[GENCHEM2] LESSON 1: PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

DIPOLE-DIPOLE
OUTLINE
I Intermolecular Forces of Attraction  Attraction between polar
A Ion-Dipole
B Dipole-Dipole molecules, can either be identical
C Hydrogen Bonding or different molecules.
D London Dispersion o Again, look for the partial
negative / positive
II The Solution Process
A How/Why Solutions form?
B Effects of IMF on Solution Formation
C Types of Solutions and Solubility
D Factors Affecting Solubility
i Solute-Solute Interactions
ii Pressure Effects
iii Temperature Effects HYDROGEN BONDING
 A special dipole-dipole interaction between hydrogen and
III Ways of Expressing Concentration an electronegative F, O, N atom.
A Concentration Units o Both molecules must be polar. (dipole-dipole)
IV Practice Exercises
o If Hydrogen interacts with F, O, N
o Stronger than the general dipole-dipole interaction
 The electronegativity difference is larger!
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION
 The attraction between molecules, either identical or
different molecules.
o Weaker bond compared to intramolecular forces; there
is no actual bonding it is only an electrostatic
interaction!
o Intramolecular: attraction between the atoms in a
molecule.
LONDON DISPERSION
Key Concept: Opposite charges attract each other.
 Temporary attraction between nonpolar molecules
 Partial Negative: Most electronegative! (O: Oxygen)
(weakest force)
 Partial Positive: Less electronegative (H: Hydrogen)
o It is possible if at least one atom/molecule is nonpolar!
o Look for the periodic table trends to identify the atom’s Regardless if it’s attracted with a polar molecule.
electronegativity o There is no dipole moment (nagcancel lang)
o Connect Partial Negative molecules with Partial
 There’s no partial negative/positive because it’s a
positive molecules, and vice versa. nonpolar molecule.
GENCHEM1 REVIEW o The source of attraction is from all molecules!
 The electrons are attracted to the protons in the
Polar | If the Lewis structure of an element has a lone pair on its nucleus of the other molecule as it orbit its own
central atom, (ex. H2O) nucleus
o Unequal sharing of electrons; they have a difference in  More atoms involve more London dispersion!
electronegativity, a molecule attract electrons more  Gases are involved because they disperse freely!
o Basta may lone pair

Non Polar | There is an equal sharing of electrons!

o Their Lewis structure is typically symmetrical.

Ion | charged particle; when they lose (cation) or gain (anion)

electrons

ION-DIPOLE
 attraction between ion and a polar molecule NOTE: Dispersion forces increase with molar mass
o It is the strongest attraction but relatively weaker than
intramolecular attraction. THE SOLUTION PROCESS
 Has a whole charge because of the ions present!
 Solid at room temperature! Solution | a homogeneous mixture of solute (present in
smallest amount) and solvent (present in largest amount)
 2 substances that appear as one when mixed.
 The state/type of the solution is dependent on the state of
the solvent!
 e.g. if gas is solvent then the solution is gas
Bonds are represented with broken lines, meaning no Example: Salt water (liquid solution)
bonding occurs. o Solute: Salt (NaCl – smallest amount)
o Solvent: Water (H2O – largest amount)

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HOW/WHY SOLUTIONS FORM?  We need to evaluate the solute-solute, solvent-solvent- and

 The ability of substances to form solutions depends on two solute-solvent interactions.
factors: o Solute-solute: Ion - Ion (Na+ and Cl-)
o (1) the natural tendency of substances to mix and o Solvent - Solvent: Hydrogen Bonding (H2O and H2O)
spread into larger volumes when not restrained in o Solute-Solvent: Ion-Dipole (Na+, Cl-, and H2O) -
some way Strongest
o (2) the types of intermolecular interactions involve in  Thus, it is possible to form a solution.
the solution process
b) Water (solvent) and Acetone (Solute)
 Mixing occurs spontaneously unless the molecules are  Instead of soluble, we use miscible for both liquids.
restrained either by sufficiently strong intermolecular  It is not an Ion-Dipole
forces or by physical barriers. o It is not solid at room temperature!
o Solute and solvent interactions (IMF) o The highest possible IMF is Hydrogen Bonding!

