materials

Article
The Performance Evaluation of Asphalt Mortar and Asphalt
Mixture Containing Municipal Solid Waste Incineration
Fly Ash
Xiaowen Zhao 1 , Dongdong Ge 2, * , Jiaqing Wang 3 , Dianwen Wu 1 and Jun Liu 4, *

1 Hunan Provincial Communications Planning, Survey & Design Institute Co., Ltd., Changsha 410200, China;
[email protected] (X.Z.); [email protected] (D.W.)
2 National Engineering Laboratory of Highway Maintenance Technology,
School of Traffic & Transportation Engineering, Changsha University of Science & Technology,
Changsha 410114, China
3 College of Civil Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; [email protected]
4 Louisiana Transportation Research Center, Louisiana State University, 4101 Gourrier Ave,
Baton Rouge, LA 70808, USA
* Correspondence: [email protected] (D.G.); [email protected] (J.L.)

Abstract: The aim of the research is to quantify the property of asphalt mortar and asphalt mixture
containing municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) fly ash. The potential of partially replacing
mineral fillers with MSWI fly ash in asphalt mixture production was investigated. Five different
MSWI fly ash replacement ratios, which include 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%, were adopted to
assess the influence of fly ash dosage, and the optimum fly ash replacement ratio was proposed. The
rheological characteristics of asphalt mortar with MSWI fly ash were assessed with the dynamic





 shear rheometer (DSR) and bending beam rheometer (BBR). The high temperature properties of
Citation: Zhao, X.; Ge, D.; Wang, J.; the mixture with MSWI fly ash were assessed with the Marshall stability test and the rutting test.
Wu, D.; Liu, J. The Performance The low temperature cracking property was determined with the indirect tensile strength test at
Evaluation of Asphalt Mortar and low temperatures. The moisture stability property was identified with the immersed Marshall test
Asphalt Mixture Containing and the freeze-thaw cycles conditioned indirect tensile strength test. Based on the test results, the
Municipal Solid Waste Incineration
addition of fly ash and mineral filler remarkably increased the |G*| of the asphalt mortar. The δ
Fly Ash. Materials 2022, 15, 1387.
of asphalt decreased as the dosage of fly ash and mineral filler increased. The addition of fly ash
https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041387
and mineral filler degraded the low temperature characteristics of the mortar. Fly ash improved
the high temperature characteristics of the asphalt mixture. The asphalt mixture with MSWI fly
Academic Editor: Francesco ash was more susceptible to thermal cracking than the control sample. The addition of fly ash
Canestrari weakened the moisture stability of the asphalt mixture. In order to guarantee the low temperature
Received: 31 December 2021 characteristics and the moisture susceptibility of the asphalt mixture, the fly ash replacement ratio
Accepted: 8 February 2022 was recommended to be set around 25%. With proper mixture design and fly ash dosage, the asphalt
Published: 14 February 2022 mixture would have adequate performance, as well as reduced environmental impact.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral

Keywords: asphalt mortar; asphalt mixture; fly ash; high temperature performance; low temperature
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
property; moisture susceptibility
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.

1. Introduction
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. With city expansion and increasing populations in municipal cities, the amount of new
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. solid waste generated bring a significant issue to cities [1]. Using incineration to process
This article is an open access article solid waste was the most effective method. Handling solid waste with landfill method
distributed under the terms and
wasted precious land and threatened groundwater. After the incineration process, the solid
conditions of the Creative Commons
waste included fly ash and bottom ash, based on the location where the ash was collected [2].
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
Bottom ash is the residue in the bottom of the incinerator, which consisted of slag, glass,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
metal, and incompletely burned organic components [3]. The fly ash is the fine particles
4.0/).

Materials 2022, 15, 1387. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041387 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2022, 15, 1387 2 of 16

received from the gas purification system of the incinerator, which accounts for 10–20%
of the solid waste incineration residue [4]. The characteristics of the fly ash from different
incinerators vary because the components of solid waste are different [5]. However, the
untreated fly ash normally had low moisture content and had grey or white appearance.
During the incineration procedure, the heavy metal components were concentrated in
the fly ash [6]. If treated improperly, the fly ash will contaminate the environment and
influence the health of human beings.
Fly ash has long been adopted as road construction material. By adopting fly ash in
the asphalt mixture and concrete construction, the demanding using natural aggregate
and mineral fillers could be reduced [7]. With the consumption of natural materials, the
reduction of the yield of original materials increased the cost of construction. Using fly ash
in pavements will reduce the cost and relieve the pressure of the fly ash on the environment.
Fly ash can be applied as supplementary materials in the concrete production [8]. The main
components of fly ash were similar to cement materials, which proved the commercial
potential to partially replace cement in the concrete production [9]. The fly ash contributed
to the strength of concrete because of the hydraulic and pozzolanic reaction [10,11]. During
concrete production, fly ash can replace part of the fine aggregate, but the heavy metal
stabilization efficiency was not sufficient. The heavy metal in fly ash was still easily leached
out from the concrete. Due to the good bonding property of asphalt binder, asphalt binder
was proved to be more effective to stabilize the heavy metal in fly ash [12].
Fly ash has been treated as filler in the asphalt mixture production [13,14]. When
mixing fly ash with asphalt mixture, the fly ash interacted with the asphalt binder, and
the stiffness of the asphalt mastic was improved [15,16]. The fly ash absorbed the light
components and finally reduced the flowability of the asphalt binder [17]. The interface
condition between asphalt and aggregate was affected by the addition of the fly ash [18].
The asphalt film thickness of the aggregate was increased and thus increased the modulus
of the asphalt mixture [19]. The production property and the serviceability of the asphalt
mixture were improved with the adoption of fly ash during the design and the placement
of the asphalt mixture [20,21]. The stiffness was enhanced with the adoption of fly ash, and
the stability of the asphalt mixture was influenced by the dosage of fly ash in the asphalt
mixture [22,23]. The physical property of asphalt mixture was enhanced by using the fly
ash in the asphalt mixture, and the improved efficiency was affected by the asphalt binder
and fly ash resource [24,25]. The moisture damage resistance of the asphalt mixture was
influenced by the mixture with fly ash design. Some research proved that fly ash could be
utilized as effective anti-stripping agents to improve the moisture damage resistance of the
asphalt mixture [26]. The moisture resistance of the asphalt mixture was influenced by the
dosage of the fly ash and the mixture design [27].
The objective of the research is to quantify the properties of asphalt mortar and asphalt
mixture containing municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) fly ash. The rheological
characteristics of asphalt mortar with MSWI fly ash were assessed with the dynamic shear
rheometer (DSR) and bending beam rheometer (BBR). The high temperature property of
the asphalt mixture was assessed with the Marshall stability test and the wheel tracking
test. The low temperature performance of the mixture was assessed with the indirect tensile
strength test.
Materials 2022, 15, 1387 3 of 16

