 0; and if
n→∞ x + 1 n→∞ 2
1
x 2n − 1 1−
x 2n = 1. _1 0 1 x
|x| > 1, then lim = lim
n→∞ x 2n + 1 n→∞ 1 + 1
x 2n
⎧
⎪ _1
⎨ −1 if |x| < 1
⎪
Therefore, f (x) = 0 if |x| = 1
⎪
⎪
⎩ 1 if |x| > 1

3. a. c0 = 1, c1 = 13 + 13 = 23 ,
0 1 2 1
2 n 3 3
c2 = 19 + 19 + 19 + 19 = 23 , . . ., cn = 23

b. lim cn = lim 2 n =0
n→∞ n→∞ 3

n2 + 1 − n n2 + 1 + n 4n 4
4. lim 4n n 2 + 1 − n = lim 4n· · = lim = lim =2
n→∞ n→∞ 1 n2 + 1 + n n→∞ n2 + 1 + n n→∞
1 + 12 + 1
n

√ √
5. Suppose lim xn = L. Then lim xn+1 = L, so lim xn+1 = lim a + xn , where xn = a + a + · · · + a ⇒
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
√
√ 1 ± 1 + 4a
L = a + lim xn = a + L ⇒ L 2 = a + L ⇒ L 2 − L − a = 0 ⇒ L = . Since a > 0, we see that
n→∞ 2
√
L > 0, and therefore L = 12 1 + 1 + 4a .
2n 2 2x 2
6. an = . Consider f (x) = . Then f is continuous on [1, ∞) and
3n 3 + 400 3x 3 + 400
3 2 2
(3x + 400) (4x) − 2x (9x ) 2x(800 − 3x 3 )
f (x) = = , so f (x) = 0 ⇒ x = 3 800 ≈ 6.4 is a critical number of f .
(3x 3 + 400)2 (3x 3 + 400)2 3

By making a sign diagram for f , we see that f has a relative maximum value at x ≈ 6.4. Thus, the largest term of the
2 · 62 2 · 72
sequence is either a6 or a7 . Since a6 = 3
≈ 0.0687 and a7 = ≈ 0.0686, we see that the largest
3 · 6 + 400 3 · 73 + 400
term is a6 .
1 n 1 n
1 n (n + 1) 1 + (1/n) x
7. lim [[kx]] = lim · x · k = x lim 2 · = x lim =
n→∞ n 2 n→∞ n 2 n→∞ n 2 n→∞ 2 2
k=1 k=1
 Chapter 9 Challenge Problems 691

N N √ N N √N
√ 1 2 2 an 1 an 1
8. an − = an − + 2 = an − 2 + 2
. Since all terms of the finite sum on the
n=1
n n=1
n n n=1 n=1
n n=1
n
N N √ N N √ N N ∞
an 1 2 an 1
left are nonnegative, we have an − 2 + 2
> 0 ⇒ < an + 2
. Since an and
n=1 n=1
n n=1
n n=1
n n=1 n=1
n n=1
∞ N √ √
1 2 an 2 an
and an > 0 for all n, we see that is bounded above by a positive number. Also, the terms are
n=1
n2 n=1
n n
∞ √
2 an
positive, and so the partial sums of the series are increasing as well. By the Monotone Convergence Theorem for
n=1
n
√N ∞ √ ∞ √
2 an 2 an an
sequences, lim exists — in other words, converges, and therefore converges.
N →∞
n=1
n n=1
n n=1
n

∞
nk nk
9. Consider the series n for a > 1. Let u n = n . Then
n=1
a a

u n+1 (n + 1)k a n 1 n+1 k 1 u n+1 ∞ k

n
lim = lim n+ 1
· k = lim = . Since a > 1, lim < 1, and therefore n
n→∞ u n n→∞ a n a n→∞ n a n→∞ u n a
n=1
nk
converges. So the nth term of the series must converge to 0 as n goes to infinity; that is, lim = 0.
n→∞ a n

π /b
10. a. If 0 ≤ x ≤ π
b , then f (x) = e
−ax sin bx ≥ 0, and so A =
0 e−ax sin bx dx. If π 2π
b ≤ x ≤ b , then f (x) ≤ 0 and
0
2π /b 3π /b
so A1 = − e−ax sin bx dx. If 2bπ ≤ x ≤ 3bπ , then f (x) ≥ 0 and so A2 = e−ax sin bx dx. Continuing,
π /b 2π /b
(n+1)π /b
we see that An = (−1)n e−ax sin bx dx for n = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
n π/b

b. To find e−ax sin bx dx, let u = e−ax and dv = sin bx dx, so that du = −ae−ax dx and v = − b1 cos bx.
Then I = e−ax sin bx dx = − b1 e−ax cos bx − ab e−ax cos bx dx (1). Next, we evaluate
e−ax cos bx dx by letting u = e−ax and dv = cos bx dx, so du = −ae−ax dx and v = b1 sin bx. Then
e−ax cos bx dx = b1 e−ax sin bx + ab e−ax sin bx dx = b1 e−ax sin bx + ab I . Substituting this expression
2
into (1) yields I = − b1 e−ax cos bx − ab b1 e−ax sin bx + ab I = − b1 e−ax cos bx − a2 e−ax sin bx − a2 I ⇔
b b
a2 e−ax e−ax
1+ 2 I =− (a sin bx + b cos bx). Finally, e−ax sin bx dx = − 2 (a sin bx + b cos bx) + C.
b b2 a + b2
(n+1)π
e−ax b
c. An = (−1)n − 2 (a sin bx + b cos bx)
a + b2 nπ
b
(−1)n naπ (n+1)aπ
= 2 2
e− b (a sin nπ + b cos nπ) − e− b [a sin (n + 1) π − b cos (n + 1) π]
a +b
naπ
(−1)n n be− naπ naπ aπ be− b aπ
= 2 (−1) b − (−1)n+1 be− b · e− b = 1 + e− b for n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
a +b 2 2
a +b 2
692 Chapter 9 Infinite Series

d. The sum of the areas of the regions A0 , A1 , A2 , . . . is

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ πa n
b aπ naπ b aπ naπ nπa
An = 1 + e− b e− b = 2 1 + e− b e− b . But e− b = e− b
n=0 n=0
a 2 + b2 a +b 2
n=0 n=0 n=0
πa
πa 1 e b
is a geometric series with common ratio e− b , so its sum is πa = πa . Therefore,
1 − e− b e b −1
∞ πa
b e b +1
An = 2 2 πa
.
n=0
a + b e b −1
⎡ ⎤
1 1 −1
2 2 x2 x4
1 − ⎣1 + 12 x 2 + x4 + · · · ⎦ 1 − + + ···
2 2 24
1− 1 + x 2 cos x
11. lim = lim
x→0 x4 x→0 x4
1 x 4 + 1 x 4 − 1 x 4 + higher-degree terms in x
1
= lim 4 8 24
4
=
x→0 x 3
1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + · · · − 2n (1 − 2) + (3 − 4) + · · · + [(2n − 1) − 2n] −n
12. lim = lim = lim
n→∞ 4n 2 + 1 n→∞ 4n 2 + 1 n→∞ 4n 2 + 1
−1 1
= lim =−
n→∞
4 + 12 2
n
∞ n ∞ ∞
1 1 1−x
13. f (x) = 2 3
= 4
= 4
= (1 − x) x4 = x 4n − x 4n+1
1+x +x +x 1−x 1−x n=0 n=0 n=0
1−x
∞
14. Consider the series n 100 e−n . We use the Ratio Test:
n=1
un (n + 1)100 e−(n+1) 1 100 −1 1
lim = lim = lim 1 + e = < 1, so the series converges. Since
n→∞ u n+1 n→∞ 100
n e −n n→∞ n e

n 100 e−n sin n ≤ n 100 e−n , the given series is absolutely convergent, by the Comparison Test. Therefore, the series is
convergent.
∞
(−1)n−1 1 1 1
15. 2
is an alternating series with an = 2
. Since an+1 = 2
< = an , we see that {an } is
n=1
n + x n + x (n + 1) + x n + x2
1 ∞
(−1)n−1
decreasing. Furthermore, lim an = lim 2
= 0 for each fixed x in (−∞, ∞). Therefore, converges
n→∞ n→∞ n + x
n=1
n + x2
for all real numbers.
f (c1 )
16. f (x + 2h) = f (x) + f (x) (2h) + (2h)2 , where c1 lies between x and
2!
f (c2 ) 2
2h. f (x + h) = f (x) + f (x) h + h , where c2 lies between x and
2!
h. Thus, f (x + 2h) − 2 f (x + h) + f (x) = h 2 2 f (c1 ) − f (c2 ) , and so
f (x + 2h) − 2 f (x + h) + f (x)
lim 2 f (c1 ) − f (c2 ) = lim . But as h → 0, c1 → x and c2 → x, so we obtain
h→0 h→0 h2
f (x + 2h) − 2 f (x + h) + f (x)
2 f (x) − f (x) = f (x) = lim .
h→0 h2
x (x − 1) 2 x (x − 1) (x − 2) 3
17. f (x) = (1 + x)x = 1 + x · x + x + x + · · · = 1 + x 2 − 12 x 3 + 56 x 4 + · · · , so
2! 3!
P3 = 1 + x 2 − 12 x 3 for |x| < 1.
 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and
Polar Coordinates

10.1 Concept Questions

1. a. See page 828. b. i. See page 829. ii. See page 830.

2. a. See page 833. b. i. See page 834. ii. See page 834.

3. a. See page 836. b. i. See page 838. ii. See page 838.

10.1 Conic Sections

1. x 2 = −4y has the form x 2 = 4 py with p = −1, so it represents the parabola with vertex (0, 0), focus (0, −1), and
directrix y = 1, labeled h.

x2
2. y = ⇔ x 2 = 8y has the form x 2 = 4 py with p = 2, so it represents the parabola with vertex (0, 0), focus (0, 2), and
8
directrix y = −2, labeled a.

3. y 2 = 8x has the form y 2 = 4 px with p = 2, so it represents the parabola with vertex (0, 0), focus (2, 0), and directrix
x = −2, labeled c.

4. x = − 14 y 2 ⇔ y 2 = −4x has the form y 2 = 4 px with p = −1, so it represents the parabola with vertex (0, 0), focus
(−1, 0), and directrix x = 1, labeled e.

x2 y2 x2 y2 √
5. + = 1 has the form 2 + 2 = 1 with a = 3, b = 2, and c = a 2 − b2 = 5, so it represents the ellipse with
9 4 a b
√ √
vertices (±3, 0) and foci ± 5, 0 , labeled b. Its eccentricity is 35 .

y2 x2 y2 √
6. x 2 + = 1 has the form 2
+ 2 = 1 with a = 2, b = 1, and c = a 2 − b2 = 3, so it represents the ellipse with
4 b a
√ √
vertices (0, ±2) and foci 0, ± 3 , labeled f. Its eccentricity is 23 .

x2 y2 x2 y2
7. − = 1 has the form 2 − 2 = 1 with a = 4, b = 3, and c = a 2 + b2 = 5, so it represents the hyperbola with
16 9 a b
vertices (±4, 0) and foci (±5, 0), labeled d. Its eccentricity is 54 .

x2 y2 x2 √
8. y 2 − = 1 has the form 2 − 2 = 1 with a = 1, b = 2, and c = a 2 + b2 = 5, so it represents the hyperbola with
4 a b
√ √
vertices (0, ±1) and foci 0, ± 5 , labeled g. Its eccentricity is 5.
693
694 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

9. y = 2x 2 ⇔ x 2 = 4 py with p = 18 , so the parabola has 10. x 2 = −12y = 4 py with p = −3, so the parabola has
vertex (0, 0), focus (0, −3), and directrix y = 3.
vertex (0, 0), focus 0, 18 , and directrix y = − 18 .
y
y _5 _4 _3 _2 _1 1 2 3 4
0 x
40

30

20 _1

10

_4 _2 0 2 4 x _2

11. x = 2y 2 ⇔ y 2 = 12 x = 4 px with p = 18 , so the parabola 12. y 2 = −8x = 4 px with p = −2, so the parabola has
vertex (0, 0), focus (−2, 0), and directrix x = 2.
has vertex (0, 0), focus 18 , 0 , and directrix x = − 18 .
y
y 8
4
4
2
_12 _8 _4 0 x
0 10 20 30 40 x _4
_2
_8
_4

13. 5y 2 = 12x ⇔ y 2 = 12 3
5 x = 4 px with p = 5 , so the 14. y 2 = −40x = 4 px with p = −10, so the parabola has
vertex (0, 0), focus (−10, 0), and directrix x = 10.
parabola has vertex (0, 0), focus 35 , 0 , and directrix
y
x = − 35 .
10
y
10
_10 _8 _6 _4 _2 0 x
5
_10

_10 0 10 20 30 40 50 x
_20
_5

_10
 Section 10.1 Conic Sections 695

x2 y2 x 2 y2 √
15. + = 1 has a = 5, b = 2, and 16. + = 1 has a = 4, b = 3, and c = a 2 − b2 = 7,
4 25 16 9
√ √ √
c = a 2 − b2 = 21, so the ellipse has foci 0, ± 21 so the ellipse has foci ± 7, 0 and vertices (±4, 0).
and vertices (0, ±5). y
y
2
4
2
_4 _2 0 2 4 x

_2 0 2 x _2
_2
_4 _4
_6

x2 y2 x2 y2
17. 4x 2 + 9y 2 = 36 ⇔ + = 1 has a = 3, b = 2, and 18. 25x 2 + 16y 2 = 400 ⇔ + = 1 has a = 5, b = 4,
9 4 16 25
√ √
c= a 2 − b2 = 5, so the ellipse has foci ± 5, 0 and c = a 2 − b2 = 3, so the ellipse has foci (0, ±3) and
vertices (0, ±5).
and vertices (±3, 0).
y
y

2 4

0 x _4 _2 0 2 4 x
_4 _2 2
_4
_2

x2 x2 y2 √
19. x 2 + 4y 2 = 4 ⇔ + y 2 = 1 has a = 2, b = 1, and 20. 2x 2 + y 2 = 4 ⇔ + = 1 has a = 2, b = 2, and
4 2 4
√ √ √
c = a 2 − b2 = 3, so the ellipse has foci ± 3, 0 c = a 2 − b2 = 2, so the ellipse has foci (0, ±2) and
√
and vertices (±2, 0). vertices 0, ± 2 .
y
y
1 2

1
_2 _1 0 1 2 x

_1 _2 _1 0 1 x
_1

_2
696 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

x2 y2 y2 x2
21. − = 1 has a = 5, b = 12, and 22. − = 1 has a = 4, b = 9, and
25 144 16 81
√
c= a 2 + b2 = 13, so the hyperbola has foci (±13, 0), c = a 2 + b2 = 97, so the hyperbola has foci
√
vertices (±5, 0), and asymptotes y = ± 12
5 x. 0, ± 97 , vertices (0, ±4), and asymptotes y = ± 49 x.
y y

10 4

0
_10 _5 5 x _12 _8 _4 0 4 8 x

_10 _4

_8
_20

√ x2
23. x 2 − y 2 = 1 has a = 1, b = 1, and c = a 2 + b2 = 2, 24. 4y 2 − x 2 = 4 ⇔ y 2 − = 1 has a = 1, b = 2, and
√ 4
so the hyperbola has foci ± 2, 0 , vertices (±1, 0), and √
c = a 2 + b2 = 5, so the hyperbola has foci
asymptotes y = ±x. √
0, ± 5 , vertices (0, ±1), and asymptotes y = ± 12 x.
y
y
1 1

_4 _2 0 2 4 x
_2 _1 0 1 x _1
_2
_1

_2

y2 x2 √ x2 y2 √
25. y 2 − 5x 2 = 25 ⇔ − = 1 has a = 5, b = 5, and 26. x 2 − 2y 2 = 8 ⇔ − = 1 has a = 2 2, b = 2, and
25 5 8 4
√ √
2 2
c = a + b = 30, so the hyperbola has foci 2 2
c = a + b = 2 3, so the hyperbola has foci
√ √ √ √
0, ± 30 , vertices (0, ±5), and asymptotes y = ± 5x. ±2 3, 0 , vertices ±2 2, 0 , and asymptotes
√
y
y = ± 22 x.
10
y
5
4
_5 0 5 x 2
_5
_8 _6 _4 _2 0 2 4 6 x
_10 _2
_4
_6

27. The parabola with focus (3, 0) and directrix x = −3 has p = 3 and axis the x-axis, so an equation is y 2 = 4 px = 12x.
28. The parabola with focus (0, −2) and directrix y = 2 has p = −2 and axis the y-axis, so an equation is x 2 = 4 py = −8y.

29. The parabola with focus − 52 , 0 and directrix x = 52 has p = − 52 and axis the x-axis, so an equation is

y 2 = 4 px = −10x.

30. The parabola with focus 0, 32 and directrix y = − 32 has p = 32 and axis the y-axis, so an equation is x 2 = 4 py = 6y.
 Section 10.1 Conic Sections 697

√
31. The ellipse with foci (±1, 0) and vertices (±3, 0) has a = 3, c = 1, and b = a 2 − c2 = 2 2, so an equation is
x2 y2
+ = 1.
9 8
32. The ellipse with foci (0, ±3) and vertices (0, ±5) has a = 5, c = 3, and b = a 2 − c2 = 4, so an equation is
x2 y2
+ = 1.
16 25
√
33. The ellipse with foci (0, ±1) and major axis of length 6 has 2a = 6 ⇔ a = 3, c = 1, and b = a 2 − c2 = 2 2, so an
x2 y2
equation is + = 1.
8 9
4x 2 y2
34. The ellipse with vertices (0, ±5) and minor axis of length 5 has a = 5, 2b = 5 ⇔ b = 52 , so an equation is + = 1.
25 25
x2 y2
35. The ellipse with vertices (±3, 0) has a = 3, so the ellipse has an equation of the form + 2 = 1. Substituting the point
9 b
√ 2
√ 12 2 2 8 x2 4y 2
1, 2 , we find + 2
=1 ⇔ 2
= ⇔ b2 = 94 , so an equation of the ellipse is + = 1.
9 b b 9 9 9
36. By plotting the points (1, 5) and (2, 4), we see that the ellipse’s vertices must lie on the y-axis, so we substitute the
x2 y2 12 52 22 42 1 25 4 16
points into the standard equation 2 + 2 = 1: 2 + 2 = 1 and 2 + 2
=1⇒ 2 + 2 = 2 + 2 ⇔
b a b a b a b a b a
1 2 52 28
a 2 + 25b2 = 4a 2 + 16b2 ⇔ a 2 = 3b2 . Substituting, 2 + 2 = 1 ⇔ b2 = , so a 2 = 28. An equation of the ellipse is
b 3b 3
3x 2 y2
thus + = 1.
28 28
x2 y2
37. The ellipse with vertices (0, ±5) has a = 5, so the ellipse has an equation of the form 2 + = 1. Substituting the point
b 25
√
4 27 400 73x 2 y2
2, 3 2 3 , we find 2 + = 1 ⇔ b2 = , so an equation is + = 1.
b 4 · 25 73 400 25
38. The ellipse with x-intercepts ±3 and y-intercepts ± 12 has a = 3 and b = 12 with major axis along the x-axis, so an equation
x2
is + 4y 2 = 1.
9
39. The hyperbola with foci (±5, 0) and vertices (±3, 0) has a = 3, c = 5, and b2 = c2 − a 2 = 16, so an equation is
x2 y2
− = 1.
9 16
40. The hyperbola with foci (0, ±8) and vertices (0, ±4) has a = 4, c = 8, and b2 = c2 − a 2 = 48, so an equation is
y2 x2
− = 1.
16 48
41. The hyperbola with foci (0, ±5) and conjugate axis of length 4 has c = 5, 2b = 4 ⇔ b = 2, and a 2 = c2 − b2 = 21, so an
y2 x2
equation is − = 1.
21 4
x2 y2 52 92
42. The hyperbola with vertices (±4, 0) has a = 4 and equation 2 − 2 = 1. Substituting 5, 94 gives 2 − 2 2 = 1 ⇔
4 b 4 4 ·b
x 2 y 2
25b2 − 81 = 16b2 ⇔ 9b2 = 81 ⇔ b2 = 9, so an equation is − = 1.
16 9
43. The hyperbola with vertices (±2, 0) and asymptotes y = ± 32 x has a = 2 and ab = 32 , so b = 32 (2) = 3 and an equation is
x2 y2
− = 1.
4 9
698 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

1 x has a = 1 and a = √
√
1 , so b = 2 2 and an equation is
44. The hyperbola with y-intercepts ±1 and asymptotes y = ± √ b
2 2 2 2
x2
y2 − = 1.
8
45. Referring to the table on page 840 and Figure 26, we see that (x + 3)2 = −2 (y − 4) is an equation of the parabola with
vertex (−3, 4) opening downward, labeled b.
(x − 2)2 (y + 3)2
46. + = 1 is an equation of an ellipse centered at (2, −3), labeled d.
16 4
(y − 3)2 (x + 1)2
47. − = 1 is an equation of a hyperbola centered at (−1, 3), labeled c.
16 9
48. (y − 1)2 = −4 (x − 2) is an equation of the parabola with vertex (2, 1) opening to the left, labeled a.
49. The parabola with focus (3, 1) and directrix x = 1 has vertex (2, 1) and opens to the right with p = 1, so an equation is
(y − 1)2 = 4 (1) (x − 2) or (y − 1)2 = 4 (x − 2).
50. The parabola with focus (−2, 3) and directrix y = 5 has vertex (−2, 4) and opens downward with p = −1, so an equation
is (x + 2)2 = 4 (−1) (y − 4) or (x + 2)2 = −4 (y − 4).

51. The parabola with vertex (2, 2) and focus 32 , 2 opens to the left with p = − 12 , so an equation is

(y − 2)2 = 4 − 12 (x − 2) or (y − 2)2 = −2 (x − 2).

52. The parabola with vertex (1, −2) and directrix y = 1 opens downward with p = −3, so an equation is
(x − 1)2 = 4 (−3) (y + 2) or (x − 1)2 = −12 (y + 2).
53. Referring to the table on page 840, the parabola with axis parallel to the y-axis has equation
⎧
⎪
⎪ (−3 − h)2 = 4 p (2 − k)
⎨
(x − h)2 = 4 p (y − k). Substituting the three known points gives the equations (0 − h)2 = 4 p − 52 − k ⇒
⎪
⎪
⎩
(1 − h)2 = 4 p (−6 − k)
⎧
⎪ 2
⎨ h + 6h + 9 = 8 p − 4 pk
⎪
h 2 = −10 p − 4 pk Subtracting the second equation from the first gives 6h + 9 = 18 p ⇔ 2h + 3 = 6 p
⎪
⎪
⎩ h 2 − 2h + 1 = −24 p − 4 pk

(call this equation α), and subtracting the third from the second gives 2h − 1 = 14 p (equation β). Subtracting β from α
gives 4 = −8 p ⇔ p = − 12 . Thus, from α, 2h + 3 = −3 ⇔ h = −3, and finally, from the second original equation
(−3)2 = −10 − 12 − 4 − 12 k ⇔ k = 2. An equation of the parabola is thus (x + 3)2 = −2 (y − 2).

54. Referring to the table on page 840, the parabola with axis parallel to the x-axis has equation
⎧
⎪ 2
⎨ (6 − k) = 4 p (−6 − h)
⎪
(y − k)2 = 4 p (x − h). Substituting the three known points gives the equations (0 − k)2 = 4 p (0 − h) ⇒
⎪
⎪
⎩ (2 − k)2 = 4 p (2 − h)
⎧
⎪ 2
⎨ k − 12k + 36 = −24 p − 4 ph
⎪
k 2 = −4 ph Subtracting the first equation from the second gives 12k − 36 = 24 p ⇔ k = 2 p + 3
⎪
⎪
⎩ k 2 − 4k + 4 = 8 p − 4 ph

(call this equation α), and subtracting the third from the second gives 4k − 4 = −8 p ⇔ k = −2 p + 1 (equation β).
Adding α and β gives 2k = 4 ⇔ k = 2. Thus, from α, 2 = 2 p + 3 ⇔ p = − 12 , and finally, from the second original
equation 22 = −4 − 12 h ⇔ h = 2. An equation of the parabola is thus (y − 2)2 = −2 (x − 2).
 Section 10.1 Conic Sections 699

55. The ellipse with foci (±1, 3) and vertices (±3, 3) has center (0, 3), a = 3, and c = 1. Thus, b2 = a 2 − c2 = 8, and an
x2 (y − 3)2
equation is + = 1.
9 8
56. The ellipse with foci (0, 2) and (4, 2) and vertices (−1, 2) and (5, 2) has center (2, 2), a = 3, and c = 2. Thus,
(x − 2)2 (y − 2)2
b2 = a 2 − c2 = 5, and an equation is + = 1.
9 5
57. The ellipse with foci (±1, 2) and major axis of length 2a = 8 ⇔ a = 4 has vertices (±4, 2), center (0, 2), and c = 1. Thus,
x2 (y − 2)2
b2 = a 2 − c2 = 15, and an equation is + = 1.
16 15

58. The ellipse with foci (1, ±3) and minor axis of length 2b = 2 ⇔ b = 1 has c = 3, so a 2 = b2 + c2 = 10 and an equation is
y2
(x − 1)2 + = 1.
10

59. The ellipse with center (2, 1), one focus at (0, 1), and one vertex at (5, 1) has a = 3 and c = 2, so b2 = a 2 − c2 = 5 and an
(x − 2)2 (y − 1)2
equation is + = 1.
9 5
√ √ √
60. The ellipse with foci 2 − 3, −1 and 2 + 3, −1 has center (2, −1) and c = 3 ⇔ c2 = 3, so its equation has the

(x − 2)2 (y + 1)2 (2 − 2)2 (0 + 1)2

form + = 1. Substituting the known point (2, 0), we get + = 1 ⇔ 1 = a2 − 3 ⇔
a2 a2 − 3 a2 a2 − 3
(x − 2)2
a 2 = 4, so b2 = 1 and an equation is + (y + 1)2 = 1.
4
61. The hyperbola with foci (−2, 2) and (8, 2) and vertices (0, 2) and (6, 2) has center (3, 2), so a = 3, c = 5, and
(x − 3)2 (y − 2)2
b2 = c2 − a 2 = 16. An equation is thus − = 1.
9 16
62. The hyperbola with foci (−4, 5) and (−4, −15) and vertices (−4, −3) and (−4, −7) has center (−4, −5), so a = 2,
(y + 5)2 (x + 4)2
c = 10, and b2 = c2 − a 2 = 96. An equation is thus − = 1.
4 96

63. The hyperbola with foci (6, −3) and (−4, −3) and asymptotes y + 3 = ± 43 (x − 1) has center (1, −3), so c = 5. The
slopes of the asymptotes are ± ab = ± 43 and a 2 + b2 = c2 = 25, so by inspection a = 3 and b = 4. An equation is thus
(x − 1)2 (y + 3)2
− = 1.
9 16
64. The hyperbola with foci (2, 2) and (2, 6) and asymptotes x = −2 + y and x = 6 − y has center (2, 4), so c = 2. The
√
slopes of the asymptotes are ± ab = ±1 and a 2 + b2 = c2 = 4, so by inspection a = b = 2. An equation is thus
(y − 4)2 (x − 2)2
− = 1.
2 2

65. The hyperbola with vertices (4, −2) and (4, 4) and asymptotes y − 1 = ± 32 (x − 4) has center (4, 1), so a = 3. The slopes
(y − 1)2 (x − 4)2
of the asymptotes are ± ab = ± 32 , so b = 2 and an equation is − = 1.
9 4
66. The hyperbola with vertices (0, −2) and (4, −2) and asymptotes x = −y and x = y + 4 has center (2, −2), so a = 2. The
(x − 2)2 (y + 2)2
slopes of the asymptotes are ± ab = ±1, so b = 2. An equation is thus − = 1.
4 4
700 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

67. We complete the square and put the equation into standard 68. y 2 − 4y − 2x − 4 = 0 ⇔ (y − 2)2 − 4 − 2x − 4 = 0 ⇔
form: y 2 − 2y − 4x + 9 = 0 ⇔ (y − 1)2 − 1 − 4x + 9 = 0 (y − 2)2 = 2 (x + 4) represents a parabola with vertex
⇔ (y − 1)2 = 4x − 8 = 4 (x − 2). This equation has (−4, 2), focus − 72 , 2 , and directrix x = − 92 .
p = 1, so it represents a parabola with vertex (2, 1), focus
y
(3, 1), and directrix x = 1.
6
y
4
6
4 2
2
_4 _2 2 4 6 8 x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x _2
_2
_4

69. x 2 + 6x − y + 11 = 0 ⇔ (x + 3)2 − 9 − y + 11 = 0 ⇔ 70. 2x 2 − 8x − y + 5 = 0 ⇔ 2 (x − 2)2 − 8 − y + 5 = 0 ⇔

(x + 3)2 = y − 2 represents a parabola with vertex (x − 2)2 = 12 (y + 3) represents a parabola with vertex
(−3, 2), focus −3, 94 , and directrix y = 74 . (2, −3), focus 2, − 23 25
8 , and directrix y = − 8 .
y y

40 40

30 30

20 20

7 10 10
y= 4
_2 2 4 6
_10 _8 _6 _4 _2 0 2 x 0 x
25
y=_ 8

2
71. 4y 2 − 4y − 32x − 31 = 0 ⇔ 72. 9x 2 + 6x + 9y − 8 = 0 ⇔ 9 x + 13 − 1 + 9y − 8 = 0
2
4 y − 12 − 1 − 32x − 31 = 0 ⇔ 2
⇔ x + 13 = − (y − 1) represents a parabola with
2
y − 12 = 8 (x + 1) represents a parabola with vertex vertex − 13 , 1 , focus − 13 , 34 , and directrix y = 54 .

