Symbolic consumption in

teenagers’ clothing choices

Received in revised form.

Maria Piacentini
is a lecturer in the Department of Marketing at Lancaster University. The focus of her
research is on consumer behaviour, particularly relating to disadvantaged consumer
groups and shopping behaviour.

Greig Mailer
is a researcher associated with the Department of Marketing at the University of
Strathclyde, and his research interests focus on the symbolic consumption of young
people.

Abstract
The importance of the symbolic properties of goods has been explored in depth among adult
consumers, but there has been less attention given to the symbolic consumption of young
people. This study explores the subject of symbolic consumption with specific reference to
clothing in the teenage market. Thirty-eight young people were interviewed, and age, sex
and social position variations were considered. The results of this study suggest that
conspicuous consumption is relevant for young people, and that they are a group which is
adept at reading the signals represented in clothing choices. The authors found that the
Keywords:
clothes choices made by young people are closely bound to their self-concept, and are used
Symbolic both as a means of self-expression and as a way of judging the people and situations they
consumption, face. Evidence was also found that clothing has a function in role fulfilment, making the
teenagers, self- wearer more confident and capable. Overall, clothing can be viewed as an essential social
concept tool in the lives of teenagers.

INTRODUCTION AND THEORETICAL and Isherwood (1996) call a ‘live

BACKGROUND information system’, and their meaning
Research context is grounded in their social context. For
It is generally accepted by marketing young people, these symbols are
and consumer researchers that especially pertinent, as they are often in
individuals consume products and stages of uncertainty, gathering material
brands for their symbolic properties as possessions as a way of establishing
much as for functional benefits (Levy, their identity and gaining much-needed
1959; Elliott, 1999). Individuals use prestige (Belk, 1988). The goal of the
products and brands as materials with current study is to learn more about the
which to cultivate and preserve their ways in which young people use
identities. Consumer goods are capable clothes, and to develop an
Maria Piacentini
Department of of serving consumers in this way understanding of why they use these
Marketing, because of the symbolic meaning that is symbols in this way.
The Management
School, embedded in them (Belk, 1988;
Lancaster University, Solomon, 1983; Leigh and Gabel, 1992). Symbolic consumption
Lancaster LA1 4YX,
UK Contained within the symbolism are the Individuals use consumer goods and
Tel: 01524 592399 messages that an individual may wish practices in a number of ways. First,
e-mail:
m.piacentini@
to transmit to other socially significant individuals use goods as materials with
lancaster.ac.uk people. Goods are part of what Douglas which to create, foster and develop their

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Maria Piacentini and Greig Mailer