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
The asphalt binder used in the paper was penetration grade #70. Table 1 lists the
binder performance.

Table 1. The performance of base asphalt.

Performance Results
Softening point (◦ C) 47.1
Penetration (25 ◦ C, 100 g, 5 s)/0.1 mm 71.7
Ductility (15 ◦ C, 5 cm/min)/cm >150
Flashing point (◦ C) 262
Viscosity (135 ◦ C)/Pa·s 0.435

The coarse aggregates used were limestone from Hunan in China, and the basic
performances of the coarse aggregate are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. The basic performance of coarse aggregate.

Performance Results
Crushing value (%) 20.7
Soundness (%) 4.0
Moisture content (%) 0.4
Water absorption (%) 0.5
Apparent specific gravity 2.736
LA abrasion loss (%) 16.7

The properties of limestone mineral fillers and MSWI fly ash used in this study
are shown in Table 3. The MSWI fly ash has lower apparent specific gravity than the
limestone mineral filler. When mixed with asphalt binder, the MSWI fly ash was more
likely distributed uniformly and had less tendency to separate from the asphalt binder
than limestone mineral filler. The surface area of the MSWI fly ash was 4.66 times higher
than that of limestone mineral filler. The larger surface area guaranteed strong adhesion
between the MSWI fly ash and the asphalt binder.

Table 3. The properties of limestone mineral filler.

Test Results
Properties
Limestone Mineral Filler MSWI Fly Ash
Apparent specific gravity 2.719 2.284
Moisture content (%) 0.4 0
Water absorption (%) 0.79 0.65
Specific surface area (m2 /g) 1.39 6.48
0.6 mm (#30) 100 100
Percentage
0.15 mm (#100) 97.8 95.7
passing
0.075 mm (#200) 78.3 77.5

The element component of the MSWI fly ash was measured with the AA-6800 Atomic
Absorption Spectrophotometer, and the results are presented in Table 4. The MSWI fly
ash had many heavy metals, which included lead (Pb), copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), nickel
(Ni), chromium (Cr), and zinc (Zn), which are harmful to the biological system and the
environment. By mixing MSWI fly ash with asphalt binder, the toxic heavy metals can
be effectively stabilized and solidified, which mitigated the burden of heavy metals as
hazardous pollutants to the environment [28].
Materials 2022, 15, 1387 4 of 16

Table 4. The element composition of MSWI fly ash.

Component O Na Mg Al Si P S Cl K Ca Ti Cr
Percentage (%) 26.254 2.029 0.569 0.56 1.752 0.163 2.569 22.265 3.397 37.888 0.168 0.022
Component Mn Fe Ni Cu Zn Br Sr Cd Sn Ba Pb
Percentage (%) 0.022 0.725 0.021 0.076 1.052 0.092 0.063 0.026 0.036 0.04 0.212

2.2. Test Methods

2.2.1. Asphalt Mortar Production
In order to assess the impact of MSWI fly ash and mineral filler on the properties of
asphalt binder, asphalt mortar was prepared by mixing asphalt binder with fly ash and
mineral filler with three different ratios of fly ash and mineral filler to asphalt (F/A, 0.6, 0.8,
and 1.0 by weight). Different fly ash and mineral filler ratios were adopted to explore the
optimum fly ash dosage, Table 5 shows the material matrix.

Table 5. The dosage of fly ash and mineral filler in asphalt mortar.

Symbols F/A Ratios Fly Ash Mineral Filler

R0 0 100%
R25 25% 75%
R50 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0 50% 50%
R75 75% 25%
R100 100% 0%

The base asphalt was heated to 135 ◦ C, and the fly ash and mineral filler were heated
to 140 ◦ C. Fly ash and mineral filler were added into asphalt binder based on the F/A
ratios and the dosage of fly ash and mineral filler in Table 5. The speed of the high shear
mixer was 1000 RPM during the materials adding process. The mortar was then mixed at
3000 RPM for 10 min. Finally, the mortar was sheared at 1000 RPM for 5 min to remove
air bubbles imported during the high shear mixing process. Each test condition had three
replicate samples.

2.2.2. Asphalt Mortar Properties

The rheological properties of asphalt binder under intermedia and high temperatures
were assessed with the dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) [29]. The temperature sweeps
were conducted on the asphalt mortar at the frequency of 10 rad/s from 30 to 76 ◦ C. The
frequency sweeps were conduct on the asphalt mortar under 11 frequencies (1 rad/s,
1.58 rad/s, 2.51 rad/s, 3.98 rad/s, 6.31 rad/s, 10 rad/s, 15.8 rad/s, 25.1 rad/s, 39.8 rad/s,
63.1 rad/s, and 100 rad/s) at 60 ◦ C.
The low temperature flexural creep stiffness of asphalt mortar was evaluated with the
bending beam rheometer (BBR). Three different test temperatures (−18 ◦ C, −12 ◦ C, and
−6 ◦ C) were adopted.