−1, 12 , focus 1, 12 , and directrix x = −3. y

5
2 y= 4
y
6
_3 _2 _1 0 1 2 x
4
2 _2

_3 _2 _1 0 1 2 3 x _4
_2
_4
_6 _6
 Section 10.1 Conic Sections 701

y
73. (x − 1)2 + 4 (y + 2)2 = 1 has center (1, −2) and vertices (0, −2) and (2, −2).
0 2 x
√ √
1
c= a 2 − b2 = 1 − 14 = 23 , so the foci are 1 ± 23 , −2 .
_1

_2

_3

74. We complete the squares and put the equation into standard form: y
2
2x 2 + y 2 − 20x + 2y + 43 = 0 ⇔ 2 (x − 5)2 − 50 + (y + 1)2 − 1 + 43 = 0 ⇔
2 2
2 (x − 5)2 + (y + 1)2 = 8 ⇔ (x−45) + (y+81) = 1 has center (5, −1) and 0 2 4 6 x
√ _2
vertices 5, −1 ± 2 2 . c = a 2 − b2 = 2, so the foci are (5, −3) and (5, 1).
_4

75. We complete the squares and put the equation into standard form: y

x 2 + 4y 2 − 2x + 16y + 13 = 0 ⇔ (x − 1)2 − 1 + 4 (y + 2)2 − 16 + 13 = 0 ⇔ _1 0 1 2 3 x

2 _1
(x − 1)2 + 4 (y + 2)2 = 4 ⇔ (x−41) + (y + 2)2 = 1 has center (1, −2) and
√ _2
vertices (−1, −2) and (3, −2). c = a 2 − b2 = 3, so the foci are
√ _3
1 ± 3, −2 .

76. 2x 2 + y 2 + 12x − 6y + 25 = 0 ⇔ 2 (x + 3)2 − 18 + (y − 3)2 − 9 + 25 = 0 ⇔ y

2 √
(x + 3)2 + (y−23) = 1 has center (−3, 3) and vertices −3, 3 ± 2 . 4

3
c= a 2 − b2 = 1, so the foci are (−3, 2) and (−3, 4).
2

_5 _4 _3 _2 _1 x
_1

2
77. 4x 2 + 9y 2 − 18x − 27 = 0 ⇔ 4 x − 94 − 81 2
4 + 9y − 27 = 0 ⇔
y
2
2
16 x− 94 y2
√
+ 421 = 1 has center 94 , 0 and vertices 94 ± 3 421 , 0 . 1
189
√ √
189 − 21 = 105 , so the foci are 9 ± 105 , 0 . _1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
c= a 2 − b2 = 16 4 4 4 4
_1

_2

78. 9x 2 + 36y 2 − 36x + 48y + 43 = 0 ⇔ x 1 2 3

9 (x − 2)2 − 36 + 36 y + 23 − 16 + 43 = 0 ⇔ (x − 2)2 + 4 y + 23 = 1 has 0 x
2 2

√
center 2, − 23 and vertices 1, − 23 and 3, − 23 . c = a 2 − b2 = 23 , so the
√
foci are 2 ± 23 , − 23 . _1
702 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

79. We complete the square in y and put the equation into standard form: y

x2 (y+1)2 2
3x 2 − 4y 2 − 8y − 16 = 0 ⇔ 3x 2 − 4 (y + 1)2 + 4 − 16 = 0 ⇔ 4 − 3 = 1
√
has center (0, −1) and vertices (±2, −1). c = a 2 + b2 = 7, so the foci are _4 _2 0 2 4 x
√
√ _2
± 7, −1 . The asymptotes have slopes ± ab = ± 23 , so their equations are
√ √ _4
y + 1 = ± 23 x ⇔ y = ± 23 x − 1.

80. 4x 2 − 9y 2 − 16x − 54y + 79 = 0 ⇔ 4 (x − 2)2 − 16 − 9 (y + 3)2 + 81 + 79 = 0 y

3)2 (x−2)2 5
⇔ 4 (x − 2)2 − 9 (y + 3)2 = −144 ⇔ (y+ 16 − 36 = 1 has center (2, −3)
√
and vertices (2, −7) and (2, 1). c = a 2 + b2 = 2 13, so the foci are _15 _10 _5 0 5 10 15 20 x
√ _5
2, −3 ± 2 13 . The asymptotes have slopes ± ab = ± 23 , so their equations are
_10
y + 3 = ± 23 (x − 2) ⇔ y = 23 x − 13 2 5
3 and y = − 3 x − 3 . _15

81. 2x 2 − 3y 2 − 4x + 12y + 8 = 0 ⇔ 2 (x − 1)2 − 2 − 3 (y − 2)2 + 12 + 8 = 0 ⇔ y

2 2 8
2 (x − 1)2 − 3 (y − 2)2 = −18 ⇔ (y−62) − (x−91) = 1 has center (1, 2) and
6
√ √ √
vertices 1, 2 ± 6 . c = a 2 + b2 = 15, so the foci are 1, 2 ± 15 . The 4
√ √ 2
asymptotes have slopes ± 36 , so their equations are y − 2 = ± 36 (x − 1). 0
_6 _4 _2 2 4 6 x
_2
_4

82. 4y 2 − 9x 2 + 18x + 16y + 43 = 0 ⇔ −9 (x − 1)2 + 9 + 4 (y + 2)2 − 16 + 43 = 0 y

(x−1)2 (y+2)2 5
⇔ −9 (x − 1)2 + 4 (y + 2)2 = −36 ⇔ 4 − 9 = 1 has center (1, −2)
√
and vertices (−1, −2) and (3, −2). c = a 2 + b2 = 13, so the foci are _4 4 8 x
√
1 ± 13, −2 . The asymptotes have slopes ± 32 and equations _5

_10
y + 2 = ± 32 (x − 1).

83. 4x 2 − 2y 2 + 8x + 8y − 12 = 0 ⇔ 4 (x + 1)2 − 4 − 2 (y − 2)2 + 8 − 12 = 0 ⇔ y

(x+1)2 2 √ 10
2 − (y−42) = 1 has center (−1, 2) and vertices −1 ± 2, 2 .
√ √ 5
c= a 2 + b2 = 6, so the foci are −1 ± 6, 2 . The asymptotes are
√
y − 2 = ± 2 (x + 1). _8 _6 _4 _2 0 2 4 6 x

_5

84. 4x 2 − 3y 2 − 12y − 3 = 0 ⇔ 4x 2 − 3 y 2 + 4y + 4 = 3 − 12 ⇔ y
2
2 2
4x 2 − 3 (y + 2)2 = −9 ⇔ (y+32) − 9x/4 = 1 has center (0, −2) and vertices 0
_4 _2 2 4 y
√ √
√ _2
0, −2 ± 3 . c = a 2 + b2 = 94 + 3 = 221 , so the foci are 0, −2 ± 221 .
√ √ _4
The asymptotes are y + 2 = ± 3/32 (x − 0) ⇒ y = ± 2 3 3 x − 2. _6
 Section 10.1 Conic Sections 703

85. We set up a coordinate system with the origin at the vertex of the parabola and the positive x-axis pointing to the right. By
inspection, the parabola has equation y 2 = x, so its focus is 14 , 0 . The light source should be placed 14 ft from the vertex
along the axis of symmetry of the parabola.
a
2
a 2hx 2
86. The length of the cable is exactly s = 2 1+ y dx = 2 1+ dx. Expanding the integrand
0 0 a2

2hx 2 1/2 1 2hx 2

1 −1
2hx 4
2 2
using the binomial series, we get 1 + = 1+ + + · · · , so
a2 2 a2 2 a2
a
a 1 2hx 2 2h 2 3 2h 2
s≈2 1+ 2
dx = 2 x + 4
x = 2a 1 + 2 . Substituting the given values a = 200 and h = 80,
0 2 a 3a 3a
0
2 · 802
we get s ≈ 2 · 200 1 + ≈ 443 ft. This is quite close to the calculated value of 439 ft in Example 3.
3 · 2002
60x 2 x2 x
87. We proceed in Example 3, but with y = 2
= ⇒y = . The length is thus
300 1500 750
300
300 x 2 2 300 1 x 7502
s =2 1+ dx = 7502 + x 2 dx = 7502 + x 2 + ln x + 7502 + x 2
0 750 750 0 375 2 2
0
≈ 616 ft
88. Using the formula for the area of a surface of revolution,
2 2 81 2 + x 2 dx.
A = 2π 09 x 1 + y dx = 2π 09 x 1 + 81
8 x dx = 16π 9
81 0 x 8

Substituting u = x 2 ⇒ du = 2x dx, we calculate

3/2 81
π 81
A = 881 81 2 + udu = 8π · 2 81 2 + u =
145 √
11,745 −
2187
π ≈ 299.54, or about 300 in2 .
0 8 81 3 8 96 32
0
dy W W 2 W 2
89. = x⇒y= x + C and y (0) = 0 ⇒ y = x , a parabola.
dx H 2H 2H
W 2
90. As seen in Exercise 89, the parabolic cable has equation y = x , and since (a, h) is the
2H
W 2 W 2
topmost point, h = a ⇔ H = a . The tension at the topmost point has magnitude
2H 2h
W 2 2 aW a 2 + 4h 2
(T cos φ)2 + (T sin φ)2 = H 2 + (W x)2 = a + (W a)2 = .
2h 2h
91. If the origin is at the center of the ellipse, then one arch has major axis of length 2a = 24 and minor axis of length
x2 y2 62 y2
2b = 16, so an equation is + = 1. So 6 units from the center of the base, we have + =1⇔
144 64 144 64
36 · 64 √
y= 64 − = 4 3 ≈ 6.93 ft.
144
92. a. y = ax 2 ⇒ y = 2ax. When x = x0 , an equation of the tangent line c. y
y=ax@
is y − ax02 = 2ax0 (x − x0 ) or y = ax0 (2x − x0 ).

b. Setting y = 0, we get ax0 (2x − x0 ) = 0 ⇒ x = x0 /2.

(xü,yü)

0 xü x
2
704 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

93. Suppose a parabola has equation y = ax 2 . Then the tangent line where x = x0 has slope 2ax0 and equation
y = ax0 (2x − x0 ), and the tangent line where x = x1 has slope 2ax1 and equation y = ax1 (2x − x1 ). Solving these two
equations gives ax0 (2x − x0 ) = ax1 (2x − x1 ) ⇒ x = 12 (x0 + x1 ), the x-coordinate of the unique point of intersection of
the two tangent lines.

94. a. Differentiating implicitly, we get y 2 = 4 px ⇒ 2yy = 4 p ⇒ c. y

2p
y = . At (x0 , y0 ), the tangent line has equation y@=4px
y
(xü,yü)
2p
y − y0 = (x − x0 ) ⇔ yy0 − y02 = 2 p (x − x0 ) ⇔
y0
yy0 − 4 px0 = 2 px − 2 px0 ⇔ yy0 = 2 p (x + x0 ). _xü 0 x

b. Setting y = 0, we get 0 = 2 p (x + x0 ) ⇒ x = −x0 .

p>0

x2 y2 b2 x
95. Differentiating implicitly, we get 2 + 2 = 1 ⇒ b2 x 2 + a 2 y 2 = a 2 b2 ⇒ 2b2 x + 2a 2 yy = 0 ⇒ y = − 2 .
a b a y
b2 x yy y2 x
An equation of the tangent line at (x0 , y0 ) is y − y0 = − 2 0 (x − x0 ) ⇒ 20 − 02 = − 02 (x − x0 ) ⇒
a y0 b b a
x x0 yy0 x02 y02
+ = + = 1.
a2 b2 a2 b2
√
√ x (1) y 523 √ √ √
96. At 1, 5 2 3 , the tangent line satisfies + = 1 ⇒ 4 · 5 2 3 y = −25x + 100 ⇒ y = − 5 6 3 x + 103 3 .
4 25

x 2 y2 b2 x
97. Differentiating implicitly, we get 2 − 2 = 1 ⇒ b2 x 2 − a 2 y 2 = a 2 b2 ⇒ 2b2 x − 2a 2 yy = 0 ⇒ y = 2 . An equation
a b a y
b2 x yy y2 x xx yy x2 y2
of the tangent line at (x0 , y0 ) is y − y0 = 2 0 (x − x0 ) ⇒ 20 − 02 = 02 (x − x0 ) ⇒ 20 − 20 = 02 − 02 = 1.
a y0 b b a a b a b
√
√ x (4) y 3 3 √ √ √
98. At 4, 3 3 , the tangent line satisfies − = 1 ⇒ 33 y = x − 1 ⇒ y = 3x − 3.
4 9

x2 2y 2
99. We differentiate each equation implicitly: + = 1 ⇒ b2 x 2 + 2a 2 y 2 = 1 ⇒ 2b2 x + 4a 2 yy = 0 ⇒
a2 b2
b2 x x2 2y 2
y =− 2
, and 2 2
− 2 = 1 ⇒ b2 x 2 − 2 a 2 − b2 y 2 = b2 a 2 − b2 ⇒ 2b2 x − 4 a 2 − b2 yy = 0 ⇒
2a y a −b b
b2 x
y = . The two curves are perpendicular at a shared point (x0 , y0 ) if the slopes of their tangents are negative
2 a 2 − b2 y
b2 x 0 b2 x0 b4 x02 b2 b2 x02
reciprocals. The product of these slopes is − · = = , but
2a 2 y0 2 a 2 − b2 y0 4a 2 b2 − a 2 y02 4y02 b2 − a 2 a 2
x2 2y 2 x2 2y 2 4y 2 1 1 b2 x02
(x0 , y0 ) lies on both curves, so 02 + 20 = 2 0 2 − 20 ⇔ 20 = x02 − 2 =− , so our
a b a −b b b a 2 − b2 a b − a2 a2
2

b2 4y 2
expression for the product of the slopes becomes − 20 = −1. Thus, the two curves are perpendicular at every
4y02 b
point of intersection.
 Section 10.1 Conic Sections 705
T T
100. Suppose that (x, y) lies on the hyperbola with foci (±c, 0). Then by definition, (x + c)2 + y 2 − (x − c)2 + y 2 = k,
T T
a constant. But (a, 0) is on the hyperbola, so (a + c)2 − (a − c)2 = (a + c) − (c − a) = 2a, since
T T T T
c > a. Continuing, (x + c)2 + y 2 − (x − c)2 + y 2 = 2a ⇔ (x + c)2 + y 2 = 2a + (x − c)2 + y 2 ⇒
T T
x 2 + 2cx + c2 + y 2 = 4a 2 + 4a (x − c)2 + y 2 + x 2 − 2cx + c2 + y 2 ⇔ a (x − c)2 + y 2 = −a 2 + cx ⇒
r s r s r s
a 2 x 2 − 2cx + c2 + y 2 = a 4 − 2a 2 cx + c2 x 2 ⇔ c2 − a 2 x 2 − a 2 y 2 = a 2 c2 − a 2 . If we let b2 = c2 − a 2 > 0,

x2 y2
then dividing by a 2 b2 gives the familiar equation 2 − 2 = 1.
a b
x2 y2 bS 2
101. 2 − 2 = 1 ⇒ y = ± x − a 2 . Consider
a b a
v t u w  S 
b b S 2 b r S s b r S s x + x 2 − a2
lim ± x − ± 2
x − a = ± lim x − x − a = ± lim2 2 2
x − x −a 2 S
x→∞ a a a x→∞ a x→∞ x + x 2 − a2
b a2
=± lim S =0
a x→∞ x + x 2 − a2
b x2 y2
This shows that y = ± x are asymptotes of 2
− 2 = 1.
a t a b
u
ft
102. a. The difference in distances is (800 μs) 980 = 784,000 ft ≈ 148.5 mi. So 2a ≈ 148.5 ⇒ a ≈ 74.25 and c = 100,
μs
S S x2 y2
giving b = c2 − a 2 ≈ 1002 − 74.252 ≈ 67. Thus, the hyperbola’s equation is roughly − = 1.
74.252 672
Y ‚ 
X
x2 202 X 202
b. In this case y = 20, so we solve W 2
− 2 = 1 ⇒ x = 74.25 1 + 2 ≈ 77.5. The ship is located at
74.252 67 67
approximately (77.5 mi, 20 mi) in the coordinate system shown.
4 x 2 x
103. Differentiating implicitly, we find 4x 2 + 25y 2 = 100 ⇒ 8x + 50yy = 0 ⇒ y = − =− S
25 y 5 25 − x 2
for y > 0. So using the arc length formula and the symmetry of the ellipse, we can write
Y ‚ 2
X
55T b c2 55X W 2 x
C = 4 0 1 + y dx = 4 0 1 + S dx ≈ 23.013, using a computer algebra system.
5 25 − x 2

x2 y2
104. We are given 2a = 7.33 × 109 and 2b = 7.08 × 109 . The ellipse has equation 2 + 2 = 1 ⇒ b2 x 2 + a 2 y 2 = a 2 b2 ⇒
a b
b 2 x S b x
2b2 x + 2a 2 yy = 0 ⇒ y = − 2 . Also, for positive x and y, y = b 1 − x 2 /a 2 , so we can write y = − S
a y a a2 − x 2
Y ‚ 
X
5 T
2
b c2 5 X b x
So the approximate length of Pluto’s orbit is 4 0a 1 + y dx = 4 0a W1 + S dx ≈ 2.2637 × 1010 mi,
a a2 − x 2
using a computer algebra system.
2p
105. a. To calculate tan β, we first calculate the y-intercept of . Note that y 2 = 4 px ⇒ 2yy = 4 p, so at P, y =
y0
2p 2 px0
and an equation of the tangent is y − y0 = (x − x0 ). Substituting x = 0 gives y = y0 − , so
y0 y0
t u
2 px0
y0 − y0 −
y0 2 px0 2p
tan β = = = .
x0 x0 y0 y0
 706 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

y0
b. tan φ = by inspection.
x0 − p
c. φ and α + β are alternate angles, so φ = α + β ⇒ α = φ − β and
y0 2p
−
tan φ − tan β x0 − p y0 y 2 − 2 p (x0 − p)
tan α = = = 0 . Substituting y02 = 4 px0 , we find that this is equal
1 + tan φ tan β y0 2 p (x0 − p) y0 + 2 py0
1+
x0 − p y0
4 px0 − 2 p (x0 − p) 2 p (x0 + p) 2p
to = = . In other words, α = β.
(x0 − p) y0 + 2 py0 y0 ( p + x0 ) y0

106. Using the result of Exercise 95, we see that the slope of is y
j
b2 x b2 x0
m = tan θ1 = − 2 0 ⇔ tan θ 2 = . Next, b
a y0 a 2 y0 P(xü,yü)
º
»
y0 Œ
tan θ3 = and θ3 = α + θ2 ⇔ α = θ3 − θ2 , so ¬Á
c − x0 ¬¢ ¬£ ¬ª
_a (_c, 0) 0 (c, 0) a x
tan θ3 − tan θ2
tan α = tan (θ3 − θ 2 ) =
1 + tan θ3 tan θ 2
y0 b2 x _b
− 2 0
c − x0 a y0
=
y0 b2 x
1+ · 2 0
c − x0 a y0
a 2 y 2 − b2 cx0 + b2 x02 a 2 b2 − b2 x02 − b2 cx0 + b2 x02
= 2 0 2 2
= (since b2 x02 + a 2 y02 = a 2 b2 )
a cy0 − a x0 y0 + b x0 y0 a 2 cy0 + b2 − a 2 x0 y0
a 2 − cx0 b2 a 2 − cx0 b2 b2
= 2 = (since a 2 − b2 = c2 ) =
a cy0 − c2 x0 y0 a 2 − cx0 cy0 cy0
y0 b2 x
+ 2 0
tan θ4 + tan θ2 x0 + c a y0 a 2 y 2 + b2 x02 + b2 cx0
Next, β = θ4 + θ2 , so tan β = tan (θ 4 + θ2 ) = = 2
= 2 0
1 − tan θ4 tan θ2 y0 b x a x0 y0 + a 2 cy0 − b2 x0 y0
1− · 2 0
x0 + c a y0

a 2 b2 − b2 x02 + b2 x02 + b2 cx0 a 2 + cx0 b2 a 2 + cx0 b2 b2

= = 2 = =
a 2 cy0 + a 2 − b2 x0 y0 a cy0 + c2 x0 y0 a 2 + cx0 cy0 cy0
We have shown that tan α = tan β, and so α = β.

107. Using the result of Exercise 97, the slope of T at (x0 , y0 ) is jN jT

»
b2 x a2 y Œ
m T = 2 0 , so the slope of N is m N = − 2 0 . Note that ¬Á ¬¢
a y0 b x0 £
º ¬ª
to prove that α = β, it suffices to show that θ1 = θ2 , since ¬£ ¬° ¬§ ¬¢ xÁ x
FÁ(_c, 0) Fª(c, 0)
θ1 + β = θ2 + α = π 2 . Also note that θ 1 = θ 3 + θ 4 ,
θ2 = θ5 − α, and θ5 = π − θ6 . An equation of the normal
a2 y
line N is y − y0 = − 2 0 (x − x0 ). Setting y = 0 gives
b x0
b2 x 0
the x-intercept of N as x1 = x0 + .
a2
 Section 10.1 Conic Sections 707

y0 a2 y y0 y0
Now tan θ4 = = 2 0 , tan θ3 = , and tan θ6 = , so
x1 − x0 b x0 x0 + c x0 − c
tan π − tan θ6 y0
tan θ5 = tan (π − θ6 ) = = − tan θ6 = . Using the relationships b2 x02 − a 2 y02 = a 2 b2 and
1 + tan π tan θ6 c − x0
y0 a2 y
+ 2 0
tan θ3 + tan θ 4 x0 + c b x0 cy
c2 = a 2 + b2 , we can show that tan θ1 = tan (θ 3 + θ4 ) = = 2
= 0 and
1 − tan θ3 tan θ4 y0 a y b
1− · 2 0
x0 + c b x0
y0 a2 y
− 2 0
tan θ5 − tan θ4 c − x0 b x0 cy
tan θ2 = tan (θ5 − θ4 ) = = = 0 . Therefore, tan θ1 = tan θ2 , showing that
1 + tan θ5 tan θ4 y0 a 2 y0 b
1+ ·
c − x 0 b2 x 0
θ1 = θ2 and thus α = β.
108. Rays coming toward the parabolic mirror from a great
distance may be assumed to be parallel to the shared axis of FH
ŒH FP
the parabola and the hyperbola. Using the result of ŒP Hyperbolic mirror
Exercise 105, we see that α p = β p , and so the ray is ºH
P ºP
reflected toward the focus F p of the parabola. Using the
result of Exercise 107, we see that α H = β H , and since FH
F»H
and FP are the same point, we see that the ray is finally Parabolic mirror

focused at FH .
y2 x2
109. True. If F > 0, then 2x 2 − y 2 + F = 0 ⇔ − = 1 is a hyperbola with transverse axis the y-axis. If F < 0, then
F F
2
x2 y2
2x 2 − y 2 + F = 0 ⇔ |F| − = 1 is a hyperbola with transverse axis the x-axis.
|F|
2
√
110. False. y 4 = 16ax 2 ⇔ y 2 = ±4 ax, whose graph is two 111. True. The ellipse b2 x 2 + a 2 y 2 = a 2 b2 (a > b > 0) is
parabolas that are reflections of each other in the y-axis. contained in the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 and contains the
y
circle x 2 + y 2 = b2 .
y
x@+y@=a@

b
0 x
x@+y@=b@
_a 0 a x

_b

112. True. The asymptotes have the form y = ±x.

113. False. Take A = 1, C = 4, D = 0, E = 0, and F = 5. Then we have x 2 + 4y 2 + 5 = 0 ⇔ x 2 + 4y 2 = −5 which has no
solution.
114. False. Take A = 1, C = −1, D = 0, E = 0, and F = 0. Then we have x 2 − y 2 = 0, whose graph is two intersecting lines
passing through the origin.
708 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

10.2 Concept Questions

1. For the definition of a plane curve, see page 849. The plane curve C : x = cos θ, y = sin θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π is a plane curve
(circle) that is not the graph of a function.

2. C1 and C2 have the same graph (the circle x 2 + y 2 = 1), 3. C1 and C2 have the same graph, but C1 has initial point
but C1 has initial point (1, 0) and counterclockwise P0 ( f (0) , g (0)) and terminal point P1 ( f (1) , g (1)),
orientation, whereas C2 starts out at the point (0, 1) and whereas C2 begins at the point P1 and traces the curve in
has clockwise orientation. the opposite direction, ending at P0 .
y y y y
(0, 1) PÁ PÁ
CÁ Cª
CÁ Cª

0 (1, 0) x 0 x Pü Pü

0 x 0 x

10.2 Plane Curves and Parametric Equations

x = 2t + 1 x =t −2
1. a. ⇒ x = 2 (y + 3) + 1 or 2. a. ⇒ y = 2 (x + 2) − 1 or
y +3 =t y = 2t − 1
x − 2y − 7 = 0 y = 2x + 3, −3 ≤ x ≤ 3
y y
b. b.
5 8

4
_15 _10 _5 0 5 10 x

_5 _4 _2 0 2 x

_4
_10
The orientation is found by observing that as t
The orientation is found by observing that as t
increases, so does x.
increases, so does x.

√
x= t x = t2
3. a. ⇒ y = 9 − x 2, x ≥ 0 4. a. for 0 ≤ t ≤ 3 ⇒ x = (y + 1)2 for
y =9−t y = t −1
y −1 ≤ y ≤ 2
b. 10
b. y
5
2

_2 0 2 4 x 1
_5
_2 0 2 4 6 8 x
_10 _1
The orientation is found by observing that as t _2
increases, so does x. Note that as t increases, so does x
 Section 10.2 Plane Curves and Parametric Equations 709

x = t2 + 1 x = t3 y−1 y−1 3
5. a. for −2 ≤ t ≤ 2 ⇒ 6. a. ⇒t = , so x =
y = 2t 2 − 1 y = 2t + 1 2 2
y = 2 (x − 1) − 1 ⇒ y = 2x − 3, 1 ≤ x ≤ 5 or 8x = (y − 1)3
b. y y
b.
6 5

4
_10 _5 0 5 x
2
_5

0 2 4 6 x
_2
Observe that as t increases, so does x.