identity (Elliott and Wattanasuwan, significant others (Hwan Lee, 1990). In

1998). Here, the symbolic meaning of situations of high perceived social risk
goods is used as an outward expression individuals are more likely to anticipate
of their self-concept and connection to the likely evaluations of others and
society (Elliott, 1999). Recent research make consumption choices accordingly.
into self-concept has focused on the It is therefore important for individuals
premise that consumers develop a sense to determine how other people in their
of who they are over time, through a social group might interpret the
long, continuous process of self- meanings of certain products and
examination and observation. brands (Ligas and Cotte, 1999).
Thompson (1995) described the self- Individuals can then use the symbolic
concept as a ‘symbolic project’ that is content of chosen consumption objects
actively constructed and preserved to reflect their affiliation or connection
through symbolic consumption to a particular social group (Elliott and
behaviour. Individuals can develop a Wattanasuwan, 1998). Similarly, they
repertoire of symbolic consumption might reject certain products on the
objects that can be collectively used in basis of their symbolic meanings if they
the construction of self-identity. prove to be incongruent with the
The use of goods as symbols for consumption choices of significant
communicating with other consumers is referents (Elliott, 1999). In this way,
related to the use of goods in the symbolic purchasing behaviour also
development of self-identity. There is encompasses aspects of aversive
evidence that people use consumption consumer choice (Hogg, 1998).
as a means of encoding messages to A final aspect of consumers’ use of
others through their consumption, and these symbols encompasses both these
also for decoding messages from others’ earlier facets of the symbolic use of
consumption practices (Holman, 1980; consumption to signify social
Belk et al., 1982). How successfully these distinction. According to Bourdieu
processes are carried out depends upon (1984), people draw on three different
the individual’s knowledge of the codes types of resource (economic, social and
involved (McCracken and Roth, 1989). cultural capital) to compete for status,
These messages will be successfully referred to as symbolic capital (Holt,
communicated only if the symbolism in 1998). Economic capital relates to the
the offering is socially recognised financial resources available to the
(Grubb and Grathwohl, 1967). individual, while social capital covers
The degree of product the relationships and social networks
conspicuousness also influences the that influence individual behaviour
communication of self-identity (Trigg, 2001). Bourdieu (1984) wrote
messages through consumption about ‘cultural capital’ as knowledge
symbols (Hwan Lee, 1990). Socially that is accumulated through upbringing
consumed products are utilised most and education, which confers social
often in instances of symbolic status. Cultural capital consists of a set
consumption (Hyatt, 1992), consumers of ‘socially rare and distinctive tastes,
being more likely to use products that skills, knowledge and practices’ (Holt,
are socially visible to others to 1998). According to Bourdieu, cultural
communicate their identity (Hwan Lee, capital is the lynchpin of a system of
1990). Where there is a high degree of distinction in which cultural and social
social visibility, perceived risk is also hierarchies correspond and people’s
high. As product conspicuousness tastes are predominantly a marker of
increases, an individual’s own choices class. Although an individual may have
are more likely to be contingent upon economic capital that can be used to
the consumption choices of socially consume certain brands and products

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 Symbolic consumption in teenagers’ clothing choices

that may confer social standing, without for many adolescents. This phenomenon
the necessary skills associated with high is not exclusive to young people
cultural capital, they will not occupy a immersed in consumer culture. Elliott
higher social position. Cultural capital is and Wattanasuwan (1998) studied the
critical to the communication of social ways in which young Thai Buddhists
position through symbolic use symbolic consumption in their
consumption. construction of self. They found
evidence that these teenagers formed
Young people and consumption attachments to material goods in their
symbolism endeavours to construct their religious
When consumers enter new phases of selves (interestingly, this is contrary to
their lives, or take on new roles, they the central concept of ‘no self’ in this
tend to be insecure and feel uncertain particular Buddhist sect). Of great
about how to behave. Understanding importance in the development of self
the important rites of passage in and social symbols were social
people’s lives can lead to an improved interactions with others in the religious
understanding of consumer behaviour. sect. Here, the teenagers validated the
Rites of passage are personal and social symbolic meanings attached to
experiences that are partially consumption practices and experiences
constructed through the use of material through discursive elaboration, ie
objects (Fischer and Gainer, 1993), and through discussion, description and
are generally characterised by argument. The communication of
separation, transition or reintegration symbolic meaning relies on the shared
with former roles (van Gennep, 1960). knowledge, language and
As consumers experience these rites of understanding of others in the
passage they enter a period of particular social group.
disequilibrium, and begin to assimilate
a new status and make appropriate role METHODS
adaptations (Rosow, 1976; van Gennep, The research aimed to discover how
1960). For consumers in role transition, teenagers use the symbolic properties of
there is a reliance on the symbolic clothes and brands, and to develop an
properties of goods to assist them in understanding of why they use these
performing the desired role (Leigh and goods in this way. Given the
Gabel, 1992). Ambiguity and exploratory nature of the research
uncertainty about their new role leads to questions, a theory-driven qualitative
symbolic buying behaviour. approach (Smith, 1987) was used.
The transition from childhood to Clothes are a socially consumed product
adulthood is a major rite of passage in category, with strong social norms
all societies, and involves a significant affecting individual behaviour. A
change in status and behaviour (Hill, number of authors advise that in
1992). In the absence of initiation rites, research situations where there are
consumption habits take on a greater strong social norms surrounding the
role in distinguishing the pre-adult from subject or when there are a variety of
the adult (Ozanne, 1992). Young people, personal tastes, it is preferable to use
particularly in the West, tend to have a individual interviews for data collection
strong desire to communicate their (Morgan, 1988; Easterby-Smith et al.,
maturity and ‘adultness’ to their peers 1991). Since both these criteria apply in
through their consumption. Gathering the case of fashion choices, the
material possessions is a way of individual interview was chosen as the
establishing their identity and gaining data collection tool.
much-needed prestige (Belk, 1988), The sample consisted of teenagers
especially at this time of ‘identity crisis’ and the selection criteria for