2.2.3. Asphalt Mixture Production

The asphalt mixture was prepared with different fly ash contents (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%,
and 100%) to replace the mineral filler. Based on previous research results that the optimum
binder to aggregate ratio was not significantly influenced by the fly ash and mineral filler
percentage, the binder to aggregate ratio was set as 4.5% for different types of asphalt
mixture. The gradation of the aggregates is presented in Figure 1.
Materials
Materials 2022,
2022, 15,
15, x1387
FOR PEER REVIEW 5 5ofof 17
16

Figure 1.
Figure The gradation
1. The gradation of
of the
the asphalt
asphalt mixture.
mixture.

2.2.4. Asphalt Mixture Properties

2.2.4. Asphalt Mixture Properties
The high temperature property of the asphalt mixture was assessed with the Marshall
The high temperature property of the asphalt mixture was assessed with the Marshall
stability test and the wheel tracking test. The Marshall stability measured the deformation
stability test and the wheel tracking test. The Marshall stability measured the deformation
resistance of the asphalt mixture under the cylindrical axis load with the Marshall appa-
resistance
ratus. Theoftestthewas
asphalt mixturebyunder
conducted the cylindrical
following the ASTMaxis D6927 loadstandard
with the [30].
Marshall appa-
The wheel
ratus. The test was conducted by following the ASTM D6927 standard
tracking test generated the relationship between the rutting depth and the wheel tracking [30]. The wheel
tracking test samples
cycles. The generatedwere
the relationship
compactedbetween the rutting
by the rubber tire depth
at 60 ◦and the1wheel
C for tracking
h at the speedcy- of
cles.
42 passes/min [31]. Three replicate samples were conducted for each test condition.ofThe
The samples were compacted by the rubber tire at 60 °C for 1 h at the speed 42
passes/min [31]. Three
dynamic stability was replicate
calculatedsamples were conducted
with Equation (1). for each test condition. The dy-
namic stability was calculated with Equation (1).
42 × 15
DS = 42 15 (1)
𝐷𝑆 D60 − D45 (1)
𝐷 𝐷
where, DS
where, DS isis the
the dynamic
dynamic stability
stability (cycle/mm),
(cycle/mm), D D6060isisthe
thetracking
trackingdepth
depthatat60 60min
min(mm),
(mm),
and D is the tracking depth at 45 min
and D4545is the tracking depth at 45 min (mm). (mm).
The low
The low temperature
temperature performance
performanceof ofthe
themixture
mixturewas wasassessed
assessedwith
with the
theindirect tensile
indirect ten-
strength test. The indirect tensile strength test was run at − 10 ◦ C, and the loading rate was
sile strength test. The indirect tensile strength test was run at −10 °C, and the loading rate
50 mm/min [32]. The test was operated according to the ASTM
was 50 mm/min [32]. The test was operated according to the ASTM D6931 standard. Three D6931 standard. Three
replicate samples
replicate samples were
were conducted
conducted on on each
each test
test condition.
condition.
The moisture stability characteristics of
The moisture stability characteristics of the asphalt the asphalt mixture
mixture waswas assessed
assessed with
with the
the
immersed Marshall test and the indirect tensile strength test after freeze-thaw cycles [33].
immersed Marshall test and the indirect tensile strength test after freeze-thaw cycles [33].
The Marshall stability of unconditioned sample (MS ) and water bath conditioned
The Marshall stability of unconditioned sample (MSControl Control) and water bath conditioned
sample (MSConditioned ) were evaluated, and the retained strength ratio (RSR) was calculated
sample (MSConditioned) were evaluated, and the retained strength ratio (RSR) was calculated
with Equation (2).
with Equation (2). MSConditioned
RSR = × 100 (2)
𝑀𝑆
MSControl
𝑅𝑆𝑅 100 (2)
The indirect tensile strength test was𝑀𝑆 operated by following the AASHTO T283. The
conditioned samples
The indirect were
tensile 70–80%
strength testsaturated underby
was operated thefollowing
vacuum.the
TheAASHTO
samples T283.
were then
The
placed in a freezer at − 18 ◦ C for 16 h, after which the samples were thawed at 60 ◦ C
conditioned samples were 70–80% saturated under the vacuum. The samples were then
for 24 hin[34].
placed The indirect
a freezer at −18 °Ctensile strength
for 16 h, test of
after which thethe samples
samples under
were twoat
thawed conditions was
60 °C for 24 h
compared to quantify the moisture sensitivity of the mixture.
[34]. The indirect tensile strength test of the samples under two conditions was compared
to quantify the moisture sensitivity of the mixture.
Materials 2022, 15, 1387 6 of 16

3. Results and Discussions

3.1. Asphalt Mortar
3.1.1. The Intermediate and High Temperatures Performance
The temperature sweeps result of asphalt mortar under different test temperatures
with the F/A ratios of 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0 are presented in Figure 2, Figure 3, and Figure 4,
respectively. The complex shear modulus (|G*|) decreased as the test temperature in-
creased. The asphalt mortar stiffness decreased with the increase of the temperature since
the asphalt mortar changed from elastic state to the viscous state, thus decreased the |G*|.
The phase angle (δ) increased with the increase of the test temperature, and the increasing
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 18
speed was decreased at the high temperatures. The elastic components decreased, and
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW the18
7 of
viscous components increased as the test temperature increased, thus increased the δ. The
asphalt mortar was softened, the flowability increased at the high temperatures, and the
temperature sensitivity of the δ was decreased.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 2. The temperature sweep results of asphalt mortar under the F/A of 0.6. (a) The complex
shear
Figuremodulus ǀG*ǀ under different conditions; (b) themortar
phase under
angle (δ) under
F/Aofofdifferent conditions.
Figure 2.2.The
Thetemperature
temperature sweepresults
sweep results
ofofasphalt
asphalt mortar under theF/A
the 0.6.(a)
0.6. (a)The
The complex
complex
shear modulus ǀG*ǀ under different conditions; (b) the phase angle (δ) under different conditions.
shear modulus |G*| under different conditions; (b) the phase angle (δ) under different conditions.