Observe that the curve starts at (5, 7), moves

along the line segment to (1, −1), then returns to
(5, 7).

x = t2 x = 1 + 1t 1
7. a. ⇒ x = y 2/3 , −8 ≤ y ≤ 8 8. a. ⇒x =1+
y = t3 y =t +1 y−1

b. y y
b.
8 4
4
2
_1 0 1 2 3 4 x
_4
_4 _2 0 2 4 x
_8
_2
Observe that y increases as t increases.
_4

Observe that as t increases, so does y.

x = 2 sin θ sin θ = 12 x x = cos 2θ

9. a. ⇒ ⇒ 10. a. ⇒ x = 1 − 2 sin2 θ, so
y = 2 cos θ cos θ = 12 y y = 3 sin θ

1x 2 + 1 y 2 = sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1, so 2
x = 1 − 2 13 y ⇔ 2 19 y 2 = 1 − x ⇔
2 2

x 2 + y 2 = 4. 2y 2 = 9 − 9x, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.

b. y b. y
2 3
2
1
1

_2 _1 0 1 2 x _2 _1 0 1 2 x
_1
_1 _2
_3
_2
_4
Observe that as θ increases from 0 to 2π, the
As θ increases from 0 to 2π, the curve C is
curve C is traced once in a clockwise direction
traced from (1, 0) to (−1, 3), back through (1, 0)
starting from the point (0, 2).
to (−1, −3), and finally back to (1, 0).
710 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

x = 2 sin θ sin θ = 12 x x = cos θ + 1 cos θ = x − 1

11. a. ⇒ ⇒ 12. a. ⇒ ⇒
y = 3 cos θ cos θ = 13 y y = sin θ − 2 sin θ = y + 2

1x 2 + 1 y 2 = sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 ⇒ (x − 1)2 + (y + 2)2 = sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 ⇒

2 3
(x − 1)2 + (y + 2)2 = 1
1 x 2 + 1 y2 = 1
4 9 y
b.
b. y
3 0 1 2 x

2 _1
1
_2
_2 _1 0 1 2 x
_1 _3
_2

_3

x = 2 cos θ + 2 cos θ = 12 (x − 2) x = sin θ + 3 sin θ = x − 3

13. a. ⇒ 14. a. ⇒
y = 3 sin θ − 1 sin θ = 13 (y + 1) y = 3 cos θ + 1 cos θ = 13 (y − 1)
2 2 ⇒
⇒ 12 (x − 2) + 13 (y + 1) = sin2 θ + 2
(x − 3)2 + 13 (y − 1) = sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
cos2 θ = 1 ⇒ 14 (x − 2)2 + 19 (y + 1)2 = 1
⇒ (x − 3)2 + 19 (y − 1)2 = 1
b. y
2 b. y

1 4

_1 0 1 2 3 4 x
_1 2
_2
_3
_1 0 1 2 3 4 x
_4
_5 _2

x = cos θ x = cos θ x = sec θ 1 1

15. a. ⇒ ⇒ 16. a. ⇒x = ⇒y= ,
y = cos 2θ y = 2 cos2 θ − 1 y = cos θ cos θ x

y = 2x 2 − 1, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 x ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞)

y b. y
b.
1
1

_4 _2 0 2 4 x
_1
_1 0 1 x

Observe that θ = π
2 ± nπ for n = 0, ±1, ±2.
_1
 Section 10.2 Plane Curves and Parametric Equations 711

x = sec θ x 2 = sec2 θ x = cos3 θ cos θ = x 1/3

17. a. ⇒ From the 18. a. ⇒ ⇒
y = tan θ y 2 = tan2 θ y = sin3 θ sin θ = y 1/3

identity sec2 θ = 1 + tan2 θ, we obtain x 1/3

2
+ y 1/3
2
= cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1 ⇒
x 2 − y 2 = 1, x ≥ 1.
x 2/3 + y 2/3 = 1
b. y
b. y
4 1

0 2 4 6 x
_2 _1 0 1 x

_4

_6 _1

x = sin2 θ x = et 1 1
19. a. ⇒ y = x 2, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 20. a. ⇒y= t = ,x >0
y = sin4 θ y = e−t e x

b. y b. y
1
4

0 1 x 0 2 4 x

x = −et 2 x = t3
21. a. ⇒ y = et = (−x)2 ⇒ y = x 2 , 22. a. ⇒ ln x = ln t 3 = 3 ln t ⇒ y = ln x
y = e2t y = 3 ln t
x <0 y
b.
b. y 1

10
_1 0 1 2 3 x
_1

_2
5
_3

_4

_5 0 x
712 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

x = ln 2t x = et
23. a. ⇒ e x = 2t ⇒ t = 12 e x ⇒ 24. a. ⇒ ln x = t ⇒ y = ln (ln x), x > 1
y = t2 y = ln t
2 b. y
y = 12 e x = 14 e2x 2
y
b.
4 0 10 20 30 40 x
3 _2
2
_4
1

_5 _4 _3 _2 _1 0 1 2 x
_1
_2

x = cosh t x = 3 sinh t
25. a. ⇒ 26. a. ⇒
y = sinh t y = 2 cosh t

x 2 − y 2 = cosh2 t − sinh2 t = 1 ⇒ x 2 − y 2 = 1, 1y 2 − 1 x 2 = cosh2 t − sinh2 t = 1 ⇒

2 3
x ≥1
1 y 2 − 1 x 2 = 1, y ≥ 1
b. y 4 9

2 b. y

1 3

_1 0 1 2 3 x 2
_1
1
_2
_3 _6 _4 _2 0 2 4 x
_1

x = (t − 1)2 y
27. a. ⇒ y = x 3/2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 b.
y = (t − 1)3 1

0 1 x
⎫
2t ⎪ 2
x= ⎪
⎬ 4t 2 + 1 − 2t 2 + t 4 1 + t2
1 + t2 2 + y2 = 1 + 2t 2 + t 4
28. a. ⇒ x = = ⇒ x 2 + y 2 = 1, y = −1
1 − t2 ⎪
⎪ 1 + t2
2
1 + t2
2
1 + t2
2
y= ⎭
1+t 2

y 2t
b. At t = 0, the point is at (0, 1). But lim = 0 and
1 t→∞ 1 + t 2

1 − t2
lim = −1, so the curve is traced in a clockwise
t→∞ 1 + t 2
direction and approaches but does not get to (0, −1) along
_1 0 1 x
the unit circle. A similar analysis holds for t < 0.

_1
 Section 10.2 Plane Curves and Parametric Equations 713

x =t +1 √ y
29. √ ⇒y= x − 1 and 0 ≤ t ≤ 4 ⇒ 1 ≤ x ≤ 5. At t = 0, the
y= t 2

particle is located at the point (1, 0). As t increases, the particle moves 1

along the parabola toward the point (5, 2). _1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x

x = sin πt y
30. ⇒ x 2 + y 2 = sin2 πt + cos2 πt = 1. The particle starts (t=0)
y = cos πt
1
out at the point (0, 1) and traverses the circle of radius 1 centered at the
origin in a clockwise direction, making a total of three circuits.
_1 0 1 x

_1

x = 1 + cos t y
31. ⇒ (x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2 = cos2 t + sin2 t = 1. The
y = 2 + sin t
2 (t=0)
particle starts out at the point (2, 2) (corresponding to t = 0) and traverses
the circle of radius 1 centered at the point (1, 2) exactly once in the 1
counterclockwise direction.
0 1 2 x

x = 1 + 2 sin 2t y
32. ⇒ y = 2x and 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π ⇒ −1 ≤ x ≤ 3. The
y = 2 + 4 sin 2t 6 (3, 6)

particle starts out at the point (1, 2) and moves along the line y = 2x 4
toward the point (3, 6), then reverses direction and moves to the point
2
(−1, −2), at which it reverses direction again before returning to (1, 2).

_1 0 1 2 3 x

(_1, _2)

x = sin t y
33. ⇒ y = x 2 and 0 ≤ t ≤ 3π ⇒ −1 ≤ x ≤ 1. The particle (_1, 1) (1, 1)
y = sin2 t 1

starts out at (0, 0) and moves to the right along the parabola y = x 2 until it
reaches the point (1, 1). It then reverses direction and moves to (−1, 1),
then again to (1, 1), and finally back to (0, 0). _1 0 1 x

34. x = e−t , y = e2t−1 y

10
t 0 1 2 3
x 1 1/e 1/e2 1/e3
y 1/e e e3 e5
1 (1, 1/e)
The particle starts out at (1, 1/e) and moves along the curve y =
ex 2 0 1 x
toward its vertical asymptote x = 0 as t → ∞.
714 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

x = tan (0.025πt) y (miles)

35. ⇒
y = sec (0.025πt) − 1 1
(Ï3, 1)
(y + 1)2 = sec2 (0.025πt) = 1 + tan2 (0.025πt) = 1 + x 2 . In
rectangular coordinates, the equation is thus (y + 1)2 = x 2 + 1. If t = 0,
√
x = 0 and y = 0. If t = 40 0 1 2 x (miles)
3 , x = 3 and y = 1.
36. x = (v 0 cos α) t, y = (v 0 sin α) t − 12 gt 2 .
2v sin α
a. The shell is on the ground when y = (v 0 sin α) t − 12 gt 2 = 0; that is, when t = 0 and when t = 0 . The range is
g
2v 0 sin α 2v 2 sin α cos α v2
x = v 0 cos α · = 0 = 0 sin 2α ft.
g g g
v 0 sin α
b. y = v 0 sin α − gt = 0 ⇔ t = , so the maximum height is
g
v 0 sin α g v 0 sin α 2 v 2 sin2 α
ymax = (v 0 sin α) − = 0 ft.
g 2 g 2g
x x 1 x 2 g
c. t = , so y = (v 0 sin α) − g = (tan α) x − 2 x 2 , which represents a
v 0 cos α v 0 cos α 2 v 0 cos α 2v 0 cos2 α
parabola.
x − x1
37. a. x = x1 + (x2 − x1 ) t and y = y1 + (y2 − y1 ) t. From the first equation, we find t = . Substituting this
x 2 − x1
x − x1 y − y1 x (y − y1 )
expression into the second equation gives y = y1 + (y2 − y1 ) = y1 + 2 x− 1 2 , which is a
x2 − x1 x2 − x1 x2 − x1
linear equation in x and y. Since (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) both satisfy the equation, we see that P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 )
both lie on the line.
b. If t = 0, x = x1 and y = y1 , so (x1 , y1 ) is on the line. If t = 1, then x = x2 and y = y2 , so (x2 , y2 ) is on the line. As t
increases from t = 0 to t = 1, the line segment joining P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 ) is traced out.

x −h y−k x −h 2 y −k 2
38. x = a cos t + h and y = b sin t + k ⇒ = cos t and = sin t ⇒ + = cos2 t + sin2 t ⇔
a b a b
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ = 1, which is an equation of the ellipse with center (h, k) and axes with lengths 2a and 2b.
a2 b2
x −h y −k x −h 2 y−k 2
39. x = a sec t + h and y = b tan t + k ⇒ = sec t and = tan t ⇒ − = sec2 t − tan2 t ⇔
a b a b
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
− = 1, which is an equation of the hyperbola with center (h, k) and transverse and conjugate axes 2a
a2 b2
and 2b respectively.
40. Referring to the first and second diagrams, point C is (rθ, r ) and point Q is (rθ, r + d cos (θ − π)) = (rθ, r − d cos θ).
The point P on the trochoid is thus (rθ + d sin (θ − π) , r − d cos θ) = (rθ − d sin θ, r − d cos θ). Therefore, if P (x, y)
denotes the point in rectangular coordinates, we have x = r θ − d sin θ and y = r − d cos θ. The second diagram shows the
trochoid for d < r , and the last shows it for d > r.
y
y
P
Q P
¬
C

Π0 x
C ¬-¹ 0 r¬ x
 Section 10.2 Plane Curves and Parametric Equations 715

41. AB = x = 2a cot θ and P B is perpendicular to the x-axis, so PC is parallel to it. Therefore,

y = OC sin θ = (2a sin θ) sin θ = 2a sin2 θ.
y

A B
y=2a
¬
¬
(0, a)
P(x, y)
C
¬
0 x

42. The point Q is (a cos θ, a sin θ). Since Q P was unwound from the arc
y
Q A, the length of Q P is aθ. Also, α = π
2 − θ. Therefore,

x = a cos θ + aθ cos α = a cos θ + aθ cos π y=2a Q ¬

2 −θ Œ R
Œ
= a cos θ + aθ sin θ = a (cos θ + θ sin θ) ¬ P(x, y)
A(a, 0) x
and
y = a sin θ − aθ sin α = a sin θ − aθ sin π
2 −θ
= a sin θ − aθ cos θ = a (sin θ − θ cos θ)

43. 44.
10
2

0 0

-2
-10

-2 0 2 -5 0 5

45. 46.
5
2

0 0

-2

-2 0 2 -5 0 5
716 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

47. 48.

1
2

0
-1
-1 0 1
-2 0 2

49. 50.
1
1

0
0

-1 -1 0 1

-1 0 1

51. False. The curve with parametric representation x = cos2 t, y = sin2 t, −∞ < t < ∞ is contained in the line segment
joining (0, 1) and (1, 0).
52. True. Put x = t and y = f (t), where t lies in the domain of f .
53. True. If x , y is a point on the curve with parametric equations x = f (t) + a and y = g (t) + b, then x = f (t0 ) + a and
y = g (t0 ) + b for some t0 . But the point ( f (t0 ) + a, g (t0 ) + b) is obtained from the point ( f (t0 ) , g (t0 )) by shifting it a
units horizontally and b units vertically.
54. True. If the major axis lies on the x-axis, then the required equations are x = a cos t, y = b sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. If the major
axis lies on the y-axis, the equations are x = b cos t, y = a sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

10.3 Concept Questions

g (t0 )
1. m = , f (t0 ) = 0
f (t0 )
b
2. L = dx 2 + dy 2
dt
dt dt
a
b b
3. a. S = 2π y ds = 2π g (t) dx 2 + dy 2
dt
dt dt
a a
b b
b. S = 2π x ds = 2π f (t) dx 2 + dy 2
dt
dt dt
a a
 Section 10.3 The Calculus of Parametric Equations 717

10.3 The Calculus of Parametric Equations

dy
1. x = t 2 + 1, y = t 2 − t ⇒ dx
dt = 2t and dt = 2t − 1. The slope of the tangent line at t = 1 is
dy dy/dt 2t − 1 1
= = = .
dx t=1 dx/dt t=1 2t t=1 2
dy
2. x = t 3 − t, y = t 2 − 2t + 2 ⇒ dx 2
dt = 3t − 1 and dt = 2t − 2. The slope of the tangent line at t = 2 is
dy dy/dt 2t − 2 2
= = 2 = .
dx t=2 dx/dt t=2 3t − 1 t=2 11
√ 1 dx 1 dy 1
3. x = t, y = ⇒ = √ and = − 2 . The slope of the tangent line at t = 1 is
t dt 2 t dt t
dy dy/dt −1/t 2
= = √ = −2.
dx t=1 dx/dt t=1 1/ 2 t
t=1
dy
4. x = e2t , y = ln t ⇒ dx 2t
dt = 2e and dt = 1/t. The slope of the tangent line at t = 1 is
dy dy/dt 1/t 1
= = 2t = 2.
dx t=1 dx/dt t=1 2e t=1 2e

5. x = 2 sin θ, y = 3 cos θ ⇒ ddxθ = 2 cos θ and ddyθ = −3 sin θ. The slope of the tangent line at θ = π
4 is
dy dy/dθ −3 sin θ 3
= = =− .
dx θ=π/4 dx/dθ θ=π/4 2 cos θ θ=π/4 2

6. x = 2 (θ − sin θ), y = 2 (1 − cos θ) ⇒ ddxθ = 2 (1 − cos θ) and ddyθ = 2 sin θ. The slope of the tangent line at θ = π
6 is
dy dy/dθ 2 sin θ 1 1 √
= = = √ = √ = 2 + 3.
dx θ=π/6 dx/dθ θ=π/6 2 (1 − cos θ) θ =π/6 2 1− 2 3 2 − 3

dx dy dy dy/dt 3t 2 − 2t
7. x = 2t − 1, y = t 3 − t 2 ⇒ = 2 and = 3t 2 − 2t ⇒ = = . The point of tangency
dt dt dx dx/dt 2
dy 3t 2 − 2t 1
is (x (1) , y (1)) = (1, 0) and the slope of the tangent line is = = , so an equation is
dx t=1 2 2
t=1
y − 0 = 12 (x − 1) or y = 12 x − 12 .

8. x = θ cos θ, y = θ sin θ ⇒ ddxθ = cos θ − θ sin θ and ddyθ = sin θ + θ cos θ. The
point of tangency is x π π
2 ,y 2 = 0, π 2 and the slope of the tangent line is
dy dy/dθ sin θ + θ cos θ 2
= = = − , so an equation is y − π 2
2 = − π (x − 0) or
dx θ=π/2 dx/dθ θ=π/2 cos θ − θ sin θ θ =π/2 π
2 x + π.
y = −π 2
dx dy
9. x = t 2 + t, y = t 2 − t 3 ⇒ = 2t + 1 and = 2t − 3t 2 , so 4
dt dt
dy dy/dt 2t − 3t 2
= = . The given point of tangency (0, 2) corresponds to
dx dx/dt 2t + 1 2
dy 2t − 3t 2 −5
t = −1. The slope of the tangent line is = = = 5,
dx t=−1 2t + 1 −1
t=−1 0
so an equation is y − 2 = 5 (x − 0) or y = 5x + 2.
-0.5 0.0 0.5
718 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

dx dy
10. x = et , y = e−t ⇒ = et and = −e−t , so 4
dt dt
dy dy/dt −e−t 1
= = = − 2t . The point (1, 1) corresponds to t = 0. The slope
dx dx/dt et e 2
dy
of the tangent line is = −1, so an equation is y − 1 = −1 (x − 1) or
dx t=0 0
y = −x + 2.
-2 0 2 4

dx dy dy dy/dt 3t 2 3t
11. x = 2t 2 − 1, y = t 3 ⇒ = 4t and = 3t 2 , so = = = = 3 ⇒ t = 4, so the required point is
dt dt dx dx/dt 4t 4
(x (4) , y (4)) = (31, 64).

dx dy dy dy/dt 2t + 1
12. x = t 3 , y = t 2 + t ⇒ = 3t 2 and = 2t + 1, so = = = 1 ⇒ 2t + 1 = 3t 2 ⇒
dt dt dx dx/dt 3t 2
3t 2 − 2t − 1 = (3t + 1) (t − 1) = 0, giving t = − 13 or t = 1. One point is x − 13 , y − 13 1 , − 2 and the
= − 27 9
other is (x (1) , y (1)) = (1, 2).

13. x = t 2 − 4, y = t 3 − 3t ⇒ dx dy 2 y
dt = 2t and dt = 3t − 3. To find the point(s) where
8
the tangent line is horizontal, set dy 2
dt = 0 ⇒ 3t − 3 = 3 (t + 1) (t − 1) = 0 ⇒ 4
t = ±1. Since dx
dt = 0 at either of these t-values, the required points are
_5 _4 _3 _2 _1 0 1 2 x
(x (−1) , y (−1)) = (−3, 2) and (x (1) , y (1)) = (−3, −2). To find the point(s)
_4
dy
where the tangent line is vertical, set dx
dt = 0 ⇒ 2t = 0 ⇒ t = 0. Since dt = 0 at
_8
this value of t, we see that the required point is (x (0) , y (0)) = (−4, 0).

dx dy y
14. x = t 3 − 3t, y = t 2 ⇒ = 3t 2 − 3 and = 2t. To find the point(s) where the
dt dt
6
dy dx
tangent line is horizontal, set = 0 ⇒ 2t = 0 ⇒ t = 0. Since = 0 at this
dt dt 3
t-value, the required point is (x (0) , y (0)) = (0, 0). To find the point(s) where the
dx _2 _4 0 4 y
tangent line is vertical, set = 0 ⇒ 3t 2 − 3 = 3 (t + 1) (t − 1) = 0 ⇒ t = ±1.
dt _3
dy
Since = 0 at either of these t-values, the required points are
dt
(x (−1) , y (−1)) = (2, 1) and (x (1) , y (1)) = (−2, 1).

dx dy y
15. x = 1 + 3 cos t, y = 2 − 2 sin t ⇒ = −3 sin t and = −2 cos t. To find the
dt dt 4
dy
point(s) where the tangent line is horizontal, set = 0 ⇒ −2 cos t = 0 ⇒ 3
dt
2
dx
t=π 2 + nπ, n an integer. Since dt = 0 at these t-values, the required points are 1

dx
(1, 0) and (1, 4). To find the point(s) where the tangent line is vertical, set =0 _3 _2 _1 0 1 2 3 4 x
dt _1
dy
⇒ −3 sin t = 0 ⇒ t = nπ, π an integer. Since = 0 at these t-values, the
dt
required points are (4, 2) and (−2, 2).
 Section 10.3 The Calculus of Parametric Equations 719

dx dy y
16. x = sin t, y = sin 2t ⇒ = cos t and = 2 cos 2t. To find the point(s) where
dt dt 1
dy
the tangent line is horizontal, set = 0 ⇒ 2 cos 2t = 0 ⇒ 2t = π 2 + nπ ⇒
dt
(2n + 1) π dx _1 0 1 x
t= , n an integer. Since = 0 at these t-values, the four points are
4 dt
√ dx _1
± 22 , ±1 . To find the point(s) where the tangent line is vertical, set =0⇒
dt
dy
cos t = 0 ⇒ t = π 2 + nπ, π an integer. Since dt = 0 at these t-values, the
required points are (±1, 0).
dy d dy
2 3 dx dy 2 dy dt 6t 2 d2 y dt dx 1
17. x = 3t + 1, y = 2t ⇒ = 6t and = 6t , so = dx = = t and 2 = dx
= .
dt dt dx 6t dx 6t
dt dt
dy 2 + 4t
dx dy dy dt = 3t
18. x = t 3 − t, y = t 3 + 2t 2 ⇒ = 3t 2 − 1 and = 3t 2 + 4t, so = dx and
dt dt dx
dt
3t 2 − 1
d dy 3t 2 − 1 (6t + 4) − 3t 2 + 4t (6t) 2 6t 2 + 3t + 2
d2 y dt dx 1 d 3t 2 + 4t 1
= dx
= · = · = − .
dx 2 dt
3t 2 − 1 dt 3t 2 − 1 3t 2 − 1 3t 2 − 1
2
3t 2 − 1
3

dy 2
√ 1 dx 1 dy 1 dy dt = −1/t 2
19. x = t, y = ⇒ = √ and = − 2 , so = dx 1/ 2
= −2t −3/2 = − 3/2 and
t dt 2 t dt t dx 1/ 2t t
dt
d dy d − 3 /2
d2 y dt dx dt −2t 6
2
= dx
= 1/2
= 3t −5/2 · 2t 1/2 = 2 .
dx dt
1/ 2t t
dy
dx dy dy dt = −2 sin 2t = − tan 2t and
20. x = sin 2t, y = cos 2t ⇒ = 2 cos 2t and = −2 sin 2t, so = dx
dt dt dx 2 cos 2t
dt
d dy d
d2 y dt dx 2
dt (− tan 2t) = −2 sec 2t = − sec3 2t.
2
= dx
=
dx 2 cos 2t 2 cos 2t
dt
dy
dx dy dy 1 − cos θ
21. x = θ + cos θ, y = θ − sin θ ⇒ = 1 − sin θ and = 1 − cos θ, so = ddxθ = and
dθ dθ dx 1 − sin θ
dθ
d dy
d2 y d θ dx 1 d 1 − cos θ 1 (1 − sin θ) (sin θ) − (1 − cos θ) (− cos θ)
= dx
= · = ·
dx 2 1 − sin θ dθ 1 − sin θ 1 − sin θ (1 − sin θ)2
dθ
sin θ + cos θ − 1
=
(1 − sin θ)3
2t dy
dx dy dy dt = 2e
22. x = e−t , y = e2t ⇒ = −e−t and = 2e2t , so = dx = −2e3t and
dt dt dx −e−t
dt
d dy d
d2 y dt dx dt −2e3t −6e3t
= dx
= = = 6e4t .
dx 2 dt
−e−t −e−t
dy
dx dy dy dt cosh t
23. x = cosh t, y = sinh t ⇒ = sinh t and = cosh t, so = dx = = coth t and
dt dt dx sinh t
dt
d dy d (coth t)
d2 y dt dx − csch2 t 1
= dx
= dt = =− .
dx 2 dt
sinh t sinh t sinh3 t
720 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

dy
dy dx dyt dt = ln t + 1 t 2 + 1 (ln t + 1)
24. x = t 2 + 1, y = t ln t ⇒ = ln t + 1, so
= = dx and = . Next,
t2 + 1 dt dt dx t t2 + 1 t
dt
⎡ 1/2 ⎤
t 2+1
⎢ −1/2 ⎥ 1/2
⎡ 1/2 ⎤ t ⎣ 12 t 2 + 1 (2t) (ln t + 1) + ⎦ − t2 + 1 (ln t + 1)
2 (ln t + 1) ⎥ t
d ⎢ t +1 t 2 − ln t
⎣ ⎦= = ,
dt t t2 t2 t2 + 1

d dy
d2 y dt dx t 2 − ln t t2 + 1 t 2 − ln t
so = dx
= · = .
dx 2 dt t2 t2 + 1 t t3

dy 3 t2 − 1
25. x = t 2 , y = t 3 − 3t ⇒ dx = 2t and dy
= 3t 2 − 3, so dy = dt = and
dt dt dx dx 2t
dt
⎡ ⎤
d dy 2 3 t2 + 1
d2 y dt dx 1 d ⎣3 t − 1 ⎦ 3 d 1 3 1 d2 y
= dx
= · = t − = 1 + = . We see that < 0 if
dx 2 dt
2t dt 2t 4t dt t 4t t2 4t 3 dx 2

d2 y
t < 0 and > 0 if t > 0, and so the curve is concave downward on (−∞, 0) for t < 0 and concave upward on (0, ∞)
dx 2
for t > 0.
√ √
26. x = t 2 , y = t 3 − 3t. Observe that the curve is at the point (3, 0) when t1 = 3 and t2 = 3, so the curve crosses

dx dy dy 3 t2 − 1
itself at the point (3, 0).
= 2t and = 3t 2 − 3, so = . At the first point of intersection,
dt dt dx 2t
dy 3 (3 − 1) √ √ √
m1 =
dx t=−√3
= √ = − 3 and an equation of the tangent line is y − 0 = − 3 (x − 3) or y = − 3 (x − 3).
2 − 3
dy 3 (3 − 1) √ √
At the second point, m 2 = = √ = 3 and an equation of the tangent line is y − 0 = 3 (x − 3) or
dx t=√3 2 3
√
y= 3 (x − 3).
x 1/3 y 1/3 x 2/3 y 2/3
27. x = a cos3 t, y = a sin3 t ⇒ cos t = and sin t = , so + = cos2 t + sin2 t = 1 ⇒
a a a a
x 2/3 + y 2/3 = a 2/3 and so the parametric equations indeed represent the astroid x 2/3 + y 2/3 = a 2/3 . The slope of the
dy d 3
dy dt dt a sin t 3a sin2 t cos t dy
tangent line to the astroid is= dx = d = 2 t sin t
= − tan t. Setting = −1 gives tan t = 1 ⇒
dx a cos3t −3a cos dx
dt dt
dy
t= π 3π
4 + nπ, n an integer, and setting dx = 1 gives tan t = −1 ⇒ t = 4 + nπ, n an integer. These values of t give the
√ √ √ √ √ √
points 2 2 2 2 2 2
4 a, 4 a and − 4 a, − 4 a where the slope of the tangent line is −1 and the points − 4 a, 4 a and
√ √
2 2
4 a, − 4 a where the slope of the tangent line is 1.

t sin u ln t
28. x = du, y = eu du. Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part I, we have
1 u 2
dy
dx d t sin u sin t dy d ln t u d t dy dt 1 t
= du = and = e du = eln t · ln t = = 1, so = dx = sin t = and
dt dt 1 u t dt dt 2 dt t dx sin t
dt t
d dy
d2 y dt dx 1 d t t sin t − t cos t t (sin t − t cos t)
= dx
= sin t · = · = .
dx 2 dt t
dt sin t sin t (sin t)2 sin3 t
 Section 10.3 The Calculus of Parametric Equations 721