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Maria Piacentini and Greig Mailer

participation in the study were age, sample (quota guidelines were given by
social class and sex. The study included researchers), and all participants
two age groups: young teenagers (aged volunteered. All children participating
12–13) and older teenagers (aged 15– in the study completed written consent
17). Young teenagers, in the transition forms. In total, 38 in-depth interviews
from childhood to adolescence, are were conducted between 22nd January
known to be insecure about their and 20th February, 2001. Participants
appearance and identity, and were interviewed in their school, and
preoccupied with issues relating to how were assured of the anonymity and
they compare with others (Odlum, confidentiality of the interviews. A topic
1978). Older teenagers, on the cusp of guide was used, developed from the
adulthood, have additional concerns literature review and covering the main
related to leaving school and the themes. These main areas of interest
responsibilities of entering the adult were noted and sub-divided, a list of
world. possible questions was identified to
The second selection criteria used in explore each sub-topic and this formed
this study was social status. As the basis of the research interview.
discussed earlier, one function of the During each interview the interviewer
consumption of the product symbols is adopted an active listening approach,
as an indicator of social position, and reacting and responding to the
this is something the authors were particular issues raised. (The second
interested to explore in this context. author conducted all the interviews).
Teenagers were recruited to participate Prompts and probing were used, to
from two schools in Glasgow: a state encourage elaboration. Third-person
comprehensive school and a fee-paying projective techniques were also used in
school. The comprehensive school was an attempt to prompt the participant
in a predominantly working class area, into projecting their feelings into the
housing families in the C1, C2 and D situation (Proctor, 1997).
social class groupings. The fee-paying For data analysis a systematic coding
school had pupils attending from a via content analysis was used (Morgan,
wide catchment area and, although 1988). A coding scheme was created
scholarships for less privileged children from the conceptual framework and
are available, the majority of the pupils research questions stemming from the
come from families in the A and B social literature. This scheme was expanded as
groups. the analysis progressed, with emergent
Finally, there is some limited concepts coded and included (Coolican,
evidence that boys and girls differ in the 1994). This systematic approach to
way in which they form their self- coding, combined with an inductive
concept. Boys primarily want to achieve element, led to a comprehensive coding
and maintain a high position in a status scheme, which was context sensitive
hierarchy (the emphasis is on doing, (Miles and Huberman, 1994).
achievement and success). Girls place
greater emphasis on forming and RESULTS
preserving relationships and this is the The research aimed to discover how
main impact on their self-esteem (Rose teenagers use the symbolic properties of
et al., 1998). Given these differences, it clothes and brands. The authors found
was thought that there might be that the clothes choices made by young
significant differences between the people are closely bound to their self-
groups in terms of how they consumed concept, and are used both as a means
clothing symbols. of self-expression and as a way of
Within the schools, several teachers judging the people and situations they
took responsibility for recruiting the face. There are a number of aspects to

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 Symbolic consumption in teenagers’ clothing choices