FOR GASES OR GAS SOLUTIONS…

 Mixing occurs spontaneously unless restrained by their
containers because with gases intermolecular forces are
too weak to restrain the molecules.
o Intermolecular forces have no effects but physical
barriers may become hindrance.
 Gas solution = gas solvent

o Solute-solute: Dipole-dipole
o Solvent-solvent: Hydrogen Bonding
o Solute-Solvent: Hydrogen Bonding - Strongest
 Thus, it is possible to form a solution

 The only IMF present is London Dispersion (Oxygen is c) Methanol (CH3OH - Solute) and carbon tetrachloride
Nonpolar) (CCl4 - Solvent)
o They will only collide and temporarily attract (London
Dispersion) when there is no Physical barrier.

EFFECTS OF IMF ON SOLUTION FORMATION

 Three kinds of intermolecular interactions are involved in
solution formation:
o Solute-Solute interactions
o Solvent-Solvent interactions
o Solvent-Solute interactions  Polar (Methanol) and Nonpolar (Carbon tetrachloride)
o Solute-solute: Hydrogen Bonding - Strongest
Rule: o Solvent-solvent: London Dispersion
 Solutions form when the magnitudes of the solvent–solute o Solute-Solvent: London Dispersion
interactions are either comparable to or greater than the  Thus, it is NOT possible to form a Solution
solute–solute and solvent–solvent interactions.
o In order to form solutions, magnitudes of interactions d) Ethane (C2H6) and Hexane (C6H14)
must be comparable!  Concept: “Like dissolves like”
o If the solvent is weaker, it is not possible to form a o Ethane (Nonpolar), Hexane (Nonpolar)
solution  Both given are nonpolar liquids expect them to be
miscible!
SAMPLE EXERCISES
o Solute-solute: London Dispersion
Sample Exercises: Predict whether the following mixture will o Solvent-solvent: London Dispersion
lead to solution formation o Solute-Solvent: London Dispersion
 Thus, it is possible to form a solution
a) Consider NaCl (solute) dissolving in water (solvent). (comparable & same)

TYPES OF SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY

TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
 Saturated solution: dissolution and crystallization are in
equilibrium. (Additional solute will not dissolve if added to a
saturated solution)
o Dissolution: process of solution formation (dissolving)

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o Crystallization: when we increase the relative amount  Solute: liquid, Solvent: liquid
of solute to the amount of solvent (reverse solution o Generalization: “like dissolves like”.
process)  e,g. nonpolar and nonpolar mix, but nonpolar and
polar will not mix
 Unsaturated: If less solute was dissolve than the amount
needed to form a saturated solution o Miscible liquids: mix in any proportions.
o We can add and dissolve more solute. o Immiscible liquids: do not mix.

 Supersaturated: a solution formed when more solute is For Hydrocarbons:

dissolved than in a saturated solution. (under suitable  The number of carbon atoms in a chain affect solubility
condition) o The more C atoms the less soluble in polar solvent.
o Amount of solute is greater than the capability of a o The number of -OH groups within a molecule increases
solution in dissolving a solute. solubility in polar solvent.
o It is very unstable!  Also follows the generalization: “like dissolves like”

 As Carbon chains increase, it becomes less polar with the

presence of more carbons
SOLUBILITY  it becomes more soluble to nonpolar!
 The amount of solute required to form a saturated solution.
o Maximum amount (saturated solution) of the solute that  More Oxygen becomes more polar
can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent at a  more soluble to polar molecules!
specified temperature.
 The temperature has an effect on solubility.

Example: the solubility of NaCl in water at 0ᵒC is 35.7 g per 100

mL of water or 0.357 g/mL (saturated form!)

SAMPLE EXERCISE:

a) Sodium acetate (NaCH3COO) has a solubility value of

46.5 g per 100 mL of water at 20ᵒC. A 250-mL solution
containing 100 g dissolved NaCH3COO is at which
state? Unsaturated. Example: Which of the following is more likely to dissolve in
water (polar)? Cyclohexane or Glucose? Glucose.

FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY

1) SOLUTE-SOLUTE INTERACTIONS
Example: Predict whether each of the following substances is
 The stronger the attractions between solute and solvent more likely to dissolve in carbon tetrachloride (CCl4; nonpolar)
molecules, the greater the solubility of the solute in that or in water (polar)
solvent.
o C7H16 - CCl4
Solution Components: o Na2SO4 - H2O (Ionic compounds are water-solluble)
 Solute: gas, Solvent: liquid o HCl - H2O
o I2 - CCl4
Solubilities of gases in water at 20 C, with 1 atm gas pressure
2) PRESSURE EFFECTS
 The solubilities of solids and liquids are not appreciably
affected by pressure.
o Gases are only affect by pressure!

Henry’s Law: The solubility of a gas in any solvent is

increased as the partial pressure of the gas above the solvent
o Krypton has a higher solubility because it has a larger
increases.
molar mass!
 Larger molar mass = higher solubility

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 The higher the pressure, the greater the solubility. 2) ppm (parts per million)
o The higher the pressure, the more molecules of gas  It can be expressed as mg of solute per kilogram or liter of
are close to the solvent solution.
 The greater the chance of a gas molecule striking
the surface and entering the solution.

o The lower the pressure, the fewer molecules of gas are

close to the solvent and the lower the solubility. 3) Ppb (parts per billion)
 can be expressed as ug of solute per kilogram or liter of
3) TEMPERATURE EFFECTS solution.

Solid as solute | As temperature increases, solubility of solids

generally increases.
o Parang kape, mas madali matunaw ang kapesa mainit
kaysa sa malamig. 4) Mole Fraction

 Xsolute + Xsolvent = 1
5) Molarity

 Molarity can vary depending on temperature

6) Molality:

Gas as solute | As temperature increases, gases get less NOTE:

soluble.  Recall that mass can be converted to moles using the molar
o Example: Thermal Pollution mass.
o Parang nag-boboil ng water  Converting between molarity (M) and molality (m) requires
 Gas escapes (oxygen) through bubbles density.

PRACTICE EXEFCISES

1) A solution is made by dissolving 13.5 g of glucose C6H12O6

in 0.100 kg of water. What is the % (w/w) of solute in this
solution?

WAYS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION

Concentration | The amount of solute in a solution. 2) A commercial bleaching solution contains 3.62% (v/v) of
 The concentration of a solution can be expressed either sodium hypochlorite, NaOCl. What is the volume of NaOCl (in
qualitatively or quantitatively mL) in a bottle containing 2.50 L of bleaching solution?

 The terms dilute and concentrated are used to describe a

solution qualitatively.
o Dilute - a solution with a relatively small concentration
of solute
o Concentrated – one with a large solute concentration

CONCENTRATION UNITS
QUANTITATIVE

1) Mass or volume percentage:

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3) A solution of SO2 in water contains 0.00023 g of SO2 per liter

of solution. What is the concentration of SO2 in ppb? Assume
that the density of solution is 1 kg/L

8) The mole fraction of NaCl in an aqueous solution of NaCl is

0.32. What is the molality of the solution?

4) A 2.5-g sample of groundwater was found to contain 5.4 mg

of Zn^(2+) What is the concentration of Zn^(2+) in parts per
million?
9) Convert 55 ppm of Na+ ions (22.99 g/mol) in water to molarity.

5) A solution is made by dissolving 4.35 g of glucose C6H12O6

in 25.0 mL of water at 25ᵒC. Calculate the molality of glucose in
the solution. Water has a density of 1.00 g/mL.

10) A solution of H2SO4 (98.0768 g/mol) with a molal

concentration of 8.010 m has a density of 1.354 g/mL. What is
6) A solution with a density of 0.876 g/mL contains 5.0 g of the molar concentration of this solution?
toluene, C7H8 and 225 g of benzene, C6H6. Calculate the
molarity of the solution.

7) An aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid contains 36% HCl

by mass.
o (a) Calculate the mole fraction of HCl in the solution.
o (b) Calculate the molality of HCl in the solution.

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REFERENCES

Notes from the discussion by

University of Santo Tomas powerpoint presentation:

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