29. x = t 5 + 5t 3 + 10t + 2, y = 2t 3 − 3t 2 − 12t + 1, −2 ≤ t ≤ 2 ⇒

dy d 2t 3 − 3t 2 − 12t + 1
dy dt = dt 6t 2 − 6t − 12 6 (t − 2) (t + 1) dy
= dx d
= 4 2 + 10
= 2 + 1 t2 + 2
. Setting = 0 gives t = −1 or
dx t 5 + 5t 3 + 10t + 2 5t + 15t 5 t dx
dt dt
t = 2. Since the domain is −2 ≤ t ≤ 2, we evaluate (x (−2) , y (−2)) = (−90, −3), (x (−1) , y (−1)) = (−14, 8), and
(x (2) , y (2)) = (94, −19), and see that f attains an absolute maximum value of 8 at x = −14 and an absolute minimum
value of −19 at x = 94.
dx dy dy 2t
30. x = t 3 − t, y = t 2 ⇒ = 3t 2 − 1 and = 2t, so = 2 . The slope of the line with parametric equations
dt dt dx 3t − 1
d (2t + 4)
dy 2t
x = 2t, y = 2t + 4 is m = dt d = 1. Setting = 1 gives 2 = 1 ⇔ 3t 2 − 2t − 1 = (3t + 1) (t − 1) = 0
(2t) dx 3t − 1
dt
3 2
⇒ t = − 13 or t = 1. Thus, the points are x − 13 , y − 13 = − 13 − − 13 , − 13 = 8 1
27 , 9 and

(x (1) , y (1)) = (0, 1).

dy 2
31. x = 2t 2 , y = 3t 3 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 ⇒ dx 2
dt = 4t and dt = 9t , so ds = (4t)2 + 9t 2 dt. Thus,
3/2 1
L = 01 ds = 01 16t 2 + 81t 4 dt = 01 t 16 + 81t 2 dt = 162
1 · 2 16 + 81t 2
3
1 973/2 − 64 ≈ 3.67.
= 243
0

1/2 and dy = 3, so ds = 2 √
32. x = 2t 3/2 , y = 3t + 1, 0 ≤ t ≤ 4 ⇒ dx
dt = 3t dt 3t 1/2 + 9 dt = 3 t + 1 dt. Thus,
4 4√ 4 √
2
L = 0 ds = 3 0 t + 1 dt = 3 3 (t + 1) 3 /2 =2 5 5−1 .
0

dy
33. x = sin2 t, y = cos 2t, 0 ≤ t ≤ π ⇒ dx 2 2
dt = 2 sin t cos t = sin 2t and dt = −2 sin 2t, so ds = sin 2t + 4 sin 2t dt. Thus,
√ √ π /2 √ π /2 √ √
L = 0π 5 sin2 2t dt = 5 0π |sin 2t| dt = 2 5 0 sin 2t dt = 2 5 − 12 cos 2t = − 5 (−1 − 1) = 2 5.
0

dy
34. x = et cos t, y = et sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ π ⇒ dx t t t t
dt = e cos t − e sin t = e (cos t − sin t) and dt = e (sin t + cos t), so
√ √ √ π √
ds = e2t (cos t − sin t)2 + e2t (sin t + cos t)2 dt = 2et dt. Thus, L = 2 0π et dt = 2et = 2 eπ − 1 .
0

35. x = a (cos t + t sin t), y = a (sin t − t cos t), 0 ≤ t ≤ π dx

2 ⇒ dt = a (− sin t + sin t + t cos t) = at cos t

and dy
dt = a (cos t − cos t + t sin t) = at sin t, so ds = (at cos t)2 + (at sin t)2 = at dt. Thus,
π /2 π /2 π /2
L= 0 ds = a 0 t dt = 12 at 2 = 18 aπ 2 .
0

36. x = t 2 − 2 sin t + 2t cos t, y = 2 − t 2 cos t + 2t sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ π ⇒

dx = 2t sin t + t 2 − 2 cos t +2 cos t −2t sin t = t 2 cos t and dy = −2t cos t − 2 − t 2 sin t +2 sin t +2t cos t = t 2 sin t,
dt dt

dx 2 + dy 2 π
so L = 0π dt dt dt = 0π t 4 cos2 t + t 4 sin2 t dt = 0π t 2 dt = 13 t 3 = 13 π 3 .
0

dy
37. x = a (2 cos t − cos 2t), y = a (2 sin t − sin 2t) ⇒ dx
dt = a (−2 sin t + 2 sin 2t) and dt = a (2 cos t − 2 cos 2t), so

ds = a 2 (−2 sin t + 2 sin 2t)2 + a 2 (2 cos t − 2 cos 2t)2 dt. Thus,

√ √ √
L = 02π ds = 2 2a 02π (sin 2t − sin t)2 + (cos t − cos 2t)2 dt = 2 2a 02π 1 − cos t dt
√ 2π
= 2 2a 02π 2 sin2 12 t dt = 4a 02π sin 12 t = −8a cos 12 t = −8a (−1 − 1) = 16a
0
722 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

dy
38. x = a cos3 t, y = a sin3 t ⇒ dx 2 2
dt = −3a cos t sin t and dt = 3a sin t cos t dt,

so dx 2 + dy 2
= 9a 2 cos4 t sin2 t + 9a 2 sin4 t cos2 t = 9a 2 sin2 t cos2 t. Thus,
dt dt

L =4 0
π /2 dx 2 + dy 2 π /2
dt = 4 (3a) 0 sin t cos t dt = 12a 1 sin2 t π /2 = 6a.
dt dt 2 0

dy
39. x = cos2 t, y = sin2 t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π ⇒ dx
dt = −2 cos t sin t and dt = 2 sin t cos t, so the distance covered is

dx 2 + dy 2 dt = 2π (−2 cos t sin t)2 + (2 sin t cos t)2 dt = 2 2 2π |cos t sin t| dt

√
D = 02π ds = 02π dt dt 0 0
√ π /2 √ π /2 √
= 2 2 (4) 0 cos t sin t dt = 8 2 12 sin2 t =4 2
0

√ √ dy
40. x = 4 2 sin t, y = sin 2t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π ⇒ dx
dt = 4 2 cos t and dt = 2 cos 2t. The length of the course is

dx 2 + dy 2 dt = 4 π /2 2
π /2 π /2 √
L = 4 0 ds = 4 0 dt dt 0 4 2 cos t + (2 cos 2t)2 dt

π /2 π /2 2
=4 0 32 cos2 t + 4 cos2 2t dt = 4 0 32 cos2 t + 4 2 cos2 t − 1 dt
π /2 π /2 2 π /2
=4 0 4 4 cos4 t + 4 cos2 t + 1 dt = 8 0 2 cos2 t + 1 dt = 8 0 2 cos2 t + 1 dt
π /2 π /2
=8 0 (1 + cos 2t + 1) dt = 8 2t + 12 sin 2t = 8π
0

dx 800 7 − 11t 4/9

41. x = 800 t 7/9 − t 11/9 , y = 1600t ⇒ = 800 79 t −2/9 − 11
9 t
2/9 = and
dt 9t 2/9
dy
= 1600. The boat is at A when t = 0 and at B when t = 1, so the distance travelled by the boat is
dt
⎡ ⎤2
1 2 1 800 7 − 11t 4/9
dx dy 2 ⎣ ⎦ + 16002 dt ≈ 1639 ft (using a CAS).
D= dt + dt =
0 0 9t 2/9

1 eE x 1 eE x 2 1 eE
42. x = v 0 t, y = − t 2 . Substituting t = into the expression for y gives y = − =− x 2,
2 m v0 2 m v0 2 mv 02
an equation of a parabola.

1 eE 1 eE
43. From the result of Exercise 42, we have y = − x 2 . At x = a, we find y = − a 2 , so the electron hints
2 mv 02 2 mv 02
1 eE
the screen at the point a, − a2 .
2 mv 02
 Section 10.3 The Calculus of Parametric Equations 723

44. From Example 4, we see that the length of the arc of the cycloid from 0 to
t
t is L = −4a cos 12 t = 4a 1 − cos 12 t . We want to determine t that
0 2
will give us the point one-quarter of the way along the arc. Again referring
to Example 4, the length of this arc is 8a, so we solve
0
4a 1 − cos 12 t = 14 (8a) = 2a ⇒ 1 − cos 12 t = 12 ⇔ cos 12 t = 12 ⇒
0 2 4 6
t =2· π 2π
3 = 3 . Thus, the x- and y-coordinates of the required point are
√ √
x 23π = a (t − sin t)|2π/3 = a 23π − 23 = 16 4π − 3 3 a and
√
y 23π = a (1 − cos t)|2π/3 = a 1 − − 12 = 32 a, so the required point is 16 4π − 3 3 a, 32 a . Next,
√
dy √ 3
dy dt a sin t sin t dy 2
= dx = = , so the required slope is = = 33 . Thus, an equation of the
dx a (1 − cos t) 1 − cos t dx t=2π/3 1 − − 12
dt
√ √ √ √
tangent line is y − 32 a = 33 x − 16 4π − 3 3 a or y = 33 x + 2 − 2 9 3 π a. (In the graph, we have taken a = 1.)

45. x = C (t) = 0t cos π 2 t π 2

2 u du, y = S (t) = 0 sin 2 u du
a. 1
As t → ∞, the curve spirals about and converges to the point
1 , 1 . As t → −∞, the curve spirals about and converges to the
2 2

point − 12 , − 12 .
0
b. dx d t π 2 π 2 and
dt = dt 0 cos 2 u du = cos 2 t
dy d t π 2 π 2
dt = dt 0 sin 2 u du = sin 2 t , so
-1
a a
-1 0 1
L = dx 2 + dy 2
cos2 π 2 2 π t 2 dt
dt dt = 2 t + sin 2
0 0
= 0a 1 dt = t|a0 = a
46. x = f (t), y = g (t) ⇒ dx
dt = f (t) ⇒ dx = f (t) dt. If f is increasing on [α, β], then
β
f (t) > 0 and A = ab y dx = α g (t) f (t) dt. If f is decreasing on [α, β], then f (t) < 0 and
β
A = ab y dx = − α g (t) f (t) dt = βα g (t) f (t) dt.
47. x = a (θ − sin θ), y = a (1 − cos θ). Using the result of Exercise 46, we find
A = 02π y dx = 02π a (1 − cos θ) a (1 − cos θ) dθ = a 2 02π 1 − 2 cos θ + cos2 θ dθ
2π
= a 2 02π 1 − 2 cos θ + 12 (1 + cos 2θ) dθ = a 2 32 θ − 2 sin θ + 14 sin 2θ = 3πa 2
0
48. x = a cos θ, y = b sin θ ⇒
A = 4 π0 /2 y dx = 4 π0 /2 (b sin θ) (−a sin θ) dθ [since x (θ) is decreasing on 0, π
2 ]
π /2 π /2 1 1 π /2
= 4ab 0 sin2 θ dθ = 4ab 0 2 (1 − cos 2θ) dθ = 2ab θ − 2 sin 2θ 0 = πab

49. x = a cos3 θ, y = a sin3 θ ⇒

A = 4 π0 /2 y dx = 4 π0 /2 a sin3 θ −3a cos2 θ sin θ dθ [since x (θ) is decreasing on 0, π
2 ]
π /2 π /2 π /2
= 12a 2 0 sin4 θ cos2 θ dθ = 12a 2 0 sin4 θ 1 − sin2 θ dθ = 12a 2 0 sin4 θ − sin6 θ dθ

Using Formula 79 from the Table of Integrals repeatedly, we obtain A = 38 πa 2 .

724 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

50. x = a sin t, y = b sin 2t ⇒ y

a
π /2 π /2
A=4 0 y dx = 4 0 (b sin 2t) (a cos t dt)
π /2 π /2
= 4ab 0 (2 sin t cos t) (cos t) dt = 8ab 0 sin t cos2 t dt
_b 0 b x
π /2
= − 83 ab cos3 t = 83 ab
0 _a

√
51. x = 4 2 sin t, y = sin 2t ⇒
π /2 π /2 √ √ π /2 √ π/2
A=4 0 y dx = 4 0 (sin 2t) 4 2 cos t dt = 16 2 0 (2 sin t cos t) (cos t) dt = 32 2 0 sin t cos2 t dt
√ π /2 √
= − 323 2 cos3 t = 323 2
0

dy y
52. x = t, y = 2 − t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 ⇒ dx
dt = 1 and dt = −1, so
2
dx 2 + dy 2 √
S = 2π 02 y ds = 2π 02 y dt dt dt = 2π 02 (2 − t) 2 dt
1
√ 2 √
= 2 2π 2t − 12 t 2 = 4 2π
0
_1 0 1 2 x

_1

53. x = t 3 , y = t 2 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 ⇒ dx 2 dy y
dt = 3t and dt = 2t, so
(1, 1)
1
2
S = 2π 01 y 3t 2 + (2t)2 dt = 2π 01 t 2 9t 4 + 4t 2 dt

= 2π 01 t 3 9t 2 + 4 dt

= 2π 413 91 (u − 4) u 1/2 18
1 du (where u = 9t 2 + 4)
0 1 x
π 13 u 3/2 − 4u 1/2 du = π 2 u 5/2 − 8 u 3/2 13
= 81 4 81 5 3 4
√
2 247 13 + 64 π
= 1215

√ 2 √ dy y
54. x = 3t , y = t − t 3 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 ⇒ dx 2
dt = 2 3t and dt = 1 − 3t , so
1
√ 2 2
S = 2π 01 y ds = 2π 01 t − t 3 2 3t + 1 − 3t 2 dt

= 2π 01 t − t 3 9t 4 + 6t 2 + 1 dt = 2π 01 t − t 3 3t 2 + 1 dt
0 1 Ï3 2 x
= 2π 01 3t 3 + t − 3t 5 − t 3 dt = 2π 01 2t 3 − 3t 5 + t dt
1
= 2π 12 t 4 − 12 t 6 + 12 t 2 =π
0
 Section 10.3 The Calculus of Parametric Equations 725

√ dy y
55. x = 13 t 3 , y = 4 − 12 t 2 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 2 ⇒ dx 2
dt = t and dt = −t, so 4
√ √
S = 2π 02 2 y ds = 2π 02 2 4 − 12 t 2 t 4 + t 2 dt 3
√
2
= 2π 02 2 4t t 2 + 1 − 12 t 3 t 2 + 1 dt
√ 1
3/2 2 2 √
= 8π 1 2 t2 + 1 − π 02 2 t 3 t 2 + 1 dt
2 3
0 0 2 4 6 8 x
16Ï2
= 83π (27 − 1) − π 19 (u − 1) 12 u 1/2 du (where u = t 2 + 1) 3

π π 9 3/2 − u 1/2 du = 208π − π 2 u 5/2 − 2 u 3/2 9 π

= 208
3 − 2 1 u 3 2 5 3 = 148
5
1

56. x = et sin t, y = et cos t, 0 ≤ t ≤ π dx t y

2 ⇒ dt = e (sin t + cos t) and
dy t
dt = e (cos t − sin t), so
1
dx 2 + dy 2 = e2t (sin t + cos t)2 + (cos t − sin t)2 = 2e2t . Thus,
dt dt
π /2 π /2 t √ √ π /2
S = 2π 0 y ds = 2π 0 e cos t 2et dt = 2 2π 0 e2t cos t dt.
_1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
Using Formula 99 from the Table of Integrals, we obtain
π /2
√ e2t √
S = 2 2π (2 cos t + sin t) = 2 5 2 π eπ − 2 .
4+1
0

57. x = t − sin t, y = 1 − cos t ⇒ dt = 1 − cos t and dy

dx y
dt = sin t. Thus,
2
S = 2π 02π y ds = 2π 02π (1 − cos t) (1 − cos t)2 + sin2 t dt
√ √ √
= 2π 02π (1 − cos t) 2 1 − cos t dt = 2 2π 02π (1 − cos t)3/2 dt 1

= 8π 02π sin3 21 t dt = 8π 02π 1 − cos2 12 t sin 12 t dt

0 ¹ 2¹ x
2π
= −16π cos 12 t + 16 3 1
3 π cos 2 t 0
2π
= 8π −2 cos 12 t + 23 cos3 12 t = 643π
0

58. x = t, y = 2t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 4 ⇒ y
√
S = 2π 04 x ds = 2π 04 t 12 + 22 dt = 2 5π 04 t dt 10
8 (4, 8)
√ 4 √
= 5πt 2 = 16 5π 6
0
4
2

_1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
_2

59. x = 3t 2 , y = 2t 3 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 ⇒ y

2
S = 2π 01 x ds = 2π 01 3t 2 (6t)2 + 6t 2 dt = 36π 01 t 3 1 + t 2 dt 2 (3, 2)

= 36π 12 (u − 1) 12 u 1/2 du (where u = 1 + t 2 )

1
2
= 18π 12 u 3/2 − u 1/2 du = 18π 25 u 5/2 − 23 u 3/2
1
√ _1 0 1 2 3 4 x
√ √ 24 2+1 π
= 18π 8 5 2 − 4 5 2 − 25 + 23 = 5
726 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

y
60. x = a cos t, y = b sin t, − π π
2 ≤t ≤ 2 ⇒
π /2 π /2 b
S = 4π 0 x ds = 4π 0 a cos t (−a sin t)2 + (b cos t)2 dt
π /2
= 4π 0 a cos t a 2 sin2 t + b2 cos2 t dt
0 a x
π /2
= 4π 0 a cos t a 2 sin2 t + b2 1 − sin2 t dt

π /2 _b
= 4π 0 a cos t a 2 − b2 sin2 t + b2 dt
π /2 4πa π/2
= 4π 0 a cos t b2 + c2 sin2 t dt (where c2 = a 2 − b2 ) = c cos t b2 + (c sin t)2 dt
c 0
4πa c
Let u = c sin t. Then S = b2 + u 2 du, and we can use Formula 37 from the Table of Integrals to get
c 0
2πa c 2πa √
S= u b2 + u 2 + b2 ln u + b2 + u 2 = c b2 + c2 + b2 ln c + b2 + c2 − 0 + b2 ln b2
c 0 c
2πa 2πa a 2 − b2 a+ a 2 − b2
= ca + b2 ln (c + a) − b2 ln b = 2 2
a a 2 − b2 + b2 ln
c a −b b

61. x = et − t, y = 4et/2 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 ⇒ y

2 2 8
S = 2π 01 x ds = 2π 01 et − t et − 1 + 2et/2 dt (1.7, 6.6)
6
= 2π 01 et − t et + 1 dt = 2π 01 e2t − tet + et − t dt
1 4
= 2π 12 e2t − (t − 1) et + et − 12 t 2 [since tet dt = (t − 1) et + C ] (1, 4)
0 2
= π e2 + 2e − 6
_1 0 1 2 x

62. x = a (2 cos t − cos 2t), y = a (2 sin t − sin 2t) ⇒ y

dx = a (−2 sin t + 2 sin 2t) and dy = a (2 cos t − 2 cos 2t), so

dt dt
2 2 a
dx
dt + dydt = 4a 2 sin2 t − 2 sin t sin 2t + sin2 2t
0 a x
+ cos2 t − 2 cos t cos 2t + cos2 2t
= 8a 2 (1 − cos t) using cos t = cos (2t − t)
√ √
and ds = 2 2a 1 − cos t dt. Thus,
√ π
π √ π / 16 2πa 2 128πa 2
2 3 2
S = 2π 0 y ds = 4 2πa 0 (1 − cos t) sin t dt = (1 − cos t)5/2 = .
5 5
0

63. x = a cos3 t, y = a sin3 t ⇒ y

a
dx 2 + dy 2
= −3a cos2 t sin t
2
+ 3a sin2 t cos t
2
dt dt
= 3a sin t cos t for 0 ≤ t ≤ π
2
_a 0 a x
Thus,
π /2 π /2
S = 2 (2π) 0 y ds = 4π 0 a sin3 t (3a sin t cos t) dt
_a
π /2
π /2 12πa 2 12πa 2
= 12πa 2 0 sin4 t cos t dt = sin5 t =
5 5
0
 Section 10.3 The Calculus of Parametric Equations 727

64. x = a (θ − sin θ), y = a (1 − cos θ) ⇒ ddxθ = a (1 − cos θ) and ddyθ = a sin θ, so

dx 2 + dy 2
= a 2 (1 − cos θ)2 + a 2 sin2 θ = a 2 1 − 2 cos θ + cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 2a 2 (1 − cos θ). Thus,
dθ dθ

dx 2 + dy 2 √ √
ds = dθ dθ
dθ = 2a 1 − cos θ dθ. The area of the surface obtained by revolving about the x-axis is
√ √ √
S = 2π 02π y ds = 2π 02π a (1 − cos θ) 2a 1 − cos θ dθ = 2 2πa 2 02π (1 − cos θ)3/2 dθ
√ 3/2
= 2 2πa 2 02π 2 sin2 21 θ dθ = 8πa 2 02π sin3 12 θ dθ = 8πa 2 02π 1 − cos2 12 θ sin 12 θ dθ
2π 64πa 2
= 8πa 2 −2 cos 12 θ + 23 cos3 12 θ =
0 3
The area of the surface obtained by revolving about the y-axis is
√ √ √ √ √
S = 2π 02π x ds = 2π 02π a (θ − sin θ) 2a 1 − cos θ dθ = 2 2πa 2 02π θ 1 − cos θ − 1 − cos θ sin θ dθ
√ √ √ √
= 2 2πa 2 02π θ 1 − cos θ dθ − 2 2πa 2 02π 1 − cos θ sin θ dθ
√
We use parts for the first integral: u = θ and dv = 1 − cos θ dθ ⇒ du = dθ and
√ 1/2 √ √
v= 1 − cos θ dθ = 2 sin2 21 θ dθ = 2 sin 12 θ dθ = −2 2 cos 12 θ (omitting the constant of integration).
√ √ √ 2π
Thus, S = 2 2πa 2 −2 2θ cos 12 θ + 4 2 sin 12 θ − 23 (1 − cos θ)3/2 = 16π 2 a 2
0

y
65. x 2 + (y − b)2 = r 2 , 0 < r < b. The circle can be written in the parametric form
dy
x = r cos t, y = b + r sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π, so dx
dt = −r sin t and dt = r cos t. Thus,
r

S = 2π 02π y ds = 2π 02π (b + r sin t) (−r sin t)2 + (r cos t)2 dt

b
= 2πr 02π (b + r sin t) dt = 2πr (bt − r cos t)|20π = 4π2 rb
0 x

66. Since f (t) = 0 for a ≤ t ≤ b, we see that f (t) > 0 for all t in (a, b) or f (t) < 0 for all t in (a, b).
Therefore, f is monotonic and f −1 exists. This means there exists an inverse function f such that t = f −1 (x), so
y = g (t) = g f −1 (x) . Define F = g ◦ f −1 . Then F is the desired function.

67. a. b. x = 2t 2 , y = t − t 3 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 ⇒
0.4
L = 01 dx 2 + dy 2
dt
dt dt
2
= 01 (4t)2 + 1 − 3t 2 dt
0.2
= 01 9t 4 + 10t 2 + 1 dt ≈ 2.2469 (using a CAS)

0.0

0 1 2
728 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

68. a. (b) x = sin (0.5t + 0.4π) ⇒ dx

dt = 0.5 cos (0.5t + 0.4π) and y = sin t
1
⇒ dy
dt = cos t, so

L = 2 02π 0.25 cos2 (0.5t + 0.4π) + cos2 t dt

0 ≈ 9.3948 (using a CAS)

-1

-1 0 1

69. a. b. x = 0.2 (6 cos t − cos 6t) ⇒

dx = 0.2 (−6 sin t + 6 sin 6t) = −1.2 (sin t − sin 6t) and
1 dt

y = 0.2 (6 sin t − sin 6t) ⇒ dy

dt = 1.2 (cos t − cos 6t), so

0 dx 2 + dy 2 = (1.2)2 (sin t − sin 6t)2 + (cos t − cos 6t)2

dt dt

= (1.2)2 sin2 t − 2 sin t sin 6t + sin2 6t

-1
+ cos2 t − 2 cos t cos 6t + cos2 6t

-1 0 1 = 2 (1.2)2 (1 − sin t sin 6t − cos t cos 6t) ⇒

dx 2 + dy 2 √ √
L = 2 0π dt dt dt = (2.4) 2 0π 1 − sin t sin 6t − cos t cos 6t dt ≈ 9.6000 (using a CAS).

70. a. b. x = 2t 1 − t 2 ⇒ dx 2 and y = −t 2 1 − 3 t 2 ⇒
dt = 2 1 − 3t 2
20
dy 2
dt = −2t 1 − 3t , so

dx 2 + dy 2 2
= 4 1 − 3t 2 + 4t 2 1 − 3t 2
2
dt dt
10
2
= 4 1 − 3t 2 1 + t2 ⇒

L = 2 02 dx 2 + dy 2
dt = 2 02 2 1 − 3t 2
2
1 + t 2 dt
0 dt dt

-10 0 10 ≈ 49.5553 (using a CAS)

71. x = 4 sin 2t, y = 2 cos 3t, 0 ≤ t ≤ π y

6 ⇒
2
S = 2π 0
π /6
y ds = 2π 0
π /6
2 cos 3t dx 2 + dy 2
dt
dt dt
π /6
= 4π 0 cos 3t (8 cos 2t)2 + (−6 sin 3t)2 dt 1
π /6
= 4π 0 cos 3t 64 cos2 2t + 36 sin2 3t dt ≈ 33.66 (using a CAS)

0 1 2 3 x
 Section 10.3 The Calculus of Parametric Equations 729

72. a. x = f (t) cos t + f (t) sin t ⇒ dx

dt = f (t) cos t − f (t) sin t + f (t) sin t + f (t) cos t = f (t) + f (t) cos t
and y = − f (t) sin t + f (t) cos t ⇒
dy
dt = − f (t) sin t − f (t) cos t + f (t) cos t − f (t) sin t = − f (t) + f (t) sin t, so

L = ab dx 2 + dy 2
dt = ab f (t) + f (t)
2
cos2 t + sin2 t dt = ab f (t) + f (t) dt
dt dt
b
= ab f (t) + f (t) dt = f (t) + f (t) a
1 1
b. Here f (t) = t 3 , so L = f (t) + f (t) 0 = 6t + t 3 = 7.
0
⎡ ⎤2 2
2 a 2 t 4 + 2t 2 + 1 a2 t 2 + 1
2 2 2at 2 ⎣ a 1 − t ⎦ 4a 2 t 2 + a 2 − 2a 2 t 2 + a 2 t 4
73. x + y = + = = = = a2,
1 + t2 1 + t2 1 + t2
2
1 + t2
2
1 + t2
2

an equation of the circle with radius a centered at the origin.