this, each of which will be looked at in many different aspects of the character
turn below. of the individual wearing them. Musical
First, clothes act as signals that the taste, social roles, occupation, social
wearer is similar to other people who class, lifestyle, group membership, past
wear similar clothes, which is an times and personality were all cited to a
important issue when meeting new greater or lesser extent. While there is a
people. Throughout the interviews, wide variety of factors that influence the
participants consistently returned to the way people dress, music in particular
link between clothing symbols and the emerged as an important factor. The
personality and interests of individuals, importance of music is unsurprising,
and the fact that they relied on these given the central role of music to youth
‘stereotypes’ when meeting people for culture. One boy, who early on in the
the first time. In this respect, clothes discussion stated that he did not choose
have a particular importance when friends based on their clothes, agreed
meeting others and trying to establish that he did make judgments about
friendships. While nearly all involved in musical taste (which was important to
this study were uncomfortable with the him) on the basis of clothes.
idea that clothes were the main
determinant when choosing friends, Interviewer: What would you think
they did agree that clothing was a good about a new bass guitarist who joined
initial indicator of the personality and your band who was wearing a
interests of potential friends. tracksuit?
Participant: (Laughs) I’d tell him to
Interviewer: Do you think you pick go home! You can tell an awful lot
your friends on the basis of what they about someone’s taste in music from
wear? what they wear. It may seem as if I’m
Participant: I wouldn’t say I did, I’d generalising here, but the simple fact
say it was more on personality but in of the matter is, I’ve never met
a way I think that goes with what anyone who wears Kappa tracksuits
they wear. But I wouldn’t say ‘Oh my all the time who is into good music or
goodness, I’m not speaking to her’ could ever play the bass. (Male, 17
because she’s wearing a certain thing. years old, private school)
(Female, 15 years old, comprehensive
school) This was a fairly typical position for the
young people in this study to take.
Interviewer: Do people at school form While they would play down the
groups on the basis of their tastes, importance of clothing symbols in
lifestyles or what they wear? relation to meeting new people, many
Participant: Yes, I would say conceded later on in the discussion that
definitely but I think that lifestyles, these material symbols did occupy a
what you wear and tastes all kind of central role in their social judgments.
go together as one. There are people Clothes are also used as a way of
who like certain bands who dress a signalling that individuals ‘fitted in’ to
certain way and they all stick the broad social group, as a means of
together. There’s the academics and ensuring that they are wearing clothing
they tend to stick together. (Female, that is socially acceptable to their wider
17 years old, private school) community, and not just in terms of
their immediate friendship group.
In this context, young people use clothes
to identify those who may have Interviewer: Do you think your
something in common with them. attitudes towards clothes have
Clothes are important as they signify changed since first or second year?

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Maria Piacentini and Greig Mailer

Participant: Yes, definitely. I think children at the private school — which

back in first or second year you were is unsurprising given the typically
more concerned with making an higher social and economic status of
impression and the way you could do their families. There were two strands to
that was through clothes. You wanted this: first, clothes were used as a way in
to conform to what others thought which to compete socially, where it was
was nice, rather than what you important to be an ‘early adopter’ of
yourself wanted. elite and scarce brands.
Interviewer: Why do you think this
has changed? Interviewer: You say you play a lot of
Participant: I think now you are more football. Why did you buy the boots
independent and you’re more stable you have now?
with what you think and you don’t Participant: I bought my boots
feel as influenced by other people. because I loved them and someone
(Female, 17 years old, private school) else wore them. Silver Predators, I got
them in Italy and they did cost a lot of
Interviewer: Do you think different money and I did buy them because
groups of people tend to all wear the someone else had them.
same clothes? Interviewer: So who had them?
Participant: Yes, I was talking to my Participant: Del Piero. He had the
friends about this. There’s the group boots. Barthez has them and so does
of people that are draped in gold, and Beckham. So I thought, ‘they’ll do
they’ve got all the gold bangles and me’.
the gold earrings. I mean I like gold Interviewer: So how do you feel
but not that much of it. And the big when you wear them?
name tags and everything. And Participant: They actually are the
there’s people in ‘joggies’ and comfiest shoes in the world.
‘trackies’ and then there’s people in Interviewer: Is comfort more
the school uniform who have other important than the brand name?
things they wear outside of school. Participant: I think it’s less important.
But there is groups and they’re all Even if they weren’t comfortable I’d
going about with duffle coats, dolly still have bought them.
shoes and draw string bags and me Interviewer: Do they make you more
and my friends just look at them and confident when you’re playing?
think, ‘I’m glad I’m not like them’. Participant: It does in a way. If you
(Female, 12 years old, comprehensive play against someone that you’ve not
school) played against and they see you with
these boots on they think, ‘he’s going
Within the interviews there was to be a good player’ and you tend to
extensive discussion of the issues get more people watching you or
associated with conforming to the looking at you. (Male, 17 years old,
expectations of the wider community, private school)
and the importance of wearing clothes
that were deemed to be acceptable. As this quote reveals, consumption of
Clothes are used as material symbols of elite brands demonstrates wealth and
economic, social and cultural role in shows commitment to the purpose for
society, and evidence was found of which the brand was purchased (in this
Veblen’s (1899) snob effect and some case, football). There is also an
use of clothes as a symbol of rejection of associated ‘halo effect’, where
mainstream society. individuals who are seen as wealthy
The use of clothes to indicate and successful are also assumed to be
affluence was mainly observed among clever and attractive, and better at