(a) (b)
(a)
Figure3.3.The
Thetemperature
temperaturesweep
sweepresults
resultsofofasphalt
asphaltmortar
mortarunder
(b)the F/A of 0.8. (a) The complex
underthe
Figure F/A of 0.8. (a) The complex
shear
Figuremodulus ǀG*ǀ under different
3. The |G*|
temperature conditions;
sweep results (b) themortar
of asphalt phase angle (δ)
theunder
F/A ofdifferent conditions.
shear modulus under different conditions; (b) the phaseunder
angle (δ) under 0.8. (a) conditions.
different The complex
shear modulus ǀG*ǀ under different conditions; (b) the phase angle (δ) under different conditions.
 Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18

Materials 2022, 15, 1387 7 of 16

(a) (b)
Figure4.4.The
Figure Thetemperature
temperaturesweep
sweepresults
resultsofofasphalt
asphaltmortar
mortarunder
underthe
theF/A
F/Aofof1.0.
1.0.(a)
(a)The
Thecomplex
complex
shear modulus ǀG*ǀ under different conditions; (b) the phase angle (δ) under different conditions.
shear modulus |G*| under different conditions; (b) the phase angle (δ) under different conditions.

AtDuring
the same the F/A
service
ratio,period of the
the |G*| of pavement,
the asphalt the pavement
mortar presented influenced
was significantly a differentby re-
sponse to different types of traffic load frequencies. The pavement
the addition of mineral filler and fly ash. The improvement was more significant for asphalt materials possessed
different
mortar withviscoelastic
increased properties underAtdifferent
fly ash content. the F/Aloading
ratio offrequencies.
0.6, the |G*|The performance
of asphalt mortarof
asphalt
with mortar
fly ash wasunder
80% higherdifferent shear
than thatfrequencies
with mineral could represent
filler. the responseincreased
The improvement of the as-
tophalt pavement
90–100% higher during
at thedifferent
F/A value loading
of 0.8.frequencies.
The value The was frequency
110–130% sweephigherresults of as-
at the F/A
phaltofmortar
value 1.0. The under different
addition of flyF/A
ashratios
had moreare shown
obvious in improvement
Figure 5, Figure than 6, mineral
and Figurefiller7,
inrespectively.
the |G*| of The ǀG*ǀ mortar.
asphalt of asphaltThemortar increased when
high temperature the loading
performance frequency
of asphalt increased,
mortar with
and the ǀG*ǀ had a linear relation with the frequency under the
fly ash was better than that with mineral filler. Based on the fly ash and mineral filler log scale. At the low fre-
quency, the
properties loading
in Table duration
3, the fly ashwashadlonger,
higher and the area
surface asphaltandmortar
lower was
water more prone to
absorption de-
rate.
As a result
form underofthethehigh
higher surface area,
temperature. Themore asphalt
asphalt mortarwas hadabsorbed by the fly
high sensitivity toash, which
the loading
enhanced
frequency. theUnder
adhesionthe ofsameasphalt. The interaction
F/A ratio and loading between the ǀG*ǀ of asphalt
the components
frequency, of fly ash and
mortar
asphalt
with 100%binderfly also improved
ash (R100) wasthe adhesion
twice the value andofshear
asphaltresistance
mortar withof asphalt
100% mortar.
mineral Thefiller
|G*| of asphalt mortar increased significantly as the F/A ratio
(R0). The asphalt mortar with fly ash had higher shear resistance at high temperatures changed from 0.6 to 0.8.
than asphalt mortar with mineral filler. The ǀG*ǀ of asphalt mortar was significantly in-
The improvement was not apparent as the F/A ratio changed from 0.8 to 1.0. The high
F/A ratioas
creased decreased
the F/A ratiothe elasticity
changedoffrom asphalt
0.6 mortar.
to 0.8. TheTheF/A
lowratio
F/A hadratiolimited
weakened the shear
improvement
resistance
as the F/Acharacteristics
ratio changedoffrom asphalt mortar.
0.8 to 1.0. TheTheδ F/A ratio of
of asphalt 0.8 was the
decreased optimum
as the value,
frequency in-
which
creased,guaranteed
and the δthe asphalt mortar
of asphalt mortar hadwithsufficient shearwas
mineral filler resistance
higher and
thanelasticity.
that with fly ash.
TheThe of asphalt
δ of δasphalt mortar decreased as the when
was reduced fly ash and
the F/Amineral filler wasbut
ratio increased, added. The impact
the influence was
ofminimal.
F/A ratio on the δ of asphalt mortar was reduced with the increase of F/A ratio. The
impact of mineral filler on the δ of asphalt mortar was more significant than fly ash. The
improved adhesion of asphalt mortar with fly ash increased the elastic components of
asphalt mortar. The inclusion of fly ash and mineral filler did not remarkably influence the
δ of asphalt mortar.
During the service period of the pavement, the pavement presented a different re-
sponse to different types of traffic load frequencies. The pavement materials possessed
different viscoelastic properties under different loading frequencies. The performance
of asphalt mortar under different shear frequencies could represent the response of the
asphalt pavement during different loading frequencies. The frequency sweep results of
asphalt mortar under different F/A ratios are shown in Figure 5, Figure 6, and Figure 7,
respectively. The |G*| of asphalt mortar increased when the loading frequency increased,
and the |G*| had a linear relation with the frequency under the log scale. At the low
frequency, the loading duration was longer, and the asphalt mortar was more prone to
deform under the high temperature. The asphalt mortar had high sensitivity to the loading
frequency. Under the same F/A ratio and loading frequency, the |G*| of asphalt mortar
with 100% fly ash (R100) was twice the value of asphalt mortar with 100% mineral filler
Materials 2022, 15, 1387 8 of 16