2at dx 1 + t 2 (2a) − 2at (2t) 2a 1 − t 2 a 1 − t2

74. x = ⇒ = = and y = ⇒
1 + t2 dt 1 + t2
2
1 + t2
2 1 + t2
2
dy 1 + t 2 (−2at) − a 1 − t 2 (2t) 4at dx 2 dy 2 4a 2 1 − t 2 + 16a 2 t 2 4a
= 2
=− 2
⇒ + = 4
= 2
,
dt 1+t 2 1 + t2 dt dt 1+t 2 1 + t2
so
∞ dx 2 dy 2 ∞ 2a b 2a b
L = + dt = 2 2
dt = 2 lim 2
dt = 4a lim tan−1 t
−∞ dt dt 0 1+t b→∞ 0 1 + t b→∞ 0

= 4a lim tan−1 b = 4a · π
2 = 2πa
b→∞
y
75. t = ⇒ y = t x, and substituting this into the equation of the folium gives x 3 + (t x)3 = 3ax (t x) ⇔ x 3 + t 3 x 3 = 3ax 2 t
x
3at 3at 2
⇔ x 3 1 + t 3 = 3ax 2 t ⇒ x = 3 , so y = t x = 3 .
t +1 t +1

3at dx t 3 + 1 (3a) − (3at) 3t 2 3a 1 − 2t 3 3at 2

76. x = 3 ⇒ = 2
= 2
and y = 3 ⇒
t +1 dt t3 + 1 t3 + 1 t +1

dy t 3 + 1 (6at) − 3at 2 3t 2 3at 2 − t 3 dx 2 dy 2 9a 2 1 − 4t 3 + 4t 6 + 4t 2 − 4t 5 + t 8

= 2
= 2
⇒ + = 4
.
dt t3 + 1 t3 + 1 dt dt t3 + 1
3at 3at 2
Next, setting y = x gives 3 = 3 ⇔ 3at (t − 1) = 0 ⇒ t = 0 or t = 1. Thus, by symmetry,
t +1 t +1
1 dx 2 dy 2 1 t 8 + 4t 6 − 4t 5 − 4t 3 + 4t 2 + 1
L =2 + dt = 2 · 3a 2
dt ≈ 4.917a (using a CAS).
0 dt dt 0 t3 + 1
dy
77. x = a cos t ⇒ dx
dt = −a sin t and y = b sin t ⇒ dt = b cos t, so

dx 2 + dy 2
= a 2 sin2 t + b2 cos2 t = a 2 1 − cos2 t + b2 cos2 t = a 2 − a 2 − b2 cos2 t = a 1 − e2 cos2 t
dt dt

a 2 − b2 dx 2 + dy 2 dt = 4a π /2 1 − e2 cos2 t dt.
since e = . Therefore, by symmetry, L = 02π dt dt 0
a
π π π
Now we substitute t = 2 − u, so dt = −du, t = 0 ⇒ u = 2 , and t = 2 ⇒ u = 0, and so
2 π /2
L = 4a π0 /2 1 − e2 cos π
2 −u (−du) = 4a 0 1 − e2 sin2 u du. The desired result follows by replacing u with
t.
730 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

102 − 62 π /2
78. Here a = 10 and b = 6, so e2 = = 0.64, so the circumference is L = 4 · 10 0 1 − 0.64 sin2 t dt ≈ 51.054.
102
dy g (t)
79. False. In fact, = , so
dx f (t)
d g (t) f (t) g (t) − g (t) f (t)
2
d2 y d g (t) dt f (t) f (t) f (t) g (t) − g (t) f (t)
= = = = .
dx 2 dx f (t) dx f (t) f (t)
3
dt

80. False. Let C : f (t) = t 3 + 1, g (t) = t 3 , −∞ < t < ∞. Then upon eliminating t, we have y = x − 1, which is an
equation of a line. Yet f and g are nonlinear functions.

10.4 Concept Questions

1. Besides P (r, θ), we have P (r, θ + 2kπ) and P (−r, θ + kπ), where k is an integer.

2. a. x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ b. r 2 = x 2 + y 2 , tan θ = y/x (x = 0)

3. a. The graph of r = f (θ) is symmetric with respect to the polar axis if and only if f (−θ) = f (θ).
b. The graph of r = f (θ) is symmetric with respect to the vertical line θ = π
2 if and only if f (π − θ) = f (θ).
c. The graph of r = f (θ) is symmetric with respect to the pole if and only if (−r, θ) = (r, θ).

4. a. See page 874. b. See page 874. c. See pages 874 and 875.

10.4 Polar Coordinates

√ √ √ √
1. x = 4 cos π
4 =4 2
2 = 2 2 and 2. x = 2 cos π
6 =2 2
3 = 3 and
√ √ √
y = 4 sin π
4 =4 2
2 = 2 2, so the point is y = 2 sin π 1
6 = 2 2 = 1, so the point is 3, 1 .
√ √
2 2, 2 2 . (2, ¹6 )
2
(4, ¹4 ) ¹
6
4 O

¹
4

3. x = 4 cos 32π = 0 and y = 4 sin 32π = 4 (−1) = −4, so 4. x = 6 cos 3π = 6 (−1) = −6 and
the point is (0, −4). y = 6 sin 3π = 6 (0) = 0, so the point is (−6, 0).
3¹ 6
2 O
(6, 3¹)
O
4

(4, 3¹
2 )
 Section 10.4 Polar Coordinates 731

√ √ √
5. x = − 2 cos π
4 = − 2 22 = −1 and 6. x = (−1) cos π 1 1
3 = (−1) 2 = − 2 and
√ √ √ √ √
y = − 2 sin π
4 = − 2 22 = −1, so the point is y = (−1) sin π
3 = (−1) 2
3 = − 23 , so the point is
√
(−1, −1).
− 12 , − 23 .
¹
4 ¹
O 3
Ï2 O
1

(_Ï2, ¹4 ) (_1, ¹3 )

√ √ √ √
7. x = (−4) cos − 34π = (−4) − 22 = 2 2 and 8. x = 5 cos − 56π = 5 − 23 = − 5 2 3 and
√ √
y = (−4) sin − 34π = (−4) − 22 = 2 2, so the y = 5 sin − 56π = 5 − 12 = − 52 , so the point is
√ √ √
point is 2 2, 2 2 . − 5 2 3 , − 52 .

4
(_4, _ 3¹
4 )
O
5
5¹
O _ 6
( 5¹
5, _ 6 )
_ 3¹
4

√ √
9. r = 22 + 22 = 2 2 and tan θ = 22 = 1 ⇒ 10. r = 12 + (−1)2 = 2 and tan θ = −11 ⇒
√ π √ 7π
θ = tan−1 1 = π4 , so the point is 2 2, 4 . θ = tan−1 (−1) + 2π = 74π , so the point is 2, 4 .

y y

(2, 2)
2 0 1 x

(1, _1)
_1
0 2 x

11. r = 02 + 52 = 5 and tan θ is undefined, so θ = π 2 2

2 . The 12. r = 3 + (−4) = 5 and tan θ = 3 ⇒
−4

point is 5, π
2 . θ = tan−1 − 43 + 2π, so the point is
y
5, tan−1 − 43 + 2π .
5 (0, 5)
y
0 3 x

0 x

(3, _4)
_4
732 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

√ 2 √ 2 √ √ √ 2
13. r = − 3 + − 3 = 6 and tan θ = −√3 ⇒ 14. r = 2 3 + (−2)2 = 4 and tan θ = −√2 ⇒
− 3 2 3
√ 5π
θ = π + tan−1 1 = 54π , so the point is 6, 4 . θ = tan−1 √2
− + 2π = 116π , so the point is 4, 116π .
2 3
y y

_Ï3 0 x 2Ï3
0 x
_2
_Ï3
(_Ï3, _Ï3) (2Ï3, _2)

√
15. r = 52 + (−12)2 = 13 and tan θ = −512 ⇒ 16. r = 32 + (−1)2 = 10 and tan θ = −31 ⇒

θ = tan−1 − 12
5 + 2π, so the point is θ = tan−1 − 13 + 2π, so the point is
√
13, tan−1 − 12
5 + 2π . 10, tan−1 − 13 + 2π .

y y

0 3
0 5 x x
_1
_12
(3, _1)
(5, _12)

17. 18. 19. 20.

O 1 O 1 O 2 O 2

¬=¹/2
¬=¹/4 ¬=¹/3
21. 22. 23. ¬=¹/6 24.

O
O O O 2 4
3 3

¬=_¹/6

25. r cos θ = 2 ⇒ x = 2 26. r sin θ = −3 ⇒ y = −3 27. 2r cos θ + 3r sin θ = 6 28. r sin θ = 2r cos θ ⇒
⇒ 2x + 3y = 6 y = 2x

29. r 2 = 4r cos θ ⇒ x 2 + y 2 = 4x ⇔ x 2 + y 2 − 4x = 0
2
30. r 2 = sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ ⇒ r 4 = r 2 (2 sin θ cos θ) = 2 (r sin θ) (r cos θ) ⇒ x 2 + y 2 = 2x y ⇔

x 4 + 2x 2 y 2 + y 4 − 2x y = 0
1
31. r = ⇒ r − r sin θ = 1 ⇒ x 2 + y2 − y = 1 ⇔ x 2 + y 2 = y + 1 ⇒ x 2 + y 2 = y 2 + 2y + 1 ⇔
1 − sin θ
x 2 − 2y − 1 = 0
 Section 10.4 Polar Coordinates 733

3
32. r = ⇒ 4r − 5r cos θ = 3 ⇒ 4 x 2 + y 2 − 5x = 3 ⇒ 16 x 2 + y 2 = 25x 2 + 30x + 9 ⇔
4 − 5 cos θ
9x 2 − 16y 2 + 30x + 9 = 0

33. x = 4 ⇒ r cos θ = 4 ⇒ r = 4 sec θ

3
34. x + 2y = 3 ⇒ r cos θ + 2r sin θ = 3 ⇒ r =
cos θ + 2 sin θ

35. x 2 + y 2 = 9 ⇒ r 2 = 9 ⇒ r = 3

36. x 2 − y 2 = 1 ⇒ (r cos θ)2 − (r sin θ)2 = 1 ⇒ r 2 cos2 θ − sin2 θ = 1 ⇒ r 2 cos 2θ = 1 ⇒ r 2 = sec 2θ

4 4
37. x y = 4 ⇒ (r cos θ) (r sin θ) = 4 ⇒ r 2 cos θ sin θ = 4 ⇒ r 2 = = 1 ⇒ r 2 = 8 csc 2θ
cos θ sin θ sin 2θ
2

4
38. y 2 − x 2 = 4 x 2 + y 2 ⇒ (r sin θ)2 − (r cos θ)2 = 4r ⇒ r 2 sin2 θ − cos2 θ = 4r ⇒ −r cos 2θ = 4 ⇒ r = −
cos 2θ
⇒ r = −4 sec 2θ

39. r=3 40. 41. ¬=¹/3 42.

r=_2

O
O 3 O 2 O

¬=_¹/6

43. r = 3 cos θ ⇔ r 2 = 3r cos θ ⇒ x 2 + y 2 = 3x ⇔ 44. r = −4 sin θ ⇔ r 2 = −4r sin θ ⇒ x 2 + y 2 = −4y ⇔

2 x 2 + (y + 2)2 = 4. The curve is a circle with radius 2 and
x − 32 + y 2 = 94 . The curve is a circle with radius 32
center (0, −2).
and center 32 , 0 .
O

O 3
_4

45. r = 3 cos θ − 2 sin θ ⇔ r 2 = 3r cos θ − 2r sin θ ⇒ 46. r = 2 sin θ + 4 cos θ ⇔ r 2 = 2r sin θ + 4r cos θ ⇒
2 x 2 + y 2 = 2y + 4x ⇔ (x − 2)2 + (y − 1)2 = 5. The
x 2 + y 2 = 3x − 2y ⇔ x − 32 + (y + 1)2 = 13
4 . The √
√ curve is a circle with radius 5 and center (2, 1).
curve is a circle with radius 213 and center 32 , −1 .

O O 4

_2
734 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

47. r = 1 + cos θ. The curve is a cardioid. 48. r = 1 + sin θ. The curve is a cardioid.

O 2

49. r = 4 (1 − sin θ). The curve is a cardioid. 50. r = 3 − 3 cos θ. The curve is a cardioid.

O
O
_6

_8

2 3
51. r = 2 csc θ = ⇔ r sin θ = 2 ⇔ y = 2. The curve is 52. r = −3 sec θ = − ⇔ r cos θ = −3 ⇔ x = −3. The
sin θ cos θ
a horizontal line. curve is a vertical line.

O 2 _3 O

53. r = θ, θ ≥ 0 54. r = 1/θ 55. r = eθ , θ ≥ 0 56. r 2 = θ1 ⇔ r = ± √1

θ

O 1
O

57. r 2 = 4 sin 2θ 58. r = 1 − 2 cos θ 59. r = 3 + 2 sin θ 60. r = sin 2θ

O O

O
 Section 10.4 Polar Coordinates 735

61. r = sin 3θ 62. r = 2 cos 4θ 63. r = 4 sin 4θ 64. r = 2 sin 5θ

√
dy f sin θ + f cos θ −4 sin2 θ + 4 cos2 θ 3
65. r = 4 cos θ ⇒ m = = = =
dx θ =π/3 f cos θ − f sin θ π/3 −4 sin θ cos θ − 4 sin θ cos θ 3
π /3

dy f sin θ + f cos θ 3 cos θ sin θ + 3 sin θ cos θ

66. r = 3 sin θ ⇒ m = = = but at θ = π
4 the
dx θ =π/4 f cos θ − f sin θ π/4 3 cos2 θ − 3 sin2 θ π /4
numerator is nonzero while the denominator is zero. Thus, m is undefined and the tangent line is vertical.

67. r= sin θ + cos θ ⇒

dy f sin θ + f cos θ (cos θ − sin θ) sin θ + (sin θ + cos θ) cos θ
m= = = = −1
dx θ =π/4 f cos θ − f sin θ π/4 (cos θ − sin θ) cos θ − (sin θ + cos θ) sin θ π/4

dy f sin θ + f cos θ −3 sin2 θ + (1 + 3 cos θ) cos θ

68. r = 1 + 3 cos θ ⇒ m = = = =3
dx θ=π/2 f cos θ − f sin θ π/2 −3 sin θ cos θ − (1 + 3 cos θ) sin θ
π /2

dy f sin θ + f cos θ sin θ + θ cos θ

69. r = θ ⇒ m = = = =π
dx θ=π f cos θ − f sin θ π cos θ − θ sin θ π

dy f sin θ + f cos θ 3 cos 3θ sin θ + sin 3θ cos θ √

70. r = sin 3θ ⇒ m = = = = 3
dx θ=π/3 f cos θ − f sin θ π/3 3 cos 3θ cos θ − sin 3θ sin θ π/3

√ √
71. r 2 = 4 cos 2θ. If − π π
4 ≤ θ ≤ 4 , then cos 2θ ≥ 0, so we may write r = 4 cos 2θ = 2 cos 2θ ⇒
2 sin 2θ √
−√ sin θ + 2 cos 2θ cos θ
dy f sin θ + f cos θ cos 2θ
m= = = √ =0
dx θ =π/6 f cos θ − f sin θ π/6 2 sin 2θ
−√ cos θ − 2 cos 2θ sin θ
cos 2θ π /6

2
72. r = 2 sec θ = ⇒ r cos θ = 2 or, in rectangular coordinates, x = 2. So the curve r = 2 sec θ is a vertical line, and
cos θ
therefore the slope of the tangent line is undefined.

73. r = 4 cos θ ⇒ x = r cos θ = 4 cos2 θ and y = r sin θ = 4 cos θ sin θ = 2 sin 2θ, so ddxθ = −8 cos θ sin θ = −4 sin 2θ and
dy
dθ
= 4 cos 2θ.
For horizontal tangents, ddxθ = 0 and ddyθ = 0 ⇒ cos 2θ = 0 ⇒ θ = π 3π 5π 7π
4 , 4 , 4 , or 4 , so the points with horizontal
√ π √ 3π
tangent lines are 2 2, 4 and −2 2, 4 . (Note that θ = 54π and θ = 74π yield the same points.)

For vertical tangents, ddyθ = 0 and ddxθ = 0 ⇒ sin 2θ = 0 ⇒ θ = 0, π 3π

2 , π, or 2 , so there are vertical tangent lines at
0, π π
2 and (4, 0). Note that 0, 2 is the pole.
736 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

74. r = sin θ + cos θ ⇒ x = r cos θ = sin θ cos θ + cos2 θ = 12 sin 2θ + cos2 θ and
y = r sin θ = sin2 θ + sin θ cos θ = sin2 θ + 12 sin 2θ, so ddxθ = cos 2θ − 2 cos θ sin θ = cos 2θ − sin 2θ and
dy
dθ
= 2 sin θ cos θ + cos 2θ = sin 2θ + cos 2θ.
For horizontal tangents, ddyθ = 0 ⇒ sin 2θ + cos 2θ = 0 ⇒ tan 2θ = −1 ⇒ θ = 38π or 78π . ddxθ = 0 for these values, so

the points are sin 38π + cos 38π , 38π and sin 78π + cos 78π , 78π .
dy
For vertical tangents, ddxθ = 0 ⇒ tan 2θ = 1 ⇒ θ = π 5π
8 or 8 . Because d θ = 0 at these values of θ, we see that the points
where the tangent line is horizontal are sin π π π 5π 5π 5π
8 + cos 8 , 8 and sin 8 + cos 8 , 8 .

75. r = sin 2θ ⇒ x = r cos θ = sin 2θ cos θ = 2 sin θ cos2 θ and y = r sin θ = sin 2θ sin θ = 2 sin2 θ cos θ,
so ddxθ = 2 cos3 θ − 4 sin2 θ cos θ = 2 cos θ cos2 θ − 2 sin2 θ = 2 cos θ 1 − 3 sin2 θ and
dy
dθ
= −2 sin3 θ + 4 sin θ cos2 θ = 2 sin θ 2 cos2 θ − sin2 θ . Now ddyθ = 0 ⇒ θ = 0,
√ √ √ √
tan−1 2, π + tan−1 − 2 , π, π + tan−1 2, or 2π + tan−1 − 2 ; and ddxθ = 0 ⇒
√ √ √ √
θ = sin−1 33 , π2 , π + sin
−1 − 3 , π + sin−1 3 , 3π , or 2π + sin−1 − 3 . The lists
3 3 2 3
1
√ √
are mutually exclusive, so the tangent line is horizontal at (0, 0), sin 2 tan− 2 , tan−1 2 ,
√ √ √ √
sin 2 π + tan−1 − 2 , π + tan−1 − 2 = sin 2 tan−1 − 2 , π + tan−1 − 2 ,
√ √ √ √
(0, π), sin 2 π + tan−1 2 , π + tan−1 2 = sin 2 tan−1 2 , π + tan−1 2 , and
√ √ √ √
sin 2 2π + tan−1 − 2 , 2π + tan−1 − 2 = sin 2 tan−1 − 2 , 2π + tan−1 − 2 ;
√ √
and the tangent line is vertical at sin 2 sin−1 33 , sin−1 33 , 0, π
2 ,
√ √ √ √
sin 2 π + sin−1 − 33 , π + sin−1 − 33 = sin 2 sin−1 − 33 , π + sin−1 − 33 ,
√ √ √ √
sin 2 π + sin−1 33 , π + sin−1 33 = sin 2 sin−1 33 , π + sin−1 33 , 0, 32π , and
√ √ √ √
sin 2 2π + sin−1 − 33 , 2π + sin−1 − 33 = sin 2 sin−1 − 33 , 2π + sin−1 − 33 .

√ 4 sin 2θ
76. r 2 = 4 cos 2θ ⇒ r = 2 cos 2θ if θ lies in 0, π 3π
4 ∪ 4 , π . 2rr = −8 sin 2θ ⇒ r = − , so
r
dx 4 sin 2θ cos θ −4 sin 2θ cos θ − 4 cos 2θ sin θ 4 sin 3θ
= r cos θ − r sin θ = − − r sin θ = =− and
dθ r r r
dy 4 sin 2θ sin θ −4 sin 2θ sin θ + 4 cos 2θ cos θ 4 cos 3θ dy
= r sin θ + r cos θ = − + r cos θ = =− . dθ = 0 ⇒ θ = π
6
dθ r r r
5π dx
√ π √ 5π dx
or 6 , and since d θ = 0 at these values of θ, the tangent line is horizontal at ± 2, 6 and ± 2, 6 . d θ = 0 ⇒

θ = 0, and since ddyθ = 0, we see that the points where the tangent line is vertical are (±2, 0).
0
 Section 10.4 Polar Coordinates 737

77. r = 1 + 2 cos θ ⇒ x = r cos θ = cos θ + 2 cos2 θ and y = r sin θ = sin θ + 2 sin θ cos θ = sin θ + sin 2θ,
so ddxθ = − sin θ − 4 cos θ sin θ = − sin θ (4 cos θ + 1) and
√
dy
dθ
= cos θ + 2 cos 2θ = cos θ + 2 2 cos2 θ − 1 = 4 cos2 θ + cos θ − 2. ddyθ = 0 ⇒ θ = cos−1 338−1 ,
√ √ √
cos−1 −1−8 33 , 2π − cos−1 −1−8 33 , or 2π − cos−1 338−1 , and ddxθ = 0 ⇒ θ = 0, cos−1 − 14 , π, or
√ √
2π − cos−1 − 14 . From this, we see that the points where the tangent line is horizontal are 1 + 334−1 , cos−1 338−1 ,
√ √ √ √ √ √
1 − 334+1 , cos−1 − 33 8
−1 , 1 − 33+1 , 2π − cos−1 −1− 33 , and 1 + 33−1 , 2π − cos−1 33−1 ; and
4 8 4 8

the points where the tangent line is vertical are (3, 0), 12 , cos−1 − 14 , (−1, π), and 12 , 2π − cos−1 − 14 .

78. r = 1 + sin θ ⇒ x = r cos θ = cos θ + sin θ cos θ and y = r sin θ = sin θ + sin2 θ, so
dx = − sin θ + cos2 θ − sin2 θ = −2 sin2 θ − sin θ + 1 and dy = cos θ + 2 sin θ cos θ = cos θ (1 + 2 sin θ). dy = 0 ⇔
dθ dθ dθ
θ= π ,
2 6
7π , 3π , or 11π , and dx = 0 ⇔ θ = π , 5π , or 3π . The tangent line is horizontal at 2, π , 1 , 7π , and
2 6 dθ 6 6 2 2 2 6
1 , 11π , and vertical at 3, π , 3π , 5π , and 0, 3π .
2 6 2 6 2 6 2

79. x 4 − 2x 3 + 2x 2 y 2 − 2x y 2 − y 2 + y 4 = 0. Letting x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ, we find

r 4 cos4 θ − 2r 3 cos3 θ + 2r 4 cos2 θ sin2 θ − 2r 3 cos θ sin2 θ − r 2 sin2 θ + r 4 sin4 θ = 0
⇔ r 4 cos4 θ + 2 cos2 θ sin2 θ + sin4 θ − 2r 3 cos θ cos2 θ + sin2 θ − r 2 sin2 θ = 0 ⇔
2
r 4 cos2 θ + sin2 θ − 2r 3 cos θ − r 2 sin2 θ = 0 ⇔ r 2 r 2 − 2r cos θ − 1 − cos2 θ = 0 ⇔ r = 0 or

r 2 − 2r cos θ + cos2 θ − 1 = 0 ⇔ r = 0 or (r − cos θ)2 = 1 ⇔ r = 0 or r = cos θ ± 1. This shows that r = 1 + cos θ has
the given equation as its rectangular equation.

80. r = a sin θ + b cos θ ⇒ r 2 = ar sin θ + br cos θ ⇒ x 2 + y 2 = ay + bx ⇔ x 2 − bx + y 2 − ay = 0 ⇔

2 2 2 2 2
x 2 − bx + − b2 + y 2 − ay + − a2 = a4 + b4 ⇔ x − b2 + y − a2 = 14 a 2 + b2 . This is an equation of the

circle with center b2 , a2 and radius 12 a 2 + b2 .

81. a. d 2 = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 . Here x1 = r1 cos θ1 , y1 = r1 sin θ1 , x2 = r2 cos θ2 , and y2 = r2 sin θ 2 , so

d 2 = (r2 cos θ2 − r1 cos θ1 )2 + (r2 sin θ2 − r1 sin θ1 )2

= r22 cos2 θ2 − 2r1r2 cos θ1 cos θ2 + r12 cos2 θ1 + r22 sin2 θ2 − 2r1r2 sin θ1 sin θ 2 + r12 sin2 θ1

= r22 cos2 θ2 + sin2 θ2 − 2r1r2 (cos θ 1 cos θ2 + sin θ1 sin θ2 ) + r12 cos2 θ1 + sin2 θ 1

= r12 + r22 − 2r1r2 cos (θ1 − θ2 )

so d = r12 + r22 − 2r1r2 cos (θ1 − θ2 ).

b. Letting r1 = 4, θ1 = 23π , r2 = 2, and θ 2 = π 2π and 2, π to be

3 , we find the distance between 4, 3 3
√
d = 42 + 22 − 2 (4) (2) cos 23π − π π
3 = 20 − 16 cos 3 = 2 3.
738 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

82. Let C1 : r1 = a sin θ and C2 : r2 = a cos θ. To find the slope of the tangent
line to C1 , we compute
r sin θ + r1 cos θ a cos θ sin θ + a sin θ cos θ
m1 = 1 = = tan 2θ.
r1 cos θ − r1 sin θ a cos2 θ − a sin2 θ O a
The slope of the tangent line to C2 is
r sin θ + r2 cos θ −a sin2 θ + a cos2 θ
m2 = 2 = = − cot 2θ.
r2 cos θ − r2 sin θ −a sin θ cos θ − a sin θ cos θ
Since m 1 m 2 = −1, the curves intersect at right angles.

83. a. b. Let C1 : r1 = a (1 + cos θ) and C2 : r2 = a (1 − cos θ). To find the

points of intersection of C1 and C2 , we solve

a a (1 + cos θ) = a (1 − cos θ) ⇔ cos θ = 0 ⇒ θ = π 3π

2 or 2 . They
_2a 2a
also intersect at the pole. The slope of the tangent line to C1 is

_a r sin θ + r1 cos θ −a sin2 θ + a cos2 θ + a cos θ

m1 = 1 =
r1 cos θ − r1 sin θ −a sin θ cos θ − a sin θ − a sin θ cos θ
2 cos2 θ + cos θ − 1
=−
sin θ (2 cos θ + 1)
r sin θ + r2 cos θ 2 cos2 θ − cos θ − 1
and the slope of the tangent line to C2 is m 2 = 2 =− , so at θ = π
2 , the slope
r2 cos θ − r2 sin θ sin θ (2 cos θ − 1)
2 cos2 θ + cos θ − 1
of the tangent line to C1 is m 1 = − = 1 and the slope of the tangent line to C2 is
sin θ (2 cos θ + 1)
π /2
2 cos2 θ − cos θ − 1
m2 = − = −1. Therefore, C1 and C2 intersect at right angles at a, π
2 . Similarly, at
sin θ (2 cos θ − 1)
π /2
θ = 32π , we find m 1 = −1 and m 2 = 1, so C1 and C2 intersect at right angles at a, 32π .

84. We find
dy
d θ − tan θ
dy dx dy dx tan θ
tan φ − tan θ − tan θ −
tan ψ = tan (φ − θ) = = dx dy = d θ dy = dθ dθ
dy
1 + tan φ tan θ 1 + dx tan θ dx + tan θ
1 + ddxθ tan θ dθ dθ

dθ
2θ
r sin θ + r cos θ − r cos θ − r sin θ tan θ r cos θ + r sin
cos θ = r r dθ
= = 2θ
= dr = r
r cos θ − r sin θ + r sin θ + r cos θ tan θ sin
r cos θ + r cos θ r dr
dθ
85. 86.
1 1.0

0.5

0 0.0

-1 0 1

-1
-1 0 1
 Section 10.4 Polar Coordinates 739

87. 88.
1 5

0 0

-1 -5

-1 0 1 -1 0 1

89. 90.
1 4

0 0

-2

-1
-4
-1 0 1 -1 0 1

91. 92.
0.5 1

0.0 0

-0.5 -1
-0.5 0.0 0.5 0 1

93. False. P 2, π 7π
6 and P −2, 6 represent the same point in polar coordinates, but r1 = 2 = −2 = r2 .

94. False. P 2, π 7π π 7π
6 and P −2, 6 represent the same point in polar coordinates, but θ 1 = 6 = 6 = θ 2 .

95. False. Take r = 1 + sin θ. Then ddyθ = 0 at θ = 32π , but the graph has a 2

vertical tangent line at the point 0, 32π (see the figure). Note that
dx = 0 at θ = 3π .
dθ 2

O
740 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

10.5 Concept Questions

β 1 2 β 1 2
1. a. A = α 2 f (θ) dθ = α 2 r dθ. See Figure 2a.
β 1 2 2
b. A = α 2 f (θ) − g (θ) dθ. See Figure 6.