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 Symbolic consumption in teenagers’ clothing choices

performing their role in a specific in the school. Buying branded clothes

context. was important to demonstrate that they
The second aspect of this effect is the were not poor. These participants were
use of clothing to indicate affluence; aware of the symbolic value of their
however, the private school children clothes and, while unable or unwilling
sought to distance themselves from this. to purchase the most expensive clothes,
they did look for acceptable and
Interviewer: Why do you think some affordable high-street brands.
people want to show off how
expensive their clothes are? Interviewer: Is it important for you to
Participant: Some people think that it have branded clothes?
shows they have money and that that Participant: Not really but I’d prefer
makes them a better person. to have it because it makes you mix
Interviewer: Would it impress you if in. You don’t want to be any worse
someone came into school with a than what your friends have got and
brand new pair of expensive trainers you don’t want to be any better so
or a top of the range jacket? you just get the same logos as your
Participant: In my opinion, I think it friends just to keep up with them . . . I
makes them look quite sad that wouldn’t want to stand out of the
they’ve went to all that trouble just to crowd; I just want to be part of it. I
come to school. (Female, 12 years old, wouldn’t want to be the big man.
private school) (Male, 15 years old, comprehensive
school)
Participant: . . . I think there’s an
alternative fashion going on with all Interviewer: Why do you think so
these skate-punks being anti-fashion many people are into brand names?
and it’s become a fashion itself. I Participant: I’m not like that. But I
think that’s very funny. I do try and think it does have an influence on
shy away from brands and what not, people. I know from talking to people
it’s just advertising how much money that if you say ‘I bought a top from
you’ve got, which I don’t think is Matalan’ they go ‘Oh, cheapskate!’.
necessary. (Male, 17 years old, private Interviewer: Do a lot of people pay
school) more attention to the price than what
it looks like?
These views suggest respondents’ Participant: Yes, definitely.
confidence in their social and economic Interviewer: Do you think people are
position, where they do not believe that impressed with expensive clothing?
it is necessary to use the material Participant: Yes. If I do buy
symbols attached to clothes to something from a cheaper shop I try
demonstrate their wealth. These are not to tell them (my friends) about it
teenagers in a position where they have so that people won’t start slagging*
economic capital, but they also have me off. (Female, 15 years old,
cultural capital that leads them to comprehensive school)
believe that such displays of economic *A colloquial term to refer to
wealth are distasteful, and continuous teasing, often quite
inappropriate for them. A different hurtful.
picture emerged at the comprehensive
school, where most of the children came Buying branded clothes was an
from families in a lower socio-economic important aspect of conforming to
position. Here, there was evidence of a group norms. The discussion around
‘bandwagon effect’, where clothing was this topic showed that it is not
used as a way of keeping up with others acceptable to these young people to be

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Maria Piacentini and Greig Mailer