(R0). The asphalt mortar with fly ash had higher shear resistance at high temperatures than
asphalt
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW mortar with mineral filler. The |G*| of asphalt mortar was significantly increased
9 of 18
as the F/A ratio changed from 0.6 to 0.8. The F/A ratio had limited improvement as
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW the18
9 of
F/A ratio changed from 0.8 to 1.0. The δ of asphalt decreased as the frequency increased,
and the δ of asphalt mortar with mineral filler was higher than that with fly ash. The δ of
asphalt mortar was reduced when the F/A ratio increased, but the influence was minimal.

(a) (b)
(a)
Figure 5. The frequency sweep results of asphalt mortar under the(b)
F/A of 0.6. (a) The complex shear
modulus ǀG*ǀ frequency
Figure5.5.The
The under different
sweepconditions; (b) the phase
resultsofofasphalt
asphalt angle
mortarunder
under(δ)the
under different
F/Aofof 0.6.(a) conditions.
(a)The
Thecomplex
complexshear
shear
Figure frequency sweep results mortar the F/A 0.6.
modulus ǀG*ǀ under different conditions; (b) the phase angle (δ) under different conditions.
modulus |G*| under different conditions; (b) the phase angle (δ) under different conditions.

(a) (b)
(a)
Figure 6. The frequency sweep results of asphalt mortar under the(b)
F/A of 0.8. (a) The complex shear
Figure 6. The frequency sweep results of asphalt mortar under the F/A of 0.8. (a) The complex shear
modulus ǀG*ǀ frequency
Figure 6.|G*|
The under different
sweepconditions; (b) the phase
results of asphalt mortarangle
under(δ)the
under different
F/A of conditions.
0.8. (a) conditions.
The complex shear
modulus under different conditions; (b) the phase angle (δ) under different
modulus ǀG*ǀ under different conditions; (b) the phase angle (δ) under different conditions.
 Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18

Materials 2022, 15, 1387 9 of 16

(a) (b)
Figure7.7.The
Figure Thefrequency
frequencysweep
sweepresults
resultsofofasphalt
asphaltmortar
mortarunder
underthe
theF/A
F/Aofof1.0.
1.0.(a)
(a)The
Thecomplex
complexshear
shear
modulus ǀG*ǀ under different conditions; (b) the phase angle (δ) under different conditions.
modulus |G*| under different conditions; (b) the phase angle (δ) under different conditions.

3.1.2.The
3.1.2. TheLow
LowTemperatures
TemperaturesPerformance
Performance
Atlow
At lowtemperatures,
temperatures,the theasphalt
asphaltmortar
mortarand andasphalt
asphaltmixture
mixturebecame
becamehardened
hardenedand and
brittle.
brittle.The
TheBBR
BBRtest
testwas
wasadopted
adoptedto toidentify
identifythetheproperties
propertiesof ofasphalt
asphaltmortar
mortarat atlow
lowtem-
tem-
peratures.
peratures.The
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW Theflexural
flexuralcreep stiffness
creep (S) (S)
stiffness reflected the the
reflected deformation
deformation resistance of theofasphalt
resistance theofas-
11 18
mortar. The m-value represented the relaxation of asphalt mortar. The cracking
phalt mortar. The m-value represented the relaxation of asphalt mortar. The cracking re- resistance
ofsistance
asphaltofmortar
asphaltcould
mortar becould
characterized. The S and
be characterized. The m-value of asphalt
S and m-value mortar
of asphalt with with
mortar the
F/A ratios
the F/A of 0.6,
ratios 0.8,0.8,
of 0.6, andand
1.01.0
areare
shown
shown in in
Figure
Figure 8, 8,
Figure
Figure9,9,and
andFigure
Figure10,
10,respectively.
respectively.
The asphalt without fly ash and mineral filler had the lowest stiffness and the highest
m-value. After adding fly ash and mineral filler, the deformation resistance was de-
creased. The stiffness is enhanced and the m-value reduces as the temperature decreased.
The temperature had a significant impact on the characteristics of asphalt mortar at low
temperatures. At the same temperatures and F/A ratio, the stiffness and m-value linearly
changed as the fly ash content increased. At a certain temperature, the stiffness was in-
creased and the m-value decreased, when the F/A ratio increased. The stiffness decreased
dramatically when the temperature decreased from −12 to −18 °C, which proved that the
temperature sensitivity of stiffness was improved with the decrease of temperature. The
differences between the stiffness of fly ash asphalt mortar and mineral filler asphalt mor-
tar were reduced as the temperature decreased. At low temperatures, the filler type had
minimal impact on the low temperature characteristics of asphalt mortar.

(a) (b)
Figure8.8.The
Figure TheBBR
BBRtest
testresults
resultsofofasphalt
asphaltmortar
mortarunder
underthe
theF/A
F/Aofof0.6.
0.6.(a)
(a)The
Thestiffness
stiffnessunder
underdifferent
different
conditions; (b) the m-value under different conditions.
conditions; (b) the m-value under different conditions.
 (a) (b)
Figure 8. The BBR test results of asphalt mortar under the F/A of 0.6. (a) The stiffness under different
Materials 2022, 15, 1387 conditions; (b) the m-value under different conditions. 10 of 16

(a)
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW (b) 12 of 18

Figure9.9.The
Figure TheBBR
BBRtest
testresults
resultsofofasphalt
asphaltmortar
mortarunder
underthe
theF/A
F/Aofof0.8.
0.8.(a)
(a)The
Thestiffness
stiffnessunder
underdifferent
different
conditions; (b) the m-value under different conditions.
conditions; (b) the m-value under different conditions.