β 2 2 β 2
2. L = α f (θ) + f (θ) dθ = α r + r 2 dθ

β 2 β 2
3. a. S = 2π α r sin θ r + r 2 dθ b. S = 2π α r cos θ r + r 2 dθ

10.5 Areas and Arc Length in Polar Coordinates

1. a. r = 4 cos θ ⇒ r 2 = 4r cos θ ⇒ x 2 + y 2 = 4x ⇒ x 2 − 4x + y 2 = 0 ⇒ (x − 2)2 + y 2 = 4, an equation of the circle
with center (2, 0) and radius 2. Its area is π (2)2 = 4π.
β π
f (θ) dθ = 12 0π (4 cos θ)2 dθ = 8 0π cos2 θ dθ = 4 0π (1 + cos 2θ) dθ = 4 θ + 12 sin 2θ
2
b. A = 12 α = 4π
0
2. a. r = 2 cos θ − 2 sin θ ⇒ r 2 = 2r cos θ − 2r sin θ ⇒ x 2 + y 2 = 2x − 2y ⇒ x 2 − 2x + y 2 + 2y = 0 ⇒
√ √ 2
(x − 1)2 + (y + 1)2 = 2, an equation of the circle with center (1, −1) and radius 2. Its area is π 2 = 2π.
β
f (θ) dθ = 12 0π (2 cos θ − 2 sin θ)2 dθ = 2 0π cos2 θ − 2 cos θ sin θ + sin2 θ dθ
2
b. A = 12 α
π
= 2 0π (1 − sin 2θ) dθ = 2 θ + 12 cos 2θ = 2π
0
π
3. A = 12 0π θ2 dθ = 16 θ3 = 16 π 3
0

1 π/3 1 2 1 π /3 1 1 3
4. A = dθ = − =− π + =
2 π/6 θ 2θ π/6 2 3 2 π6
2π
2 0 1 − e −π eπ − 1
5. A = 12 −0 π/2 eθ dθ = 12 −0 π/2 e2θ dθ = 14 e2θ = =
−π /2 4 4eπ
π /4 −2θ 2 π /4 π /4 eπ − 1
6. A = 12 0 e dθ = 12 0 e−4θ dθ = − 18 e−4θ = − 18 e−π − 1 =
0 8eπ
π /2 √ 2 π /2 π /2
7. A = 12 0 cos θ dθ = 12 0 cos θ dθ = 12 sin θ = 12
0
π /16 √
π /16 π/16 π /16 π + 2
8. A = 12 0 (cos 2θ)2 dθ = 12 0 cos2 2θ dθ = 14 0 (1 + cos 4θ) dθ = 14 θ + 14 sin 4θ = 14 16 8
0
√
= π+64
2 2

3π /2 2 3π /2 π3
9. A = 12 0 θ dθ = 16 θ3 = 916
0
π /4 1 √ 2 π /4 π /4
10. By symmetry, A = 2 0 2 a cos 2θ dθ = a 2 0 cos 2θ dθ = 12 a 2 sin 2θ = 12 a 2 .
0

11. A = 12 0π (1 − cos θ)2 dθ = 12 0π 1 − 2 cos θ + cos2 θ dθ = 12 0π 1 − 2 cos θ + 12 (1 + cos 2θ) dθ

π
= 12 0π 32 − 2 cos θ + 12 cos 2θ dθ = 12 32 θ − 2 sin θ + 14 sin 2θ = 34π
0
12. By symmetry,
π /6 π /6 π /6 π /6
A = 2 · 12 0 (2 cos 3θ)2 dθ = 4 0 cos2 3θ dθ = 2 0 (1 + cos 6θ) dθ = 2 θ + 16 sin 6θ =π
3.
0
 Section 10.5 Areas and Arc Length in Polar Coordinates 741

13. A = 12 0π (3 sin θ)2 dθ = 92 0π sin2 θ dθ 14. A = 12 02π [2 (1 − cos θ)]2 dθ

π
= 94 0π (1 − cos 2θ) dθ = 94 θ − 12 sin 2θ = 2 02π 1 − 2 cos θ + cos2 θ dθ
0
= 94π = 2 02π 1 − 2 cos θ + 12 (1 + cos 2θ) dθ
2π
= 2 32 θ − 2 sin θ + 14 sin 2θ = 6π
3 0

O 2

√ √
15. r 2 = sin θ ⇒ r = sin θ for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, so 16. r 2 = 3 sin 2θ ⇒ r = 3 sin 2θ for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
2 , so
A = 2 0π 21 r 2 dθ = 0π sin θ dθ = − cos θ|π
0 = 2. A=2 0
π /2 1 2 π /2
2 r dθ = 0 3 sin 2θ dθ
π /2
= 3 − 12 cos 2θ =3
0

¬=¹/4

17. r = 2 sin 2θ ⇒ 18. r = 2 sin 3θ ⇒

π /2 1 2 π /2 π /3 1 2 3 π /3 (2 sin 3θ)2 dθ
A=4 0 2 r dθ = 2 0 (2 sin 2θ)2 dθ A=3 0 2 r dθ = 2 0
π /2 π /2 π /3 π /3
= 8 0 sin2 2θ dθ = 4 0 (1 − cos 4θ) dθ = 6 0 sin2 3θ dθ = 3 0 (1 − cos 6θ) dθ
π /2 π /3
= 4 θ − 14 sin 4θ = 2π = 3 θ − 16 sin 6θ =π
0 0
¬=¹/6
¬=¹/4

O
O
742 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

19. r = cos 2θ ⇒ 20. r = 2 cos 3θ ⇒

π /4 1 2 π /4 π /6 1 2 π /6
A=2 0 2 r dθ = 0 (cos 2θ)2 dθ A=2 0 2 r dθ = 0 (2 cos 3θ)2 dθ
π /4 π /6 π /6
= 12 0 (1 + cos 4θ) dθ = 4 0 cos2 3θ dθ = 2 0 (1 + cos 6θ) dθ
π /4 π /6
= 12 θ + 14 sin 4θ =π 8 = 2 θ + 16 sin 6θ =π 3
0 0

¬=¹/4
¬=¹/6

21. r = sin 4θ ⇒ 22. r = 2 cos 4θ ⇒

π /4 2 π /4 π /8 1 2 π /8
A = 12 0 r dθ = 12 0 (sin 4θ)2 dθ A=2 0 2 r dθ = 0 (2 cos 4θ)2 dθ
π /4 π /8 π /8
= 14 0 (1 − cos 8θ) dθ = 4 0 cos2 4θ dθ = 2 0 (1 + cos 8θ) dθ
π /4 π π /8
= 14 θ − 18 sin 8θ = 16 = 2 θ + 18 sin 8θ =π 4
0 0

¬=¹/4

¬=¹/8

23. r = 1 + 2 cos θ ⇒ ¬=2¹/3

A = 2 2ππ/3 21 r 2 dθ = 2ππ/3 (1 + 2 cos θ)2 dθ 1

= 2ππ/3 1 + 4 cos θ + 4 cos2 θ dθ

O
= 2ππ/3 [1 + 4 cos θ + 2 (1 + cos 2θ)] dθ
√ _1
= (3θ + 4 sin θ + sin 2θ)|π 3 3
2π /3 = π − 2
 Section 10.5 Areas and Arc Length in Polar Coordinates 743

24. r = 1 + 2 sin θ. Let A1 be the area of the region enclosed by the outer 3

loop:
π /2 π /2
A1 = 2 −π/6 12 r 2 dθ = −π/6 (1 + 2 sin θ)2 dθ
π /2
= −π/6 1 + 4 sin θ + 4 sin2 θ dθ
π /2
= −π/6 (1 + 4 sin θ + 2 − 2 cos 2θ) dθ
√ _1 O 1
π /2
= (3θ − 4 cos θ − sin 2θ)|−π/6 = 2π + 3 2 3
¬=_¹/6
√
The area of the region enclosed by the inner loop is A2 = π − 3 2 3 (see Exercise 23), so the area of the region between the
√ √ √
loops is A1 − A2 = 2π + 3 2 3 − π − 3 2 3 = π + 3 3.

25. The two circles intersect along the line θ = π π

4 because setting sin θ = cos θ gives tan θ = 1 or θ = 4 . Therefore,
π /4 1 2 π /4 π /4 π /4 π−2
A=2 0 2 r dθ = 0 (sin θ)2 dθ = 12 0 (1 − cos 2θ) dθ = 12 θ − 12 sin 2θ = .
0 8

π /2 π /2 π /2
26. A = 12 0 (1 + sin θ)2 − 12 dθ = 12 0 2 sin θ + sin2 θ dθ = 12 0 2 sin θ + 12 − 12 cos 2θ dθ
π /2 π+8
= 12 −2 cos θ + 12 θ − 14 sin 2θ =
0 8

27. The area of the region under the outer curve and above the polar axis is
A1 = 12 0π r 2 dθ = 12 0π (1 + cos θ)2 dθ = 12 0π 1 + 2 cos θ + cos2 θ dθ = 12 0π 1 + 2 cos θ + 12 + 12 cos 2θ dθ
π
= 12 32 θ + 2 sin θ + 14 sin 2θ = 34π
0
The area of the region under the inner curve and above the polar axis is
π /4 π /4 √ 2 π /4 π /4
A2 = 12 0 r 2 dθ = 12 0 cos 2θ dθ = 12 0 cos 2θ dθ = 14 sin 2θ = 14 . Therefore, the area of the
0
3π 1 3π − 1
shaded region is A = A1 − A2 = − = .
4 4 4

28. The area of the region under the outer curve (which is a semicircle with radius 1) is A1 = π
2.
The area of the region under the curve r = 2 cos 3θ and above the polar axis from 0 to 2 is
π /6 π /6 π /6 π /6 π /6
A2 = 12 0 r 2 dθ = 12 0 (2 cos 3θ)2 dθ = 2 0 cos2 3θ dθ = 0 (1 + cos 6θ) dθ = θ + 16 sin 6θ =π
6.
0
Therefore, the area of the shaded region is A = A1 − A2 = π π π
2 − 6 = 3.

29. r = 1 and r = 1 + cos θ. Equating the two, we find 1 + cos θ = 1 ⇒

cos θ = 0, so θ = π 3π π
2 or 2 and the points of intersection are 1, 2 and

1, 32π .
O
744 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

30. r = 3 and r = 2 + 2 cos θ. Equating, we find 2 + 2 cos θ = 3 ⇒

cos θ = 12 , so θ = π 5π π
3 or 3 and the points of intersection are 3, 3 and

3, 53π .
O

31. r = 2 and r = 4 cos 2θ. Equating, we find 4 cos 2θ = 2 ⇒ cos 2θ = 12 , so

2θ = π 7π 5π 11π π 5π 7π 11π
3 , 3 , 3 , or 3 , implying θ = 6 , 6 , 6 , or 6 . By

symmetry, the points of intersection are 2, π π 2π

6 , 2, 3 , 2, 3 ,

2, 56π , 2, 76π , 2, 43π , 2, 53π , and 2, 116π .

32. r = 1 and r 2 = 2 cos 2θ. Equating, we find 2 cos 2θ = 1 ⇒ cos 2θ = 12 ,

so 2θ = π 5π 7π 11π π 5π 7π 11π
3 , 3 , 3 , or 3 ⇒ θ = 6 , 6 , 6 , or 6 , and the points

of intersection are 1, π 5π 7π 11π

6 , 1, 6 , 1, 6 , and 1, 6 . O

33. r = sin θ and r = sin 2θ. Equating, we find 2 sin θ cos θ = sin θ ⇒
sin θ (1 − 2 cos θ) = 0 ⇒ sin θ = 0 or cos θ = 12 ⇒ θ = 0, π 5π
3 , π, or 3 ,
√ √
3 π 3 5π
and so the points of intersection are 2 , 3 , − 2 , 3 , and the pole.

34. r = cos θ and r = cos 2θ. Equating, we find

cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ = cos θ ⇒ 2 cos2 θ − cos θ − 1 = 0 ⇔
(2 cos θ + 1) (cos θ − 1) = 0 ⇒ cos θ = − 12 or cos θ = 1 ⇒ θ = 0, 23π ,

or 43π , so the points of intersection are (1, 0), − 12 , 23π , − 12 , 43π , and
the pole.
 Section 10.5 Areas and Arc Length in Polar Coordinates 745

35. r = 1 + cos θ and r = 3 cos θ. Equating, we find 1 + cos θ = 3 cos θ ⇔ ¬=¹/3

r=3 cos ¬
cos θ = 12 ⇒ θ = π 5π 3 π
3 or 3 , and so the points of intersection are 2 , 3

and 32 , 53π . Thus,

π /3 1 2 2 O
A=2 0 2 (3 cos θ) − (1 + cos θ) dθ
π /3
= 0 8 cos2 θ − 2 cos θ − 1 dθ r=1+cos ¬

π /3
= 0 (3 + 4 cos 2θ − 2 cos θ) dθ
π /3
= (3θ + 2 sin 2θ − 2 sin θ)|0 = π

36. r = 1 − sin θ and r = 1. Equating, we find 1 − sin θ = 1 ⇔ sin θ = 0 ⇒

r=1
θ = 0 or π, and so the points of intersection are (1, 0) and (1, π). Thus,
π /2 1 2 2 π /2
A=2 0 2 1 − (1 − sin θ) dθ = 0 2 sin θ − sin2 θ dθ 1
O
π /2
= 0 2 sin θ − 12 + 12 cos 2θ dθ
π /2 8−π
= −2 cos θ − 12 θ + 14 sin 2θ =
0 4
r=1-sin ¬
_2

¬=¹/3
37. r = 4 cos θ and r = 2. Equating, we find 4 cos θ = 2 ⇔ cos θ = 12 ⇒

θ= π 5π π 5π
3 or 3 . The points are 2, 3 and 2, 3 . Thus,
π 1 2 π /2 1 2
A=2 π /3 2 2 dθ − π /3 2 (4 cos θ) dθ _2 2 4
π /2
= 4θ|ππ/3 − 8 π /3 (1 + cos 2θ) dθ √
π /2 4π + 6 3
= 83π − 8 θ + 12 sin 2θ = _2 ¬=5¹/3
π /3 3

38. r = 3 sin θ and r = 2 − sin θ. Equating, we find 3 sin θ = 2 − sin θ ⇔ r=3 sin ¬

sin θ = 12 ⇒ θ = π 5π 3 π
6 or 6 , so the points of intersection are 2 , 6 and
¬=5¹/6 ¬=¹/6
1
3 , 5π . Thus,
2 6
_2 2
3π /2 1 2 π 1 2
A=2 5π /6 2 (2 − sin θ) dθ − 5π /6 2 (3 sin θ) dθ
3π /2
= 5π/6 4 − 4 sin θ + sin2 θ dθ − 9 5ππ/6 sin2 θ dθ
3π /2 9 − 4 sin θ − 1 cos 2θ dθ − 9 π
= 5π /6 2 2 2 5π /6 (1 − cos 2θ) dθ _3 r=2-sin ¬
√
3π /2 π 12 3 + 9π
= 92 θ + 4 cos θ − 14 sin 2θ − 92 θ − 12 sin 2θ =
5π /6 5π /6 4
746 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

39. r = 1 − cos θ and r = 32 . Equating, we find 1 − cos θ = 32 ⇔ cos θ = − 12 ¬=2¹/3

r=1-cos ¬
⇒ θ = 23π or 43π , so the points are 32 , 23π and 32 , 43π . Thus,

A=2 0
2π /3 1 3 2 − 1 (1 − cos θ)2 dθ
2 2 2
2π /3 5 1
= 0 4 + 2 cos θ − 2 (1 + cos 2θ) dθ
√
2π /3 4π + 9 3 r=3/2
= 3 θ + 2 sin θ − 1 sin 2θ = ¬=4¹/3
4 4 0 8

40. r = 1 and r = 2 cos 3θ. From the figure, we see that by symmetry the
required area is three times the area of the region inside the loop between
θ = −π π
6 and θ = 6 and outside the circle. To find the points M and N of N

intersection, we solve 2 cos 3θ = 1 ⇒ cos 3θ = 12 ⇒ 3θ = ± π

3 ⇒ O
θ = ±π M
9 , so
π /9 π /9
A = 3 12 −π/9 (2 cos 3θ)2 dθ − 12 −π/9 dθ
π /9 π /9
= 3 2 −π/9 cos2 3θ dθ − 12 θ
−π / 9
√
π /9 π π /9 2π + 3 3
=3 −π /9 (1 + cos 6θ) dθ − 9 =3 θ + 16 sin 6θ −π
9 =
−π /9 6

41. r = 1 and r = 2 sin θ. To find the points of intersection, we solve r=2 sin ¬

2 sin θ = 1 ⇔ sin θ = 12 ⇒ θ = π 5π π
6 or 6 , giving the points 1, 6 and

1, 56π . The area of the required region is ¬=5¹/6 ¬=¹/6

π /6 π /2
A = 2 12 0 (2 sin θ)2 dθ + 12 π/6 12 dθ
O
π /6 π /2 π /6
= 2 2 0 sin2 θ dθ + 12 θ =2 0 (1 − cos 2θ) dθ + π
6 r=1
π /6
√
1 π /6 π 4π − 3 3
=2 θ − 2 sin 2θ + 6 =
0 6

√ √
42. r = cos θ and r = 3 sin θ. Equating, we find cos θ = 3 sin θ ⇒ r=Ï3 sin ¬
√ √
tan θ = 33 ⇒ θ = π
6 , so the points of intersection are
3 π
3 , 6 and the
pole, since both equations are satisfied there. Thus, ¬=¹/6
π /2 π /6 √ 2
A = 12 π/6 (cos θ)2 dθ + 12 0 3 sin θ dθ
π /2 π /6 1
= 14 π/6 (1 + cos 2θ) dθ + 34 0 (1 − cos 2θ) dθ
√
π /2 π /6 5π − 6 3 r=cos ¬
= 14 θ + 12 sin 2θ + 34 θ − 12 sin 2θ =
π /6 0 24
 Section 10.5 Areas and Arc Length in Polar Coordinates 747

43. r = sin θ and r = 1 − sin θ. Equating, we find sin θ = 1 − sin θ ⇒

¬=5¹/6 ¬=¹/6
sin θ = 12 ⇒ θ = π 5π 1 π
6 or 6 , so the points of intersection are 2 , 6 ,
1 , 5π , and the pole. Thus,
2 6
π /6 1 2 π /2 1 2
A=2 0 2 (sin θ) dθ + 2 π /6 2 (1 − sin θ) dθ
π /6 π /2
= 12 0 (1 − cos 2θ) dθ + π/6 1 − 2 sin θ + sin2 θ dθ
π /6 π /2
= 12 θ − 12 sin 2θ + π/6 32 − 2 sin θ − 12 cos 2θ dθ
0
√ √
π − 3+ 3 θ + 2 cos θ − 1 sin 2θ π /2 7π − 12 3
= 12 8 2 4 =
π /6 12
44. r = cos θ and r = 1 − cos θ. Equating, we find cos θ = 1 − cos θ ⇒
¬=¹/3
cos θ = 12 ⇒ θ = π 5π 1 π
3 or 3 , so the points of intersection are 2 , 3 ,
1 , 5π , and the pole. Thus,
2 3
r=cos ¬
π /2 π /3 1
A = 2 π/3 12 (cos θ)2 dθ + 2 0 2
2 (1 − cos θ) dθ
π /2 π /3
= π/3 cos2 θ dθ + 0 1 − 2 cos θ + cos2 θ dθ ¬=5¹/3
r=1-cos ¬
π /2 π /3 3
= 12 π/3 (1 + cos 2θ) dθ + 0 1
2 − 2 cos θ + 2 cos 2θ dθ
π /2 π /3
= 12 θ + 12 sin 2θ + 32 θ − 2 sin θ + 14 sin 2θ
π /3 0
√
7π − 12 3
=
12
√
2
45. r = 4 cos 2θ and r = 2. To find the points of intersection, we solve ¬=¹/4
¬=¹/6
4 cos 2θ = 2 ⇒ cos 2θ = 12 ⇒ θ = π 5π 7π 11π
6 , 6 , 6 , or 6 , so the points of r@=4 cos 2¬
√ π √ 5π √ 7π √ 11π
intersection are 2, 6 , 2, 6 , 2, 6 , and 2, 6 . Thus,
_2 2
π /6 √ 2 π /4 π /6
A = 4 12 0 2 dθ + 12 π/6 4 cos 2θ dθ = [2 (2θ)]0 +
√
π /4 2π + 12 − 6 3 r=Ï2
8 12 sin 2θ = .
π /6 3
√ ¬=¹/3
46. r = 3 sin θ and r = 1 + cos θ. To find the points of intersection, we r=Ï3 sin ¬
√
solve 3 sin θ = 1 + cos θ ⇒ 3 sin2 θ = (1 + cos θ)2 ⇒
3 1 − cos2 θ = 1 + 2 cos θ + cos2 θ ⇒

2 cos2 θ + cos θ − 1 = (2 cos θ − 1) (cos θ + 1) = 0 ⇒ θ = π O 2

3 , π, or
5π , the last value being extraneous. Thus, the points of intersection are
3
r=1+cos ¬
3, π and the pole, and
2 3

π /3 1 √ 2 π /3
A= 0 2 3 sin θ dθ + ππ/3 12 (1 + cos θ)2 dθ = 34 0 (1 − cos 2θ) dθ + ππ/3 1 + cos θ + 1 cos2 θ dθ
2 2
√
π /3 π 3 π− 3
= 34 θ − 12 sin 2θ + 3 θ + sin θ + 1 sin 2θ
4 8 =
0 π /3 4
748 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

47. r = 5 sin θ ⇒ L = 0π + r 2 dθ = 0π (5 cos θ)2 + (5 sin θ)2 dθ = 5 0π dθ = 5π

2
r

48. r = 2θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π ⇒
2π
L = 02π + r 2 dθ = 02π 22 + (2θ)2 dθ = 2 02π
2
r 1 + θ2 dθ = θ 1 + θ2 + ln θ + 1 + θ2
0
= 2π 1 + 4π2 + ln 2π + 1 + 4π 2

49. r = e−θ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ 4π ⇒
2 2 √ 4π −θ √ 4π √
L = 04π + r 2 dθ = 04π
2
r −e−θ + e −θ dθ = 2 0 e dθ = − 2e−θ = 2 1 − e−4π
0

50. r = 1 + sin θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π ⇒ 2 r=1+sin ¬

L = 02π + r 2 dθ = 02π
2
r (cos θ)2 + (1 + sin θ)2 dθ
√ √ 3π/2 √
= 02π 2 + 2 sin θ dθ = 2 2 π/2 1 + sin θ dθ
√ 3π / 2 − cos θ dθ √ √ 3π /2
=2· 2 √ = 4 2 1 − sin θ =8 O
π /2 1 − sin θ π /2

51. r = sin3 θ3 , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π ⇒
2 2
L = 0π + r 2 dθ = 0π dθ = 0π sin2 θ3 dθ = 12 0π 1 − cos 23θ dθ
2
r sin2 θ3 cos θ3 + sin3 θ3
√
π 4π − 3 3
= 12 θ − 32 sin 23θ =
0 8

52. r = cos2 θ2 . The curve is traced once around as θ increases from 0 to 2π.
r=cos@(¬/2)
By symmetry,

L = 2 0π
2
r + r 2 dθ
2 2 O 1
= 2 0π − cos θ2 sin θ2 + cos2 θ2 dθ
π
= 2 0π cos θ2 dθ = 4 sin θ2 =4
0

53. r = a sin4 θ4 ⇒ r = a sin3 θ4 cos θ4 ⇒ r=a sin$ (¬/4)

2
r + r 2 = a 2 sin6 θ4 cos2 θ4 + a 2 sin8 θ4 = a 2 sin6 θ4 , so

L = 04π a 2 sin6 θ4 dθ = 4a 0π sin3 u du O

= 4a 0π 1 − cos2 u sin u du
π
= 4a − cos u + 13 cos3 u = 16
3a
0

54. r = sec θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
3 ⇒ r = sec θ tan θ ⇒
2 Ï3
r + r 2 = sec2 θ tan2 θ + sec2 θ = sec4 θ, so
π /3 2 π /3 π /3 √
L= 0 r + r 2 dθ = 0 sec2 θ dθ = tan θ|0 = 3.

1
 Section 10.5 Areas and Arc Length in Polar Coordinates 749

55. r = 4 cos θ ⇒ r = −4 sin θ ⇒

π /2 2
S = 2π 0 r sin θ r + r 2 dθ
π /2
= 2π 0 4 cos θ sin θ 16 sin2 θ + 16 cos2 θ dθ
π /2 O
= 32π 0
π /2
sin θ cos θ dθ = 16π sin2 θ 4
0
= 16π

56. r = 2 cos θ ⇒ r = −2 sin θ ⇒

S = 2π 0π r cos θ
2
r + r 2 dθ
O 2
= 2π 0π 2 cos2 θ 4 sin2 θ + 4 cos2 θ dθ

= 8π 0π cos2 θ dθ = 4π 0π (1 + cos 2θ) dθ

π
= 4π θ + 12 sin 2θ = 4π 2
0

57. r = 2 + 2 cos θ ⇒ r = −2 sin θ ⇒

S = 2π 0π r sin θ
2
r + r 2 dθ

= 2π 0π (2 + 2 cos θ) sin θ (−2 sin θ)2 + (2 + 2 cos θ)2 dθ

√ √ π
= 8 2π 0π (1 + cos θ)3/2 sin θ dθ = −8 2π · 25 (1 + cos θ)5/2 O 4
0
√
= 16 52π 25/2 = 128
5
π

√
58. r 2 = cos 2θ. The graph of r 2 = cos 2θ is shown in the solution to Exercise 59. We can take r = cos 2θ for
2
−π ≤ θ ≤ π , so r = − √sin 2θ . Thus, r 2 + r 2 = sin 2θ + cos 2θ = 1
. By symmetry,
4 4 cos 2θ cos 2θ
cos 2θ
π /4 2 π /4 √ 1 π /4 π /4
S = 2 · 2π 0 r sin θ r + r 2 dθ = 4π 0 cos 2θ (sin θ) √ dθ = 4π 0 sin θ dθ = −4π cos θ|0
cos 2θ
√
= 2π 2 − 2

√
59. r 2 = cos 2θ. We can take r = cos 2θ for − π π
4 ≤ θ ≤ 4 , so
sin 2θ 2 sin2 2θ 1
r = −√ . Thus, r + r 2 = + cos 2θ = , and so
cos 2θ cos 2θ cos 2θ O
π /4 2
S = 2π −π/4 r cos θ r + r 2 dθ
π /4 √ 1
= 2π −π/4 cos 2θ (cos θ) √ dθ
cos 2θ
π /4 π /4 √
= 2π −π/4 cos θ dθ = 2π sin θ|−π/4 = 2 2π
750 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

60. r = ea θ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π a θ ⇒ r 2 + r 2 = a 2 + 1 e2a θ , so
2 ⇒ r = ae

π /2 2 π /2 a θ
S = 2π 0 r cos θ r + r 2 dr = 2π 0 e cos θ a 2 + 1ea θ dθ
π /2
e2a θ
= 2π a2 + 1 (2a cos θ + sin θ)
1 + 4a 2
0
(by parts or using the Table of Integrals)
O 1
2π a 2 + 1 πa
= e − 2a
4a 2 + 1

3
61. x 2 + y2 = 16x 2 y 2 . The polar equation is
3
r2 = 16 (r cos θ)2 (r sin θ)2 ⇔

sin 2θ 2
r 6 = 16r 4 sin2 θ cos2 θ = 16r 4 = 4r 4 sin2 2θ ⇔
2
r 2 = 4 sin2 2θ. Using symmetry, we find
π /2 1 2 π /2 π /2
A=4 0 2 r dθ = 2 0 4 sin2 2θ dθ = 4 0 (1 − cos 4θ) dθ
π /2
= 4 θ − 14 sin 4θ = 2π
0

62. x 4 + y 4 = 4 x 2 + y 2 . The polar equation is

(r cos θ)4 + (r sin θ)4 = 4r 2 ⇔ r 4 cos4 θ + sin4 θ = 4r 2 ⇒

4 O
r2 = . By symmetry,
cos4 θ + sin4 θ
π /4 π /4 4 dθ dθ
1 2 π /4
A=8 2 r dθ = 4 = 16 0 .
0 0 cos4 θ + sin4 θ cos4 θ + sin4 θ
Now
2
cos4 θ + sin4 θ = cos4 θ + 2 cos2 θ sin2 θ + sin4 θ − 2 cos2 θ sin2 θ = cos2 θ + sin2 θ − 2 cos2 θ sin2 θ
2
= 1 − 2 cos2 θ sin2 θ = 1 − 2 12 sin 2θ = 12 2 − sin2 2θ = 12 2 − 12 (1 − cos 4θ) = 14 (3 + cos 4θ)