wearing cheap clothes. If the choice was Participant: A lot of people are going
made to wear these clothes, then the to see you and if they see you looking
consensual view was that the child like a complete state then they’re not
could expect to be teased by the others going to think a lot of you. (Female, 12
in the group, and it was unlikely that years old, private school)
they would ‘fit in’ with the group. In
this context, brands are important as This new and unfamiliar social situation
signals to others of social position, but presents challenges and those
this is primarily indicated in terms of interviewed emphasised the importance
economic capital (ie that child was not of clothes in impression management.
too poor to purchase the latest brands/ Clothes have the dual function of
clothes). In addition, the brands ensuring that young people are dressed
signalled product knowledge (ie you in a socially acceptable way (often
know what brands are acceptable and conforming to the group norms), but
fashionable). Buying these branded also in marking their individuality in
goods helped prevent the child from order that they may be attractive to
being the focus of any social others. In more familiar situations, the
punishment such as bullying or name- symbols are not so important.
calling. The study also provided evidence of
Finally, clothes were used to enhance clothing being used to facilitate fluent
role performance. Careful consideration role transition. One example is the girl
was clearly given to clothes in different who felt her clothing tastes change as
situations, dependent on the message her time to start university drew near,
that the individual wished to with her attire becoming more
communicate. This relates closely to the ‘studenty’. Clothing was also used to
different roles that the young people are mark the dissolution of certain life
performing, and the associated stages or roles.
identities developed to coincide with
those roles. The ‘school disco’, a Interviewer: What kind of clothes do
separate event occurring at both you wear? Do you wear sports
schools, exemplifies this. The disco was clothes?
an infrequent occurrence, where pupils Participant: I did when I was
had the chance to socialise with each younger, wearing trainers, joggies,
other, free from the restrictions of school sweatshirts, it’s not really me any
and its dress code. For some, this was a more.
fraught time, requiring a great deal of Interviewer: What do you mean ‘it’s
thought and preparation regarding the not me any more’?
clothing choices made. Participant: I don’t know, I can’t say
that they are kids clothes but if I was
Interviewer: Can you think of any going out and I was going to spend
special occasions that you really think money, I’d rather spend it on a nice
a lot about what you wear? shirt or coat than a football top. My
Participant: If I’m going to a school tastes have changed. It’s the same as
disco or anything like that I think, ‘I most of my friends. I think as you get
better put something nice on’ because older you tend to wear less sports
I don’t want people staring at me. clothes unless you’re involved in that
There’s nice girls going to the disco as sort of area with your employment or
well. hobbies. (Male, 17 years old,
Interviewer: Do you want to try and comprehensive school)
impress them?
Participant: Yes. (Male, 12 years old, Participant: I’ve noticed that recently,
private school) because I’m going to uni next year,

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 Symbolic consumption in teenagers’ clothing choices

I’ve changed the way I dress. I buy proper outfit on?

more cheaper things than I used to . . . Participant: Yes, I think it’s a
I don’t like names showing, it looks psychological thing. When you’re in
tacky. (Female, 17 years old, private normal clothes you don’t feel as
school). important. It does give you a wee
edge.
By adapting the clothing symbols they Interviewer: Can you think back to
consume, teenagers can and do the first time you put it on? How did
compensate for the uncertainty that you feel?
comes with a role transition. The Participant: Great, I just felt I was
symbols are used both internally, to really getting into it, it was a way of
make the individual more comfortable, clarifying that I was a karate person.
and externally, to tell others who they Whereas before I was just doing it in
are and what group they belong to. The my joggies and it didn’t feel as if I
other main examples of clothes was doing it properly. (Female, 15
impacting on role performance come years old, comprehensive school)
from sports. For those who were active
in sports, comments were made about Wearing her gi had a positive effect on
the role of the football strip and club how successful she was in carrying out
tracksuit as an aid to performance. her moves. The outfit also had a
symbolism attached beyond that
Interviewer: How do you feel when relating to performance, where this girl
you have your club uniform on? felt the outfit symbolised to others her
Participant: You’ve got to represent commitment to the sport.
the club. You look smart, you look
like a team. You look the part. DISCUSSION
Interviewer: What about the first time This research found that young people
you put it on? symbolically use clothing in many
Participant: I felt good. It was the first different ways. The level of importance
time I had put on a strip before and I attached to the symbolic qualities of
felt as if I was part of a team, that I clothes by each respondent varied,
was actually good at the sport. which affected how they consumed
Especially if you had new boots, I clothes. Factors such as their knowledge
always got new boots if I was starting of clothing codes (McCracken and Roth,
a team. 1989), their level of self-monitoring
Interviewer: Do you think you play (Auty and Elliott, 1998) and their
better with new boots on? attitudes towards materialism (Browne
Participant: I always thought inside and Kaldenberg, 1997) all influenced
before the game that I was going to this to some extent. Despite the
play better, but it just really depends variations among the sample,
on how good you are and how fit you adolescents used clothes as symbols for
are. (Male, 16 years old, many different purposes, and the extent
comprehensive school) to which they did this depended on
both the individual and the situation.
There were also a few examples where Clothing was found to be useful as an
the participants felt that wearing certain aid for managing first impressions
clothes improved their sporting (Holman, 1980), and acted as a signal
performance, for example, wearing the that the wearer is like other people who
karate training outfit gi as quoted below. wear similar clothes. While some
teenagers were more judgmental than
Interviewer: Do you think that you others, most felt that clothes provided
perform your moves better with the useful information about a person in