(a) (b)
Figure10.
Figure 10. The
The BBR
BBR test
test results
resultsofofasphalt
asphaltmortar
mortarunder
underthethe
F/A of 1.0.
F/A (a) The
of 1.0. (a) stiffness underunder
The stiffness differ-
ent conditions; (b) the m-value under different conditions.
different conditions; (b) the m-value under different conditions.

3.2. The
Asphalt Mixture
asphalt without fly ash and mineral filler had the lowest stiffness and the highest
m-value.
3.2.1. TheAfter
Highadding fly ash and
Temperature mineral filler, the deformation resistance was decreased.
Stability
The stiffness is enhanced and the
The high temperature stability m-value reducesmixture
of the asphalt as the reflected
temperature decreased. defor-
the permanent The
temperature had a significant impact on the characteristics of asphalt mortar at low temper-
mation resistance of the asphalt mixture under the impact of high temperature and traffic
atures. At the same temperatures and F/A ratio, the stiffness and m-value linearly changed
load [35]. The high temperature permanent deformation resistance was contributed to by
as the fly ash content increased. At a certain temperature, the stiffness was increased and
the aggregate structure and the cohesive force of the asphalt binder. The physical effect
the m-value decreased, when the F/A ratio increased. The stiffness decreased dramatically
and chemical reaction of the fillers influenced the shear strength, which provided lower
when the temperature decreased from −12 to −18 ◦ C, which proved that the temperature
contribution than the previous effects. The fly ash and mineral filler enhanced the high
sensitivity of stiffness was improved with the decrease of temperature. The differences
temperature property of the asphalt binder, thus influencing the permanent deformation
between the stiffness of fly ash asphalt mortar and mineral filler asphalt mortar were
resistance of the asphalt mixture. The high temperature property of the mixture was as-
reduced as the temperature decreased. At low temperatures, the filler type had minimal
sessed with the Marshall stability and the wheel tracking test.
impact on the low temperature characteristics of asphalt mortar.
The Marshall stability reflected the peak load during the test, and the Marshall flow
defined the change of the mixture from the Marshall stability test. The Marshall stability
and flow number of different asphalt mixtures are shown in Figure 11. The Marshall sta-
bility increased, and the flow number decreased, when the fly ash content increased,
which enhanced the high temperature property of the asphalt mixture. The Marshall sta-
bility rate increase was higher when the ratio increased from 0 to 50%. Considering the
burden to the environment of the asphalt mixture with too much fly ash during the pro-
duction procedure, the fly ash replacement ratio was suggested to be less than 50%. The
higher surface area of fly ash prompted a thicker asphalt film thickness, reduced the light
Materials 2022, 15, 1387 11 of 16

3.2. Asphalt Mixture

3.2.1. The High Temperature Stability
The high temperature stability of the asphalt mixture reflected the permanent defor-
mation resistance of the asphalt mixture under the impact of high temperature and traffic
load [35]. The high temperature permanent deformation resistance was contributed to by
the aggregate structure and the cohesive force of the asphalt binder. The physical effect
and chemical reaction of the fillers influenced the shear strength, which provided lower
contribution than the previous effects. The fly ash and mineral filler enhanced the high
temperature property of the asphalt binder, thus influencing the permanent deformation re-
sistance of the asphalt mixture. The high temperature property of the mixture was assessed
with the Marshall stability and the wheel tracking test.
The Marshall stability reflected the peak load during the test, and the Marshall flow
defined the change of the mixture from the Marshall stability test. The Marshall stability
and flow number of different asphalt mixtures are shown in Figure 11. The Marshall
stability increased, and the flow number decreased, when the fly ash content increased,
which enhanced the high temperature property of the asphalt mixture. The Marshall
stability rate increase was higher when the ratio increased from 0 to 50%. Considering
the burden to the environment of the asphalt mixture with too much fly ash during the
production procedure, the fly ash replacement ratio was suggested to be less than 50%. The
higher surface area of fly ash prompted a thicker asphalt film thickness, reduced the
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW light
13 of 18
component of asphalt in the mixture, thus increasing the high temperature performance of
the mixture.

Figure11.
Figure TheMarshall
11.The Marshallstability
stabilityand
andflow
flownumber
numberof
ofdifferent
differentmixtures.
mixtures.

The wheel tracking test simulated the rutting resistance of the mixture under high
temperature and load [36]. The wheel tracking test was conducted on the asphalt mixture
with different fly ash replacement ratios. The dynamic stability and total deformation were
obtained from the wheel tracking test, as presented in Figure 12. The dynamic stability
was increased, and the deformation of the asphalt mixture was reduced, when the fly ash
percentage increased. The adoption of fly ash improved the high temperature property of
the asphalt mixture, which is consistent with the Marshall stability results.
Materials 2022, 15, 1387 12 of 16
Figure 11. The Marshall stability and flow number of different mixtures.

Figure
Figure 12.
12. The
The dynamic
dynamic stability
stability and
and deformation
deformation of
of different
different mixtures.
mixtures.