π /4 dθ √
so A = 64 0 = 4 2π, using the techniques of
3 + cos 4θ
Section 7.3.

r em θ 1
63. a. r = em θ ⇒ ddrθ = mem θ , so tan ψ = dr = = , showing that ψ is constant.
me mθ m
dθ
r 1
b. Suppose that ψ = k, where k is a constant. Then, by part a, tan ψ = tan k = dr , and this means that, if m = ,
tan k
dθ
dr dr
= mr ⇒ = m dθ ⇒ ln |r| = mθ + C1 ⇒ |r| = C2 em θ , where C2 = eC1 ⇒ r = Cem θ , where C = ±C2 .
dθ r
 Section 10.5 Areas and Arc Length in Polar Coordinates 751

2
64. r = aem θ ⇒ ddrθ = amem θ ⇒ r + r 2 = a 2 m 2 e2m θ + a 2 e2m θ = a 2 m 2 + 1 e2m θ , so
θ
a m2 + 1 mθ a m2 + 1 mθ
L = θθ0 + r 2 dθ = θθ0 a m 2 + 1em θ dθ =
2
r e = e − em θ0 . Since
m m
θ0
a m2 + 1
is a constant, the desired result follows.
m

1 2 x
65. For the parabola y = x , y = , and so its length is
2p p
a
2 x 2 a
1 a
L1 = 1+ y dx =dx = p2 + x 2 dx.
1+
0 0 p | p| 0
For the spiral r = pθ, 0 ≤ r ≤ a, we find 0 ≤ pθ ≤ a ⇔ 0 ≤ θ ≤ ap , and its length is
a/ p a/ p a/ p x dx
2
L2 = r + r 2 dθ = p2 + p2 θ 2 dθ = p 1 + θ2 dθ. If we put θ = , then dθ = and
0 0 0 p p
a x 2 dx 1 a
L2 = p 1+ 2 · = p2 + x 2 dx = L 1 .
0 p p | p| 0

66. 67. a.
1 5

0
0

-5

-1 -5 0 5
0.0 0.5 θ
b. r = 1 + θ2 ⇒ r = ⇒
A=2 0
π /21 r 2 dθ = π /2
sin2 (3 cos θ) dθ. θ2 + 1
2 0
2 θ2 2 θ 4 + 3θ2 + 1
Using a CAS to integrate, we obtain r + r2 = + 1 + θ2 = .
π /2 θ2 + 1 θ2 + 1
0 sin2 (3 cos θ) dθ ≈ 0.6671.
Using a CAS to integrate, we find
2π 2π θ4 + 3θ2 + 1
2
L= r + r 2 dθ = dθ ≈ 22.01.
0 0 θ2 + 1

68. a. b. r = 0.2θ1/2 + 1 ⇒ r = 0.1θ−1/2 ⇒

0.1 2 2
2 2
r + r2 = + 0.2θ1/2 + 1
θ1/2
0.01 + 0.04θ2 + 0.4θ3/2 + θ
0 = ⇒
θ
6π
2
L = r + r 2 dθ
-2 0
6π 0.01 + 0.04θ2 + 0.4θ3/2 + θ
-2 0 2 = dθ ≈ 29.80 (using a CAS)
0 θ
752 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

69. b. r = 3 sin θ cos2 θ ⇒

r = 3 cos3 θ − 6 sin2 θ cos θ = 3 cos θ cos2 θ − 2 sin2 θ ⇒
1.0 2
2
r + r 2 = 9 cos2 θ cos2 θ − 2 sin2 θ + 9 sin2 θ cos4 θ
0.5
= 9 cos2 θ cos4 θ − 3 sin2 θ cos2 θ + 4 sin4 θ ⇒
0.0
L = 0π
2
-1 0 1 r + r 2 dθ
π /2
=2·3 0 cos θ cos4 θ − 3 sin2 θ cos2 θ + 4 sin4 θ dθ

≈ 5.37 (using a CAS)

2
70. a. Using the definition given in Section 5.7 and the facts that x = r cos θ and ds = r + r 2 dθ, we write
b β 2 b β 2
x ds α r cos θ r + r 2 dθ y ds α r sin θ r + r 2 dθ
x = ab = . Similarly, y = a b = .
β 2 β 2
a ds α r + r 2 dθ a ds
α r + r 2 dθ

π
0 a cos θ 0 + a 2 dθ a 2 0π cos θ dθ
b. x = = = 0 by symmetry, and
πa πa
π
a
0 + a 2 dθ a 2 0π sin θ dθ −a 2 cos θ 2
y= 0 a sin θ = = 0 = −a (−1 − 1) = 2a .
πa πa πa πa π

71. a. b. The area of the region is

1
π /2 1 2 π /2 2 π /2
A=2 0 2 r dθ = 0 2 cos3 θ dθ = 4 0 cos6 θ dθ.
Using a CAS or Formula 70 from the table of integrals, we find
0
A = 58π . Next, we superimpose a Cartesian coordinate system so that
the origin coincides with the pole and the x-axis lies along the polar

-1 axis. Then we have x = r cos θ = 2 cos4 θ and

0 1 2 y = r sin θ = 2 cos3 θ sin θ. By symmetry with respect to the x-axis,
we see that y = 0. Next, we calculate
1 (2) 2 x y dx = 2 8 π /2 π /2
x = A 0 5π 0 2 cos4 θ 2 cos3 θ sin θ −8 cos3 θ sin θ dθ = 512
5π 0 cos10 θ sin2 θ dθ
π /2
= 512
5π 0 cos10 θ − cos12 θ dθ

and using a CAS or Formula 70 again, we find x = 21 21

20 . Thus, the centroid is 20 , 0 .

72. a. b. The points of intersection are found by solving 1 + cos θ = 3 cos θ

2 ⇔ 2 cos θ = 1 ⇔ cos θ = 12 ⇒ θ = π 5π
3 or 3 on [0, 2π]. So,
0 treating r and θ as rectangular coordinates, the points of intersection

-2 of the graphs are 32 , π 3 5π

3 and 2 , 3 . Viewed as polar equations,
the pole is also a point of intersection of the graphs, as we saw on
0 2 4 6
page 884. But (0, 0) is not a point of intersection of the polar curves.
 Section 10.6 Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates 753

73. a. Put x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ. Then b.

(r cos θ)3 + (r sin θ)3 = 3 (r cos θ) (r sin θ) ⇔ 2

r 3 cos3 θ + sin3 θ = 3r 2 cos θ sin θ ⇔ 0

3 cos θ sin θ
r= , −π 3π
4 <θ< 4 .
cos3 θ + sin3 θ -2

c. Using symmetry and a CAS, we find

-2 0 2

π /4 r 2 π /4 3 sin θ cos θ 2 π /4 sin2 θ cos2 θ 3

A=2 dθ = dθ = 9 dθ = .
0 2 0 cos3 θ + sin3 θ 0 cos3 θ + sin3 θ
2 2

1/2
74. a. Put x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ. Then r 2 − cos 4θ = 0 ⇔ b. 1
r = cos 4θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.

c. Using symmetry, we find

π /8 1 2 π /8 0
A = 16 0 2 r dθ = 8 0 cos2 4θ dθ
π /8 1 1 π /8
=8 0 2 (1 + cos 8θ) dθ = 4 θ + 8 sin 8θ 0
-1
=4· π π
8 = 2 -1 0 1

75. True. If f (θ0 ) = g (θ0 ) for some θ0 , then the points (θ 0 , f (θ 0 )) and (θ0 , g (θ0 )) are the same.

76. False. See the example on page 885.

10.6 Concept Questions

1. The number d gives the distance between the pole and the directrix and e gives the ratio of the distance between a point P
on the conic and its focus and the distance between P and its directrix. See pages 888 and 890.

2. The conic is an ellipse if its eccentricity e satisfies 0 < e < 1, it is a parabola if e = 1, and it is a hyperbola if e > 1. See
Figure 1.

3. a. Since e = 2 > 1, the conic is a hyperbola. The transverse axis is vertical.

1 (6)
6 3
b. r = = , so e = 13 < 1 and the conic is an ellipse. The major axis is horizontal.
3 + cos θ 1 + 13 cos θ
2
2 3
c. r = = , so e = 1 and the conic is a parabola. The axis of symmetry is horizontal.
3 (1 + cos θ) 1 + cos θ
5 2 5
5 3 3 2
d. r = = = . Since e = 23 < 1, the conic is an ellipse. The major axis is vertical.
3 − 2 sin θ 1 − 23 sin θ 1 − 23 sin θ
754 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

10.6 Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates

1. Here d = 2 and e = 1, so an equation of the conic is 2. Here d = 3 and e = 13 , so an equation of the conic is
2 1 (3)
r= . Since e = 1, the conic is a parabola. 3 3
1 − cos θ r= or r = . Since e = 13 < 1, the
1 + 13 cos θ 3 + cos θ
conic is an ellipse.
x=_2
2
x=3
1

_1 O
_ 32 O 3
4

_2 _1

3. Here d = 2 and e = 12 , so an equation of the conic is 4. Here d = 3 and e = 1, so an equation of the conic is
1 (2) 3
2 2 r= . Since e = 1, the conic is a parabola.
r= 1
or r = . Since e = 12 < 1, the 1 − sin θ
1 − 2 sin θ 2 − sin θ
conic is an ellipse.
_3 O 3

_3/2
y=_3

_1 O 1

2
_3

y=_2

5. Here d = 1 and e = 32 , so an equation of the conic is 6. Here d = 2 and e = 54 , so an equation of the conic is
3 5 (2)
2 3 4 10
r= 3
or r = . Since e = 32 > 1, r= 5
or r = . Since e = 54 > 1, the
1 + 2 cos θ 2 + 3 cos θ 1 − 4 sin θ 4 − 5 sin θ
the conic is a hyperbola. conic is a hyperbola.

x=1

3
2 _ 52 5
O 2
O 3
_ 32 y=_2
_ 10
9

_10
 Section 10.6 Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates 755

7. Here d = 0.4 = 25 and e = 0.4 = 25 , so an equation of the 8. Since r = −2 sec θ is equivalent to r cos θ = x = −2, we
2 2 see that d = 2 and e = 12 , so an equation of the conic is
5 5 4
conic is r = or r = . Since
1 + 25 sin θ 25 + 10 sin θ 2 12 2
r= or r = . Since e = 12 < 1, the
e = 25 < 1, the conic is an ellipse. 1 − 12 cos θ 2 − cos θ
conic is an ellipse.
2
y=5 x=_2 1
4
35 _23

_ 25
4 4 O 2
25
O
_1

4
_ 15

1 (4) 1 (4)
8 3 1 8 3 1
9. r = = , so d = 4 and e = . 10. r = = , so d = 4 and e = .
6 + 2 sin θ 1 + 13 sin θ 3 6 − 2 sin θ 1 − 13 sin θ 3

a. The eccentricity is 13 and an equation of the directrix a. The eccentricity is 13 and an equation of the directrix
is y = 4. is y = −4.

b. The conic is an ellipse because e = 13 < 1. b. The conic is an ellipse because e = 13 < 1.

c. y=4 c.

_1
O

y=_4

3 5 3 5
10 2 3 10 2 3
11. r = = , so d = 53 and e = 32 . 12. r = = , so d = 53 and e = 32 .
4 + 6 cos θ 1 + 32 cos θ 4 − 6 cos θ 1 − 32 cos θ

a. The eccentricity is 32 and an equation of the directrix a. The eccentricity is 32 and an equation of the directrix

is x = 53 . is x = − 53 .

b. The conic is a hyperbola because e = 32 > 1. b. The conic is a hyperbola because e = 32 > 1.

c. 5
c. 5
x= 3 x=_ 3

O O
756 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

5 5
5 2 5 2
13. r = = , so d = 52 and e = 1. 14. r = = , so d = 52 and e = 1.
2 + 2 cos θ 1 + cos θ 2 − 2 sin θ 1 − sin θ
a. The eccentricity is 1 and an equation of the directrix a. The eccentricity is 1 and an equation of the directrix
is x = 52 . is y = − 52 .

b. The conic is a parabola because e = 1. b. The conic is a parabola because e = 1.

c. 5 c.
x= 2

O
O

5
y=_ 2

2 1 1 (12)
1 3 2 12 3
15. r = = , so d = 12 and e = 23 . 16. r = = , so d = 12 and e = 13 .
3 − 2 cos θ 1 − 23 cos θ 3 + cos θ 1 + 13 cos θ

a. The eccentricity is 23 and an equation of the directrix a. The eccentricity is 13 and an equation of the directrix

is x = − 12 . is x = 12.

b. The conic is an ellipse because e = 23 < 1. b. The conic is an ellipse because e = 13 .

1 c.
c. x=_ 2 x=12

O 1
_6 O

1 1
17. r = , so d = 1 and e = 1. 18. r = , so d = 1 and e = 1.
1 − sin θ 1 + cos θ
a. The eccentricity is 1 and an equation of the directrix a. The eccentricity is 1 and an equation of the directrix
is y = −1. is x = 1.

b. The conic is a parabola because e = 1. b. The conic is a parabola because e = 1.

c. c. x=1

O
O
y=_1
 Section 10.6 Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates 757

1 (6) 2
6 3 2 2 3
19. r = − = = , so d = 6 20. r = − = , so d = 2 and e = 13 .
sin θ − 2 1 − 12 sin θ 1 − 12 sin θ cos θ − 3 1 − 13 cos θ

and e = 12 . a. The eccentricity is 13 and an equation of the directrix

a. The eccentricity is 12 and an equation of the directrix is x = −2.

is y = −6. b. The conic is an ellipse because e = 13 < 1.

b. The conic is an ellipse because e = 12 < 1. c.
x=_2
c.

y=_6

√
x2 y2 √ √ c 7
21. + = 1. Here a = 4 and b = 3, so c = 16 − 9 = 7. Therefore, e = = .
9 16 a 4

√ √
x2 y2 √ √ √ √ c 2 2 2 10
22. − = 1. Here a = 5 and b = 3, so c = 5 + 3 = 2 2. Therefore, e = = √ = .
5 3 a 5 5

√
√ c 2 √
23. x 2 − y 2 = 1. Here a = 1 and b = 1, so c = 12 + 12 = 2. Therefore, e = = = 2.
a 1

x2 y2 √ c 4
24. 9x 2 + 25y 2 = 225 ⇒ + = 1. Here a = 5 and b = 3, so c = 25 − 9 = 4. Therefore, e = = .
25 9 a 5

25. x 2 −9y 2 +2x −54y = 105. Completing the squares in x and y gives x 2 + 2x + 1 −9 y 2 + 6y + 9 = 105+1−81 = 25
√
(x + 1)2 (y + 3)2 5 2 5 10
⇔ − 25
= 1. Here a = 5 and b = 53 , so c = 52 + = . Therefore,
25 3 3
9
√ √
c 5 10 1 10
e= = · = .
a 3 5 3

26. 2x 2 + y 2 + 4x − 6y + 7 = 0. Completing the squares gives 2 x 2 + 2x + 1 + y 2 − 6y + 9 = −7 + 2 + 9 = 4 ⇔

√
(x + 1)2 (y − 3)2 √ √ √ c 2
+ = 1. Here a = 2 and b = 2, so c = 4 − 2 = 2. Therefore, e = = .
2 4 a 2
758 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

c d
27. Let C1 : r = and C2 : r = . Using Equation 10.4.3 (9.4.3 in ET), we find the slope of the tangent line
1 + sin θ 1 − sin θ
to C1 at (r, θ):
−c cos θ c
dr sin θ + r cos θ 2
sin θ + cos θ
dy (1 + sin θ) 1 + sin θ −c cos θ sin θ + c cos θ + c cos θ sin θ cos θ
= ddrθ = = =− .
dx cos θ − r sin θ −c cos θ c −c cos2 θ − c sin θ − c sin2 θ 1 + sin θ
dθ cos θ − sin θ
(1 + sin θ)2 1 + sin θ
Similarly, the slope of the tangent line to C2 at (r, θ) is
d cos θ d
2
· sin θ + · cos θ
dy (1 − sin θ) 1 − sin θ d cos θ sin θ + d cos θ − d cos θ sin θ cos θ
= = = . So at a point of
dx d cos θ d 2
d cos θ − d sin θ + d sin θ2 1 − sin θ
· cos θ − · sin θ
(1 − sin θ)2 1 − sin θ
cos θ 1 cos θ1
intersection (r1 , θ1 ), we find the slope of the tangent lines to C1 and C2 to be m 1 = − and m 2 =
1 + sin θ1 1 − sin θ1
cos θ1 cos θ1 cos2 θ 1 cos2 θ
respectively. Because m 1 m 2 = − · =− 2
= − 2 1 = −1, we see that the two curves
1 + sin θ1 1 − sin θ1 1 − sin θ1 cos θ1
do intersect at right angles.

y
28. We are given that the eccentricity is e, the directrix is x = d, and the focus j

d (P, F) r P
is at the origin. Thus, e = = ⇔ ed − er cos θ = r
d (P, ) d − r cos θ r
F ¬
ed 0 x
⇔ ed = er cos θ + r = r (1 + e cos θ) ⇔ r = .
1 + e cos θ
x=d

y
29. We are given that the eccentricity is e, the directrix is y = d, and the focus
d (P, F) r j
is at the origin. Thus, e = = ⇔ ed − er sin θ = r y=d
d (P, ) d − r sin θ
ed
⇔ ed = r (1 + e sin θ) ⇔ r = . P
1 + e sin θ r
F ¬
0 x

30. We are given that the eccentricity is e, the directrix is y = −d, and the y

d (P, F) r
focus is at the origin. Thus, e = = ⇔
d (P, ) d − r sin (−θ)
ed F
ed + er sin θ = r ⇔ ed = r (1 − e sin θ) ⇔ r = .
1 − e sin θ 0 r_¬ x
P

j y=_d
 Chapter 10 Review 759

a−c a−c a-c y

31. a. By the definition of eccentricity, =e⇔k = . Also,
k e j
c
d = k + a − c and, by Equation 5, = e ⇔ c = ea. Thus, k
a
a−c
e +a−c FÁ 0 Fª x
ed e (k + a − c) e
r = = =
1 − e cos θ 1 − e cos θ 1 − e cos θ d

a − c + ea − ec a − ea + ea − e2 a a 1 − e2 c a
= = =
1 − e cos θ 1 − e cos θ 1 − e cos θ
b. Using the result of part a, we find that r is minimized when θ = π, so the perihelion distance is
a 1 − e2 a 1 − e2
r (π) = = = a (1 − e).
1 − e cos π 1+e
a 1 − e2 92.93 × 106
32. c = 0.017 and a = 92.957 × 106 , so r = = . The perihelion distance is obtained by
1 − e cos θ 1 − 0.017 cos θ
92.93 × 106
setting θ = π, giving ≈ 91.377 × 106 miles. The aphelion distance is obtained by setting θ = 0, giving
1 + 0.017
92.93 × 106
≈ 94.537 × 106 miles.
1 − 0.017
a 1 − e2 1.423 × 109
33. e = 0.056 and a = 1.427 × 109 , so r = = . The perihelion distance is obtained by
1 − e cos θ 1 − 0.056 cos θ
1.423 × 109
setting θ = π, giving ≈ 1.347 × 109 km. The aphelion distance is obtained by setting θ = 0, giving
1 + 0.056
1.423 × 109
≈ 1.507 × 109 km.
1 − 0.056
34. e = 0.249 and the perihelion distance is 4.43 × 109 . Using the result of Exercise 31, we find a (1 − 0.249) = 4.43 × 109
a 1 − e2 5.899 × 109 1 − 0.2492
⇔ a = 5.899 × 109 . Therefore, r = = . The aphelion distance is thus
1 − e cos θ 1 − 0.249 cos θ
a (1 + e) = 5.899 × 10 (1 + 0.249) ≈ 7.37 × 109 km.
9
1+e 7
35. We are given that a (1 − e) = 4.6 × 107 and a (1 + e) = 7 × 107 , so = ⇒ 4.6 + 4.6e = 7 − 7e ⇒ e ≈ 0.207.
1−e 4.6

Chapter 10 Review
Concept Review
1. a. equidistant; point; line; point; focus; line; directrix b. vertex; focus; directrix

2. a. x 2 = 4 py b. F ( p, 0); x = − p

3. a. sum; foci; constant b. foci; major axis; center; minor axis

x2 y2
4. a. 2
+ 2 = 1; a 2 − b2 b. (0, ±c); (0, ±a)
a b
5. a. difference; foci; constant b. vertices; transverse; transverse; center; two separate
x2 y2 b a
6. a. 2
− 2 = 1; a 2 + b2 ; y = ± x b. (0, ±c); (0, ±a); a 2 + b2 ; y = ± x
a b a b
760 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

7. x = f (t), y = g (t); parameter

dy d dy
dt g (t) dt dx
8. a. dx = b. dx
f (t)
dt dt

9. a. f (t); g (t); simultaneously zero; endpoints b. b

f (t)
2
+ g (t)
2
dt = ab dx 2 + dy 2
dt
a dt dt

2 2 2 2
10. t = a, b; 2π ab y f (t) + g (t) dt; 2π ab x f (t) + g (t) dt

y
11. a. r cos θ; r sin θ b. x 2 + y 2 ; (x = 0)
x

12. = 0; = 0; = 0; = 0; zero

β 2 β 2 β 2 2
13. a. A = 12 α r dθ = 12 α f (θ) dθ b. A = 12 α f (θ) − g (θ) dθ

β 2 2
14. once; L = α f (θ) + f (θ) dθ

d (P, F)
15. = e; 0 < e < 1; e = 1; e > 1
d (P, )

ed ed
16. r = ;r = ; 0 < e < 1; e = 1; e > 1
1 ± e cos θ 1 ± e sin θ

Review Exercises

x2 y2 (x − 1)2 (y + 1)2 √
1. + = 1. Here a = 3 and b = 2, so 2. + = 1. Here a = 2 and b = 2, so
4 9 2 4
√
c = a 2 − b2 = 32 − 22 = 5. The center of the √ 2 √
c = a 2 − b2 = 22 − 2 = 2. The center of the
ellipse is (0, 0), so the vertices are (0, ±3) and the foci are
√ ellipse is (1, −1), so the vertices are (1, −3) and (1, 1) and
0, ± 5 . √
the foci are 1, −1 ± 2 .
y
y
3
1
2

1
_1 1 2 3 x

_3 _2 _1 1 2 x _1
_1

_2 _2
_3
_3
_4
 Chapter 10 Review 761

x2 y2
3. x 2 − 9y 2 = 9 ⇒ − = 1. Here a = 3 and b = 1, so 4. y 2 − 2y − 8x − 15 = 0 ⇒ y 2 − 2y + 1 = 8x + 16 ⇒
9 1
√ (y − 1)2 = 8 (x + 2). Thus, 4 p = 8 ⇒ p = 2. The vertex
c = a 2 + b2 = 32 + 1 = 10. The center of the
of the parabola is (−2, 1) and the focus is (0, 1). The
hyperbola is (0, 0), so the vertices are (±3, 0) and the foci
√ directrix is x = −4.
are ± 10, 0 . The asymptotes are y = ± ab x = ± 13 x. y
y 6
2 4
2
1
_6 _4 _2 2 4 x
_2
_6 _4 _2 2 4 6 x
_4
_1 _6

_2

5. y 2 − 9x 2 + 8y + 7 = 0 ⇒ y 2 + 8y + 16 − 9x 2 = 9 ⇒ 6. 4x 2 + 25y 2 − 16x + 50y − 59 = 0 ⇒

(y + 4)2 x2 4 x 2 − 4x + (−2)2 + 25 y 2 + 2y + 1 = 59 + 16 + 25
− = 1, so a = 3, b = 1, and
9 1
√ ⇒ 4 (x − 2)2 + 25 (y + 1)2 = 100 ⇒
c = a 2 + b2 = 32 + 1 = 10. The center of the
hyperbola is (0, −4), the vertices are (0, −1) and (0, −7), (x − 2)2 (y + 1)2
+ = 1, so a = 5, b = 2, and
√ 25 4
the foci are 0, −4 ± 10 , and the asymptotes are √
c = a 2 − b2 = 52 − 22 = 21. The center of the
y = ±3x − 4. ellipse is (2, −1), the vertices are (−3, −1) and (7, −1),
y √
and the foci are 2 ± 21, −1 .
4
2 y
_3 _2 _1 1 2 3 x 2
_2
_4
_6 _4 _2 2 4 6 8 x
_8 _2
_10
_12 _4

7. If the focus of a parabola is (−2, 0) and its directrix is x = 2, then its equation can be written (y − k)2 = 4 p (x − h).
Because its vertex is (0, 0) and p = −2, an equation is y 2 = −8x.

8. If the parabola’s vertex is (−2, 2) and its directrix is y = 4, then its equation can be written (x − h)2 = 4 p (y − k).
Because h = −2, k = 2, and p = −2, an equation is (x + 2)2 = −8 (y − 2).

(x − h)2 y − k2
9. An equation of the ellipse with vertices (±7, 0) and foci (±2, 0) has the form + = 1. Its center is
a2 b2
x 2 y 2
(0, 0), a = 7, and c = 2 ⇒ b2 = a 2 − c2 = 72 − 22 = 45. Thus, an equation is + = 1.
49 45

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
10. An equation of the ellipse with foci (±2, 3) and major axis of length 8 has the form 2
+ = 1 with
a b2
2a = 8 ⇒ a = 4. Its center is (0, 3), and because c = 2, we have b2 = a 2 − c2 = 42 − 22 = 12. Thus, an equation is
x2 (y − 3)2
+ = 1.
16 12
762 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

√ (y − k)2 (x − h)2
11. An equation of the hyperbola with foci 0, ± 32 5 and vertices (0, ±3) has the form − = 1. Its center
a2 b2
√ √ 2
is (0, 0), and so h = k = 0. Since a = 3 and c = 32 5, we have b2 = c2 − a 2 = 32 5 − 32 = 94 , so b = 32 . An

y2 x2
equation is thus − 9 = 1 or y 2 − 4x 2 = 9.
9
4

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
12. An equation of the hyperbola with vertices (±2, 0) and asymptotes y = ± 32 x has the form − = 1. Here
a2 b2
3 b b x2 y2
h = k = 0 and a = 2, so = = ⇒ b = 3. Therefore, a required equation is − = 1.
2 a 2 4 9

13. Let m be a real number and let (x0 , y0 ) be a point on the parabola x 2 = 4 py. Differentiating, we find 2x = 4 py
x x x
⇒y = , so the slope of the tangent line to the parabola at (x0 , y0 ) is 0 . This is equal to m, so 0 = m.
2p 2p 2p
An equation of the tangent line is thus y − y0 = m (x − x0 ) ⇒ y = y0 + mx − mx0 . But x02 = 4 py0 , so
x2 4 p2 m 2
y = 0 + mx − mx0 = + mx − m (2 pm) = pm 2 + mx − 2 pm 2 ⇒ y = mx − pm 2 .
4p 4p

x2 y2 2x 2yy
14. Let m be a real number and let (x0 , y0 ) be a point on the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1. Differentiating, we find 2 + 2 = 0
a b a b
2
b x 2
b x 2
b x
⇒ y = − 2 , so the slope of the tangent line to the ellipse at (x0 , y0 ) is − 2 0 = m ⇒ y0 = − 2 0 .
a y a y0 a m
x2 y2
Thus, an equation of the tangent line is y − y0 = m (x − x0 ) ⇒ y = y0 + mx − mx0 . But 02 + 02 = 1 ⇒
a b
2
x02 y02 b2 x 0 1 b2 x02 1 b2 a2m
= 1 − = 1 − − = 1 − ⇒ x02 + = 1 ⇒ x0 = ± . Finally,
a2 b2 a2 m b2 a4m2 a2 a4m2 a 2 m 2 + b2
b2 b2 a2m2 a 2 m 2 + b2
y0 = ∓ ⇒y=∓ + mx ∓ = mx ± ⇒ y = mx ± a 2 m 2 + b2 .
a 2 m 2 + b2 a 2 m 2 + b2 a 2 m 2 + b2 a 2 m 2 + b2

y
15. a. x = 1 + 2t ⇒ t = 12 (x − 1), so
6
y = 3 − 2t = 3 − 2 12 (x − 1) = 4 − x ⇒ y = 4 − x.
4
b. As t increases, x increases and y decreases, as shown in the diagram.
2

0 2 4 6 x

−2 1 y
16. a. x = et , y = e−2t = et = x −2 ⇒ y = 2
x
b. As t increases, x increases and y decreases, as shown in the diagram.
2

0 2 x
 Chapter 10 Review 763
⎧ ⎧
⎨x = 1 + 2 sin t ⎨sin t = 1 (x − 1)
2 y
17. a. ⇒ Thus, by the identity
⎩ y = 3 + 2 cos t ⎩cos t = 1 (y − 3)
2
4
(x − 1)2 (y − 3)2
sin2 t + cos2 t = 1, + =1⇒
4 4
2
(x − 1)2 + (y − 3)2 = 4.

b. If t = 0, then x = 1 and y = 5. A small increase in t results in a small

_2 0 2 4 x
increase in x, but a decrease in y. This gives the direction of the path.