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Maria Piacentini and Greig Mailer

some way or another. Consumer were a useful way of ‘keeping up’ with
stereotyping was the term given to this others in the school. In contrast, those
finding by Hyatt (1992) and many participants attending the private school
individuals felt that they were relatively expressed distaste for heavily branded
successful at being able to base their clothes, and generally distanced
judgments on this process. themselves from such clothes. These
Clothing symbols are also a useful perspectives are the product of social
mechanism for conforming, a theme conditioning, and will be determined by
which is repeated throughout these family, school and neighbourhood,
discussions. A key dilemma for an reflecting the material conditions that
adolescent is weighing up the costs and are experienced as a result of one’s
benefits of either conforming to social position in society (Allen and Anderson,
norms or expressing individuality. The 1994). Taste in clothing and ways of
findings suggest that ‘fitting in’ with the dressing are based on distinctions, and
peer group is still of great importance to enable people to judge and classify one
many adolescents and clothing is used another (Holt, 1998). This echoes
to symbolise the link between the Bourdieu’s ideas about the cultural elite,
individual and the group they wish to where ‘aesthetic distancing’ occurs as a
be accepted by. In some cases way of marking an elite grouping
displaying the appropriate symbols (1984). The high aesthetic ideal is
shields the insecure teenager from defined as ‘against the popular’ and
teasing and name-calling. Equally, by informs the tastes and preferences of
rejecting the symbols worn and those in this group. In the context of the
recognised by the majority, clothing can current study, adopting an ‘anti-brand’
be used to express someone’s position in their clothing choices (and
individuality. In this study, second- therefore not making ‘popular’ clothing
hand clothing was consumed for its choices), demonstrated the private
symbolic qualities in a similar way to school pupils’ higher level of cultural,
how high-fashion clothing is consumed. rather than economic, capital. There was
The desired message being transmitted evidence of a confidence underpinning
is very different, however, as often sub- these participants’ tastes and
groups within a school are formed by preferences, learned effortlessly and
like-minded individuals who ironically unconsciously through their social
conform by not conforming. world. For the participants in the
Different perspectives also emerged comprehensive school (where clothing
about the role of clothes in as a display of ‘economic capital’ was an
communication about social position. important theme) the emphasis was on
For these young people, clothing choices acceptance by peers, and social learning
are clearly distinctive and reflect their occurred via friends, through the media
social position, in terms of economic and popular culture.
and cultural capital (as anticipated from A final task that clothing is required
Bourdieu’s (1984) work in this area). It to perform is making the wearer feel
was found that the participants at the more confident, and better equipped to
two schools had quite different fulfil certain roles. Wearing certain
understandings of the role of clothing in clothes can have the psychological effect
signifying their social position. For of reducing insecurities. Some authors
those attending the comprehensive (Jensen and Ostergaard, 1998) suggest
school there was evidence that clothing that the more insecure an individual is
choices were made to demonstrate the more conscious they will be
economic competence. Buying branded concerning their dress. The findings of
clothes was important to demonstrate this study suggest that this may be the
that they were not poor, and brands case, especially for teenagers.

260 Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol. 3, 3, 251–262 #Henry Stewart Publications 1479-1838
 Symbolic consumption in teenagers’ clothing choices

Respondents from both schools conduct a similar study for mobile

admitted that they ‘enjoyed’ wearing telephones, for example, which have
branded clothes, and that they benefit in become a status symbol for many
a private and personal sense rather than teenagers in recent years. The same
benefiting from the consumption individuals who use their clothes to
socially. This was apparent in the make a statement may use their mobile
discussions indicating that branded telephone and branded food and
goods are often preferred even when beverage products to communicate a
others will not see them. Here the similar message.
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