3.2.2. The
3.2.2. The Low
Low Temperature
Temperature Cracking
Cracking Property
Property
The asphalt
The asphalt mixture
mixture became
became hardened
hardened andand brittle
brittle as
as the
the temperature
temperature decreased,
decreased, the
the
bonding failure between the asphalt binder and aggregate was the
bonding failure between the asphalt binder and aggregate was the main cause for the as- main cause for the
asphalt
phalt mixture
mixture cracking
cracking at low
at low temperatures.
temperatures. The The cracking
cracking performance
performance of theofasphalt
the asphalt
mix-
mixture
ture was highly
was highly relatedrelated
to the to the performance
performance of asphalt
of asphalt mortar. mortar.
Based onBased
previous on property
previous
property evaluation
evaluation of asphaltofmortar
asphaltat mortar at low temperatures,
low temperatures, the addition
the addition of fly of flyslightly
ash ash slightly
de-
decreased the low temperature property. The low temperature indirect
creased the low temperature property. The low temperature indirect tensile strength test tensile strength
test was
was adopted
adopted to quantify
to quantify asphalt
asphalt mixtures
mixtures withwith different
different flyflyash
ashreplacement
replacementratios,
ratios, as
as
presented in Figure 13. The tensile strength of the asphalt mixture was
presented in Figure 13. The tensile strength of the asphalt mixture was linearly increased linearly increased
as the
as the fly
fly ash
ash replacement
replacement ratio
ratio increased
increased (Figure
(Figure 13a).
13a). The
The addition
addition of of fly
fly ash
ash made
made the
the
asphalt mixture stiffer and more hardened. The higher surface area
asphalt mixture stiffer and more hardened. The higher surface area of fly ash reduced the of fly ash reduced
the light
light components
components of asphalt
of the the asphalt binder.
binder. The The tensile
tensile strain
strain of the of asphalt
the asphalt mixture
mixture was was
de-
decreased when the fly ash replacement ratio increased (Figure 13b). The elasticity of
creased when the fly ash replacement ratio increased (Figure 13b). The elasticity of the
the asphalt mixture decreased as the hardness of the asphalt mixture was increased. The
asphalt mixture decreased as the hardness of the asphalt mixture was increased. The
stiffness modulus of the asphalt mixture was increased as the fly ash replacement ratio
increased (Figure 13b). One drawback of the hardened asphalt mixture was that the asphalt
mixture became more brittle. Thus, the asphalt mixture was more susceptible to cracking
at low temperatures. In order for the asphalt mixture to have sufficient cracking resistance
at low temperatures, the fly ash replacement ratio should not be too high.

3.2.3. The Moisture Susceptibility of the Asphalt Mixture

The moisture deterioration happened when the cohesion between the binder and ag-
gregate was insufficient. The immersed Marshall test results are presented in Figure 14. The
Marshall stability of unconditioned asphalt mixture improved as the fly ash replacement
ratio increased. The Marshall stability of conditioned asphalt mixture reduced when the
fly ash replacement ratio increased. Fly ash weakened the bonding of the asphalt mixture.
The chemical components of fly ash may interact with water, and the intermolecular force
was weakened. The bonding between the asphalt and aggregate was damaged, and strip-
ping on the interface between asphalt and aggregate occurred. The RSR of the asphalt
mixture reduced when the fly ash replacement ratio increased. Based on the standard,
the RSR should be higher than 80%. The RSR decreased to lower than 80% when the fly
ash replacement ratio was higher than 25%. In order to guarantee the moisture stability
of the asphalt mixture, the fly ash replacement ratio should be set around 25%. If higher
fly ash replacement ratio is demanded, an anti-stripping agent could be adopted, or the
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 18

Materials 2022, 15, 1387 stiffness modulus of the asphalt mixture was increased as the fly ash replacement13ratio of 16

increased (Figure 13b). One drawback of the hardened asphalt mixture was that the as-
phalt mixture became more brittle. Thus, the asphalt mixture was more susceptible to
fly ash could
cracking be temperatures.
at low pretreated by washing with
In order for thewater to eliminate
asphalt mixture tothe influence
have of chemical
sufficient cracking
components
resistance at of
lowflytemperatures,
ash on the asphalt mixture.
the fly ash replacement ratio should not be too high.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 13.
Figure 13. The
The low
low temperature
temperaturecracking
crackingtest
testresults
resultsofofasphalt
asphaltmixture.
mixture.(a)(a)
The tensile
The strength
tensile of
strength
different mixtures; (b) the tensile strain of different mixtures; (c) the stiffness modulus of different
of different mixtures; (b) the tensile strain of different mixtures; (c) the stiffness modulus of
mixtures.
different mixtures.

3.2.3.The
Theindirect
Moisture Susceptibility
tensile strength testof the Asphaltwas
condition Mixture
more severe than the immersed Mar-
shall The moisture
stability deterioration
test. The happened when
samples experienced high the cohesionsaturation,
percentage between the lowbinder and ag-
temperature
gregateand
freeze, washigh
insufficient.
temperatureThe immersed
thaw. The Marshall test results
indirect tensile are of
strength presented
differentinmixtures
Figure 14.is
The Marshall
presented stability
in Figure 15.ofThe
unconditioned
indirect tensile asphalt mixture
strength improved as the
of unconditioned fly ash
samples replace-
increased
slightly with
ment ratio the increase
increased. The of the fly ash
Marshall replacement
stability ratio. After
of conditioned experiencing
asphalt mixture reducedfreeze-thaw
when
cycles, the indirect
the fly ash tensile
replacement strength
ratio decreased
increased. Fly ashsignificantly
weakened the when the fly
bonding ofash
the replacement
asphalt mix-
ratio increased.
ture. The chemical The ratio of theofconditioned
components sample to
fly ash may interact withthewater,
unconditioned sample was
and the intermolecular
reduced
force waswhen fly ashThe
weakened. replacement ratio increased.
bonding between Theand
the asphalt decreasing
aggregate trend
was was similarand
damaged, to
that of the immersed Marshall stability test. All the samples with fly
stripping on the interface between asphalt and aggregate occurred. The RSR of the asphaltash failed to meet
the standard
mixture restriction.
reduced when the Theflyfly
ashash replacement
replacement ratio
ratio of 25% was
increased. slightly
Based on thelower than the
standard, the
standard
RSR should be higher than 80%. The RSR decreased to lower than 80% when the fly test
value, due to the severe moisture condition. The indirect tensile strength ash
results were almost
replacement ratio wasconsistent
higher thanwith25%.
the immersed
In order toMarshall
guarantee stability test results.
the moisture stability of the
asphalt mixture, the fly ash replacement ratio should be set around 25%. If higher fly ash
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 18