⎧ ⎧
⎨x = cos3 t ⎨cos t = x 1/3
y
18. a. ⇒ 1/3 Thus, the identity
⎩ y = 4 sin3 t ⎩sin t = 1 y
4 4

cos2 t + sin2 t = 1 gives the rectangular equation

2/3 2
x 2/3 + 14 y = 1.

b. If t = 0, then x = 1 and y = 0. As t increases, x decreases and y 0 x

_1 1
increases (for 0 ≤ t ≤ π
2 ). This gives the direction shown. Similar
_2
analyses show that the orientation is counterclockwise in all
quadrants.
_4

⎧ ⎧
⎨ x = t3 + 1 ⎨ dx = 3t 2 dy
dy
19. ⇒ dt Thus, dt = 4t = 4 and the required slope is dy
= dx
4
= .
⎩ y = 2t 2 − 1 ⎩ dy = 4t dx 3t 2 3t dx t=1 3
dt dt

⎧
⎧ ⎪ dx 1
⎨ x = √t + 1 ⎪
⎨ = √ dy √
dt 2 t +1 dy dt t +1
20. √ ⇒ dy 1 Thus, = dx = − √ and the required slope is
⎩ y = 16 − t ⎪
⎪ dx 16 − t
⎩ = − √ dt
dt 2 16 − t
dy 1 1
= −√ = − .
dx t=0 16 4

⎧
⎧ ⎪ dx
⎨ x = te−t ⎪ −t −t
⎨ dt = e − te = (1 − t) e
−t

21. 1 ⇒ dy 2t Thus, the required slope is

⎩ y= ⎪
⎪
2
t +1 ⎩ dt = − 2 2
t +1
dy
dy dt 2t 1
= dx =− ·
2 (1 − t) e−t
= 0.
dx t=0 2
t +1
dt t=0 t=0

⎧ ⎧
⎨ x = 1 − sin2 t ⎨ dx = −2 sin t cos t
22. ⇒ dt Thus, the required slope is
⎩ y = cos3 t ⎩ dy = 3 cos2 t (− sin t) = −3 cos2 t sin t
dt
dy √
dy dt 3 cos2 t sin t 3 3 2
= dx = = √ = .
dx t=π/4 2 sin t cos t 2 2 4
dt t=π /4 t=π /4
764 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates
⎧ ⎧
⎨ x = t3 + 1 ⎨ dx = 3t 2 dy
dy 4t t 2 + 1 4 t2 + 1
23. ⇒ dt ⇒ dt =
= dx = ⇒
⎩ y = t 4 + 2t 2 ⎩ dy = 4t 3 + 4t dx 3t 2 3t
dt dt
⎡ ⎤
2
d ⎣4 t + 1 ⎦
d dy d
d2 y dt dx
dt 3t 4 t + t −1 4 1 − t −2 4 t2 − 1
= = = dt = =
dx 2 dx 3t 2 9t 2 9t 2 9t 4
dt
⎧ ⎧
⎨ x = et sin t ⎨ dx = (sin t + cos t) et dy
dy
24. ⇒ dt ⇒ dt = cos t − sin t ⇒
= dx
⎩ y = et cos t ⎩ dy = (cos t − sin t) et dx cos t + sin t
dt dt
d dy
d2 y dt dx 1 (cos t + sin t) (− sin t − cos t) − (cos t − sin t) (− sin t + cos t)
= = ·
dx 2 dx (sin t + cos t) et (cos t + sin t)2
dt
2
=−
(sin t + cos t)3 et
⎧ ⎧
⎨ x = t 3 − 4t ⎨ dx = 3t 2 − 4
dy
25. ⇒ dt If the tangent line is vertical, then dx 2
dt = 0 and dt = 0. Since 3t − 4 = 0 ⇔
⎩ y = t2 + 2 ⎩ dy = 2t
dt
√ √
t = ± 2 3 3 and dy 16 3 10
dt = 0 for these values of t, the curve has vertical tangent lines at ± 9 , 3 .

If the tangent line is horizontal, then dy dx dy dx

dt = 0 and dt = 0. Now dt = 0 ⇒ t = 0 and dt t=0 = −4 = 0. Thus, the curve
has a horizontal tangent line at (0, 2).
⎧ ⎧
⎨ x = 1 − 2 cos t ⎨ dx = 2 sin t
dy
26. ⇒ dt If the tangent line is vertical, then dx
dt = 0 and dt = 0. Since 2 sin t = 0 ⇒
⎩ y = 1 − 2 sin t ⎩ dy = −2 cos t
dt

t = nπ (n an integer) and dy dt = 0 for these values of t, the curve has vertical tangent lines at (−1, 1) and (3, 1).
(2n+1)π
If the tangent line is horizontal, then dy dx
dt = 0 and dt = 0. Now −2 cos t = 0 ⇒ t = 2 (n an integer) and dx
dt = 0 for
these values of t. Thus, the curve has horizontal tangent lines at (1, −1) and (1, 3).
⎧ ⎧
⎨ x = 1 t6 ⎨ dx = t 5
27. 6 ⇒ dt Thus,
⎩ y = 2 − 1 t4 ⎩ dy = −t 3
4 dt
√
4
√ √ 3/2 8
dx 2 + dy 2 4 4
2 2
L = ab dt dt dt = 0 8 t 5 + −t 3 dt = 0 8 t 3 t 4 + 1 dt = 14 · 23 t 4 + 1 = 13
3.
0
⎧ ⎧
⎨ x = √3t 2 ⎨ dx = 2√3t
28. ⇒ dt Thus,
⎩ y = t − t3 ⎩ dy = 1 − 3t 2
dt

dx 2 + dy 2 √ 2 2 2
L = ab dt dt dt = −1 1 2 3t + 1 − 3t 2 dt = −1 1 3t 2 + 1 dt = −1 1 3t 2 + 1 dt
1
= t3 + t =4
−1
⎧ ⎧
⎨ x = e−t cos t ⎨ dx = −e−t (cos t + sin t)
29. ⇒ dt Thus,
⎩ y = e−t sin t ⎩ dy = e−t (cos t − sin t)
dt

dx 2 + dy 2 dt = π /2 2 2 π /2 √ −2t
L = ab dt dt 0 −e−t (cos t + sin t) + e−t (cos t − sin t) dt = 0 2e dt
√ π /2 √ π /2 √
= 2 0 e−t dt = 2 −e−t = 2 1 − e−π/2
0
 Chapter 10 Review 765
⎧ ⎧
⎨x = √3 (t − 1)2 ⎨ dx = 2√3 (t − 1)
dt y
30. ⇒ dy Thus,
⎩ y = (t − 1) − (t − 1)3 ⎩ = 1 − 3 (t − 1)2 1
dt

L = 02 dx 2 + dy 2
dt
dt dt
√ 2 2
= 02 2 3 (t − 1) + 1 − 3 (t − 1)2 dt 0 1 2 x

2
= 02 3 (t − 1)2 + 1 dt = 02 3t 2 − 6t + 4 dt = 4
_1
⎧ ⎧
⎨ x = t2 ⎨ dx = 2t
31. ⇒ dt Thus,
⎩ y = 1 t 3 − t2 ⎩ dy = 1 − t 2
3 dt
√ √
2
S = 2π ab y ds = 2π 0 3 31 t 3 − t 2 (2t)2 + 1 − t 2 dt = 23π 0 3 t 3 − t 2 t 2 + 1 dt
√ √
3
= 23π 0 3 −t 5 + 2t 3 + 3t dt = 23π − 16 t 6 + 12 t 4 + 32 t 2 = 3π
0
⎧ ⎧ 2 2
⎨ x = ln (sec t + tan t) − sin t ⎨ dx = sec t tan t + sec t − cos t = sin t
⎪
32. ⇒ dt sec t + tan t cos t Thus,
⎩ y = cos t ⎪
⎩ dy = − sin t
dt
π /3 π /3 2
b
dx 2 + dy 2 sin2 t
S = 2π y ds = 2π cos t dt dt dt = 2π cos t + (− sin t)2 dt
a 0 0 cos t
π /3 sin t π /3
π /3
= 2π cos t dt = 2π sin t dt = −2π cos t|0 = π
0 cos t 0

33. The graph of r = 2 sin θ is the circle with radius 1 and 34. r = 3 − 4 cos θ
center (0, 1).
(3, ¹/2)
(2, ¹/2)

(7, ¹) (_1, 0) O

(3, 3¹/2)

35. r = 2 cos 5θ 36. r = e−θ . As θ increases, r decreases. The curve spirals

(2, 2¹/5) toward the pole.

(e_¹/3, ¹/3)

(2, 0)

(1, 0)
O
766 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

37. r 2 = cos 2θ 38. r = 2 sin θ cos2 θ

(1, 0)
O

dy f (θ) cos θ + f (θ) sin θ e2θ cos θ + 2e2θ sin θ 2 sin θ + cos θ
39. r = f (θ) = e2θ ⇒ f (θ) = 2e2θ ⇒ = = = ,
dx − f (θ) sin θ + f (θ) cos θ −e2θ sin θ + 2e2θ cos θ 2 cos θ − sin θ
dy 2 sin θ + cos θ
so the required slope is = = −2.
dx θ =π/2 2 cos θ − sin θ θ=π/2

40. r = f (θ) = 2 − sin θ ⇒ f (θ) = − cos θ, so the required slope is

dy f (θ) cos θ + f (θ) sin θ (2 − sin θ) cos θ − cos θ sin θ
= = = 0.
dx θ=π/2 − f (θ) sin θ + f (θ) cos θ θ=π/2 (sin θ − 2) sin θ − cos2 θ θ =π/2
⎧
⎨ r = sin θ
41. ⇒ sin θ = 1 − sin θ ⇔ sin θ = 12 ⇒ θ = π 5π π 1 5π 1
6 or 6 . If θ = 6 , then r = 2 ; if θ = 6 , then r = 2 .
⎩ r = 1 − sin θ

Thus, the points of intersection are 12 , π 1 5π

6 , 2 , 6 , and the pole.
⎧
⎨ r = cos θ
42. ⇒ cos θ = cos 2θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1 ⇒ 2 cos2 θ − cos θ − 1 = 0 ⇒ (2 cos θ + 1) (cos θ − 1) = 0 ⇔
⎩ r = cos 2θ

cos θ = − 12 or cos θ = 1 ⇒ θ = 0, 23π , or 43π , and the points of intersection are (1, 0), − 12 , 23π , − 12 , 43π , and the
pole.

1 2π 2 1 2π
43. A = r dθ = (2 + cos θ)2 dθ
2 0 2 0
1 2π
= 4 + 4 cos θ + cos2 θ dθ
2 0
1 2π 1 + cos 2θ
= 4 + 4 cos θ + dθ (1, ¹) O (3, 0)
2 0 2
2π
= 12 4θ + 4 sin θ + 12 θ + 14 sin 2θ = 92π
0

1 2π 2 1 2π
44. A = r dθ = (1 + sin θ)2 dθ (2, ¹/2)
2 0 2 0
1 2π
= 1 + 2 sin θ + sin2 θ dθ
2 0
1 2π 1 − cos 2θ
= 1 + 2 sin θ + dθ
2 0 2
2π
= 12 θ − 2 cos θ + 12 θ − 14 sin 2θ = 32π O
0 (1, ¹) (1, 0)
 Chapter 10 Review 767

45. The required area is 8 times the area of the shaded region R. By symmetry,
r=2 sin 2¬
π /8 1 2 π /4 1 2
R= 0 2 (2 sin 2θ) dθ + π /8 2 (2 cos 2θ) dθ
π /8 π /8
= 2 12 0 (2 sin 2θ)2 dθ = 4 0 sin2 2θ dθ (Ï2, ¹/8)

π /8 π /8
= 2 0 (1 − cos 4θ) dθ = 2 θ − 14 sin 4θ
0
r=2 cos 2¬
=2 π 1 1
8 − 4 = 4 (π − 2)

so the required area is 8 · 14 (π − 2) = 2 (π − 2).

46. The required area is twice the area of the shaded region R.
3π/2 1 r=3+2 sin ¬
R = 12 (4) 76π − π 2
2 + 7π/6 2 (3 + 2 sin θ) dθ
3π /2
= 43π + 12 7π/6 21 (3 + 2 sin θ)2 dθ
3π /2
= 43π + 12 7π/6 9 + 12 sin θ + 4 sin2 θ dθ
3π /2
= 43π + 12 7π/6 (9 + 12 sin θ + 2 − 2 cos 2θ) dθ O

3π /2 √ (2, 7¹/6)
= 43π + 12 (11θ − 12 cos θ − sin 2θ) = 196π − 114 3 r=2
7π /6
√ √
so the required area is 193π − 112 3 = 16 38π − 33 3 .

47. r = θ2 ⇒ ddrθ = 2θ, so

2 2 3/2 2π
L = 02π r 2 + ddrθ dθ = 02π θ2 + (2θ)2 dθ = 02π θ θ2 + 4 dθ = 12 · 23 θ2 + 4
0
3/2
= 83 π2 + 1 −1

48. r = 2 (sin θ + cos θ) ⇒ ddrθ = 2 (cos θ − sin θ), so

2 √ 2π √
L = 02π r 2 + ddrθ dθ = 02π [2 (sin θ + cos θ)]2 + [2 (cos θ − sin θ)]2 dθ = 8 0 dθ = 4 2π.

49. r = f (θ) = 2 sin θ ⇒ f (θ) = 2 cos θ, so (2, ¹/2)

β 2 2
S = 2π α f (θ) sin θ f (θ) + f (θ) dθ

= 2π 0π 2 sin2 θ (2 sin θ)2 + (2 cos θ)2 dθ

= 8π 0π sin2 θ dθ = 4π 0π (1 − cos 2θ) dθ

π
= 4π θ − 12 sin 2θ = 4π 2
0 O

√ sin 2θ
50. r = f (θ) = cos 2θ ⇒ f (θ) = − √ , so
cos 2θ
β 2 2
(0, ¹/4)
S = 2π α f (θ) cos θ f (θ) + f (θ) dθ
O
π /4 √ √ 2 sin 2θ 2
= 2π cos 2θ cos θ cos 2θ + − √ dθ
0 cos 2θ
π /4 π /4 √
= 2π 0 cos θ dθ = 2π (sin θ)|0 = 2π
768 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

5 16
1 16 3 5
51. r = . Here e = 1 and the curve is a parabola. 52. r = = . Here e = 53 > 1 and the
1 + sin θ 3 − 5 cos θ 1 − 53 cos θ
d = 1, so the directrix is y = 1.
curve is a hyperbola. d = 16 16
5 , so the directrix is x = − 5 .
y=1

x=_ 16
5

53. 1
54.

1.0

0 0.5

0.0

-1 0 1
-1
-1 0 1

55. 1 56. 57.

0.5
0.5

0 0.0
0.0

-0.5 0.0 0.5

-1 -0.5
-1 0 1 -0.5 0.0 0.5

2 2
58. x = 12 t 2 ⇒ dx 1 3/2 ⇒ dy = (2t + 1)1/2 , so dx + dy = t 2 + 2t + 1 = (t + 1)2 .
dt = t and y = 3 (2t + 1) dt dt dt
√
When t = 0, the ant is at 0, 13 , and when t = 1, the ant is at 12 , 3 , so the distance covered by the ant is

L = 01 dx 2 + dy 2
dt = 01 (t + 1) dt = 1 t2 + t 1
= 32 ft.
dt dt 2 0
 Chapter 10 Challenge Problems 769
√ √ √
59. x 2 +2y 2 = 2 ⇒ y = ± 22 2 − x 2 , so the upper half of the ellipse has equation y = 22 2 − x 2 . If y = 0, then x = ± 2,
√ √
2 dy 2 dy 2 1 −1/2 x
so the surface area is S = 2π √ y 1 + dx dx. But = · 2 − x2 (−2x) = − √ , so
− 2 dx 2 2 2 2 − x2
dy 2 x2 4 − x2
1+ =1+ 2
= , and therefore,
dx 2 2−x 2 2 − x2
√ √
2 2 √ √
4 − x2
L = 2π √ 2 − x2 √ dx = π √2 4 − x 2 dx = 2π 0 2 4 − x 2 dx
− 2 2 2 2 − x2 − 2
√ √ √
2 √
= 2π x2 2 −1
4 − x + 2 sin 2 x = 2π 2
2 · 2 + 2 sin−1 2
2 = 2π 1 + π
2 = π (π + 2)
0

y
60. By the Law of Cosines, L 2 = r 2 + x 2 − 2r x cos θ ⇔
x 2 − (2r cos θ) x + r 2 − L 2 = 0 ⇔ L
r

2r cos θ ± 4r 2 cos2 θ − 4 r 2 − L 2 ¬ P(x, y)

x = 0 x
2
= r cos θ ± L 2 − r 2 1 − cos2 θ = r cos θ ± L 2 − r 2 sin2 θ
x
If θ = 0, x = r + L, suggesting that suitable parametric equations are
x = r cos θ + L 2 − r 2 sin2 θ, y = 0.

Challenge Problems

y
1. a. x = O N − M N = O K cos θ − J K = x cos θ − y sin θ and
P(x, y)=P(x», y»)
y = M J + J P = N K + J P = O K sin θ + K P cos θ = x sin θ +
y cos θ. ¬
J K

¬
0 M N x

b. Using the result of part a, we require that

Ax 2 + Bx y + C y 2 + F
2 2
= A x cos θ − y sin θ + B x cos θ − y sin θ x sin θ + y cos θ + C x sin θ + y cos θ +F
2
= A cos2 θ + B sin θ cos θ + C sin2 θ x + B cos2 θ − sin2 θ + 2 (C − A) sin θ cos θ x y
2
+ A sin2 θ − B sin θ cos θ + C cos2 θ y +F
=0

Let us choose θ such that the cross term x y = 0. To do this, we set B cos2 θ − sin2 θ + 2 (C − A) sin θ cos θ = 0
A−C
⇔ B cos 2θ + (C − A) sin 2θ = 0 ⇔ cot 2θ = . Finally, writing A = A cos2 θ + B sin θ cos θ + C sin2 θ and
B
2 2
C = A sin2 θ − B sin θ cos θ + C cos2 θ, we can write the given equation in the form A x +C y + F = 0.
770 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

√ √ y
c. 2x 2 + 3x y + y 2 − 20 = 0. Here A = 2, B = 3, C = 1, and
√ √
2−1 3 −1 3 π
F = −20, so cot 2θ = √ = ⇒ 2θ = cot = .
3 3 3 6
√
Thus, A = 2 cos2 π π π 2 π 5
6 + 3 sin 6 cos 6 + sin 6 = 2 and
√ ¹/6
C = 2 sin2 π π π 2 π 1
6 − 3 sin 6 cos 6 + cos 6 = 2 , so in the x y -plane, 0 x
2 2
2 2 x y
an equation is 52 x + 12 y − 20 = 0 ⇔ + =1⇔
8 40
2 2
x y
√ 2+ √ 2
= 1.
2 2 2 10

2. a. Ax 2 + Bx y + C y 2 + F = 0. Referring to Exercise 1b, we see that the cross term ÏA@+B@+C@-2AC

can be eliminated by rotating the x y-axis counterclockwise by θ, where B
A−C
cot 2θ = . From the diagram, we see that using the result of Exercise 1b, 2¬
B
A-C
we can write
1 + cos 2θ sin 2θ 1 − cos 2θ
A = A cos2 θ + B cos θ sin θ + C sin2 θ = A +B +C ⇔
2 2 2
A−C B A−C
2A = A 1 + +B +C 1−
A2 + B 2 + C 2 − 2AC A2 + B 2 + C 2 − 2AC A2 + B 2 + C 2 − 2AC
A2 − 2AC + B 2 + C 2
= A+C + = A+C + A2 + B 2 + C 2 − 2AC
A2 + B 2 + C 2 − 2AC
Similarly, we find 2C = 2 A sin2 θ − B sin θ cos θ + C cos2 θ = A + C − A2 + B 2 + C 2 − 2AC, so in
2 2 2 2
the x y -plane, the equation becomes A x +C y +F =0⇔ A x +C y = −F ⇔
2 2
x y
2
+ 2
= 1.
−F/A −F/C
The area of the ellipse is
⎡ ⎤1/2 ⎡ ⎤1/2
−F −F
πA C = π⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
1 A+C + A2 + B 2 + C 2 − 2AC 1 A+C − A2 + B 2 + C 2 − 2AC
2 2
⎧ ⎫1/2
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ 1/2
⎨ (−F)2 ⎬ 4 (−F)2
= π =π
⎪
⎪ 2 ⎪
⎪ A2 + 2AC + C 2 − A2 + B 2 + C 2 − 2AC
⎩ 14 (A + C)2 − A2 + B 2 + C 2 − 2AC ⎭

1/2
4 (−F)2 2πF
= π =−
4AC − B 2 4AC − B 2
√ √
b. For the ellipse 2x 2 + 3x y + y 2 = 20, we have A = 2, B = 3, C = 1, and F = −20, so the area of the ellipse is
−2πF −2π (−20) 40π √
=√ = √ = 8 5π.
4AC − B 2 4 (2) (1) − 3 5
 Chapter 10 Challenge Problems 771

t cos u t sin u dx cos t dy sin t

3. x = du and y = du. = and = . At the point where
1 u 1 u dt t dt t
dy π
the tangent is vertical, dx
dt = 0 and dt = 0. We see that this is the case when t = 2 .
1 cos u 1 sin u
Also, the origin corresponds to t = 1, since du = 0 = du. Therefore,
1 u 1 u
π /2 dx 2 dy 2 π /2 cos t 2 sin t 2 π /2 dt
π /2
L= + dt = + dt = = ln t|1 = ln π
2.
1 dt dt 1 t t 1 t

4. ¬=¹/4

P
¬
4
¬
a

r=aÏcos 2¬

√ −a sin 2θ
P Q = r sin π π
4 − θ = a cos 2θ sin 4 − θ . Also, r = √ , and so
cos 2θ
2 a 2 sin2 2θ a2
r + r2 = + a 2 cos 2θ = , so
cos 2θ cos 2θ
π /4 a2 π /4 √ a dθ
S = 2π r sin π
4 −θ dθ = 2πa cos 2θ sin π
4 −θ · √
−π /4 cos 2θ −π /4 cos 2θ
π /4
= 2πa 2 cos θ − π 2
4 −π /4 = 2πa (1 − 0) = 2πa
2

5. x 3 + y 3 = 3ax y
a. x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ, so we have (r cos θ)3 + (r sin θ)3 = 3a (r cos θ) (r sin θ) ⇔
3a cos θ sin θ
3a cos θ sin θ cos3 θ 3a sec θ tan θ
r 3 cos3 θ + sin3 θ = 3ar 2 cos θ sin θ ⇔ r = = = .
cos3 θ + sin3 θ 3
cos θ + sin θ3 1 + tan3 θ
cos3 θ
π /2 r 2 1 π/2 3a sec θ tan θ 2 9a 2 π/2 sec2 θ tan2 θ
b. A = dθ = 3
dθ = 2
dθ. Let u = 1 + tan3 θ.
0 2 2 0 1 + tan θ 2 0 1 + tan3 θ
sec2 θ tan2 θ 1 du 1
Then du = 3 tan2 θ sec2 θ dθ, so 2
dθ = =− + C. Therefore,
1 + tan3 θ 3 u2 3u
π /2
3a 2 1 3a 2
A= − = .
2 1 + tan3 θ 2
0
772 Chapter 10 Conic Sections, Plane Curves, and Polar Coordinates

6. r = 3 cos3 θ. By symmetry, y = 0. Next,

π /2 π /2 2 π /2
A = 12 −π/2 r 2 dθ = 12 −π/2 3 cos3 θ dθ = 92 −π/2 cos6 θ dθ
π /2 π /2
= 92 − 16 cos5 θ sin θ + 56 −π/2 cos4 θ dθ (using the Table of Integrals)
−π /2

= 15
π /2 4 15 1 cos3 θ sin θ π /2 + 3 π /2 cos2 θ dθ = 45 π /2 cos2 θdθ
4 −π /2 cos θ dθ = 4 4 −π /2 4 −π /2 16 −π /2

π /2 π / 2 45π
= 45 45 1
32 −π /2 (1 + cos 2θ) dθ = 32 θ + 2 sin 2θ −π /2 = 32
π /2
Now M y = −π/2 x y dx, but x = r cos θ = 3 cos4 θ and y = r sin θ = 3 cos3 θ sin θ, so
π /2 π /2
M y = −π/2 3 cos4 θ 3 cos3 θ sin θ 12 cos3 θ (− sin θ) dθ = 216 0 cos10 θ sin2 θ dθ
π /2 π /2 π
= 216 0 cos10 θ 1 − cos2 θ dθ = 216 0 cos10 θ − cos12 θ dθ = 567
256 (using a CAS )
My 567π 32 63 63
and x = = · = . Thus, the centroid is ,0 .
A 256 45π 40 40
7. a. Let us find a polar equation describing the path taken by the ant that starts
P(r,¬)
out at the northeast corner. Let P (r, θ) denote the position of that ant and Q
let Q denote the position of the ant toward which it is crawling. Since the
¬
ants are the same distance from the pole, Q = r, θ + π
2 . In terms of
O
rectangular coordinates, P = (r cos θ, r sin θ) and
Q = r cos θ + π π
2 , r sin θ + 2 = (−r sin θ, r cos θ). So the slope
of the line passing through P and Q is
r cos θ − r sin θ sin θ − cos θ
= . But this slope must be equal to the tangent line to the
−r sin θ − r cos θ sin θ + cos θ
r sin θ + r cos θ r sin θ + r cos θ sin θ − cos θ
curve at P, which is given by . Thus, = ⇔
r cos θ − r sin θ r cos θ − r sin θ sin θ + cos θ
r sin2 θ + r sin θ cos θ + r cos θ sin θ + r cos2 θ = r cos θ sin θ − r cos2 θ − r sin2 θ + r cos θ sin θ ⇔
dr
r cos2 θ + sin2 θ + r cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 0 ⇔ r + r = 0. The equation = −r is separable, and we find
dθ
dr √
= − dθ ⇒ ln r = −θ + C1 ⇒ r = Ce−θ , where C = ±eC1 . To find C, we note that r π 4 = 2
2 a (remember
r
√ √
that the ant starts at the northeast corner), giving r π
4 = Ce
−π /4 = 2 a ⇒ C = 2 aeπ /4 . Therefore, the required
2 2
√ √
equation is r = 22 aeπ/4 e−θ = 22 ae(π/4) − θ .
√
2
b. r = − 22 ae(π/4) − θ , so r 2 + r = 12 a 2 e(π/2) − 2θ + 12 a 2 e(π/2) − 2θ = a 2 e(π/2) − 2θ . Therefore, the distance
traveled by the ant is
b
2 b
L = π∞/4 r2 + r dθ = π∞/4 ae(π/4) − θ dθ = aeπ/4 lim π /4 e
−θ dθ = aeπ /4 lim −e−θ
b→∞ b→∞ π /4
= aeπ/4 lim −e−b + e−π/4 = aeπ/4 e−π/4 = a
b→∞