replacement ratio is demanded, an anti-stripping agent could be adopted, or the fly ash
Materials 2022, 15, 1387 14 of 16
could be pretreated by washing with water to eliminate the influence of chemical compo-
nents of fly ash on the asphalt mixture.

Figure 14. The immersed Marshall stability test results.

The indirect tensile strength test condition was more severe than the immersed Mar-
shall stability test. The samples experienced high percentage saturation, low temperature
freeze, and high temperature thaw. The indirect tensile strength of different mixtures is
presented in Figure 15. The indirect tensile strength of unconditioned samples increased
slightly with the increase of the fly ash replacement ratio. After experiencing freeze-thaw
cycles, the indirect tensile strength decreased significantly when the fly ash replacement
ratio increased. The ratio of the conditioned sample to the unconditioned sample was re-
duced when fly ash replacement ratio increased. The decreasing trend was similar to that
of the immersed Marshall stability test. All the samples with fly ash failed to meet the
standard restriction. The fly ash replacement ratio of 25% was slightly lower than the
standard
Figure 14.
Figure
value,
14. The due toMarshall
The immersed
immersed the severe
Marshall moisture
stability
stability
condition. The indirect tensile strength test
test results.
test results.
results were almost consistent with the immersed Marshall stability test results.
The indirect tensile strength test condition was more severe than the immersed Mar-
shall stability test. The samples experienced high percentage saturation, low temperature
freeze, and high temperature thaw. The indirect tensile strength of different mixtures is
presented in Figure 15. The indirect tensile strength of unconditioned samples increased
slightly with the increase of the fly ash replacement ratio. After experiencing freeze-thaw
cycles, the indirect tensile strength decreased significantly when the fly ash replacement
ratio increased. The ratio of the conditioned sample to the unconditioned sample was re-
duced when fly ash replacement ratio increased. The decreasing trend was similar to that
of the immersed Marshall stability test. All the samples with fly ash failed to meet the
standard restriction. The fly ash replacement ratio of 25% was slightly lower than the
standard value, due to the severe moisture condition. The indirect tensile strength test
results were almost consistent with the immersed Marshall stability test results.

Figure 15.
Figure The indirect
15. The indirect tensile
tensile strength
strength of
of different
different mixtures.
mixtures.

4. Conclusions
The impact of fly ash on the properties of asphalt mortar and asphalt mixture were
evaluated. Mineral fillers were partially replaced with fly ash to produce asphalt mortar
and asphalt mixture. The characteristics of asphalt mortar at different temperatures were
assessed. The high temperature, low temperature, and the moisture susceptibility charac-
teristics of the asphalt mixtures were assessed. The following conclusions can be obtained:
• The addition of fly ash enhanced the |G*| and decreased the δ of the asphalt mortar.
The high temperature performance of asphalt mortar with fly ash was better than
asphalt mortar with mineral filler and base asphalt. The F/A ratio of 0.8 was the
optimum value, which guaranteed that the asphalt mortar had sufficient elasticity and
shear resistance.
Figure 15. The indirect tensile strength of different mixtures.
• The asphalt without fly ash and mineral filler had the lowest stiffness and the highest
m-value. After the addition of fly ash and mineral filler, the cracking resistance of
asphalt at low temperatures was decreased. The filler type had insignificant impact on
the characteristics of asphalt mortar at low temperatures.
Materials 2022, 15, 1387 15 of 16

• The Marshall stability and the wheel tracking tests’ results reached similar findings.
The high temperature property of the mixture was enhanced with the increase of fly
ash replacement ratio.
• The tensile strength and the stiffness modulus of the asphalt mixture were enhanced
as the fly ash replacement ratio increased. The asphalt mixture with higher fly ash
replacement ratio was more prone to low temperature cracking. The fly ash replace-
ment ratio should not be too high, to ensure an asphalt mixture with sufficiently low
temperature cracking resistance.
• The addition of fly ash weakened the moisture stability of the asphalt mixture, as
predicted by the immersed Marshall test and the indirect tensile strength test results.
In terms of sufficient moisture stability of the asphalt mixture, the fly ash replacement
ratio should be set around 25%. If higher fly ash replacement ratio was demanded, the
anti-stripping agent could be adopted, or the fly ash could be pretreated by washing
with water to reduce the influence of chemical components of fly ash to the asphalt
mixture. Even though the conclusions of the paper were based on limited mixture
designs, the results could supply some experience for the mixture design with higher
fly ash content and improved low temperature and moisture stability.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.G. and J.L.; methodology, X.Z.; validation, D.G., J.W.
and J.L.; formal analysis, X.Z.; investigation, D.W.; data curation, D.G.; writing—original draft
preparation, X.Z.; writing—review and editing, J.W., D.W. and J.L.; visualization, D.G.; supervision,
D.G.; project administration, D.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was financed by the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (Grant
No. BK20210617) and the Science and Technology Development Fund Project of Department of
Transportation of Hunan Province (201706).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data that support the findings of this study are available on request
from the corresponding authors.
Acknowledgments: This authors are sincerely thankful for the funding support.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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